Vol 15 no 7 june 2016

IJLTER.ORG

p-ISSN: 1694-2493 e-ISSN: 1694-2116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.15 No.7

PUBLISHER London Consulting Ltd District of Flacq Republic of Mauritius www.ijlter.org

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 15

NUMBER 7

June 2016

Table of Contents Special Education Administrators’ Perceptions of Responsibilities and Challenges .................................................... 1 Juanell D. Isaac, Teresa M. Starrett, and Jane B. Pemberton The Impact on Absence from School of Rapid Diagnostic Testing and Treatment for Malaria by Teachers .......... 20 Andrew John Macnab, Sharif Mutabazi, Ronald Mukisa, Atukwatse M. Eliab, Hassan Kigozi and Rachel Steed Theory of Planned Behavior: Sensitivity and Specificity in Predicting Graduation and Drop Out among College and University Students ..................................................................................................................................................... 38 Catherine S. Fichten, Rhonda Amsel, Mary Jorgensen, Mai N. Nguyen, Jillian Budd, Alice Havel, Laura King, Shirley Jorgensen and Jennison Asuncion Special Education Administratorsâ€&#x; Ability to Operate to Optimum Effectiveness .................................................... 53 Juanell D. Isaac, Teresa M. Starrett, and David Marshall Development of Teaching Plan in the Curriculum of Medical Sciences ....................................................................... 65 Forouzan Tonkaboni and Masumeh Masumi Integrating Educational Modules for Children with Chronic Health and Dental Issues: Premise for Communitybased Intervention Framework in Developing Country ................................................................................................ 78 Ma. Cecilia D. Licuan, PTRP, MAE, Ph.D. Recover the Lost Paradigm: Technology Guided by Teaching Methods ..................................................................... 97 Simona Savelli Using Debate to Teach: A Multi-skilling Pedagogy Often Neglected by University Academic Staff ..................... 110 David Onen Constructivism- Linking Theory with Practice among Pre-Service Teachers at the University of Trinidad and Tobago .................................................................................................................................................................................. 127 Leela Ramsook and Marlene Thomas Pupil Perception of Teacher Effectiveness and Affective Disposition in Primary School Classrooms in Botswana ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 138 Molefhe, Mogapi and Johnson, Nenty

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 1-19, June 2016

Special Education Administrators’ Perceptions of Responsibilities and Challenges Juanell D. Isaac, Teresa M. Starrett, and Jane B. Pemberton Texas Woman’s University Denton, TX, USA Abstract. Special education administrators play a vital role in assuring the identification and provision of services to meet the needs of students with disabilities in the least restrictive environment (LRE). This study examined the differences in responsibilities and challenges between special education administrators in rural, suburban, and urban school districts in the state of Texas. Quantitative data was collected through surveys from 152 special education administrators in the state of Texas.

A comparative study was conducted using cross tabulation, frequency, and percentage tables. Results of this study indicate there are significant differences (p=<.05) in the responsibilities and level of challenges between special education administrators in rural, suburban, and urban school districts in the areas of collaboration between general education and special education, contracting with outside providers for special services (i.e. OT, PT, music therapy), monitoring staff caseloads, providing access to appropriate materials needed for instruction, participating in the development of district goals and objectives, serving as a resource person in the design and equipping of facilities for students with disabilities, and demonstrating skill in conflict resolution with administrators, parents, teachers, staff, and community. The role of the special education administrator requires diversified skills to address responsibilities and challenges that are faced today.

Keywords: special education administrator; responsibilities; challenges; perceptions; descriptive statistics

Introduction Researchers have attempted to define the role of the special education administrator over the past 50 years by looking at their responsibilities and the challenges they faced (Kohl & Marro, 1971; Marro & Kohl, 1972; Hebert & Miller, 1985; Arick & Krug, 1993; Wigle & Wilcox, 2002; Thompson & O’Brian, 2007). In 1971, Kohl and Marro conducted the first national study concerning special education administrators. This study provided a baseline of information regarding responsibilities and challenges of special education administrators in areas such as program administration and supervision, organizational characteristics and programming elements, and selected administrative opinions (Marro & Kohl, 1972). Have the responsibilities and challenges of special education administrators significantly changed since that time?

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With the establishment of Public Law 94-142 (Education for all Handicapped Children Act of 1975), the responsibilities of special education administrators have evolved and expanded as the unique needs of students with disabilities are met in the least restrictive environment (LRE). Reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act in 2004 (IDEIA 2004) brought about strengthened accountability for results, enhanced parent involvement, use of scientifically based instructional practices, the development and use of technology, and highly qualified staff to ensure that students with disabilities would benefit from such efforts (Wright, 2004).

Improving educational outcomes for students with disabilities requires a paradigm shift of the special education administrator’s role toward more support of scientific and evidence-based instructional practices. Previously, the special education administrator was responsible for ensuring compliance with federal mandates and promoting individualized instructional programs. Now, the special education administrator must help facilitate collaboration between stakeholders so that all students have access to high quality educational programs. The special education administrator’s effectiveness is determined by the ability to develop, guide, support and evaluate the use of evidence-based practices by teachers which should result in positive educational outcomes for students with disabilities (Boscardin, 2004; Lashley & Boscardin, 2003).

Lashley and Boscardin (2003) reported that the special education administrator’s responsibilities have changed from focusing on effective interventions to concerns with litigation, accountability, inclusion, and school reform. The diverse responsibilities of special education administrators such as interpreting and implementing special education law, making program decisions, supervising provision of services, empowering teachers to use research-based strategies, and addressing parental demands make “special education administration a daunting challenge” (Palladino, 2008, p. 158).

Tate (2010) noted that special education administrators have faced the challenges of decreased funding, shortage of qualified staff, and increased litigation while trying to meet the needs of a complex student population.

Thompson and O’Brian (2007) found the most difficult aspects of being a special education administrator were legal issues, issues with personnel, overwhelming paperwork, budget and finance, and multiple roles while Lashley and Boscardin (2003) reported retaining qualified staff in special education, professional development, and recruitment as major challenges for special education administrators.

Crockett, Becker, and Quinn (2009) reviewed 474 abstracts of articles from 1970-2009 that addressed special education leadership and administration.

Several trends emerged that influence special education leaders: (a) collaboration between stakeholders, (b) school improvement through accountability measures, and (c) the use of technology. There were a disproportionate number of data-based research studies compared to professional commentaries (non-researched based information) in the area of leadership roles and responsibilities (Crockett, Becker, & Quinn, 2009). From 1970-2009, Crockett, Becker and Quinn (2009) identified a total of 49 professional commentaries and 19 data-based research studies that addressed special education administrators’ roles and responsibilities. Interestingly, over half (n =

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27) of the 49 professional v6) of the 19 data-based research studies occurred during the same time period. The greatest number of data-based research studies addressing roles and responsibilities occurred during the 1980s while the greatest number of professional commentaries occurred during the years from 2000-2009. As stated by Crockett, Becker, and Quinn (2009), there is “a gap in the empirical foundation that guides the implementation of effective special education leadership practice” (p. 65). Finkenbinder (1981) noted that action research was needed to address changes that have occurred in the responsibilities of special education administrators especially at various organizational levels such as rural and urban districts. This study examines current responsibilities and challenges of special education administrators in rural, suburban, and urban school districts in the state of Texas.

This study seeks to answer the following questions:  How have the responsibilities and challenges of special education administrators significantly changed over time?  What are the significant differences in responsibilities in staffing, evaluation of staff, budget, policy development, and program development between special education administrators in rural, suburban, and urban school districts in the state of Texas?  What are the most important challenges for special education administrators in rural, suburban, and urban school districts in the state of Texas?  What is the relationship between each of the 39 responsibilities and the perceived level of challenge by special education administrators?

Methodology The participants for this study included special education administrators from school districts in the state of Texas. The population sample came from the 2013-2014 Texas Council of Administrators of Special Education (TCASE) Directory consisting of special education administrators from rural, suburban, and urban districts. Additionally, the TCASE Directory includes twenty Regional Education Service Center (ESC) Directors who oversee staff development and provide support to special education administrators within their regions. The Regional ESC Directors were excluded from the population sample since they are not directly responsible to a school district or educational cooperative. A total of 515 special education administrators in the state of Texas were contacted in 2014 via e-mail to solicit input regarding the background characteristics, responsibilities and challenges of the special education administrator utilizing a survey.

A non-experimental research design was utilized through survey methodology to describe perceptions of special education administrators’ responsibilities and challenges. A comparative study was conducted between special education administrators in rural, suburban, and urban districts.

The survey was modeled after the first national study of special education administrators in public schools conducted by Kohl and Marro (1971).

In the final report by Kohl and Marro (1971), suggestions were made for further investigations to enhance the knowledge pool regarding special education

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administrators. This information was used to create a survey with updated information concerning the responsibilities and challenges faced by special education administrators. Maintaining some of the constructs of the original survey allows longitudinal information to be obtained for comparison with the original survey. For validity purposes, the survey was reviewed by a committee which included individuals who had prior experience as public school administrators for content and clarity. Statements on the survey were generated from a collection of job descriptions that were used by school districts when posting for open positions of special education directors in the state of Texas.

Thirty-nine statements addressing responsibilities and challenges of special education administrators in five separate categories: (a) staffing, (b) evaluation of staff, (c) budget, (d) policy development, and (e) program development were included in the survey.

For each statement, the participants were asked to respond to two separate Likert scales concerning the level of importance of the responsibility for effectively managing the special education program and the level of challenge for implementing that responsibility. The first Likert scale addressed the level of responsibility as: (a) not applicable, (b) not important, (c) somewhat important, (d) very important, or (e) essential. The choices were ranked from zero to five respectively. The second Likert scale addressed the level of challenge. The Likert scale choices were: (a) not a challenge, (b) a little bit of a challenge, (c) somewhat of a challenge, and (d) substantial challenge. The choices were ranked from one to four respectively. A determination of a mean (M) response for each responsibility statement was calculated.

Initial contact with the special education administrators was in the form of an e-mail that contained the following information: (a) explanation and purpose of the study, (b) participants in the study, (c) description of procedures, (d) instrumentation utilized, (e) potential risks, (f) participation and benefits (g) link to survey through PsychData, (h) contact information, (i) and an opportunity to contact the researcher if there were any questions. E-mails were grouped by region using the â&#x20AC;&#x153;blind ccâ&#x20AC;? to protect confidentiality. Two follow-up e-mails were sent as reminders to complete the survey. The first reminder was sent two days after the initial contact e-mail with the final reminder being sent one week after the initial e-mail.

A total of 515 surveys were distributed to special education administrators across the state of Texas. A total of 176 surveys were returned with 24 surveys removed due to lack of completion and other factors leaving a total of 152. Though there was an initial 35% return of surveys, 29.5% were used in the evaluation of results. This accounts for roughly one out of three special education administrators in the state of Texas.

Using the Statistical Package of Social Scientists (SPSS) 18 program, results of the survey were analyzed. Frequency, percentage tables, and crosstabulation were used for categorical data. A comparison of responsibilities and level of challenges was conducted through cross tabulation. The Chi-Square value was computed to determine the statistical significance of the relationship between each of the 39 responsibilities and the perceived level of challenge by special education administrators.

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Results Of the special education administrators responding to the survey, 61.2% were from rural school districts, 27.6% from suburban and 11.2% from urban. Of those, 73% listed employment as the local school district, while 23.7% showed an education cooperative unit. The remaining administrators indicated a shared services agreement, countywide school district, State School for the Deaf and State School for the Blind and Visually Impaired. Approximately 91% of the special education administrators were non-Hispanic or Latino and White with 85.5% of the special education administrators being female. Those responding overwhelmingly held a master’s degree and additional courses (65.1%) or a doctoral degree (18.4%).

The majority of the individuals held midmanagement/principal certification (77.6%) while the second most common certification was that of special education teacher (73.7%). Twenty-four special education administrators (15.8%) had no administrative certification. Seventyfive percent of special education administrators without administrative certification came from rural school districts, 16.7% came from suburban school districts, and 8.3% from urban school districts.

Responses from special education administrators were analyzed to determine the level of importance for 39 statements of responsibility using a 5point Likert scale and the level of challenge for the same statements using a 4point Likert scale. Table 1 identifies the special education administrators’ mean average for the perceived level of importance for each responsibility statement to effectively manage the special education program. Table 2 identifies the mean average for the perceived level of challenge for implementing that responsibility.

Standard deviations were included for each responsibility and level of challenge.

Each table provides the category of each responsibility and the responsibility statement. The responsibility statements are ranked from the most essential to the least important in level of responsibility and from the most substantial to the least in level of challenge. Responsibilities and level of challenges that showed a significant difference between special education administrators in rural, suburban, and urban school districts in the state of Texas are noted in bold print and “starred.”

Special Education Administrators’ Level of Responsibility The top three responsibilities considered most essential were in the area of policy development: (a) knowledge of federal and state special education law, (b) implements the policies established by federal and state law, State Board of Education rules, and the local board policy in the area of special education, and (c) knowledge of state level assessment procedures and requirements (Table 1).

The responsibilities that were considered the least important involved personally providing direct service to students with disabilities and evaluation of special education and general education staff. The majority of special education administrators (63.8%) did not consider the responsibility of personally providing direct service to students with disabilities as applicable to them. A higher percentage of special education administrators from rural (19.4%) and suburban (11.9%) school districts considered this very important to essential when compared to special education administrators from urban school districts (5.9%). This may imply that special education administrators do not consider personally providing direct services to students with disabilities a

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significant responsibility unless the special education administrators are from smaller school districts where access to qualified staff might not be prevalent.

Approximately 50% of special education administrators evaluated special education teachers on campuses. Greater responsibility was reported by special education administrators for evaluating general education teachers (65.8%) itinerant staff (84.2%), diagnostic staff (98.0%), secretarial and clerical staff (97.4%).

When comparing responses from special education administrators in rural, suburban, and urban school districts, significant differences were noted for six responsibility statements. Three responsibility statements from the program development category showed a significant difference: (a) serving as a resource person in the design and equipping of facilities for students with disabilities, (b) providing access to appropriate materials needed for instruction, and (c) collaboration between general education and special education. A higher percentage of special education administrators from suburban school districts (52.4%) considered the responsibility of serving as a resource person in the design and equipping of facilities for students with disabilities responsibility as essential compared to 32.3% from rural school districts and 35.3% from urban school districts. The majority of special education administrators considered the responsibility of providing access to appropriate materials needed for instruction as very important (35.5%) or essential (50.7%). Special education administrators from suburban school districts (83.3%) who considered the responsibility of collaboration between general education and special education as essential had a higher percentage than special education administrators from urban (64.7%) and rural (63.4%) school districts.

A significant difference was noted for two staffing responsibility statements: contracts with outside providers of special education services for students with disabilities (i.e. OT, PT, music therapy) and monitors staff caseloads. A higher percentage of special education administrators from rural school districts (63.4%) considered contracting with outside providers as an essential responsibility compared to 57.1% of special education administrators from suburban school districts and 52.9% from urban school districts. Special education administrators from urban school districts (23.5%) had a higher percentage than special education administrators from suburban (4.8%) and rural (1.1%) school districts that did not consider contracting with outside providers applicable to them. This may be due, in part, to larger school districts having the ability to hire full-time personnel to serve a large number of students.

The majority of special education administrators chose either very important or essential for the level of responsibility for monitoring staff caseloads. A higher percentage of special education administrators from suburban school districts (59.5%) and urban school districts (58.8%) considered monitoring staff caseloads as an essential responsibility compared to special education administrators from rural school districts (43.0%).

The responsibility of participating in the development of district goals and objectives was significant in the area of policy development between special education administrators in rural, suburban, and urban school districts. A higher percentage of special education administrators from urban school districts (76.5%) considered the responsibility as essential compared to 47.6% of

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special education administrators from suburban school districts and 28.0% from rural school districts.

Challenges Faced by Special Education Administrators Of the 39 responsibilities special education administrators were asked to identify the level of challenge, collaboration between general education and special education from the program development category was considered the highest ranked level of challenge followed by two responsibilities in the budget category: compiling budgets and cost estimates based upon documented program needs and ensuring that programs are cost effective and funds are managed prudently. The lowest rated challenges were personally providing direct service to students with disabilities from the staffing category and two responsibility statements from the evaluation of staff category: evaluates secretarial and/or clerical staff and evaluates special education teachers on campuses through the designated teacher appraisal system.

Three responsibility statements showed a significant difference between rural, suburban, and urban school districts regarding the level of challenge as perceived by special education administrators. Two of the responsibility statements were from the program development category: collaboration between general education and special education and demonstrates skill in conflict resolution with administrators, parents, teachers, staff, and community. Special education administrators from suburban school districts (90.4%) considered collaborating between general education and special education as either somewhat of a challenge (45.2%) or a substantial challenge (45.2%) compared to special education administrators in rural (37.6%; 37.6%) or urban (35.3%; 17.6%) school districts. Special education administrators in suburban school districts (54.8%) considered demonstrating skill in conflict resolution with administrators, parents, teachers, staff, and community somewhat of a challenge (28.6%) or a substantial challenge (26.2%) compared to 51.6% of special education administrators in rural school districts (37.6%; 14.0%) and 29.4% of special education administrators in urban school districts (29.4%; .0%). This may be due to the level of experience portrayed by special education administrators in larger or urban school districts.

The final responsibility statement that showed a significant difference in level of challenge between rural, suburban, and urban school districts was contracting with outside providers of special services for students with disabilities in the staffing category.

The majority of special education administrators from urban school districts (35.3%) did not consider contracting with outside providers of special services a challenge while 11.9% of special education administrators from suburban school districts and 7.5% of special education administrators from rural school districts did not consider the responsibility a challenge. The majority of special education administrators from suburban (42.9%) and rural (35.5%) school districts considered the responsibility somewhat of a challenge compared to only 23.5% of special education administrators from urban school districts. This may be due to the availability of contract providers in smaller districts. Related service personnel may be more difficult to acquire to provide services for students with disabilities in smaller districts without a substantial cost to the school district.

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Table 1: Special Education Administratorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Perceptions of Responsibilities Level of Responsibility Responsibility Type M SD POD POD POD

Knowledge of federal and state special education law Implements the policies established by federal and state law, State Board of Education rules, and the local board policy in the area of special education Knowledge of state level assessment procedures and requirements

4.93

0.27

4.84

0.49

4.74

0.54

BGT

Compiles budgets and cost estimates based upon documented program needs

4.67

0.73

PRD

Discusses special education programs, personnel, and students with building administrators

4.66

0.50

BGT

Ensures that programs are cost effective and funds are managed prudently

4.63

0.60

POD

Recommends and consults on policies to improve programs that impact students with disabilities

4.63

0.69

BGT

Administers the special education budget

4.62

0.79

PRD

Collaboration between general education and special education

4.52*

0.94

EOS

Evaluates diagnostic staff (i.e. educational diagnosticians, LSSPs)

4.50

0.78

PRD

Encourages the use of assessment to inform instruction

4.48

0.80

4.47

0.74

4.45

0.84

4.43*

0.94

4.42*

0.66

4.41

0.67

4.41

0.77

4.34

0.86

PRD STA STA STA BGT PRD EOS

Ensures that student progress is evaluated on a regular, systematic basis, and the findings are used to make the special education program more effective Participates in recruitment, selection, and making sound recommendations relative to personnel placement and assignment Contracts with outside providers of special services for students with disabilities (i.e. OT, PT, music therapy) Monitors staff caseloads Collaborates with business office on requisitions, purchase orders, contracts, etc.

Encourages the use of effective, research-based instructional strategies Makes recommendations relative to retention, transfer, discipline, and dismissal of staff

PRD

Provides access to appropriate materials needed for instruction

4.33*

0.84

BGT

Develops and submits budgets and financial reports for central administration

4.31

0.99

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Table 1: Continued.

Type

Responsibility

Level of Responsibility M SD

PRD

Creates supportive and safe learning environments

4.24

1.17

EOS

Evaluates secretarial/clerical staff Consults with parents regarding the evaluation and placement of their children

4.16

0.91

4.11

1.04

4.07

0.83

4.07

1.18

4.07

1.02

4.05*

1.03

4.02

0.99

4.01*

1.09

3.97

1.07

3.96

0.88

3.90

0.91

3.81

1.39

3.71

1.14

3.66

1.46

3.45

1.22

PRD PRD PRD PRD POD PRD PRD PRD BGT PRD EOS PRD PRD POD

Monitors professional research and disseminates ideas and information to other professionals Assists with alignment of student goals with standardsbased goals Articulates the districtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mission and goals in the area of special education to the community and solicits its support in realizing the mission Participates in the development of district goals and objectives Selection of instructional materials used in special education program Serves as a resource person in the design and equipping of facilities for students with disabilities Consults with teachers regarding the evaluation and placement of their students Maintains a current inventory of supplies and equipment; recommends the replacement and disposal of equipment, when necessary Facilitates/promotes the use of technology in the teaching-learning process Evaluates itinerant staff (i.e. VI teacher, counselor, special education nurse) Participates in committee meetings to ensure the appropriate placement and development of individual education plans for students with disabilities Demonstrates skill in conflict resolution with administrators, parents, teachers, staff, and community Attends school board meetings regularly and makes presentations to the school board

EOS

Assists in general education walk-throughs and/or evaluations

2.84

1.46

EOS

Evaluates special education teachers on campuses through the designated teacher appraisal system

2.53

1.64

STA

Personally provides direct service to students with disabilities (including teaching and/or assessment)

1.89

1.35

*p = <.05 Level of Responsibility: 1 = Not Applicable; 2 = Not Important; 3 = Somewhat Important; 4 = Very Important; 5 = Essential BGT = Budget; EOS = Evaluation of Staff; POD = Policy Development; PRD = Professional Development; STA = Staffing

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Table 2: Special Education Administrators’ Perceptions of Level of Challenge

Type PRD BGT BGT PRD POD POD PRD POD POD BGT STA STA PRD BGT STA EOS PRD PRD PRD POD PRD

Responsibility Collaboration between general education and special education Compiles budgets and cost estimates based upon documented program needs Ensures that programs are cost effective and funds are managed prudently Ensures that student progress is evaluated on a regular, systematic basis, and the findings are used to make the special education program more effective Knowledge of federal and state special education law Implements the policies established by federal and state law, State Board of Education rules, and the local board policy in the area of special education Encourages the use of assessment to inform instruction Knowledge of state level assessment procedures and requirements Recommends and consults on policies to improve programs that impact students with disabilities Administers the special education budget Participates in recruitment, selection, and making sound recommendations relative to personnel placement and assignment Contracts with outside providers of special services for students with disabilities (i.e. OT, PT, music therapy) Encourages the use of effective, research-based instructional strategies Develops and submits budgets and financial reports for central administration Monitors staff caseloads Makes recommendations relative to retention, transfer, discipline, and dismissal of staff Discusses special education programs, personnel, and students with building administrators Assists with alignment of student goals with standardsbased goals Articulates the district’s mission and goals in the area of special education to the community and solicits its support in realizing the mission Participates in the development of district goals and objectives Facilitates/promotes the use of technology in the teachinglearning process

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Level of Challenge M SD 3.09*

0.88

3.05

0.76

2.97

0.83

2.87

0.88

2.85

0.88

2.85

0.88

2.84

0.82

2.82

0.85

2.82

0.81

2.76

0.82

2.76

0.88

2.76*

0.97

2.75

0.87

2.72

0.85

2.66

0.89

2.61

0.92

2.52

0.87

2.49

0.92

2.49

0.86

2.45

0.88

2.45

0.82

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Table 2: Continued.

Type PRD BGT PRD PRD PRD PRD PRD BGT PRD PRD PRD EOS EOS EOS POD EOS

Responsibility Demonstrates skill in conflict resolution with administrators, parents, teachers, staff, and community Maintains a current inventory of supplies and equipment; recommends the replacement and disposal of equipment, when necessary Selection of instructional materials used in special education program Monitors professional research and disseminates ideas and information to other professionals Provides access to appropriate materials needed for instruction Serves as a resource person in the design and equipping of facilities for students with disabilities Creates supportive and safe learning environments Collaborates with business office on requisitions, purchase orders, contracts, etc.

Consults with teachers regarding the evaluation and placement of their students Consults with parents regarding the evaluation and placement of their children Participates in committee meetings to ensure the appropriate placement and development of individual education plans for students with disabilities Evaluates diagnostic staff (i.e. educational diagnosticians, LSSPs) Evaluates itinerant staff (i.e. VI teacher, counselor, special education nurse) Assists in general education walk-throughs and/or evaluations Attends school board meetings regularly and makes presentations to the school board Evaluates special education teachers on campuses through the designated teacher appraisal system

Level of Challenge M SD 2.43*

1.01

2.40

0.94

2.36

0.84

2.34

0.89

2.32

0.86

2.28

0.90

2.28

0.86

2.26

0.93

2.21

0.85

2.18

0.89

2.09

0.92

2.05

0.87

2.01

0.89

1.98

1.06

1.82

0.85

1.78

1.01

EOS

Evaluates secretarial/clerical staff

1.72

0.83

STA

Personally provides direct service to students with disabilities (including teaching and/or assessment)

1.49

0.85

*p = <.05 Level of Challenge: 1 = Not a Challenge; 2 = A little bit of a Challenge; 3 = Somewhat of a Challenge; 4 = Substantial Challenge BGT = Budget; EOS = Evaluation of Staff; POD = Policy Development; PRD = Professional Development; STA = Staffing

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Special Education Administratorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Responsibilities vs. Challenges A comparison of responsibilities and level of challenges was conducted through cross tabulation. The Chi-Square value was computed to determine the statistical significance of the relationship between each of the 39 responsibilities and the perceived level of challenge by special education administrators. Table 3 reports the results for Chi-Square, degrees of freedom, and the significance level for each responsibility statement. As noted in Table 3, the majority of comparisons between responsibilities and level of challenges were significant at the p = < .05.

The overall pattern suggests, as the importance of the responsibility increased, the level of the challenge increased. This was applicable to 28 of the 39 responsibilities (71.7%). The remaining responsibilities followed different patterns. The responsibility for providing direct services to students with disabilities (including teaching and assessment) in the staffing category was slightly different since it was only applicable to 36.2% of special education administrators in the study. A secondary pattern was seen for certain responsibilities in the evaluation of staff, budget, policy development, and the program development categories. The following responsibilities showed that special education administrators considered the responsibilities as very important to essential but considered the level of challenge as not a challenge to a little bit of a challenge. This pattern was applicable to the three responsibilities in evaluation of staff: (a) evaluates diagnostic staff (i.e. educational diagnosticians); (b) evaluates itinerant staff (i.e. VI teacher, counselor, special education nurse); and (c) evaluates secretarial and clerical staff. There was one responsibility in the budget category of collaborating with the business office on requisitions, purchase orders, contracts, etc. and one responsibility in policy development of attending school board meetings regularly and making presentations to the school board. The five remaining responsibilities were in the program development category: (a) consults with parents regarding the evaluation and placement of their children, (b) serves as a resource person in the design and equipping of facilities for students with disabilities, (c) monitors professional research and disseminates ideas and information to other professionals, (d) provides access to appropriate materials needed for instruction, and (e) selection of instructional materials used in special education program.

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Table 3: Comparison between Special Education Administratorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Responsibilities and Challenges

Staffing Monitors staff caseloads Participates in recruitment, selection, and making sound recommendations relative to personnel placement and assignment Contracts with outside providers of special services for students with disabilities (i.e. OT, PT, music therapy) Personally provides direct service to students with disabilities (including teaching and/or assessment)

X2 29.33

df 9

Sig. .001*

66.70

12

.001*

63.63

9

.001*

116.82

12

.001*

97.54

12

.001*

18.30 68.02 25.74

12 12 12

.107 .001* .012*

53.35

12

.001*

94.65

12

.001*

54.38

9

.001*

63.02

9

.001*

35.91

9

.001*

33.95

12

.001*

37.28

9

.001*

15.71

9

.073

7.61

6

.268

9.70

6

.138

23.22

9

.006*

50.55

12

.001*

61.35

12

.001*

60.08

12

.001*

Evaluation of Staff Evaluates special education teachers on campuses through the designated teacher appraisal system Evaluates diagnostic staff (i.e. ed. diagnosticians, LSSPs) Evaluates itinerant staff (i.e. VI teacher, counselor) Evaluates secretarial/clerical staff Makes recommendations relative to retention, transfer, discipline, and dismissal of staff Assists in general education walk-throughs and/or evaluations

Budget Compiles budgets and cost estimates based upon documented program needs Develops and submits budgets and financial reports for central administration Administers the special education budget Maintains a current inventory of supplies and equipment; recommends the replacement and disposal of equipment, when necessary Ensures that programs are cost effective and funds are managed prudently Collaborates with Business Office on requisitions, purchase orders, contracts, etc.

Policy Development Knowledge of federal and state special education law Knowledge of state level assessment procedures and requirements Implements the policies established by federal and state law, State Board of Education rules, and the local board policy in the area of special education Recommends and consults on policies to improve programs that impact students with disabilities Participates in the development of district goals and objectives Attends school board meetings regularly and makes presentations to the school board

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Table 3: Continued.

Program Development Consults with teachers regarding the evaluation and placement of their students Consults with parents regarding the evaluation and placement of their children Discusses special education programs, personnel, and students with building administrators Participates in committee meetings to ensure the appropriate placement and development of individual education plans for students with disabilities Ensures that student progress is evaluated on a regular, systematic basis, and the findings are used to make the special education program more effective Serves as a resource person in the design and equipping of facilities for students with disabilities Monitors professional research and disseminates ideas and information to other professionals Facilitates/promotes the use of technology in the teaching-learning process Provides access to appropriate materials needed for instruction Encourages the use of effective, research-based instructional strategies Creates supportive and safe learning environments Assists with alignment of student goals with standardsbased goals Collaboration between general education and special education Encourages the use of assessment to inform instruction Selection of instructional materials used in special education program Articulates the districtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mission and goals in the area of special education to the community and solicits its support in realizing the mission Demonstrates skill in conflict resolution with administrators, parents, teachers, staff, and community

X2

df

Sig.

50.41

9

.001*

39.07

12

.001*

9.23

6

.161

53.33

12

.001*

45.21

9

.001*

72.67

12

.001*

24.93

12

.015*

70.59

9

.001*

27.50

9

.001*

38.30

9

.001*

69.71

12

.001*

105.26

12

.001*

105.11

9

.001*

75.51

9

.001*

53.38

12

.001*

59.08

12

.001*

163.21

9

.001*

*p < .05

Discussion Findings from this study reveal minimal diversity in gender, ethnicity, and race among special education administrators with the majority of special education administrators being female, Non-Hispanic or Latino and White.

Compared to previous studies there has been no change in ethnicity or racial composition of special education administrators yet there has been a significant change in gender from previous studies. In the study by Kohl and Marro (1971), 75% of special education administrators were male and 25% were female. Arick

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15

and Krug (1993) reported a larger percentage of male (65.5%) special education directors than female (34.5%) as did Wigle and Wilcox (2002) with 53% of the special education directors being male and 47% female. There were an equal number of males and females as special education administrators in a study by Thompson and O’Brian (2007). Thompson and O’Brian (2007) identified no diversity in racial composition in their study since all participants were NonHispanic and White.

The minimal degree held by special education administrators in the current study was a master’s degree with 18.4% of special education administrators holding a doctorate degree. Due to the mandatory legislation and the complexity of special education there is a need for highly competent and trained administrators in the areas of special education (Forgnone & Collings, 1975). In a study by Thompson and O’Brian (2007), 7.5% of 67 special education administrators had a master's degree, 55.2% had a master’s degree with additional graduate credit, and 32.8% had a doctorate degree. Compared to the current study, a higher percentage of special education administrators held doctorate degrees in the Thompson and O’Brian (2007) study.

The current study reflects an increase in special education administrators with general education administrator certification and special education teacher certification compared to previous studies. Kohl and Marro (1971) identified 43.5% of special education administrators as having a general administrator certification, 32.0% having a special education administrator certification and 37.6% having a special education teacher certification. Arick and Krug (1993) reported 58.3% of special education administrators having certification in special education administration and 64.0% in special education teacher certification.

Special education administrators in the state of Texas are not required to have a special education administration certification which may account for the increased number in general education administration certification. State certification requirements are one way to ensure that special education administrators are adequately prepared as their job responsibilities increase and become more diverse (Prillaman & Richardson, 1985).

Knowledge and implementation of federal and state special education law at the local level continues to be a top priority for special education administrators, as well as, a challenge. The findings in the current study support the work by Nevin (1979) who noted interpretation of state and federal laws was an essential competency and Prillaman and Richardson (1985) who espoused the importance of special education administrators being able to interpret outcomes of court cases and translating law into local policy and practice. As noted by Tate (2010) the importance of having a good background knowledge of special education law cannot be undermined. Thompson and O’Brian (2007) reported that legal issues were a difficult aspect of being a special education administrator, which reflects the importance of having knowledge of federal and state special education law, which was the highest rated challenge in the policy development category.

Interestingly, the responsibility that was considered the least essential and less of a challenge in the area of policy development was attending school board meetings regularly and making presentations to the school board. In the current study, 19.7% of special education administrators considered attending

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school board meetings regularly and making presentations as essential with 34.9% of special education administrators considering it very important and 28.3% considering it somewhat important. Marro and Kohl (1972) noted that relationships with the school board and central administration are important for special education administrators. Kohl and Marro (1971) found 35.2% of special education administrators frequently attended school board meetings, 31% only attended school board meetings for special presentations, and special education administrators from small education systems usually did not attend school board meetings. Approximately 96% of special education administrators in the current study were involved in policy development compared to 63% of the special education administrators surveyed by Kohl and Marro (1971) who reported they felt encouraged to recommend new policies and present their viewpoint to the school board or through the superintendent.

The current study reflects limited involvement by special education administrators in providing direct services to students with disabilities and the evaluation of special education staff at the campus level was only somewhat important which is different from previous studies. Kohl and Marro (1971) reported that special education administrators desired to spend more time supervising and coordinating instruction, yet 37% of special education administrators did not formally evaluate beginning teachers and continuing teachers. In the study by Arick and Krug (1993), 85% of special education administrators were solely responsible for evaluating special education staff or shared the responsibility in their district. As noted previously, the current study showed greater responsibility toward evaluating staff that are not typically located at the campus level such as special education secretarial or clerical staff, diagnostic staff, and itinerant staff.

Even though special education administrators considered evaluation of special education staff at the campus level as somewhat important, approximately 98% of special education administrators rated discussing special education programs, personnel, and students with building administrators as very important (30.9%) or essential (67.8%). The results in the current study were higher than those reported by Kohl and Marro (1971) where 70% of special education administrators considered improving the special education program through supervision and instruction their primary responsibility.

The current study reflects the importance of collaboration between general education and special education administrators as well as a challenge for special education administrators. In a study by Arick and Krug (1993), special education administrators indicated a need for training to facilitate collaboration between general education and special education. Boscardin (2005) advocated the use of collaboration to develop professional bonds with teachers.

Compiling budgets and cost estimates based upon documented program needs and ensuring that programs are cost effective while funds are managed prudently continue to be a very important responsibility of special education administrators and somewhat of a challenge. This supports the findings of Thompson and Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Brian (2007), that budget and finance can be a difficult aspect of being a special education director.

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Conclusion Though the face of the special education administrator has changed from primarily male to female, there are some facets of being a special education administrator that has remained the same.

Policy development which encompasses knowledge and implementation of federal and state law concerning special education continues to be the primary responsibility for special education administrators. However, there is an increased number of special education administrators who are involved in the development of policies at the local level.

The importance of collaboration between general education and special education continues to be a very important to essential responsibility but somewhat of a challenge for special education administrators. Interestingly, there appears to be a decrease in the evaluation of special education staff at the campus level by the special education administrator and personally providing direct service to students with disabilities as the importance of administrative responsibilities have increased such as compiling budgets and legal issues.

Overall, as the level of responsibility has increased for special education administrators, the level of challenge has increased.

Differences were noted in level of responsibility and level of challenge for special education administrators in rural, suburban, and urban school districts. A higher percentage of special education administrators in suburban school districts considered collaboration between general education and special education an essential responsibility when compared to rural and urban school districts. Contracting with outside providers of special services was a greater responsibility and challenge for special education administrators from rural and suburban school districts than special education administrators from urban school districts. Special education administrators from suburban and urban school districts are more concerned about monitoring staff caseloads than special education administrators from rural school districts.

Special education administrators from urban school districts were more involved in the development of district goals and objectives than rural and suburban school districts while a greater percentage of special education administrators from rural and suburban school districts had more responsibilities for program development than special education administrators from urban school districts.

A higher percentage of special education administrators from suburban school districts considered demonstrating skill in conflict resolution with administrators, parents, teachers, staff, and the community as a substantial challenge when compared to rural and urban special education administrators.

It is clear that the role of the special education administrator requires diversified skills to meet the responsibilities and challenges that are faced today.

It is essential for todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s special education administrator to have a clear understanding of federal and state special education law for the implementation of special education programs. One of the challenges for the future will be to increase the diversity of special education administrators.

Limitations and Future Research There were limited research studies that involved responsibilities and challenges of special education administrators. Reviews of literature noted the lack of research available (Finkenbinder, 1981; Crockett, Becker, & Quinn, 2009).

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The length of data collection for survey responses covered a two week period. Most responses occurred within six hours of notification. This was applicable to the initial notification and the two reminders seeking participation in the study.

Use of an electronic survey may have excluded some special education administrators from participation in this study. Though all special education administrators on the TCASE list had access to e-mail, some may prefer a pencil and paper format as opposed to an electronic format. Establishing rapport with an individual is more difficult through an electronic format, which may have resulted in reduction of respondents.

The sample population was limited to special education administrators within the state of Texas. Therefore, results may not be generalized across other states but only representative of the population in the state of Texas.

Future research is needed to identify the difference between actual responsibilities of special education administrators and job descriptions. Are there factors that influence a special education administrator’s contract days such as a difference between responsibilities during the school year and during the summer? Additionally, factors should be identified that influence a special education administrator’s decision to remain in the field of special education or leave the field of education.

References Arick, J. R., & Krug, D. A. (1993). Special education administrators in the United States: Perceptions on policy and personnel issues. Journal of Special Education, 27(3), 34864.

Retrieved from http://ezproxy.twu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ472752&site=ehost-live&scope=site Boscardin, M. L. (2004). Transforming administration to support science in the schoolhouse for students with disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37(3), 262269.

Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=12900483&site =ehost-live Boscardin, M. L. (2005). The administrative role in transforming secondary schools to support inclusive evidence-based practices. American Secondary Education, 33(3), 2132.

Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=17885645&site =ehost-live Crockett, J. B., Becker, M. K., & Quinn, D. (2009). Reviewing the knowledge base of special education leadership and administration from 1970-2009. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 22(2), 55-67.

Retrieved from http://ezproxy.twu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ869314&site=ehost-live&scope=site; http://www.casecec.org/ Finkenbinder, R. L. (1981). Special education administration and supervision: The state of the art. Journal of Special Education, 15(4), 485-95. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.twu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ258027&site=ehost-live&scope=site Forgnone, C., & Collings, G. D. (1975). State certification in special education endorsement. Journal of Special Education, 9(1) 5-9. Retrieved from

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http://ezproxy.twu.edu:2048?login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4726553&site=ehost-live&scope=site Hebert, E. A., & Miller, S. I. (1985). Role conflict and the special education supervisor: A qualitative analysis. Journal of Special Education, 19(2), 215. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4726744&site= ehost-live Kohl, J. W., & Marro, T. D. (1971). A normative study of the administrative position in special education. (Grant no. OEG-0-70-2467(607), US Office of Education). University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University.

Lashley, C., & Boscardin, M. L. (2003). Special education administration at a crossroads: Availability, licensure, and preparation of special education administrators. (Document No IB-8).

Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED477116&sit e=ehost-live Marro, T. D., & Kohl, J. W. (1972). Normative study of the administrative position in special education. Exceptional Children, 39(1), 5-13. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19722546&site =ehost-live Nevin, A. (1979). Special education administration competencies required of the general education administrator. Exceptional Children, 45, 363-365. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.twu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ198085&site=ehost-live&scope=site Palladino, J. M. (2008). Preparing school principals for special education administration: A new model of leadership decision-making. John Sheppard Journal of Practical Leadership, 158-166. Retrieved from http://aa.utpb.edu/media/leadership-journalfiles/2008archives/Preparing%20School%20Principles%20for%20Special%20Education%20A dministration.pdf Prillaman, D., & Richardson, R. (1985). State certification-endorsement requirements for special education administration. Journal of Special Education, 19(2), 231. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4726751&site= ehost-live Tate, A. (2010). Case in point: The changing face of special education administration.

Journal of Special Education Leadership, 23(2), 113-115.

Texas Council of Administrators of Special Education (TCASE). (n.d.). Mission, vision, values. Retrieved from http://www.tcase.org/?page=mission Thompson, J. R., & O'Brian, M. (2007). Many hats and a delicate balance. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 20(1), 33-43.

Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=25338426&site =ehost-live Wigle, S. E., & Wilcox, D. J. (2002). Special education directors and their competencies on CEC-identified skills.

Education, 123(2), 276.

Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9134676&site= ehost-live Wright, P. (2004). The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 Overview, Explanation, and Comparison.

Retrieved from http://www.wrightslaw.com/idea/idea.2004.all.pdf

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 20-37, June 2016

The Impact on Absence from School of Rapid Diagnostic Testing and Treatment for Malaria by Teachers Andrew John Macnab

Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Study Wallenberg Research Centre Stellenbosch, South Africa Sharif Mutabazi, Ronald Mukisa, Atukwatse M. Eliab, and Hassan Kigozi Health and Development Agency (HEADA) Mbarara, Uganda Rachel Steed Hillman Medical Education Fund Vancouver, BC, Canada Abstract. Malaria is the principal preventable reason a child misses school in sub-Saharan Africa and the leading cause of death in school-aged children. We describe a model for teachers to use rapid diagnostic testing (RDT) for malaria and treatment with Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) to enhance education by reducing school absence due to malaria. Conduct: A 2-year pilot program in 4 primary schools in rural Uganda. Year 1, Pre-intervention baseline evaluation (malaria knowledge; school practices when pupils become sick; monitoring of days absent as a surrogate for morbidity and teachers trained to administer RDT/ACT as the Year 2 intervention.

Findings: Teachers identified malaria as a barrier to education, contributed to logistic design, participated willingly, collected accurate data, and readily implemented/sustained RDT/ACT program.

Pre-intervention: 953/1764 pupils were sent home due to presumed infectious illness; mean duration of absence was 6.5 days (SD: 3.17). With school-based teacher-administered RDT/ACT 1066/1774 pupils were identified as sick, 765/1066 (67.5%) tested RDT positive for malaria and received ACT; their duration of absence fell to 0.6 days (SD: 0.64) (p<0.001) and overall absenteeism to 2.5 (SD: 3.35). The RDT/ACT program significantly reduced days of education lost due to malaria and empowered teachers; this model is applicable to schools globally.

Keywords: Absenteeism; promoting schools; Malaria.

Community-based

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education;

Health

21

Introduction Malaria is the principal reason why a child will be absent from school where the disease is endemic and the main reason a school-aged child will die in sub-Saharan Africa. The burden of malaria and negative impact on education is greatest amongst children in low resource settings and rural areas (Brooker, et al., 2000; Jukes, et al., 2008; Kimbi, et al., 2005). The duration of malaria-related absence from school, frequency of absence due to repeated infection, compromise to learning due to residual malaise after sub-optimal treatment or when permanent neurological complications occur with falciparum malaria all negatively impact children‘s education (Kihara, et al., 2006; Kimbi, et al., 2005; Snow, et al., 2003). To minimize the adverse effects (morbidity) of malaria the WHO advocates early, accurate diagnosis of infection and prompt, effective treatment within 24 hours of the onset of illness (WHO, 2014).

Schools promoting health using the WHO Health Promoting School (HPS) model provide opportunities within the formal curriculum to improve ‗knowledge‘ and conduct a range of activities to educate pupils about ‗healthy practices‘ (Macnab, et al., 2013; St Leger, et al., 2009; WHO, 1997). But, while many schools in Africa do this in the context of malaria (Macnab, et al.; 2014), the impact of such programs is limited because it is difficult to make a diagnosis of malaria as symptoms are not specific, and diagnostic blood tests are often not readily available. In addition, a lack of knowledge about appropriate treatment and limited access to care in the community commonly contribute to malaria morbidity (Kallander, et al., 2004). Hence, simple, accurate and inexpensive diagnostic tools and wider availability of effective therapy are recognized as urgently needed to reduce the impact of this disease on children (Mutabingwa, 2005).

The combined use of Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT) kits to diagnose malaria with administration of Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) in those testing positive meets this need. RDT/ACT use has improved the accuracy of diagnosis and efficacy of treatment for malaria, but deployment of RDT and ACT has been slow, especially in low resource settings. This is because the social engagement necessary to spread the knowledge that this approach is effective and make it accessible to rural populations has been missing (Mutabingwa, 2005).

Our hypothesis was that if school-based rapid diagnostic testing for malaria by teachers was made available, all sick children usually sent home with a presumed infectious illness would be screened using RDT, and be given ACT when they tested positive. Educational benefit would accrue from a significant reduction in days absent from school; less absence being a surrogate measure for reduced morbidity from malaria. Also, in addition to improving school attendance, better health outcomes should translate into an enhanced ability to learn and better educational attainment in the long-term. An improvement in children‘s knowledge and community practices related to malaria would be a secondary outcome.

Importantly, RDT kits are now available in Uganda and the feasibility of using them has been demonstrated in rural clinics (Guthmann, J, et al., 2002; Kilian, et al., 1999), and most recently in shops selling medicines (Mbonye, et al., 2010).

However, training low cadre health care workers, including school nurses, to use these simple kits has not been done. Artemisinin-based combination therapy has

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22

been adopted as a first line treatment for malaria, but while village health workers have been taught home-based management of fever and ACT administration, school nurses have not been trained comparably (Presidentâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s Malaria Initiative, 2005).

Malaria RDT kits provide a diagnosis in minutes by detecting the presence of malaria parasites in human blood. RDT kits vary, but the principles of how they work are similar (WHO, 2015; Wongsrichanalai, et al., 2007). Most are packaged for individual use and include a lancet to obtain blood from a finger-prick. A drop of blood from a potentially infected individual is put onto a strip of nitro-cellulose housed in a plastic cassette to test for the presence of specific proteins (antigens) produced by malaria parasites. If malaria antigens are present, they bind to the dye-labeled antibody in the kit, forming a visible complex in the results window. A control line confirms the integrity of the antibody-dye conjugate. The sensitivity and specificity of RDTs are such that they can replace conventional testing for malaria (Abba, et al., 2011; Murray, et al., 2008).

ACTs are the best anti-malarial drugs available nowadays, and the first-line therapy for P. falciparum malaria recommended by WHO for use worldwide since 2001 (International Artemisinin Study Group, 2004; Malaria Consortium, 2016; WHO, 2016). Natural Artemisinin is sourced from Artemesia annua; the herb, native to China, has a long-standing reputation for efficacy in treating fevers; Artemisinin is now also made synthetically. ACTs combine Artemisinin, which kills the majority of parasites within a few hours at the start of treatment, with a partner drug of a different class with a longer half-life, which eliminates the remaining parasites (Benjamin, J, et al., 2012). Several preparations combining these two components in a single fixed-dose tablet are now available. Benefits of ACTs include high efficiency, fast action, few adverse effects and the potential to lower the rate at which resistance emerges and spreads; to make best use of ACT issues related to access, delivery and cost have to be addressed (Malaria Consortium, 2016).

Since 2006 we have used the WHO Health Promoting School (HPS) model to engage communities in rural Uganda and deliver low cost health education in schools (Kizito, et al., 2014; Macnab & Kasangaki, 2012; Macnab, et al., 2014).

From dialogue with teachers in these communities we learned that absence from school due to malaria is high and most children sent home due to febrile illness do not subsequently access clinics where RDT/ACT are used, due to factors including distance, cost, and lack of awareness of the importance of treatment.

Hence the logic of our initiative to offer school communities teacher training and support to enable school-based RDT and ACT to be provided. The incentive for teachers was the potential to improve the education of their pupils by reducing the length of time they are absent from school due to malaria, and decrease the negative impact that sub-optimal management of this disease is known to have on childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s ability to learn.

This intervention was designed as a logical and medically expedient response to the concern voiced by teachers in Uganda. However, the same barriers to childhood education exist worldwide where malaria is endemic, hence the broad relevance of the health promotion model we describe, particularly for schools serving children in rural resource-poor settings.

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Methodology/Approach This initiative was delivered as a community outreach project conducted in 4 newly established health promoting schools by the Health and Development Agency (HEADA) Uganda. HEADA is a non-governmental agency funded by the Hillman Medical Education Fund to implement comprehensive health education, treatment, and support programs in Western Uganda. The project employed the principles of participatory action research and followed recommended steps for achieving participation and trust in communities engaged in health promotion. Action research is problem-centered, community-based and action-oriented. It is an interactive process that co-develops programs with the people who use them and balances collaborative problem-solving action(s) with data collection and validation of efficacy (Baum, et al., 2006). Community trust comes via conscientious dialogue, synergistic engagement, joint decision-making, and feedback that shares what does and does not work (Laverack & Mohammadi, 2011; Macnab, et al., 2014b). Figure 1 summarizes the steps taken to implement this project.

In the school communities dialogue established how absence from school due to malaria has a negative impact on the education of a large number of pupils.

The teachers described that their current practice was to send children home who were sick or had fever; they assume many have malaria but it is left to the parents to decide whether action to diagnose or treat their child occurs. Many children are absent for more than a week, and often those returning clearly remain unwell and unable to participate fully in class for several days, or even weeks.

The communities identify the problem.

HEADA initiates dialogue and active learning amongst the teachers, parents, elders and village health teams in the 4 communities.

The Communities decide on a school-based problem solving action.

HEADA defines the logistics of delivery, data collection and evaluation of safety and efficacy.

The school communities engage parents and provide written consent.

The teachers in the 4 school communities introduce the action within the schools supported by HEADA.

Year 1. Pre-intervention.

Data collection on children identified as sick at school and sent home, their subsequent management in the community and duration of absence from school.

Year 2. Intervention.

Teachers evaluate the children identified as sick at school, conduct RDTs and immediately treat all children positive for malaria with ACT.

HEADA provides HEADA trains teachers to conduct Figure 1. support/supervision.

Data RDTs, administer ACT and document Flow chart of sequence of steps involved in this project. collection continues. data.

HEADA and the 4 communities maintain dialogue to sustain the school-based action and promote new knowledge and behavioral change community wide.

Figure 1.

Flow chart of the sequence of steps involved in the implementation of this project. Š 2016 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Public forums were initiated by HEADA to generate dialogue and active learning about malaria causation, diagnosis, and treatment amongst the teachers, parents, elders and village health team members. These took the form of presentations with question and answer sessions that summarized current knowledge about the benefits of interventions available elsewhere in Uganda and the practicalities of delivering them, particularly the use of RDT kits for prompt, accurate diagnosis in government clinics and the importance of early treatment with ACT. The communities decided that they wanted a school-based program; problem-solving discussions were used to explore the options available and potential hurdles the schools would face. These included if teachers would want to invest the time to take the training required and to run a school-based program, and be prepared to conduct testing involving collection of a blood sample by finger prick. HEADA then defined the logistics of a teacher delivered RDT and ACT program and a data collection strategy to evaluate safety and efficacy. The teachers engaged parents in community-wide sessions to invite participation, allow dialogue with HEADA regarding the process and pros and cons of involvement, and obtain consent (Okello, et al, 2013).

Ethical considerations were addressed as follows: It was explained to parents that in Year 1 data on absenteeism would continue to be recorded as usual by the school for evaluation purposes, and in Year 2 those children who became sick with fever or had signs suggestive of an infectious illness would be assessed by a trained teacher, the use of RDT /ACT considered, and additional data collected.

Each school signed an agreement to follow the co-developed action protocol. The school obtained consent from parents for all pupils participating; no parents wanted their child excluded; separate informed consent was obtained from parents prior to follow up visits conducted by HEADA in the community. Each child identified as sick and needing assessment at school was required to give verbal assent for conduct of an RDT, and treatment with ACT if the RDT was positive. Pictographic information sheets on how the RDT is conducted were used to aid education of parents and children in this context. A young investigator was included in our team to facilitate the comprehension and engagement of pupils.

The teachers in the 4 school communities introduced the action protocol into the schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s routine supported by HEADA staff who visited the schools weekly to assist and respond to queries, and where necessary make adjustments to accommodate community-driven needs.

In Year 1 the protocol involved data collection related to sick pupils sent home and subsequently absent. School absence for reasons other than presumed infectious illness was excluded; e.g. injury, bad behavior, caring for a sick sibling, domestic work or failure to pay school fees. HEADA trained the teachers to conduct RDT and administer ACT in one-day interactive workshops supervised by a physician and run by trained laboratory staff (2) and nurses (2). These health and education professionals trained one teacher as the primary evaluator and one as back up for each school. After a knowledge pre-test, instruction included: evaluation of a child for symptoms suggesting an infectious illness (headache, malaise, nausea/vomiting, fatigue/somnolence, aches and pains +/- fever); theory and practice related to the conduct of RDT and use of ACT; record

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keeping; needle safety and waste disposal techniques; and post exposure prophylaxis standard operating procedures and access to anti-retroviral therapy in case of accidental needle pricks. Practical competency was evaluated and a post-test administered. A refresher course was given in Year 2.

The RDT kits used were: Malaria Ag pan/Pf Malaria test kits ‗Malarascan‘ (Zephyr Biomedical Systems) which targets HRP2 and Pan Aldolase of Plasmodium falciparum and other less common Plasmodium species (P. vivax, and P. ovale); sensitivity (96.3%) and specificity (98%) are high.

In Year 2 the protocol added screening with RDT for malaria and treatment of those testing positive with ACT by the trained teachers. A single dose ACT preparation was used rather than the conventional 3-day 12 hourly regimen to ensure a full course of treatment was completed; this was to avoid the potential for partial treatment bias if any of the five additional doses that would have had to be given at home were missed. The ACT chosen was Arco (Artemisinin-Napthoquine) (Midas Care Uganda, Ltd). The drug was given with milk or juice to aid tolerance and taken under teacher supervision. Children were observed for at least 1 hour for side effects; the protocol called for another dose to be given if vomiting occurred.

Throughout the 2-year intervention HEADA and representatives from the 4 communities maintained dialogue to sustain the program and promote new knowledge about malaria and encourage behavioral change community wide. In the schools, this involved the core approaches of the WHO HPS model (Macnab, 2013): classroom education to increase knowledge and school-based activities to develop practices and behaviors that benefited the children in the context of malaria. Assessment of children‘s knowledge preceded these activities and post-intervention assessment followed for comparison. In the community HEADA provided feedback via workshops on the conduct and efficacy of the school-based intervention.

Results Four primary schools were engaged in geographically separate low resource rural settings in south-western Uganda; Bwizibwera Town School, Rutooma Modern, Kaguhanzya Primary and Ruhunga Primary. Ninety kilometers separated the 4 schools; a motorcycle and fuel costs were included in the budget; HEADA staff travelled more than 20,000 km in the course of coordinating the project. Total pupil enrollment was 1764 in Year 1 and 1774 in Year 2 across classes primary 1 – 7.

Community-based dialogue (May – September 2013) led to the collaborative decision to introduce school-based teacher-administered RDT and ACT. Quotes from Head Teachers include 1) ―This is exactly what we need, testing and treating malaria at school. We are ready to collaborate‖. 2) ―Our children suffer from fever and malaria, but we send them home where they are given local herbs and paracetamol. Malaria affects children‘s brains and ability to learn; it is a great opportunity for us to be trained to prevent this from continuing to happen‖. 3) ―Our teachers are enthusiastic about being involved in testing and treating children after they have undergone training. Our School Board Chairman has endorsed the idea. We are grateful for this initiative‖.

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Baseline assessment, logistic planning, teacher training and inquiry of how sick children sent home were managed by parents took place in Year 1 (September 2013 - August 2014), and RDT/ACT intervention with ongoing evaluation followed in Year 2 (September 2014 - August 2015). This allowed a 2-year evaluation where pre and post intervention data were collected over comparable 3 term periods during 2 consecutive school years, recognizing the seasonal nature of malaria.

Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s knowledge and awareness about malaria causation, transmission, prevention, diagnosis and management were assessed in classroom sessions.

Pre-intervention, less than 20% of children knew mosquitos transmitted the disease, the relevance of bed nets as a preventive measure, how diagnosis is made and the importance of prompt and effective treatment. By Year 2 essentially 100% of children had a comprehensive grasp of these facts, knew the symptoms and signs of probable infection and how to access appropriate diagnosis and treatment.

Inquiry by anonymous questionnaire established that all teachers except one wanted to be trained to do RDT for malaria, and all would administer ACT and agree to take on the responsibility and additional work of evaluating sick children as per the action protocol. The schools calculated that each needed 2 trained staff to conduct the duties required; one as the primary evaluator and one to be available as back up throughout the intervention. A total of 11 teachers were trained in interactive workshops over 2 years; performance at school and refresher course evaluation confirmed all had good knowledge retention and practical competency. Safe waste disposal was ensured by use of sharps boxes for used blood lancets and biohazard bags. No adverse events requiring anti-retroviral treatment occurred; every 50th positive RDT was checked by a laboratory and all proved accurate.

Figure 2.

Management by parents of a subset of 104 febrile children with symptoms compatible with malaria after they had been sent home from school.

In Year 1 the management of 104 febrile, sick children was evaluated once they were sent home from school. All had symptoms compatible with malaria, however, parental management of the majority was not in keeping with WHO

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recommendations (prompt assessment, accurate diagnosis and comprehensive treatment within 24 hours of the onset of illness) (WHO, 2014). Only 1 out of every 4 (26%) was taken for any form of conventional diagnostic measure or clinic-based anti-malarial treatment; 42% were only given an anti-pyretic (e.g. paracetamol); 19% received a local traditional herbal remedy; 8% were taken to church; and 5% were cared for by a traditional healer. Figure 2 summarizes these data.

Table 1 shows the demographic and study data from Year 1 (pre-intervention) and Year 2 (intervention). The number of children identified by their classroom teachers as being sick with a potential infection and needing to be sent home using the schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s regular criteria in the pre-intervention year was 953. In the intervention year this number was 1066. These 1066 were evaluated by a trained teacher, the presence of symptoms compatible with infection confirmed, and RDTs done. The RDT was positive in 715 of the sick children (67.5%), and all received immediate treatment with the single dose ACT preparation (Artemisinin-Napthoquine).

The mean duration of absence from school in children sent home with a presumed infectious illness pre-intervention was 6.5 days from onset of illness to return to class. During intervention mean duration of absence was 2.5 days overall (p <0.001), 0.6 days in the 715 children RDT positive for malaria treated immediately with ACT (p < 0.001) and 4.6 days in those RDT negative. Many treated children felt well enough to ask to return to class of their own volition within a few hours of receiving ACT, and hence had no days of absence from school. Some very small variations in absenteeism rates were evident over the 2 years between schools, across classes (grades) and from term to term (season).

Overall, absence from school was reduced by 60.8% during intervention with RDT/ACT. Also, with 67.5% of sick children RDT positive in Year 2, if the same percentage of children sent home in Year 1 also had malaria, this equates to 1358 cases in 1775 children over 2 years; or a malaria incidence rate of 79% across the 4 schools.

No adverse events occurred in the context of RDT screening and no adverse reactions resulted from administration of the single dose ACT preparation which was well tolerated. No children died from malaria during the intervention year.

Post-intervention dialogue identified a consensus amongst teachers that participating children had derived significant health and educational benefit from provision of school-based RDT/ACT. In addition to missing less school due to absence, those treated for malaria were reported to appear fully engaged and able to benefit from being back in class. HEADA staff identified that in the broader community new knowledge was affecting behavioral change over how suspected malaria was managed. It was agreed that the 4 schools would continue to offer RDT/ACT, but via a modified intervention where RDT positive children would now be given a conventional 3 day ACT regimen (Artesunate-Amodiaquine) in the interest of cost. Knowledge transfer was also extended beyond the community, with research reporting, publication and dialogue to engage the Health Ministry.

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Table 1. Demographics and Study data: Year 1 Pre-intervention and Year 2 Intervention with school-based RDT/ACT administration by teachers.

Pre-intervention Children (total) Age range / years Gender M/F % Schools Children by school.

Year at start/at end Sick/sent home Total Sick/per school Sick/per term Tested RDT Positive RDT MALARIA Positive vs Negative RDT Treated ACT Absence (Days) Sick sent home TOTAL Absence (Days) Sick sent home RDT = MALARIA Absence (Days) Sick sent home RDT = NEGATIVE

Year 1 1764 5-13 49/51 Bwizibwera 412/424

Rutooma 451/451

Ruhunga 189/185

Kaguhanzya 712/715

221

200

218

314

6.2

6.5

6.7

6.6

Bwizibwera 422/422

Rutooma 451/451

Ruhunga 189/188

Kaguhanzya 712/712

263 56/127/80

201 27/97/77

300 55/135/110

302 70/133/99

27/92/49

20/74/57

28/68/106

35/98/62

168/263

151/201

202/300

195/302

715 2.55 (3.35) p< 0.001 0.59 (0.64) p< 0.001

27/92/49 2.4

20/74/57 2.8

28/68/106 3.0

70/133/99 2.5

0.49

0.66

0.72

0.48

4.62 (3.54)

4.1

6.1

4.5

3.8

953

n/a n/a n/a n/a 6.5 (3.17) n/a

n/a

Intervention Children (total) Age range / years Gender M/F % Schools Children by school.

Year at start/at end Sick/sent home Total Sick/per school Sick/per term Tested RDT Positive RDT MALARIA Positive vs Negative RDT Treated ACT Absence (Days) Sick sent home TOTAL Absence (Days) Sick sent home RDT = MALARIA Absence (Days) Sick sent home RDT = NEGATIVE

Year 2 1774 5-13 49/51

1066

1066 715

Discussion This study shows that the education of children in rural Uganda can be advanced by training teachers to screen children for malaria using RDT and provide immediate ACT treatment at school for those infected. This intervention

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significantly reduced the number of days of schooling missed due to malaria, and prompt effective treatment is known to reduce long-term complications that negatively impact a child‘s ability to learn.

Amongst sick primary school children, who teachers would otherwise just have sent home, 67.5% tested positive for malaria and received ACT. Within hours, many of these children felt well enough to rejoin their class rather than go home, presumably due to the promptness of treatment relative to their symptoms beginning, and rapid parasite clearance rate achieved by Artemisinin (Benjamin, et al., 2012). Overall, the duration of absence from onset of malaria symptoms to return to class for the children teachers treated fell 60.8% when compared to the duration of absence in the pre-intervention cohort sent home with a presumed infectious illness.

This translates to a reduction from more than a week of absence to less than 1 day of education lost in children diagnosed and treated with our school-based intervention. With prior research emphasizing that up to 50% of preventable school absenteeism is due to malaria (Brooker, et al., 2000), RDT /ACT use by trained teachers offers an effective means to combat morbidity from malaria amongst school children.

Importantly, while children diagnosed and treated in this initiative missed less school because they recovered quickly, from what teachers reported it is also probable that they recovered more completely. The observation that they interacted and behaved normally on return to class suggests that having malaria which was diagnosed and treated promptly had little or no long-term consequences on their ability to learn. Hence, although not directly measured, it is likely that school-based RDT /ACT programs can improve overall learning potential and educational outcome.

In this context it is relevant that malaria in Uganda is predominantly caused by Plasmodium falciparum (‗cerebral malaria‘). Such infection is often associated with loss of cognitive and fine motor function when diagnosis and treatment are delayed or absent. Educational compromise often results because the resulting loss of function may be permanent and can involve all cognitive spheres (language, attention, memory, visuospatial skills and executive functions) (Birbeck, 2010; Fernando, et al., 2003; Jukes, et al., 2008; Kihara, et al., 2006; White, et al., 2013; WHO, 2015).

The potential for school-based RDT/ACT to provide important educational benefits through the early diagnosis and effective treatment it affords is endorsed by studies in schools where children take prophylactic chloroquine to prevent malaria. In these children improved educational attainment is evident in addition to reduced absence from school, when they are compared to children given a placebo (Fernando, et al., 2010; Jukes, et al., 2006).

With any school-based intervention teacher participation and the feasibility, sustainability and validity of what is done are clearly relevant. It was the teachers in the participating schools who identified that malaria was a barrier to their pupils‘ education. They participated willingly in the required skills training, successfully delivered RDT and ACT at school, consistently collected the data necessary to evaluate efficacy and sustained the intervention. The broader community (parents, elders, health teams) endorsed a school-based intervention, reported seeing benefits for their children as it was implemented and felt better

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educated themselves about how to manage malaria. Importantly, in addition to being feasible, our approach of making RDT and ACT use accessible to school children is valid; prior research has shown RDT/ACT can provide rapid, accurate diagnosis and efficient treatment, is simple enough to adopt outside health care facilities, and improves the health of those least able to withstand the consequences of illness (Amexo, et al., 2004; Moody, 2002; Mutabingwa, 2005).

From an educational standpoint, children‘s knowledge and awareness related to malaria also improved. Children now knew how malaria was caused, symptoms suggesting infection, that diagnosis and effective treatment are available and the importance of both. Parents also learned first-hand that malaria can be rapidly diagnosed and that there are benefits from early treatment with ACT. This later change is significant as the schools were all in low resource rural settings, where prior to our initiative we identified that only 1 in 4 febrile children sent home from school received management for malaria that met WHO recommendations (WHO, 2014). These findings match prior research (Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2010); and the school-based RDT/ACT model used by our trained teachers met the WHO criteria for managing malaria with prompt, accurate diagnosis and comprehensive treatment within 24 hours of the onset of illness (WHO, 2014).

Although use of RDT kits and ACT treatment is endorsed at government level, their use in a school-based program by appropriately trained teachers is novel as far as we are aware. Importantly, our experiences are broadly in agreement with previous studies on a), the logistics of RDT/ACT use that indicate that RDT kits can be stocked and used appropriately outside formal health facilities (Mbonye, et al., 2015), and b), that training comparable to our instruction of teachers enables diagnostic kits to be used reliably (Mbonye, et al., 2010). Our diagnostic rate for malaria of 67.5% in children with presumed infectious illness is directly comparable to the 72.9% of patients with fever who tested positive in a recent trial where RDT was introduced into registered drug shops (Kyaabayinze, et al., 2010). The authors of this trial (designed and implemented by the Ugandan Ministry of Health) stated their results demonstrated that ‗when introduced as part of a comprehensive intervention, RDTs can serve to guide better diagnosis of malaria‖, and, that there is ―evidence to support scale up of RDT and ACTs‖ (Mbonye, et al 2010); this indirectly endorses our school-based approach.

Importantly, we believe our results and the benefits we describe can be generalized to schools in most areas of Uganda with a similar endemic setting, as our intervention took place in 4 geographically separate rural schools and all children identified as sick due to a presumed infectious illness were included.

Also there is the potential for our school-based model for diagnosis and treatment to be explored in other regions in Africa and elsewhere, as malaria is the most prevalent parasitic disease that affects human beings worldwide. It is endemic in 108 countries, estimates indicate that >3 billion people are at risk, >85% of cases and 90% of deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and that the burden of disease is highest amongst children in rural and low resource communities (White, et al., 2013).

The cost and cost-benefit of RDT/ACT are relevant. The cost of ACTs especially has been identified as a potential barrier to scale up of initiatives that use them (Mbonye, et al., 2015; Mutabingwa, 2005). Our cost for RDT was about

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US$ 0.50 per kit. But how easy it is to perform the diagnostic test and train personnel to use a given RDT kit are additional considerations (Moody, 2002).

We chose to use a relatively expensive (US$ 2.2) single dose ACT formulation to eliminate any partial treatment bias during our evaluation phase. Now a conventional 3-day, 6 dose ACT preparation is being used which is considerably cheaper (US$ 1.0).

Other school-based health promotion programs involving teachers have already proved valuable and cost-effective, including nationwide anti-helminth treatment in Uganda (Brooker, et al., 2008b), provision of intermittent anti-malarial therapy in Kenya (Okello, et al 2012; Temperley, et al., 2008) and prophylactic chloroquine in Sri Lanka (Fernando, et al., 2006). Teachers have also administered various diagnostic and treatment protocols successfully in Tanzanian schools (Magnussen, et al., 2001). Analysis also shows that health program delivery costs can be reduced by having teachers implement them (Drake, et al., 2011).

The WHO health promoting school model engages each school in the context of the local community (Lasker & Weiss, 2003; Zakus & Lysack, 1998) with recognition of the central role of teachers (St Leger, et al., 2009; Tang, et al., 2009).

This ensures that day-to-day realities and local imperatives are reflected in the design and conduct of programs developed to address any health problem (Laverack & Mohammadi, 2011; Macnab, et al., 2014b). In our four project schools teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; input was central to the development of a realistic school-based strategy for RDT/ACT, and ongoing active participation by the staff was integral to the success of the intervention. Interestingly, two funding submissions were unsuccessful as reviewers stated that teachers would not be prepared to conduct RDT, not be willing to invest the additional time required to evaluate the children, and be unable to sustain the intervention over time. Inquiry in Year 1 found the first 2 assumptions incorrect and 3 years later all 4 school communities continue to provide RDT/ACT, and teachers, pupils and parents all report benefits to learning in parallel with better health in participating children.

No complications were reported from teachers performing RDTs or giving ACT. We did follow recommendations to deploy RDT expertise by conducting our teacher training using good visual aids and ample opportunities to practice practical skills (Murray, et al., 2008). Neither the refresher training provided midway through the project nor the confirmatory checks by a laboratory on every 50th positive RDT sample identified any concerns; both were considered important for quality assurance.

We recognize limitations in what we report. Principally, we recognize that the outcome measure encapsulating educational compromise and malaria morbidity that we used was absence from onset of illness to return to school. Using this measure we can only compare Year 2 data for children RDT positive for malaria with Year 1 data from the overall cohort sent home with presumed infectious illness. This is because in Year 1 it was not feasible to follow each child in the community to establish if parental care resulted in a diagnosis of malaria, and if so what treatment ensued. However, the >10 fold difference in the duration of absence between children in the intervention and pre-intervention years strongly supports benefit from the school-based RDT/ACT model that we designed and prospectively evaluated. Also, because 67.5% of sick children in Year 2 were RDT

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positive and promptly treated according to WHO guidelines, this reflects a significant reduction in the burden of illness from malaria, as this was a community where the majority (74%) would not have been taken for appropriate care by their parents had they been sent home, based on the behaviors we documented prior to our intervention. In addition it is reasonable to assume that the percentage of sick children in the pre-intervention year who had malaria would have been similar to the intervention year (67.5%); in which case the malaria incidence rate across the 4 schools for the 2 years was 79%, reflecting a significant burden of disease.

Active learning by children during the intervention did increase their knowledge about malaria, as by the early months of Year 2 essentially 100% of children now knew the signs and symptoms associated with the onset of illness and were aware that malaria can be diagnosed and treated effectively, in contrast to < 20% having this knowledge at the start of Year 1. However, it is unlikely that this new knowledge resulted in any substantial bias in our results, as the process of identifying children in the classroom who were sick and needed to be sent home was the same in both years; children did not self-select themselves, and teachers had the same knowledge in Year 1 and 2 because of the community-wide dialogue and active learning that led to introduction of school-based RDT/ACT. Our belief is that this project also benefited the broader community as evaluation indicated new knowledge was learned and practices and behaviors related to malaria began to change. Prior research has identified that improved health knowledge and altered health-related behaviors are often evident in the community as a whole where comprehensive school-based programs are delivered (Macnab, et al., 2014b; Stewart-Brown, 2006; Tang, et al., 2009). Also, as interventions such as ours improve diagnosis and treatment of a large number of individuals, malaria transmission rates within the community tend to be reduced, because each treated individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s malaria episode will be shorter, less severe, and hence less likely to result in mosquito-borne transmission to others (Malaria Consortium, 2016; Benjamin, et al., 2012); this is a secondary benefit of importance.

Malaria remains a priority area for governments, aid foundations, health care providers and educators worldwide (Brooker, et al., 2008; Mbonye, et al., 2015; WHO Regional office for Africa, 2013). While efforts to promote preventive measures rightly exist alongside those that advocate better diagnosis and treatment, it must be recognized that in addition to addressing limited supplies in low resource environments education and awareness on why and how to employ prevention are also lacking; in Uganda, < 50% of households own a mosquito net and 77% of children do not sleep under insecticide treated nets (Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2010). Novel and effective avenues for enhancing intervention are constantly being sought, and schools are being used increasingly as platforms for delivering simple, safe and cost-effective programs that promote knowledge and healthy practices (Macnab, et al., 2014; Okello, et al., 2012).

Adoption of our model by national Health Ministries is logical as the same RDT/ACT supplies provided to government clinics could be made available to schools. Similarly, this school-based program lends itself to broad adoption by NGOâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s and Agencies promoting effective malaria intervention, or expansion

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through sponsorship of schools by philanthropic individuals or commercial partners as has happened with our program.

The low complexity, diagnostic reliability and WHO endorsement of RDT, and the efficacy and beneficial nature of ACT invite their use by appropriately trained personnel without formal medical or nursing education. But the missing link thus far has been the social engagement to educate potential users and make this approach accessible to rural populations (Mutabingwa, 2005). Now our study provides evidence that supports the feasibility of engaging teachers to deliver school-based RDT/ACT, and that the negative impact of malaria on education caused by prolonged and/or repeated absence from school can be significantly reduced by implementing this health promotion model.

Conclusions School-based RDT/ADT provides a valid extension of proven care entities able to positively impact the high morbidity from malaria to a child population known to be at significant risk.

Providing RDT/ACT in the school setting is a logical response to the global burden of malaria on the health and educational potential of children, especially in low resource settings.

Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s ability to learn is enhanced by rapid diagnosis and prompt, effective treatment because they miss significantly less school. Communities also report their children appear healthier; probably as early intervention reduces overall morbidity in both the short and long term.

Implementing school-based RDT/ACT is feasible. Communities who recognize the relevance are readily engaged, and teachers have welcomed training and sustained program delivery.

We suggest that our health promotion model of providing RDT/ACT in the school setting is broadly applicable to other schools in sub-Saharan Africa, and in other low resource settings globally where morbidity from malaria is high.

Acknowledgement This paper is dedicated to the memory of Faith Gagnon who helped conceive the concept of school-based care for children with malaria at the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Study (STIAS) international colloquium on WHO Heath Promoting Schools in 2011, and contributed throughout her life to medical research to improve the lives of children.

This project was made possible by financial support from the Hillman Medical Education Fund.

We acknowledge the many contributions made by the teachers and children who participated and the collaboration and support of the parents, elders and village health teams in the four rural Ugandan communities where the schools were located.

The authors collaborated as a team from the Health and Development Agency (HEADA) Uganda to plan, deliver and evaluate this health education project.

HEADA is a non-governmental agency established in Mbarara to implement comprehensive health education, treatment, and support programs in schools and rural communities in Western Uganda.

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Authors‘ affiliations: Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Study, Wallenberg Research Centre, Marais Street, Stellenbosch, South Africa and University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada (AJM); Health and Development Agency (HEADA) Uganda, Plot 49, Akiiki Nyabongo Road, P.O. Box 1707, Mbarara, Uganda (SM, RM, AE, HK); Hillman Medical Education Fund, 1870 Ogden Avenue, Vancouver, BC V6J 1A1 Canada (RS).

All authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

Correspondence to Macnab A.J. (amacnab@cw.bc.ca).

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 38-52, June 2016

Theory of Planned Behavior: Sensitivity and Specificity in Predicting Graduation and DropOut among College and University Students Catherine S. Fichten,1234 Rhonda Amsel,3 Mary Jorgensen,2 Mai N. Nguyen,2 Jillian Budd,2 Alice Havel,12 Laura King,5 Shirley Jorgensen,1 & Jennison Asuncion2 1Dawson College, 2Adaptech Research Network, 3McGill University, 4Jewish General Hospital, 5CĂŠgep AndrĂŠ-Laurendeau Montreal, Canada Abstract. We examined sensitivity and specificity when using the three theory of planned behavior (TPB) scales (Perceived Behavioral Control, Subjective Norms, Attitude) to predict graduation and drop-out in a longitudinal study of 252 college and university students with disabilities and in a separate cross-sectional study of a random sample of 1380 junior/community college students. The results (a) show the utility of the TPB in predicting graduation, (b) underscore that when predicting outcome, graduation and drop-out are not polar opposites, and (c) highlight the need to consider sensitivity and specificity separately. We discuss the implications of using different scale cutoffs depending on the goal of testing as well as uses of the TPB scales in research and practice.

Keywords: theory of planned behavior, sensitivity, specificity, graduation, college, university, prediction, longitudinal cross-sectional

Introduction.

Academic persistence and graduation are important to students (better jobs), colleges and universities (funding issues), parents (who often pay the fees), as well as society at large (better educated work force). Postsecondary institutions are highly invested in improving retention and graduation rates (Selingo, 2015).

Yet, postsecondary graduation rates are typically below 55% (ACT, 2006; Jorgensen et al., 2005; Shapiro, Dundar, Yuan, Harrell, & Wakhungu, 2014).

Prediction of graduation and drop-out has a relatively poor track record (e.g., Jorgensen, Ferraro, Fichten, & Havel, 2009). Models are especially poor at predicting drop-out. This is the case even if many variables such as grades, gender, and survey results are included (Jorgensen, Fichten, & Havel, 2008).

What is needed to identify students at risk is a brief paper and pencil measure that correctly identifies both those likely to graduate and those likely to drop out.

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We recently developed a questionnaire based on Ajzen’s (2002, 2012) Theory Of Planned Behavior (TPB) and tested it in a sample of 845 college students (Fichten et al., 2016) and 611 college and university students with various disabilities (Fichten, et al., 2014). The TPB suggests that behavior is influenced by Intention to carry out the behavior. Intention is predicted by: Perceived Behavioral Control (i.e., how easy or difficult it is to enact the behavior - in this case graduation), Subjective Norms (i.e., perceived views of individuals important in the student’s life), and Attitude (i.e., favorable or unfavorable evaluation of graduation).

Ajzen’s ( n.d.) model in Figure 1 illustrates the TPB. The model has been shown to be highly effective and influential in numerous areas, including postsecondary contexts (Kovac, Cameron, & Høigaard, 2014; Kyle, White, Hyde, & Occhipinti, 2014; Prentice, Caska, & McLaughlin 2009; Schuchart, 2013; Thomas, 2014). Indeed, our studies of intention to graduate among postsecondary students with and without disabilities show that the TPB model predicted 44% of the variability in intention to graduate among college students in general (Fichten, et al., 2016), and 25% of the variability among students with disabilities (Fichten, et al., 2014).

Figure 1. Theory Of Planned Behavior Sensitivity, Specificity, True and False Positives and Negatives. It is not possible to examine actual graduation and drop-out rates while students are enrolled – only the intention to do so. Yet, it is during this period that it is most important for institutions to identify individuals at risk for drop-out as this is when colleges and universities can implement remedial or other forms of programming to prevent drop-out.

Typically a single score obtained from a logistic or multiple regression is used when using composite scores or a questionnaire to predict intention to graduate - including in our own studies (Fichten, et al, 2014, 2016). Most of the time researchers are pleased when over 25% of the variability in intention to graduate scores is predicted. The problem with this approach, however, is that it takes into account both students who definitely intend to graduate as well those who

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are thinking of dropping out. What if the measure predicts one better than the other?

In an example from medicine (cf. MedicineNet.Com, n.d.), if a test designed to detect cancer returns a positive result, but the person does not actually have cancer (“false positive”), this would be very undesirable. Similarly, it is also undesirable for a test to return a negative result when the person actually does have cancer (“false negative”). Ideally, a test has to be accurate in predicting both true positives and negatives (i.e., correct predictions) while avoiding false positives and negatives. The typical way to express this is through “sensitivity” and “specificity” of a score (see Table 1 for definitions). Such concepts are frequently utilized in medicine (e.g. Baldessarini, Finklestein, & Arana, 1983), but rarely in social psychology or education. A notable exception is a study by Jorgensen et al. (2008), which used predictors based on individual and institutional factors; the results showed that the variables did a relatively good job of predicting graduation but a poor job of predicting drop-out. This illustrates the notion that in this context, graduation and drop-out are not simply two poles of a continuum.

An illustrative example. The example in Table 1 illustrates this dilemma. Here, a hypothetical sample of 1000 students complete a questionnaire intended to predict whether they will graduate or not. Four years later 50% of the students have graduated and 50% have dropped out. Thus it is possible to determine actual graduation and drop-out .

Table 1. Hypothetical Example of 1000 College Students Where 500 Actually Graduated and 500 Actually Dropped Out

Predicted

Will Graduate Will Drop Out Marginal Sum

Graduated a =450 b = 50 500

Actual Dropped Out c =400 d = 100 500

Marginal Sum 850 150 1000

Actual Dropped Out c = False Positive d = True Negative c+d

Marginal Sum a+c b+d a+b+c+d

Note. Sensitivity = 90%, Specificity = 20%

Predicted

Will Graduate Will Drop Out Marginal Sum

Graduated a = True Positive b = False Negative a+b

Sensitivity = a/(a+b), True Positive/All Actual Graduates; Specificity = d/(c+d) True Negative/All Actual Drop-outs

False positive: A result that indicates that a condition is present when it is not (e.g., if a test designed to detect cancer returns a positive result but the person does not have cancer).

False negative: A result that appears negative when it should not (e.g., if a test designed to detect cancer returns a negative result but the person actually does have cancer).

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Table 1 shows that our hypothetical questionnaire correctly classified 550 of the 1000 students (i.e., 55% overall correct classification): 450 of the 500 those who actually graduated graduates (true positive) and 100 of the 500 students who actually dropped out (true negative). But what about those who were misclassified, including the 50 graduates who were misclassified as drop-outs (false negative) and the 400 students who dropped out but were classified as likely to graduate (false positive)?

Although the overall accuracy of the prediction is 55%, the sensitivity of the measure (i.e., percentage of the 500 actual graduates who were predicted to graduate (n = 450)) in the hypothetical example is 90%. Not bad for predicting who will graduate! But what about the drop-outs? Specificity (proportion of 500 students who actually dropped out who are predicted to drop out (n = 100)) is only = 20%. Thus, the questionnaire did an excellent job of predicting which students will graduate, but a very poor job of predicting who will drop out.

Circumstances determine whether it is the sensitivity or the specificity of a test that is more important, or if they are equally important. To predict the number of students who will persist into the next semester, sensitivity is more important.

If an institution wishes to spend scarce resources on preventing drop-out, however, then specificity is more important.

Present Investigation. This paper reports two studies. Study 1 evaluated, in a longitudinal investigation, how well the three TPB components (Attitude, Subjective Norms, Perceived Behavioral Control) predicted behavior (i.e., graduation and drop-out) 3-4 years later in the sample of postsecondary students with disabilities whom we studied in 2010 (Fichten et al., 2014). We also explore the relationship between intention to graduate and behavior (i.e., actual graduation and drop-out) 3-4 years later in the Study 1 sample. This relationship is important because intention to graduate is a measure often used as a proxy for actual persistence or graduation while students are still enrolled (DaDeppo, 2009; Thomas, 2014). We hypothesize (1) that there will be a strong relationship between intention to graduate and actual graduation and drop-out 3-4 years later, and (2) that the three TPB components will do well predicting behavior (graduation and drop-out) 3-4 years later. We also explore whether sensitivity or specificity would be greater.

In Study 2, we conducted a secondary analysis of data from our study of currently enrolled college students (Fichten et al., 2016). Here we explored sensitivity and specificity by dividing students into two groups based on the entire sampleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mean intention to graduate score. The two groups were those who had a strong or a weak intention to graduate.

Method Theory of Planned Behavior Questionnaire. A one page measure with 4 subscales was adapted from Davis, Ajzen, Saunders, and Williams (2002) (available in Fichten et al., 2016). Six-point Likert scaling (Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree) is used to evaluate intention to graduate (e.g., All things

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considered, it is possible that I might not complete my program of study), perceived behavioral control over graduation (e.g., I can overcome any obstacles or problems that could prevent me from completing my program of study if I want to), and subjective norms related to graduation (e.g., Most people who are important to me expect me to complete my program of study). Attitude toward graduation is rated on 6-point Likert-type scales (e.g., very undesirable to very desirable ). Scoring is the average value of each scale. Attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control scale means can be added together for a Total TPB score. Fichten et al. (2014) reported acceptable psychometric properties for the measure: Cronbach’s alphas ranged from .71 to .83 and test-retest reliability ranged from .62 to .74. Preliminary concurrent validation data were acceptable.

Higher scores indicate more positive views about graduation.

Study 1. Participants Participants consisted of 252 Canadians with disabilities who had been enrolled in a diploma or degree program in the spring 2010 semester and who, by the end of 2013, had either graduated from this program (193 graduates: 126 females, 67 males) or dropped out (59 premature leavers: 38 females, 20 males, 1 did not indicate). 175 individuals had attended a university and 77 a junior/community college. Participants had been enrolled in 75 different Canadian postsecondary institutions and were, on average 32 years old at follow-up. Most participants had been pursuing a bachelor’s degree (n = 120). There was no significant difference between groups on full-time (n = 204) versus part-time (n = 46) status, or on the number of disabilities/impairments reported in 2010. Both groups were most likely to have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or a learning disability, or a mental health related disability. The only significant difference between graduates and premature leavers was on mental health related disability, with a larger proportion of premature leavers reporting this, X2(1,252) = 6.99, p = .014, φ=.44.

Study 1: Procedure In a protocol approved by the Dawson College Research Ethics Board in the fall 2013 term we followed up on a sample of 611 Canadian students with disabilities who had been enrolled in degree or diploma programs in the spring 2010 semester and on whom we reported in a previous paper (Fichten et al., 2014). We tried contacting students through the email or postal mail they provided in 2010. Two-hundred and fifty individuals could not be reached. Of the 361 individuals whose mail did not bounce back, 284 responded (return rate = 79%). Thirty-two of them were still enrolled in the same program as in 2010; they are not of interest here. Only the 193 graduates and 59 premature leavers are involved in the present investigation. Mean duration of the follow-up was 3.75 years. Participants were asked: “Did you graduate with a (name of the participant’s diploma/degree program in 2010) at (name of the participant’s school in 2010)?”

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Study 1: Results Comparing the 2010 scores of graduates and premature leavers. Results show that while participants were still students, there were significant differences (p < .001) between graduates and premature leavers on all TPB scales, with graduates having more favorable scores; Cohenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s d scores range from .38 to .93.

Predicting graduation and drop-out. To evaluate the utility of the TPB model we carried out a series of discriminant analyses to predict, based on the 3 TPB predictors (i.e., Attitude, Subjective Norms, Perceived Behavioral Control) completed almost 4 years earlier, which individuals actually graduated or dropped-out. Table 2 shows that, overall, 74% of the sample was correctly classified. The canonical correlation was .54, p <.001. Correlations to the discriminant function are .899 for Perceived Behavioral Control, .640 for Subjective Norms, and .339 for Attitude. Sensitivity (percentage of actual graduates who were predicted to graduate) was 77%, specificity (percentage of actual premature leavers who were predicted to drop- out) was 63%. Results for male and female participants were very similar. Table 3 shows how TPB scores obtained in 2010 are related to each other.

Table 2 Study 1: Classification Tables - Discriminating Graduates and Premature Leavers Actual Group 1

Count

Predicted Group Graduates

%

Premature Leavers Graduates Premature Leavers

Predicted by 3 TPB predictors Graduates Premature Leavers 149 22 44 37

Predicted by Intention to Graduate 2 Graduates Premature Leavers 170 28 23 31

77%

37%

88%

47%

23%

63%

12%

53%

1

3 TPB predictors: 74% of original grouped cases correctly classified. Sensitivity = 77%, Specificity = 63% Intention to Graduate as the predictor: 80% of original grouped cases correctly classified. Sensitivity = 88%, Specificity = 53%

2

Intention and actual graduation and dropout. We also examined how closely intention to graduate was related to actual graduation and drop-out. Results in Table 2 show, similar to the analysis on the three TPB scales, that 80% of participants were correctly classified. However, while graduates are very well classified, premature leavers are not (sensitivity = 88%, specificity =53%). Again, males and females had similar results.

Study 1: Discussion Results show that intention to graduate and actual graduation and drop-out were closely related (Hypothesis 1). In addition, although the TPB questionnaire correctly classified 74% of the sample (Hypothesis 2), sensitivity (predicting graduates) was 77%, while specificity (predicting premature leavers) was only 63%.

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Study 2: Participants and Procedure A random sample of 1380 (796 females, 576 males, 8 other/prefer not to say) Canadian junior/community college students participated. Mean age was 20 (SD = 4, range 18-45). All students had completed a minimum of 1 semester of studies. All completed the TPB scales in class during the first few days of the fall 2014 academic term in a protocol approved by the Dawson College Research Ethics Board. Data on 854 of these students were reported in a previous paper (Fichten et al., 2016).The main outcome measure was intention to graduate. This was used both as a continuous variable in a multiple regression analysis and as a binary score (strong and weak intention to graduate) based on the scale mean (M = 5.673).

Study 2: Results Comparing TPB scores of those with strong and weak intention to graduate. Results show significant (p < .001) moderate to strong differences (Cohenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s d ranges from .52 to .78) between the two groups on all TPB predictor scales, with those with strong intention to graduate having higher scores on all three predictor scales: Perceived Behavioral Control, Subjective Norms, and Attitude.

Predicting Intention to graduate. Pearson correlation coefficients show that the relationships between Intention to graduate and the three TPB predictors are quite strong (r values in Table 3 range from .369 to .568, p <.001), with Subjective Norms being most closely and Attitude least closely related to Intention to graduate. Results of a multiple regression to predict Intention to graduate based on the three TPB predictors (Attitude, Subjective Norms, Perceived Behavioral Control) in Table 4 show that together, these were able to predict 44% of the variability in Intention to graduate; the part correlations in Table 4 document unique variation for each predictor (i.e., all three TPB predictors make a substantial contribution). Subjective Norms was the most and Attitude the least important predictor. Results for males and females were similar.

Table 3. Correlations Among TPB Variables

Intention

Perceived Behavioral Control

Subjective Norms

Attitude

0.568

0.369 0.208

Intention

____

Perceived Behavioral Control

0.442

0.417 ____

Subjective Norms

0.417

0.280

0.282 ____

Attitude

0.385

0.362

0.267

Note. Pearson correlation coefficients.

Study 1 correlations in 2010 below the diagonal. n = 252.

Study 2 correlations above the diagonal. n = 1384

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0.193 ____

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Table 4. Study 2. Multiple Regression: Predicting Students' Intention to Graduate from the 3 TPB Predictors

B

TPB: Perceived Behavioral Control

.231

.020

.240

0.227

0.417

TPB: Subjective Norms

.384

.018

.455

0.432

0.568

TPB: Attitude

.206

.018

.232

0.224

0.369

R2

SE B

β

Variables

Part Pearson Correlation Correlation

.444

To examine how well the three TPB variables predicted binary Intention to graduate, we performed a multiple discriminant analysis. The predicted variable was Intention to graduate divided into strong and weak Intention based on the mean Intention score (M = 5.673). Table 5 shows that, overall, 73% of the sample was correctly classified. The canonical correlation was .451, p < .001. Correlations to the discriminant function are .752 for Perceived Behavioral Control, .550 for Subjective Norms, and .642 for Attitude. Results for males and females were, again, very similar. Sensitivity was 77% and Specificity was 63%.

Table 5. Study 2: Discriminating Those with Strong and Weak Intention to Graduate Study 2 Classification Table: 3 PTB Predictors 1

Study 2 Classification Table: Based on Total TPB Scores Above and Below the Sample 2 Median2

Actual Group Actual Group Strong Intention to Predicted Group Weak Intention to Graduate Strong Intention to Graduate Weak Intention to Graduate Graduate Count Strong Intention to Graduate 752 151 585 99 222 255 389 307 Weak Intention to Graduate % Strong Intention to Graduate 77% 37% 60% 24% Weak Intention to Graduate 23% 63% 40% 76% Note. Predicted and Actual Group (i.e., Strong and Weak Intention to Graduate) is based on the Sample 2 Intention mean of 5.67. Weak =<5.67; Strong >5.67.

1 2

3TPB predictors: 73% of original grouped cases correctly classified. Sensitivity = 77%, Specificity = 63% Total TPB Scores Above and Below the Sample 2 median of 16.21 as predictor: 65% of original grouped cases correctly classified. Sensitivity = 60%, Specificity = 76%

Using the Total TPB score. The Fichten et al. (2014) study on students with disabilities used ROC (Receiver Operating Characteristic) curves1 to establish a cutoff score based on the sum of the 3 TPB scales (Total TPB) to use in predicting graduation and drop-out. It was suggested that a score of 15.15 could be used as a tentative cutoff where sensitivity and specificity are roughly equivalent and

1

The ROC curve is “a plot of the true positive rate against the false positive rate for the different possible cutpoints of a diagnostic test.” “It shows the tradeoff between sensitivity and specificity.” Tape, T.G. (undated). Plotting and interpreting an ROC curve. In Interpreting Diagnostic Tests. Retrieved from http://gim.unmc.edu/dxtests/roc2.htm

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will identify 2/3 of both those who are likely to graduate and those who are likely to drop out. To evaluate the utility of this cutoff in determining which individuals could be targeted for remediation and which could not, here we conducted a multiple discriminant analysis using the binary score as the predictor variable. The predicted variable was again Intention to graduate divided into strong and weak intention based on the mean intention to graduate score (M = 5.673). This resulted in specificity of 89% but a very poor sensitivity (46%).

To examine whether the present sampleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s median total TPB would result in better specificity, we used the Study 2 median score of 16.21 and again predicted binary Intention to graduate. Table 5 shows that, overall, only 65% of the sample was correctly classified. The canonical correlation was .325, p < .001. However, sensitivity was 60% and specificity was 76% Thus, raising the Total TPB cutoff score resulted in better specificity but poorer sensitivity.

Study 2: Discussion Results show that when we divided participants on the mean Intention to graduate score, 73% of the sample was correctly classified. Sensitivity was 77% and Specificity was 63%, values virtually identical to those of Study 1. Again, the three TPB predictors were better able to predict those who strongly intended to graduate (sensitivity) from those whose intention to graduate was weaker (specificity). Attempts to improve specificity by increasing the value of the cutoff were successful, but resulted in poorer sensitivity.

General Discussion Our goal was to examine the usefulness of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) scales in predicting graduation and drop-out. It should be noted that all scales of the TPB model fit on a single page, so it is easy and fast to administer (see Fichten et al, 2016). Some data already exist concerning its utility when evaluating intention to graduate and actual graduation and drop-out when measures were administered concurrently (i.e., not longitudinally) in samples of individuals with various disabilities (Fichten et al., 2014) as well as nondisabled college students (Fichten, et al., 2016).

What is unique about the present investigation is that here we examined, in a longitudinal study, (a) how well responses on the TPB questionnaire (completed while students were still enrolled), predicted graduation and drop-out several years later, (b) how closely the intention to graduate component of the TPB model, is related to actual graduation and drop-out, and (c) how useful the TPB model and questionnaire are in predicting which specific students will drop out or graduate in a large random sample of junior/community college students.

As predicted (Study 1 Hypothesis 1), we found that a strong relationship exists between questionnaire responses concerning intention to graduate obtained three to four years earlier, and actual graduation and drop-out. This prediction was confirmed, as 80% of graduates and premature leavers in Study 1 were

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correctly classified by intention to graduate scores obtained almost 4 years earlier.

We also predicted and confirmed (Study 1 Hypothesis 2) that the three TPB scales will be successful in predicting graduation and drop-out 3 to 4 years later as we found that 74% of participants were correctly classified 4 years later. This finding is consistent with the Fichten et al. (2014) results, which also examined graduation and drop-out, but in a cross-sectional manner. Results of that study, however, were not conclusive because the three TPB scales were completed retrospectively. The present longitudinal study responded to this concern by showing that TPB scores obtained three to four years earlier were successful in predicting actual outcome. Similarly, we found that the three TPB scales were successful in predicting intention to graduate among Study 2 students currently enrolled, as the three TPB components predicted 44% of the variability in intention to graduate in a multiple regression analysis, with all three TPB predictors contributing to the prediction.

Applications of the TPB scales The findings suggest that correlates of the three TPB components are likely to be of interest if an institution wishes to improve graduation rates. For example, information campaigns geared toward the entire student body about the value of the schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s diplomas/degrees in obtaining a job, getting a higher salary, job satisfaction, and acceptance to graduate school can be used to increase the favorability of attitudes toward graduation. Enhancing perceived behavioral control, which combines self-efficacy and control expectations, can also be useful. There is an extensive literature on ways to improve academic self-efficacy (e.g., Schunk & Ertmer, 1999; Komarraju & Nadler, 2013) and to strengthen control expectations (e.g., Stupnisky, Renaud, Daniels, Haynes, & Perry, 2008).

For example, perceived behavioral control can be manipulated by helping students attribute success on projects, assignments and exams to effort and ability, rather than to external factors such as chance or luck, by providing positive feedback when students are doing well academically, and by helping students learn that grades can be improved through effort. Letting students know that their peers and others whom they value (e.g., famous politicians, writers, scientists, musicians, sports figures, actors) also believe that graduation is important could increase Subjective Norms (i.e., values of those important to the students).

Sensitivity and Specificity It appears that the TPB provides a good basis for predicting both intention to graduate and actual graduation several years later. As noted earlier, however, such a one dimensional prediction is inadequate when the goal is to find out aspects related to graduation (sensitivity) and drop-out (specificity) separately.

Indeed, the sensitivity and specificity of the results based on the three TPB scales in our investigation show a less successful outcome. As noted earlier, we were unable to make predictions about sensitivity and specificity, and it is here that the findings make interpretation difficult.

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The results of both studies show that sensitivity (i.e., predicting who will graduate) was generally quite impressive, with a score of 77% in both Studies 1 and 2. However, predicting who will drop out (i.e., specificity) was weaker (i.e., 63%) in both studies.

In summary, the model was reasonably good at predicting who will graduate, but not who will drop out. Such results are similar to findings by Jorgensen et al.

(2008) using a very different array of predictors. Moreover, the results highlight the importance of noting that graduation and drop-out, when it comes to predicting these, are not polar opposites. For example, providing financial aid may help prevent drop-out of those in financial need, but is not likely to increase the likelihood of graduation for the entire college population (cf. Dwyer, Hodson, & McCloud, 2013; Gentry, 2014).

Improving specificity and identifying individual students who are likely to drop out. Using a cutoff on the Total TPB score (i.e., the sum of the three TPB components: Attitude, Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behavioral Control) was quite successful in improving the prediction of drop-out and in identifying individual students who are likely to drop-out or to graduate.

This approach was also used in the Fichten et al. (2014) study, where a cutoff of 15.15 was suggested for further investigation. When we used this cutoff, we once more obtained good sensitivity (89%) but poor specificity (46%). To try to increase the specificity of the score in Study 2 we used the current sampleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s median of 16.21. This resulted in much improved specificity (75%) at the cost of relatively poor sensitivity (60%).

See-saw. Thus, the lower the cutoff, the higher the sensitivity, while the higher the cutoff, the better the specificity. What cutoff to use depends on the goal of testing.

Using and Studying the Theory of Planned Behavior in Predicting Graduation and Dropout The one-page measure comprising the three Theory of Planned Behavior scales is available in Fichten et al. (2016). It can be added to college and university institutional research measures for further investigation. It is free, takes less than 5 minutes to complete, and appears to have good potential for predicting intention to graduate as well as actual graduation. Although the three components do not perform especially well in predicting drop-out, using the Total TPB scale and adjusting the cutoff can result in acceptable specificity and, thereby, predict which students are likely to drop out.

Three types of scores are typically used when predicting graduation: predicting the percentage of the variability in scores, such as the R2 used in our investigation; predicting an overall single score reflecting graduation/dropout in discriminant analysis classification tables that are based on the percentage of

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original cases correctly classified; and the use of individual studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; scores to identify who is likely to drop-out and who to graduate.

The type of analysis that should be used depends on the purpose of testing. If it is to study characteristics that predict graduation, then a single score that reflects the variability that is explained by the three predictors, such as R2, or the overall single score from a multiple discriminant analysis classification table, will do quite well.

Different cut-off scores: implications of the see-saw. If the goal is to obtain an idea about the success of the schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s recruitment policies or to predict retention into the next semester, then increasing sensitivity is likely to be most important. Our results suggest that using the Total TPB score with a relatively low cutoff will increase sensitivity.

If the purpose it is to determine which specific students to target in intervention programs to prevent drop-out, then increasing specificity is most important.

This is best accomplished by using the Total TPB measure with a high cutoff.

Schools can consider using different cutoff scores depending on their needs and resources. For example, if the goal is to identify as many of the students who are likely to drop out as possible in order to target them for interventions such as remedial efforts, financial aid possibilities, how to study and exam anxiety workshops, etc., and the school has adequate resources so that false negatives (falsely identifying students who are actually likely to graduate as potential drop-outs) do not matter, then setting the cutoff on the Total TPB well above the median is likely to yield the desired results. This can allow faculty and those responsible for student services and student success to better support these students with early interventions. If, on the other hand, resources are scarce, and the school does not wish to spend limited resources on remediating those who are likely to graduate anyway, then setting a lower cutoff can be the solution.

Limitations and Future Research The present investigation has several limitations which can affect the generalizability of the results. First, we must note that both Studies 1 and 2 are correlational, and, thus causality cannot be inferred. In addition, in spite of the relatively lengthy follow-up period, Study 1 participants constitute an atypical group (i.e., individuals with disabilities). In Study 2 we used a random sample of over 1000 students. However, they were enrolled in only two junior/community colleges, and since they had not yet graduated, only intention to graduate could be studied. Moreover, in Study 2 the TPB scales and intention to graduate were administered concurrently, mainly in the beginning of the semester.

In future investigations we suggest that the TPB model be used to study graduation and drop-out in large, preferably random samples of students at different levels (e.g., college diploma, bachelor, graduate studies, etc.), and fields of study (e.g., sciences, arts, etc.), at various levels of credential completion (e.g., first year vs. near completion of the credential). It is possible that students are

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more optimistic about graduation at the beginning of the semester than at other times (A. Havel, personal communication, August, 2014), so the timing of administration could be varied and its impact investigated. Since students are most likely to drop out early in their academic career (Jorgensen, Ferraro, Fichten, & Havel, 2009) it is worthwhile to examine TPB scores during the first or second semester of studies. Persistence from one semester to the next, rather than graduation, can be used as the outcome variable. The generalizability of the model to students with different backgrounds, both ethnic and socioeconomic, as well as different individual differences, including disability, gender, and age needs further evaluation.

Future research should examine different ways of “extending” the model (cf.

Stone, Jawahar, & Kisamore, 2010) to improve the sensitivity and specificity of predicting graduation and drop-out. One possibility includes examination of reasons for drop-out (Jorgensen, Ferraro, Fichten, & Havel, 2009) and exploring how these are related to the three TPB predictors.

We also suggest that future research examine the impact of different cutoff scores, with the possibility of ranking students on intention to graduate and evaluating whether this ranking works to predict actual behavior. If so, then it can be possible to determine the nature of effective interventions to increase intention to graduate among these students by the school, government, families, and the students themselves.

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Ajzen, I. (2012). The theory of planned behavior. In P. A. M. Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 438-459). UK: Sage.

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DaDeppo, L.M. (2009). Integration factors related to the academic success and intent to persist of college students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 24(3), 122-131.

Davis, L. E., Ajzen, I., Saunders, J., & Williams, T. (2002). The decision of African American students to complete high school: An application of the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(4), 810-819. doi:10.1037//0022-0663.94.4.810.

Dwyer, R. E., Hodson, R., & McCloud, L. (2013). Gender, debt, and dropping out

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of college. Gender & Society, 27(1), 30-55. doi:10.1177/0891243212464906.

Fichten, C.S., Heiman, T., Jorgensen, M., Nguyen, M., Havel, A., King, L., Budd, J., & Amsel, R. (2016). Theory of Planned Behavior predicts graduation intentions of Canadian and Israeli postsecondary students with and without learning disabilities/attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

International Journal of Higher Education, 5(1) Online. DOI: 10.5430/ijhe.v5n1p208 Fichten, C. S., Nguyen, M. N., Amsel, R., Jorgensen, S., Budd, J., Jorgensen, M., … & Barile, M. (2014). How well does the Theory of Planned Behavior predict graduation among college and university students with disabilities?

Social Psychology of Education, 17(4), 657-685. doi:10.1007/s11218-014-9272-8.

Gentry, R. (2014). Sustaining college students' persistence and achievement through exemplary instructional strategies. Research in Higher Education, 24. Retrieved from http://www.aabri.com/manuscripts/141918.pdf Jorgensen, S., Ferraro, V., Fichten, C.S., & Havel, A. (2009). Predicting college retention and dropout: Sex and disability. (10 pages). ERIC (Education Resources Information Center) (ED505873).

Jorgensen, S., Fichten, C. S., Havel, A., Lamb, D., James, C., & Barile, M. (2005).

Academic performance of college students with and without disabilities: An archival study. Canadian Journal of Counselling, 39(2), 101-117.

Jorgensen, S., Fichten, C.S., & Havel, A. (2008, October). Predicting student attrition - How helpful are surveys? Presentation at the Canadian Institutional Research and Planning Association (CIRPA) annual convention, Quebec, October 26-28, 2008. Retrieved from http://www.adaptech.org/sites/default/files/abPredictingStudentAttri tionHowHelpful.pdf Jorgensen, S., Fichten, C. S., & Havel, A. (2009). Academic success of graduates with and without disabilities – A comparative study of university entrance scores. Pédagogie Collégiale, 22(5), 26-29. Retrieved from http://www.adaptech.org/sites/default/files/AbAcademicSuccessOfGr aduates.pdf Kyle, V. A., White, K. M., Hyde, M. K., & Occhipinti, S. (2014). The role of goal importance in predicting university students' high academic performance. Australian Journal of Educational & Developmental Psychology, 14, 17-28.

MedicineNet.Com. ( n.d.). Definition of false positive. Retrieved from http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=3377 Prentice, G.R., Caska, B. A., & McLaughlin, C. G. (2009) Examining psychology undergraduates’ statistics results using the Theory of Planned Behavior and background factors. Irish Journal of Psychology, 30(3-4), 161-170. doi:10.1080/03033910.2009.10446307.

Schuchart, C. (2013). Upward mobility among secondary education students: The decision to obtain a better certificate. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(2), 201-221. doi:10.1007/s10212-012-0110-0.

Schunk, D. H., & Ertmer, P. A. (1999). Self-regulatory processes during computer

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skill acquisition: Goal and self-evaluative influences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(2), 251-260.

Selingo, J. J. (2015). Student success: Building a culture for retention and completion on college campuses. Chronicle of Higher Education & Blackboard.

Retrieved from http://images.results.chronicle.com/Web/TheChronicleofHigherEducat ion/%7Bfaae77d0-4f3b-40ef-9fda462c876d0789%7D_Student_Success_Survey_Blackborad.pdf Stone, T.H., Jawahar, I.M., & Kisamore, J.L. (2010). Predicting academic misconduct intentions and behavior using the Theory of Planned Behavior and personality. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 32(1), 35-45, DOI:10.1080/01973530903539895 Stupnisky, R. H., Renaud, R. D., Daniels, L. M., Haynes, T. L., & Perry, R. P. (2008). The interrelation of first-year college students' critical thinking disposition, perceived academic control, and academic achievement.

Research in Higher Education, 49(6), 513-530. doi:10.1007/s11162-008-90938.

Tape, T. G. (undated). Plotting and interpreting an ROC curve. Interpreting diagnostic tests. Retrieved from http://gim.unmc.edu/dxtests/ROC2.htm Thomas, D. (2014). Factors that influence college completion intention of undergraduate students. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 23(2), 225235. doi:10.1007/s40299-013-0099-4.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 53-64, June 2016

Special Education Administrators‟ Ability to Operate to Optimum Effectiveness Juanell D. Isaac, Teresa M. Starrett, and David Marshall Texas Woman‟s University Denton, TX, USA

Abstract. The current study attempts to identify the reasons that special education administrators are able to operate to optimum effectiveness and barriers that prevent this in the current educational climate.

Quantitative data was collected through surveys from special education administrators in the state of Texas. Descriptive statistics and the Friedman Test were used to analyze the data. The top three reasons special education administrators were able to operate to optimum effectiveness are sufficient knowledge concerning special education, support from central administration, and professional background and education while the barriers were insufficient number of staff, lack of time, and insufficient financial resources.

Keywords: special education administrator; perceptions; effectiveness; quantitative; Friedman Test

Introduction Special education administrators have a diverse and complex role in overseeing the individualized educational programs for students with disabilities. Decisions made by special education administrators impact every aspect of the special education program within a school district (Gore, 1995) and every decision made by special education administrators is subject to challenge unlike other administrative decisions (Tate, 2010). Increasing demands on special education administrators to meet the complex needs of students with disabilities, extensive budget cuts, accountability requirements of No Child Left Behind (NCLB), severe shortages of qualified staff, and possible litigation regarding the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) calls for effective practices in the administration of special education programs (Tate, 2010). Gore (1995) described effective special education leadership as “a balancing act, advocating for the best possible services, empowering staff, acknowledging the needs of parents, and collaborating with other administrators” (p. 3). Various factors have been identified through past research that can influence special education administrators‟ ability to operate to optimum effectiveness.

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In a seminal study conducted by Kohl and Marro (1971), special education administrators were asked to identify roadblocks that kept them from using their time effectively in the administration of special education. Administrators considered central office demands as the primary roadblock followed by lack of administrative assistance, finances, clerical help, program facilities, and office space or facilities. As noted by Kohl and Marro (1971), five of the six reasons dealt with resources while the primary reason focused on organizational demands. An additional question asked by Kohl and Marro (1971) concerned effectiveness, “If you could „wave a magic wand,‟ what one thing would you want to have to increase your effectiveness as a special education administrator?” The responses inherently identified nine areas of concern by order of frequency: insufficient staff; limited time to consult, supervise, and develop new programs; limited financial resources for instructional materials, staff, and new programs; need for development of adequate knowledge base in the areas of supervision, placement and identification of students with disabilities, general administrative practices, and self-improvement; improved communication between parents, community, staff and administrators; the need for line authority vs. staff status to facilitate more control of programs, participation in policy decisions, and effective supervision; inadequate equipment and facilities for special education programs; organizational issues regarding student services and placement, identification, and coordination of services; limited opportunities to conduct field research and lack of research upon which to base decisions; and miscellaneous reasons (Kohl & Marro, 1971; Marro & Kohl, 1972). Kohl and Marro (1971) reported that prior to their study “little evidence exists that effectiveness has been a research concern in special education administration” and “the answers provided to the question on administrative effectiveness in this study do little to compensate for this lack of research data” (Kohl & Marro, 1971, p. 301).

Prillaman and Richardson (1985) reported that special education administrators must develop a thorough understanding of the rules and regulations associated with special education since they are responsible for interpreting outcomes of court cases, which can impact the school district‟s local policy and practice. The importance of being able to interpret the law, assess the impact of court cases on special education services and ensure compliance with the law cannot be understated (Crockett 2002; Valesky & Hirth, 1992; Palladino, 2008). Without this knowledge, decisions may lead to costly and timeconsuming litigation (Valesky & Hirth, 1992; Tate, 2010). Evidence-based leadership practices can be enhanced by increasing special education administrators‟ knowledge base and skills which should improve educational outcomes for students with disabilities (Boscardin, 2005; Boscardin, Weir & Kusek, 2010).

Collins (2007) noted special education administrators need to be resourceful and display interpersonal skills that include risk-taking, building relationships, communication, and humor. Effective communication skills are needed in the areas of negotiation and mediation with the ability to see the big picture and to think out of the box. Special education administrators who are effective leaders collaborate with others to achieve success and assure accessibility to quality educational programs for all students (DiPaola &

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Walther-Thomas, 2003; Lashley & Boscardin, 2003). Effective special education administrators support ongoing progress monitoring, thorough academic planning, data-based decisions and the use of evidence-based practices by teachers (Boscardin, 2004; DiPaola, Tschannen-Moran, & Walther-Thomas, 2004).

Consistently, the reported challenge for special education administrators is the recruitment and retention of highly qualified special educators since they directly impact educational outcomes for students with disabilities (DiPaola, Tschannen-Moran, & Walther-Thomas, 2004; Lashley & Boscardin, 2003; Palladino, 2008; Seltzer, 2011; Tate, 2010). Concerning the selection of staff, Ebmeier, Beutel, and Dugan (2010) noted “no other single activity is as critical to operating an efficient and effective school” (p. 84). A critical component for retaining qualified staff is administrative support (DiPaolo & Walther-Thomas, 2003; Lashley & Boscardin, 2003).

Due to the numerous responsibilities assigned to a special education administrator such as general administrative tasks (i.e. managing a budget, supervising and evaluating staff, compiling local, state, and federal reports), making program decisions, supervising provision of services, empowering teachers to use research-based strategies, and addressing parental demands, special education administration can be seen as “a daunting challenge” (Arick & Krug, 1993; Palladino, 2008, p. 158; Tate, 2010). There have been significant changes in the roles and responsibilities of the special education administrator since the initial study by Kohl & Marro (1971) which raises the question of what roadblocks exist for today‟s special education administrator to operate effectively. Patterned after the Kohl and Marro (1971) study, the purpose of the current study was to identify the reasons that special education administrators are able to operate to optimum effectiveness and the barriers that prevent this in the current educational climate.

Methodology In order to examine the perceptions of special education administrators‟ ability to operate to optimum effectiveness, the 2013-2014 Texas Council of Administrators of Special Education (TCASE) Directory was used to determine the population sample. The TCASE Directory is a comprehensive list of special education administrators in the state of Texas currently serving in school districts and Regional Education Service Center (ESC) Directors who provide support to special education administrators and oversee staff development within their regions. Since Regional ESC Directors are not directly responsible to an educational cooperative or school district, they were not included in the population sample for this study.

The TCASE Directory was used to compile a list of e-mail addresses for special education administrators in the state of Texas. Special education administrators were initially contacted in the form of an e-mail that contained the following information: (a) explanation and purpose of the study, (b) participants in the study, (c) description of procedures, (d) instrumentation utilized, (e) potential risks, (f) participation and benefits (g) link to survey through PsychData, (h) contact information, (i) and an opportunity to contact the researcher if there were any questions. E-mails were sent using the “blind cc” to protect confidentiality and grouped by region. Two follow-up e-mails were sent

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as reminders to the special education administrators asking them to complete the survey. The first reminder was sent two days after the initial contact e-mail and the second reminder was sent one week from the initial contact e-mail.

In the Kohl and Marro (1971) study, two questions were asked of special education administrators, “What is the main condition or „roadblock‟ that keeps you from attaining the ideal time distribution?” and “If you could „wave a magic wand,‟ what one thing would you want to have to increase your effectiveness as a special education administrator?” In the final report by Kohl and Marro (1971), suggestions were made for further investigations to enhance the knowledge pool regarding special education administrators. This information was used to create a survey with updated information. In the current study, special education administrators were asked to “Identify the top three reasons why you feel that you can operate to optimum effectiveness” and “Identify the top three reasons why you feel that you cannot operate to optimum effectiveness.” To support a longitudinal comparison, participants were provided a list of select choice responses that were generated in the Kohl and Marro (1971) study, as well as, the option to provide additional responses. The survey was reviewed by a committee, which included individuals who had prior experience as public school administrators for content and clarity.

Surveys were distributed to 515 special education administrators across the state of Texas. A total of 176 surveys were completed online using the link to PsychData. Twenty-four surveys were removed from analysis due to lack of completion leaving a total of 152. The initial return rate for surveys was 35% with only 29.5% of total surveys used in the evaluation of results. Roughly one out of three special education administrators in the state of Texas responded to the survey request.

Seventy-three percent of respondents were special education administrators employed by a local school district and 23.7% were employed by an educational cooperative unit.

The remaining special education administrators were employed by a countywide school district, in a shared services agreement, State School for the Deaf, or State School for the Blind and Visually Impaired. Of the respondents, 11.2% were from urban school districts, 27.6% from suburban school districts, and 61.2% from rural school districts. The majority of special education administrator responses were from females with only 14.5% from males. Approximately, 18% of special education administrators held a doctorate degree and 65.1% held a master‟s degree with additional coursework.

The most common certification held by special education administrators was mid-management/principal certification (77.6%) while the second most common certification was that of special education teacher at 73.7%.

For purposes of this study, a non-experimental research design was utilized through survey methodology and quantitative data collected to identify existing background characteristics and obtain perceptions of special education administrators‟ ability to operate to optimum effectiveness in the state of Texas.

The Statistical Package of Social Scientists (SPSS) 18 program was used to analyze results of the survey. Frequency, percentage tables, and cross-tabulation were used for categorical data. Descriptive statistics and the Friedman Test were used to analyze the data and determine the mean rank for each reason identified by special education administrators in school districts from the state of Texas.

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The Friedman Test provides information regarding the difference in the ranks of three or more independent groups. Post-hoc testing for Friedman two-way analysis of variance on rank means was utilized to provide additional information (Marascuilo & McSweeney, 1977).

Results Special education administrators were asked to identify the top three reasons they could operate to optimum effectiveness and the reasons they could not operate to optimum effectiveness. Multiple-choice answers were provided with an opportunity to express an additional reason that was not listed. Table 1 includes the reasons special education administrators felt they could operate to optimum effectiveness by mean rank order. The top three reasons noted by special education administrators to operate to optimum effectiveness were: (a) sufficient knowledge concerning special education, state and federal laws, budget, etc.; (b) support from central administration; and (c) professional background and education prepared them for the job. The three reasons with the lowest mean were: (a) opportunity to do field research utilizing innovative studies at the local level, (b) adequate facilities and sufficient equipment, and (c) adequate research data upon which to base decision.

Table 1: Reasons Able to Operate to Optimum Effectiveness

Reasons 1.

Sufficient knowledge concerning special education, state and federal laws, budget, etc.

Mean Rank 9.48

2.

Support from central administration

8.75

3.

Professional background and education prepared you for job

7.94

4.

Effective communication

7.54

5.

Sufficient number of staff

7.33

6.

Have authority to participate in policy decisions, better control of programs, and more effective supervision of personnel

7.

Sufficient financial resources

8.

Effective organization of special service units, pupil placement, identification of students, and coordination between general

7.23 6.91 6.69

and special education 9.

Effective time management

6.28

10.

Opportunities to be involved in general education activities

5.88

11.

Adequate research data upon which to base decisions

5.80

12.

Adequate facilities and sufficient equipment

5.65

13.

Opportunity to do field research utilizing innovative studies at the local level

Friedman Test: X2 (12) = 332.36, p = .001

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Each reason for why special education administrators were able to work to optimum effectiveness in Table 1 was numbered to assist in comparisons between rank means. Numbers in Group I and Group J of Table 2 represent the reasons listed in Table 1. Each pair of reasons from Group I and Group J was contrasted with a confidence interval. An interval that included zero was considered non-significant. Table 2 shows the results of post-hoc testing for Friedman two-way analysis of variance on rank means. Only the pair of reasons that were considered statistically significant at the .05 significance level is listed in Table 2. When two reasons differ with p < .05, one reason ranked higher than the other reason. Mean ranks that are in bold represent the reason that is ranked higher than the other. The higher the mean rank the more important the reason in allowing the special education administrators to operate to optimum effectiveness. The primary reason special education administrators were able to operate to optimum effectiveness was due to sufficient knowledge concerning special education, state and federal laws, budget, etc. There was a significant difference between this reason and nine other reasons which shows the importance of special education administrators having a strong knowledge base concerning special education and related topics. The second highest reason was support from central administration which was significantly different from the six lowest reasons identified.

Table 2: Pairwise Comparisons of Reasons Able to Operate to Optimum Effectiveness

Group I

Mean Rank

Group J

Mean Rank

LL

UL

Result

1

9.48

6

7.23

0.20

4.30

p < .05

1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 5 7 9 9

9.48 9.48 9.48 9.48 9.48 8.75 8.75 8.75 8.75 8.75 7.94 7.94 7.94 7.94 7.33 6.91 6.28 6.28

8 10 11 12 13 8 10 11 12 13 10 11 12 13 1 1 1 2

6.69 5.88 5.80 5.65 5.52 6.69 5.88 5.80 5.65 5.52 5.88 5.80 5.65 5.52 9.48 9.48 9.48 8.75

0.74 1.55 1.63 1.78 1.91 0.01 0.82 0.90 1.05 1.18 0.01 0.09 0.24 0.37 -4.20 -4.62 -5.25 -4.52

4.84 5.65 5.73 5.88 6.01 4.11 4.92 5.00 5.15 5.28 4.11 4.19 4.34 4.47 -0.10 -0.52 -1.15 -0.42

p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05

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Table 3 presents reasons special education administrators could not operate to optimum effectiveness. The top three reasons identified by special education administrators were: (a) insufficient number of staff, (b) lack of time, and (c) insufficient financial resources while the three lowest reasons based on mean rank order were: (a) inadequate preparation for the job, (b) inadequate research data upon which to base decisions, and (c) lack of opportunity to do field research utilizing innovative studies at the local level.

Table 3: Reasons Unable to Operate to Optimum Effectiveness

Reasons

Mean Rank

1.

Insufficient number of staff

8.88

2.

Lack of time

8.71

3.

Insufficient financial resources

8.54

4.

Organizational problems such as ineffective special service units, pupil placement, categorical labeling of students, and lack of coordination between general and special education Need more authority to participate in policy decisions, have better control of programs, and be more effective supervising personnel

5.

7.78

6.86

6.

Central administration demands

6.83

7.

Need for better communication

6.72

8.

Outmoded facilities and/or insufficient equipment

6.46

9.

Time spent on general education activities

6.21

10.

Need for additional knowledge

6.04

11.

Lack of opportunity to do field research utilizing innovative studies at the local level

6.02

12.

Inadequate research data upon which to base decisions

6.00

13.

Inadequate preparation for the job

5.95

Friedman Test:

X2

(12) = 290.30, p = .001

Each reason special education administrators gave regarding why they were unable to work to optimum effectiveness in Table 3 was numbered to assist in comparisons between rank means. Numbers in Group I and Group J of Table 4 represent the reasons listed in Table 3. Each pair of reasons from Group I and Group J was contrasted with a confidence interval. An interval that included zero was considered non-significant. Table 4 shows the results of post-hoc testing for Friedman two-way analysis of variance on rank means. Only the pair of reasons that were considered statistically significant at the .05 significance level are listed in Table 4. When two reasons differ with p < .05, one reason ranked higher than the other reason. Mean ranks that are in bold represent the reason that is ranked higher than the other. The higher the mean rank the more important the reason in preventing special education administrators from

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operating to optimum effectiveness. The primary reason special education administrators were unable to operate to optimum effectiveness was due to insufficient number of staff. There was a significant difference between the top three reasons why special education administrators were unable to operate to optimum effectiveness and the six lowest reasons identified.

Table 4: Pairwise Comparison Reasons Unable to Operate to Optimum Effectiveness

Group I

Mean Rank

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3

8.88 8.88 8.88 8.88 8.88 8.88 8.88 8.88 8.71 8.71 8.71 8.71 8.71 8.71 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.54

Group J

Mean Rank

LL

UL

Result

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 8 9 10 11 12 13 8 9 10 11 12 13

6.83 6.72 6.46 6.21 6.04 6.02 6.00 5.95 6.46 6.21 6.04 6.02 6.00 5.95 6.46 6.21 6.04 6.02 6.00 5.95

0.00 0.11 0.37 0.62 0.79 0.81 0.83 0.88 0.20 0.45 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.71 0.03 0.28 0.45 0.47 0.49 0.54

4.10 4.21 4.47 4.72 4.89 4.91 4.93 4.98 4.30 4.55 4.72 4.74 4.76 4.81 4.13 4.38 4.55 4.57 4.59 4.64

p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05 p < .05

Discussion The purpose of this study was to identify the reasons that special education administrators are able to operate to optimum effectiveness and the barriers that prevent this in the current educational climate. Two of the primary reasons noted by special education administrators for being able to operate to optimum effectiveness was sufficient knowledge concerning special education, state and federal laws, budget, etc. and having the necessary professional background and education that prepared them for the job. Since the field of special education leadership is multifaceted and complex, a strong knowledge base of the numerous areas such as local and federal policies, finance, program development, personnel, and interpersonal skills is needed. The special education administrators in the current study appear to have a sufficient knowledge base and educational background to meet the demands of the job.

The results of this study were different from the study conducted by Kohl and

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Marro (1971) where special education administrators reported the need for additional knowledge as one of the primary areas of concerns. Due to the ever changing educational climate, there is a need for ongoing professional development to maintain a sufficient knowledge base concerning special education and ongoing support from central administration. Rayner, Gunter & Powers (2002) reported individuals working in special education perceived a high need for continuing education specifically in leadership and management.

While Pardy and Bryan (2015) indicated that the lack of functional knowledge and expertise could lead to failure in the position.

The secondary reason special education administrators noted for why they were able to operate to optimum effectiveness was support from central administration. Special education administrators in the current study appear to have greater support from central administration than reported by Kohl and Marro (1971). When special education administrators were asked by Kohl and Marro (1971) to identify roadblocks that kept them from using their time effectively, the responses focused on resources such as lack of administrative assistance, finances, clerical help, program facilities, and office space or facilities with the primary reason being central office demands. Central administration demands were listed in the current study as one of the reasons special education administrators were not able to operate to optimum effectiveness though it was not a primary reason of concern. Central administration can provide support to special education administrators by recognizing the importance of having sufficient staff, allowing special education administrators the time needed to oversee special programs and staff, and providing sufficient financial resources.

Kohl and Marro (1971) sought special education administrators‟ opinions regarding ways to increase their ability to operate effectively by asking “…what one thing would you want to have to increase your effectiveness as a special education administrator?” Special education administrators identified nine areas of need or concern in the Kohl and Marro (1971) study. The top three areas of concern noted by Kohl and Marro (1971) were the top three reasons identified in the current study for why special education administrators were not able to operate to optimum effectiveness: (a) insufficient number of staff, (b) lack of time, and (c) insufficient financial resources. Insufficient staff, limited financial resources, and lack of time appear to be ongoing reasons for why special education administrators are unable to operate to optimum effectiveness. This will require special education administrators to find creative solutions for meeting the unique needs of individuals with disabilities utilizing the staff and financial resources available to them.

The reasons identified in the current study that had the least impact on special education administrators operating to optimum effectiveness were research data upon which to base decisions and opportunities to do field research utilizing innovative studies at the local level. The overall pattern suggests that the use and purpose of research have little impact on special education administrators whether good or bad which suggests the importance of research for the advancement of educational practices for students with disabilities has not been realized by special education administrators.

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Limitations and Future Research The data collection period for survey responses was two-weeks. Though the majority of responses occurred within six hours of notification, additional time to collect data may have resulted in a higher participation rate. This was applicable to the initial notification and the two reminders seeking participation in the study.

Only special education administrators within the state of Texas were contacted to be a part of this study. Therefore, results may not be generalized across other states. Each special education administrator who was contacted had access to e-mail and the internet. However, some special education administrators may have preferred a pencil and paper format to an electronic format. Having the opportunity to establish rapport with an individual through an electronic format can be more difficult and result in decreased number of respondents.

Future research is needed in the effectiveness of special education administrators from different career paths and the impact they have on educational outcomes for students with disabilities, placements for students with disabilities in the least restrictive environment, staff retention, and financial management.

Results of this study indicate that for special education administrators to be effective, he or she should be knowledgeable concerning special education, state and federal laws, and budget; have central administration support; and have sufficient education and professional background in the areas of special education and administration. Special education administrators reported that having the opportunity to do field research utilizing innovative studies at the local level, having adequate facilities and sufficient equipment, and having adequate research data upon which to base decisions contributed the least to operating to optimum effectiveness.

Data from this study can provide information in the development of training programs and supports that help target leadership skills that are necessary to address accountability, evidence-based practices, and inclusion of students with disabilities in the general education setting, as well as, other current issues.

References Arick, J. R., & Krug, D. A. (1993). Special education administrators in the United States: Perceptions on policy and personnel issues. Journal of Special Education, 27(3), 34864. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002246699302700306 Retrieved from http://ezproxy.twu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ472752&site=ehost-live&scope=site Boscardin, M. L. (2004). Transforming administration to support science in the schoolhouse for students with disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37(3), 262269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00222194040370031201 Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=12900483&site =ehost-live Boscardin, M. L. (2005). The administrative role in transforming secondary schools to support inclusive evidence-based practices. American Secondary Education, 33(3), 2132. Retrieved from

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http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=17885645&site =ehost-live Boscardin, M. L., Weir, K., & Kusek, C. (2010). A national study of state credentialing requirements for administrators of special education. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 23(2), 61-75. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=55618549&site =ehost-live Collins, J. (2007). Superintendent's commentary: Seeking: Special education director.

Journal of Special Education Leadership, 20(1), 46-47. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=25338428&site =ehost-live Crockett, J. B. (2002). Special education's role in preparing responsive leaders for inclusive schools. Remedial & Special Education, 23(3), 157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/07419325020230030401 Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=6711294&site= ehost-live DiPaola, Michael Tschannen-Moran, Megan Walther-Thomas, Chriss. (2004). School principals and special education: Creating the context for academic success. Focus on Exceptional Children, 37(1), 1-10. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=tfh&AN=18526516&site= ehost-live DiPaola, M. F., Walther-Thomas, C., National Clearinghouse for Professions in Special Education & Florida University, Gainesville Center on Personnel Studies in Special Education. (2003). Principals and special education: The critical role of school leaders.

Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED477115&sit e=ehost-live Ebmeier, H., Beutel, J. L., & Dugan, E. (2010). An employment interview instrument for special education teachers. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 23(2), 84-99.

Retrieved from http://ezproxy.twu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ906727&site=ehost-live&scope=site Gore, M. B. (1995). Leadership for special education administration: A case-based approach.

Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt Brace.

Kohl, J. W., & Marro, T. D. (1971). A normative study of the administrative position in special education. (Grant no. OEG-0-70-2467(607), US Office of Education). University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University.

Lashley, C., & Boscardin, M. L. (2003). Special education administration at a crossroads: Availability, licensure, and preparation of special education administrators. (Document No IB-8). Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=ED477116&sit e=ehost-live Marascuilo, L.A., & McSweeney, M. (1977). Nonparametric and distribution-free methods for the social sciences. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Marro, T. D., & Kohl, J. W. (1972). Normative study of the administrative position in special education. Exceptional Children, 39(1), 5-13. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19722546&site =ehost-live Palladino, J. M. (2008). Preparing school principals for special education administration: A new model of leadership decision-making. John Sheppard Journal of Practical Leadership, 158-166. Retrieved from http://aa.utpb.edu/media/leadership-journalfiles/2008-

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archives/Preparing%20School%20Principles%20for%20Special%20Education%20A dministration.pdf Pardy, A & Bryan, B. (2015, September). Effective Special Education Administrators.

Presentation at MCASE 2015 Annual Fall Preconference, Bozeman, MT. Prillaman, D., & Richardson, R. (1985). State certification-endorsement requirements for special education administration. Journal of Special Education, 19(2), 231. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4726751&site= ehost-live Rayner, S., Gunter, H., Powers, S. (2002). Professional development needs for leaders in special education. Journal in In-Service Education, 28(1), pp. 79-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13674580200200172 Seltzer, M. (2011). The roundabout of special education leadership. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1(15), 120-139.

Tate, A. (2010). Case in point: The changing face of special education administration.

Journal of Special Education Leadership, 23(2), 113-115.

Valesky, T. C., & Hirth, M. A. (1992). Survey of the states: Special education knowledge requirements for school administrators. Exceptional Children, 58(5), 399-406.

Retrieved from http://ezproxy.twu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ444440&site=ehost-live&scope=site

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 65-77, June 2016

Development of Teaching Plan in the Curriculum of Medical Sciences (To promote social capital) Forouzan Tonkaboni (Corresponding author) and Masumeh Masumi Department of Educational Science, Payame Noor University (PNU), Tehran, Iran

Abstract: In today's world, social capital is one of the most important factors in development of countries. The aim of this study was to develop a teaching plan in the educational curriculum for medical sciences students to strengthen social capital among them. To answer the question of â&#x20AC;&#x153;what is the teaching plan that can be developed for the promotion of social capital among students of Medical Sciences?â&#x20AC;? a study based on qualitative grounded theory was conducted in 2014 in which 14 professors in the field of medical science curricula were interviewed. Sampling was purposive and coding method was used to analyze the data. Teaching plan was identified as the main subject for research and teaching obstacles, strategies, and outcomes were identified for it. After drawing a paradigmatic model, the final plan was obtained. For the plan of curriculum for medical students, teaching plans must be designed based on factors affecting the development of social capital elements.

Keywords: Medical sciences students; social capital; teaching plan; curriculum

Introduction Light (sociologist) used the term social capital at the 1970s and Laurie (economist) also used it to describe the problem of urban economy. In the 1980s, this term was used in a wider sense by Coleman the sociologist, and political scientist Putnam was the second person that raised an ethnic passionate debate about the role of social capital and civil society in Italy and the United States.

Their research led to the formal formation of social capital and its application in many interdisciplinary sciences (Tahghighi, 2005).

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Social Capital as a form of capital has a large impact on the success of the society. Many functions have been attributed to social capital by experts. Social capital employs the similarities of people from different directions, creating a spirit of mutual trust and functions at the service of economic interests; it creates the space which reduces the cost of human resources, and increases interaction between them (Woolcock, 2008) According to Putnam (2005) social capital is composed of elements of social life by which people can achieve their goals effectively. He believes that this form of capital has equal importance to the other forms of capital.

Fukuyama (2006) defines social capital as a set of norms in social systems that promote cooperation among members of the community and reduces the exchange and communication costs.

Experts believe that increased social capital include faith, trust, hope for the future, relying on the community and its solidarity, social justice, prosperity, tolerance, patience, forgiveness and unity are the main strategies to achieve sustainable development in a society. The benefits resulting from membership in a group creates solidarity that makes it possible to obtain benefits. Hence, social capital is a means of access to economic and cultural resources through social communication (Saifollahi, 2005).

In a society with high social capital, the union and solidarity among members of society and their group spirit makes them to flow their economic capital for themselves and their society so that everyone can use its benefits (Kavianpour, 2007).

The social capital enhances the quality of life and promotes the positive social values in order to have a good life ( Hamdan et al,2014).

According to the above, it can be said that the concept of social capital means that the participation in community and group can have positive interests and functions for the individual. There are many organizations that the government helps them to develop values that support civic engagement. The educational system is one of these organizations. In recent years, education is considered as one of the most powerful producers of social capital.

University as one of the main sources for the formation of social groups can be of consideration. The Scientific, cultural and religious, and professional organizations as well as other groups can find an opportunity to emerge in university where some networks may be formed, which can be bases for the establishment of key and influential institutions (Dingaa,2014).

In universities the scientific spirit, criticism, creativity, ability to communicate scientifically, reproduction ability, and also the ability to combine and integrate the ideas should be formed in the students and at the same time, prudence, participation, and proving oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s identity in interaction with others be strengthened in university environment. So universities are not only functioning in education area and indeed where higher education and social capital relate to

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each other the university should have the ability to develop social capital (Zakersalehi, 2008).

In a study entitled "The Relationship between the Curriculum of Higher Education and Social Capital ", it was concluded that there is a significant relationship between educational, economic, social goals and needs assessment with the elements of participation and trust in the social capital (Tonkaboni et al, 2014).

Theoretical Background According to Putnam (2005) social capital refers to those features of social life, networks, norms and trust that enable participants to pursue their common objectives in a more effective way. In his idea, social capital is the means to achieve social and political development in diverse political systems and the trust between people, governors, and political elite results in political development.

The set of norms which exist in social systems promote the level of cooperation among society members and also reduces the level of exchange and communication costs. In this definition, concepts such as civil society and social institutions are associated closely with the concept of social capital (Schiff, 2004).

Eisenstadt believes that the most important issue in shaping a community with good social capital is attention to the trust, cohesion, solidarity and social participation and without social cohesion and participation under the shade of confidence establishing the new order is impossible (Chalabi, 2007).

From the viewpoint of Mevish, some of the most important prerequisites of a functional society must be emphasized when determining the aim, content and method of education in the curriculum. Learners in the educational system must know as members of the society in which they live how they can best play their social role. In case of lack of knowledge and awareness of these issues among teachers and curriculum planners, curriculum content and objectives may conflict with the needs and social problems which might reduce the success of programs (Yarmohammadian, 2012).

Klein introduces nine elements of objectives, content, learning activities, teaching methods, materials and resource evaluation, time, space and grouping as the elements of the curriculum. The most common approach in this regard, considers for a curriculum or a particular syllabus and curriculum decisions involving these four elements: objectives, content, methodology and evaluation (Mehrmohammadi, 2009).

Tonkaboni et al (2013), in an article titled " Description and Recognition the Concept of Social Capital in Higher Education System " concluded that for the promotion of social capital, the curriculum in higher education should be based on development of social capital components and needs of society.

Jiroux considers educators as transformational thinkers. Selecting and implementing appropriate teaching-learning methods as a key component of the

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curriculum, is very important in the formation and strengthening of valuable concepts in mind. In the process of teaching, methods and materials that teachers select should help students in their learning content (Ornstein, 2011).

Teaching is an activity, but not every type of activity, but something which is done consciously and on the basis of a specific purpose that makes changes.

Teaching is not easy. Teachers deals with different variables in teaching and through manipulation of different variables and results, tries to create a situation in which learning takes place. (Shabani, 2006) The authority teachers have to make changes in teaching conditions and make the factors useful for teaching a lesson are teaching models that include problem solution patterns, pre-organizers, individual tutoring, social patterns and so on.

These patterns act as plans (Joyce, 2008).

In a research entitled as "Designing a Model for Development of Social Capital in Universities", the researcher showed that the development of social capital can be achieved in two objective and subjective aspects, five components: individuals, groups, organizations, structures, and management and 28 indicators (Mostafazadeh et al,2015).

Previous researches in Iran indicate that higher education despite its great quantitative development in the last decades, has not been successful in selfactualization and development of social capital. This is also true about teaching practices that are considered an important part of the curriculum.

The purpose of this study is to provide a teaching plan with an emphasis on identifying teaching barriers, methods, and strategies to develop social capital among students of medical sciences. For this purpose, the research question is as follows: What kind of teaching plan enhance social capital can be developed among students of Medical Sciences?

Methodology The present study is qualitative and based on Grounded Theory approach which is an exploratory research method that allows researchers to develop the theory of him/her. The material used in this study was the collected comments from people during interviews. In addition, these data were highly fragmented and contained many concepts and categories. For this reason, analysis of data required a plan which is comprehensive as well as highly resilient and encompassing. As a result, grounded or fundamental method was used.

The population consisted of teachers with at least 10 years experience in the field of curriculum planning, teaching and writing textbooks in the field of medical sciences at the university and higher education institutions across the country in 2014. In qualitative method the number of interviews should be 10 at most, but in this study science the interviewees were at different disciplines from different universities, all data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 14 cases and after assuring saturation in the material obtained, the interview process was stopped since no new information was obtained. In the interview,

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eight instructors of public universities of medical sciences and six from Islamic Azad universities across the country participated from various medical fields.

Purposive sampling method was used for the type of favorable cases; which means that for selecting the samples the number of academic articles and publications were examined and it was tried to select people who are dominant on the subject and have the experience of developing curricula.

After carrying out preliminary coordination with individuals and setting a date, meetings were held at the researcher’s office or at workplace of respondent. Ten minutes before the start of the meeting a complete description about the purpose of the study and drawing conclusions of it was explained. For having full information, by the permission of the interviewee, all sessions were recorded and transcribed. First, two general question of “how do you see social capital components of trust or partnership among students?” and "how universities can expand social capital among students?" then researcher entered the subject of discussion and using responses given by the interviewee the next questions were asked. During the meetings it was tried to prevent diversion of the subject without sensitivity and to direct the interview just in the framework of the preset direction. Interviews were held on an individual basis and each interview was between one to two hours.

To analyze the data, open, axial and selective data coding were used.

In the open coding using comparison technique and asking the data related to the phenomenon under study, data were named and categorized with scrutiny.

After removing unrelated speeches to the subject, data were classified into tens of paragraphs and similar paragraphs were put next to each other and concepts were drawn out.

In axial coding, the analyzed data using open coding joined each other by new methods. At this stage the link was made among a category and its subcategories. This was done by implementing a paradigmatic plan of "obstacles, strategies, and results" and putting together the similar concepts.

In selective coding the core category was selected and its relation with other categories was found. The relations were validated by finding confirming instances. After determining the main category, the sub-categories were related to the main categories according to the paradigmatic plan. Then, the final research plan was developed in which the core relationship with other concepts was shown.

To determine the accuracy of the information obtained, four factors were used: credibility, transferability, dependability and verifiability (Burns, 2007).

Validation was done by sharing the findings with participants to review them.

For the transferability, it was tried to consider the diversity in sampling and different fields are used. Also, in connection with the verifiability process, it was attempted to make teachers agree on the perceptions. And finally, in reliability, interviews were continued until data saturation. Also for the reliability of the study, Kirk and Miller note taking methods were used.

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The aim of the research, study procedures, risks and benefits of the research, the voluntary nature of participating in the study, were told to the participants. The right to quit research at any time was considered for the participants. After providing the necessary information they were assured that the information obtained will be kept confidential and results will be published without naming them. During the interview process, a short break was given for the interviewee fatigue and they were not forced to continue the interview.

Findings In open coding 98 concept codes were obtained from all the comments of respondents. In the axial coding, second level concepts were obtained. In this stage the number of concepts had a sharp decline. In the end, the main category was identified in selective coding, that is teaching plans.

To draw a paradigmatic plan 98 codes were divided to three parts: obstacles, solutions and results.

1. Obstacles The number of first-level concepts about the obstacles contained 40 items that at the secondary level reduced to 5 codes including "Ease of classical and traditional teaching practices, poor participation of students in the class, too much emphasis on introduced resources, teacher’s lack of skill in using technology, and students focus on content expressed by the teacher”. In the following, each of the sub-themes with a sample of interviewees’ statements is presented.

1.1 Ease of classical and traditional teaching methods Leaving the old standard format of instruction is usually faced with resistance from students. We must change this mentality and a new spirit is blown in the university system. (Interviewee No. 12) 1.2. The weak participation of students in class Current teaching practices do not help much to strengthen the tendency of people to do activities together. The curriculum should be designed in such a way that the person finds morals and attitudes necessary to work in a group.

(Interviewee No. 1) 1.3. Strong emphasis on introduced resources Introduced resources are very effective on way of teaching. Currently, the resources that instructors introduce are not diverse and logical. Although a number of books are published each year for the courses at curriculum but they introduce references of 10 to 30 years old and they are reprinted (Interviewee No. 6)

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1.4. Teachers’ lack of skill to use technology The use of audiovisual aids in universities despite technological progress and the significant percentage of students’ access to the technology such as computers and the Internet is very low. (Interviewee No. 2) 1.5. Students focus on content expressed by instructor There is a belief among students that teachers focus on the topics set for each session and their repetition is the easiest and best practice for teaching. This view must be changed. (Interviewee No. 8) 2.

Solutions

The number of first-level concepts in the context of the proposed strategies in teaching were 30 items that were reduced to 6 codes of "delegating responsibility to the students, Introduction of efficient curriculum resources, the use of active teaching methods, teaching along with modern science, evaluation of student activities and the use of new media ".

2.1. Delegation of responsibility to students Using group teaching practices or even teaching by students and conducting conferences and seminars greatly amend the curriculum’s impact on social capital. (Interviewee No. 4) 2.2 The introduction of curriculum resources Some teachers exclude training and evaluation based on limited old school resources that have been introduced. However, if the teacher selects updated sources for teaching and asks the students to be prepared for them at the end of course, s/he will need more participation of the students (Interviewee No. 6) 2.3 The use of active teaching methods The students tend toward traditional teaching methods while group method of teaching and students' participation in seminar or teachers’ emphasis on scientific practices involving the realities directly affect social capital.

(Interviewee No. 5) 2.4. Teaching along with the modern science of the world The teaching method should be new and does not repeat the old practices. It is also important to note that teaching method should be selected along with the latest science of the world (interviewee No. 2) 2.5. Evaluation of students’ activities Students should have a significant role in the process of teaching. Instructors should pay attention to their class activities, participation in the teaching and discussions (interviewee No. 3)

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2.6. Using new media Book is very expensive in Iran and the students are not supported to buy books.

Therefore, one cannot expect multiple sources to be presented by teacher in such circumstances. Instructors should move towards introducing new electronic sources which are cost-effective and the intended diversity can be achieved.

(Interviewee No. 8)

3. Results The number of concepts which were obtained at the first level coding was 18 that were reduced to 5 items including strengthening team spirit, shaping public space, strengthening the spirit of questioning and criticism, promoting accountability in the students, and activating the students in the teaching process.

3.1 Strengthening team spirit If the teacher works in a manner in which individual action is not acceptable and people have to do group work, teamwork is promoted. (Interviewee No. 11) 3.2 Shaping public space If a student is involved in class exercises, s/he will practice taking responsibility and action in groups as most important aspects of social capital. (Interviewee No. 14) 3.3 Strengthening the spirit of questioning and criticism The class atmosphere on time teaching should be established in such a way that students are not afraid of criticism and ask their questions. (Interviewee No. 2) 3.4 Promoting accountability in the students When a student takes responsibility in the class during a course and cooperates with his classmates in his course projects, he will tend to maintain group activities. (Interviewee No. 4) 3.5 Student participation in group activities Instructorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s trust to the student and entrust some responsibilities, such as teaching or troubleshoot classes can have a good influence on social capital.

Responsibility Practice in the classroom can boost the morale for factors such as participation and solidarity among people. (Interviewee No. 6) Finally the plan of study which is the combination and integration of the main category, its obstacles, strategies, and consequences was formulated as Figure1:

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Obstacles - Ease of classical and traditional teaching methods -Weak participation of students in class -Strong emphasis on introduced resources - Teachers’ lack of skill to use technology - Students’ focus

Solutions - Delegating responsibility to the students, - Introduction of efficient curriculum resources, - The use of active teaching methods, - With teaching along modern science, - Evaluation of student activities and - The use of new media

on content

Results - Strengthening team spirit, -Shaping public space, - Strengthening the spirit of questioning and criticism, - Promoting accountability in the students - Activating the students in the teaching process

expressed by instructor

Social capital variable

Social capital variable

Social capital variable

‫رمایه سرمی‬

Social capital Figure1: Teaching plan based on social capital

Discussion Teaching method is of the things that directly affect social capital. Changes in teaching methods can have a substantial impact on social capital of students. Of all the elements of the curriculum teaching methods has the highest communication with the students and is close to the concept of social capital more than any other component.

Tonkaboni et al (2014), designed a model of teaching in Iran’s Higher Education that confirms the findings of this research in medical sciences.

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Teaching plans should be more oriented towards learning and active teaching.

Active learning, is a learning that occurs with minimal interference of external factors. In this method of learning, the instructor is at the same level of other factors such as the learning environment and educational resources and only acts as a facilitator of learning. This method is considered effective on social capital when the student is involved actively in the process of learning and learning occurs under his/ her control. Solati et al conducted a study on the medical sciences students and found that the more students engage in the teaching process, it provides more utility for the students (Solati et al., 2010) The findings suggest that current teaching plans not only does not encourage people to attend and participate actively in class, but also damage the relationship between society and universities and change the mutual trust between the university and society.

Flick & Williamson (2005), research concluded that diversity in teaching methods promote social capital among students such as group learning and learning services.

After changing in teaching practices and student engagement is the institutionalization of the collective spirit among students that puts them in touch with other groups and social institutions and practices socialization of the individual's consciously and unconsciously.

A study on the satisfaction of students of dentistry in Shiraz from two methods of instruction based and participation based found that students are more satisfied with the latter and their level of knowledge has increased (Momeni Danaie et al., 2011).

Predicted changes for curriculum give this opportunity to the planners to use other leverages to affect the socialization process of the student and accelerate it.

University can be a good platform for many activities that potentially increase social capital. Thus, curriculum planners should not look at it apart from the curriculum. It is better that teaching practices that promote social capital in the form of a clear curriculum be included in syllabus to avoid personal taste in the teaching classes.

Marjaee (2004) in a study titled as "social capital among students of universities" examined social capital differences between people with different educational experiences. The results showed that in many of the components there was a significant relationship between education and social capital. In other words, by transition from undergraduate to PhD, a significant decrease was observed in many of the components of social capital. In addition, students' social capital has an inverse relationship with their academic experience.

Current practices in curriculum implementation, more than anything suffers from stagnation and recession. Necessary reforms in this area should be designed and implemented. To make positive changes in curriculum implementation, it is recommended that active teaching approach is used. In this procedure, instead of providing a set of concepts and facts that are sometimes

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unrelated, attempt to provide students with learning activities that involve them in real problem solving situations. Merghati Khoei et al.(2013) in a study at Tehran University of Medical Sciences concluded that educational programs should be revised to use modern methods which enhance learning and student satisfaction .

Moein et al(2014), in a study among medical students at dermatology course found that, group discussion is a valuable strategy for teaching and learning with active participation of students which results in independent learning and deep understanding of the course material, more attention to the key points and creating a joyful learning environment .

So when designing curriculum, teachers should be given the freedom to act according to the knowledge and the passion and perseverance of students in class, and to be able to instantaneously change the complete teaching program.

In addition to helping to educate people, this gives them the opportunity to play a role in the learning process depending on their learning experiences. In this method, the learner should be considered independent and the learning process alternatively changes from the students to the teacher, and vice versa.

In active learning approaches based on the student's participation, if the aim is promoting social capital group membership should have a key role. Actual activity as a group and individual responsibility of each member about the outcome of group will allow group members to practice the key components of social capital such as trust, partnership and solidarity and prepare for real life.

Conclusion hence, instructors and curriculum planners should consider the components of social capital in the curriculum of medical sciences. The proposed plan can be used as a map for designing teaching method based on social development for the medical sciences universities. Teachers can carry out similar studies in other sections for various disciplines to provide the possibility to complete this plan.

Research limitations Addressing teaching methods on a large scale exceeded the concepts and categories of this study. This was particularly problematic in the coding of concepts.

Requests for interviews were very time consuming and a lot of requests were left unanswered because of instructorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; occupation.

The number of concepts discussed in the interview was too much and sorting them was time consuming. Due to the involvement of interviewees in the process of teaching at the university, refining the answers to remove the biased items required scrutiny and attention.

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References Burns, N. & Grove, K. C.(2007), Understanding Nursing Research. 4th edition, Philadelphia. W.B. Saunders. 124-130 Chalabi M.(2007), Sociology of Order. Tehran: Nei Press {in Persian} Dingaa, E. (2014). “Social capital and social justice”. Procedia Economics and Finance, 8, 246–253 Flick B & Williamson K.(2005), Frontiers in Education, FIE Apos, Proceedings35th Annual conference, 19-22 oct Fukuyama F.(2006), the end of order, Translated: Tavassoli, G. H. Iranian society press {in Persian} Joyce B .Models of teaching.(2008) Translated: Behrangi, MR. Tehran: Kamal-e-Tarbiat {in Persian} Hamdan, H.; Yusof, F.; Azziyati Marzukhi, M. (2014). “Social Capital and Quality of Life in Urban Neighborhoods High Density Housing”. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 153, 169-179.

Kavianpour J.(2007), urban management and social capitals, Kayhan Journal,18777, 7. {in Persian} Marjaee S.(2004), H. Social capital among students, the Institute of Research and Planning {in Persian} Mehrmohammadi M.(2009) curriculum Theories Approaches and erspectives. Tehran: samt& Behnashr press {in Persian} Merghati-Khoei E. Zareie F. Bayat A. Dastoorpour M. Rimaz S. (2013), Exploring The Teaching and Learning Approaches from the viewpoint of Postgraduate Students and their Lecturers Journal of Hygiene Education and Promotion of Health. 1, 3 Moein A. Heydari Seraj M.(2014) Comparison of viewpoints of dermatology medical students involved in teaching-learning process about two methods of learning: group discussion versus lecture Journal Dermatology and Cosmetic; 5 (2): 82-88 Momeni Danaie, S. Zarshenas L. Oshagh M. Omidekhoda M.(2011), Which method of teaching would be better; cooperative or lecture?http://journals. mui.ac.ir ,Journal of Medical Education.11, 1, 24–31 Mostafazadeh, M. Sadeghi MR.(2015), Designing a model to develop social capital in higher education ,Journal of management of social capital.1, 2, 161–182{ in Persian} Ornstein C.(2011), Curriculum foundation principles and issues London: Mc Cutahan Publishing.

Putnam R.(2005), Social Capital: Measurement and Consequences. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.

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Putnam R.(2005), Democracy and Civic traditions. Translated: M. T., Delforooz, Tehran: Salam Journal Press {in Persian} Saifollahi S.(2005), Sociology in social problems in Iran. Collection of articles and ideas Tehran: Jamee Pajoohan – e- Sina press {in Persian} Schiff M. (2004),Labor mobility, Trade and Social capital. Review of International Economics, 12, 4, 630–642 Shabani H.(2006), Skills education. Tehran: Samt Company10-11{in Persian} Solati M. Javadi R. Hoseini Tashnizi S. Asghari, N.(2010),Desirability of two participatory methods of teaching, based on students' viewpoint, Hormozgan Medical sciences Journal. 2010;14, 3, 191–197 Tahghigghi A.(2005) Social capital of governments and organization in Iran, Andisheye sadegh Journal. 11,12{in Persian} Tonkaboni, F., Yousefy, A., & Keshtiaray, N. (2013). Description and Recognition the Concept of Social Capital in Higher Education System.International Education Studies, 6(9), 40.

Tonkaboni, F., Yousefy, A., & Keshtiaray, N. (2013). The Relationship Between the Curriculum of Higher Education and Social Capital. Journal of Education and Training, 1(1), 39-47.

Tonkaboni, F., Yousefy, A., & Keshtiaray, N. (2014). Designing Teaching Methods in Curriculum of Iran’s Higher Education based on Development of Social Capital. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 3(1).

Woolcock M.(2008), Social capital and economic development toward a theoretical synthesis and policy framework. Theory and Society: 27 Yarmohammadian Mh.(2012), Curriculum Planning Principles. Tehran:Yadvar-e-ketab press {in Persian} Zaker Salehi G. R.(2008), The Paradox of Social Capital of Iranian Educated People: Survey and Study on the Relationship Between Higher Education and Social Capital in Iran. Journal of Engineering Education, Agah press; 40(1), 25-51{in Persian}

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 78-96, June 2016

Integrating Educational Modules for Children with Chronic Health and Dental Issues: Premise for Community-based Intervention Framework in Developing Country Ma. Cecilia D. Licuan, PTRP, MAE, Ph.D. De La Salle Health Sciences Institute Dasmarinas City, Cavite, Philippines

Abstract. This paper consolidated the developmental initiatives and principles of two major researches conducted regarding children with disabilities in the Philippines that focused on chronic health and dental issues using the independent studies of Licuan (2009) and Laguilles (2008) as take-off point to recommend a Community-based Intervention Framework in a developing country. Given the two consolidated studies, this paper conceptualized and recommended a framework to enhance the services for these children in the Philippines who are prone to having health complications that are chronic and dental in nature for application in the grassroots or primary level of the country’s health care and educational delivery systems which is community-based and school-based given feasibility for application at the preparatory basic education and special education levels as well as at the smallest unit of the Philippine community – the barangay. The study looked into the present demographics of children with chronic health and dental issues utilizing the Province of Cavite as the micro-represented research locale.

Together with the profile review, the respondents’ access to health and education services were reviewed vis’ a vis’ the nature and implications analyses of their condition, family profile and economic status. All of these variables were factored-in to develop the framework that included the developmental guidelines, paradigm and new educational module frames that will be used as recommended platform for a succeeding study that will yield to the development and validation of completed educational modules. This in turn will be distributed and used by the families of children with chronic health and dental health conditions as well as the barangay health workers and concerned teachers to better the lives of the children with such conditions with the intent of instructional materials utilization not later than the year 2017 using the Province of Cavite as benchmark locale in the Philippines.

Keywords: community-based intervention framework; children with disabilities; chronic health issues; dental issues; health school-based intervention.

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Introduction Disability in a layman’s perspective is the lack of ability to function thereby affecting performance of roles. The World Health Organization defines it using the “bio-psycho-social model” which looks at it in general perspectives on elements of bodily impairments, personal activity and participation in society that interplay on the negative impact of the person’s health condition and the environmental and personal factors of his/her life (WHO, 2011). Considering a global and macro perspective, over a billion or less than sixteen percent of the globe have disability and the rates are increasing due to chronic health illnesses as one of the factors. In the Philippines alone, the National Statistics Office has reported that for every one thousand Filipinos, sixteen will have disability. The entire household in the Philippines will have about 1.6 per cent with disability given the 2010 population and housing census. Among all the regions in the country, Region IV-A has the highest where the research locale – Cavite is situated. And as of the estimated population of persons with disabilities, the greatest number fall in the age group of 5-19 years old and 45 to 64 years old.

Children aged 10 to 14 years old comprised the largest age group among those in the younger range.

Concurrently, oral health is also one of the most neglected aspect of life among children especially those with disabilities. Laguilless (2008) in her paper noted that tooth decay is even more predominant than other disease likes asthma and other infections. Pediatricians in the United States even noted that it is a silent epidemic and the needs related to such cases are unmet (Barnett, 2002). Poor oral health contributes to other illnesses like pneumonia hence there is a need to address it in advance by preventing potential problems via early parental involvement (Norwood & Slayton, 2008). In considering such, early exposure to proper oral health care and treatment would be beneficial in preventing unwanted pain and suffering and eventually improving the lives of children with disabilities. In addition, neglected oral health care can be costly and may only complicate standard treatment procedure (Newacheck et al. 2000 as cited in Laguilles, 2008).

The challenges of persons with disabilities face including those that children with chronic health and dental issues experience, are also faced with lack of access to services including health and education thereby leading to unmet needs (Baker & Donelly, 1992; Kuper et al., 2014; WHO, 2011). Children with disabilities experience these impact brought about by their situation placing them as part of the marginalized sector of the community tied with discrimination, negative attitudes of people, lack of policies and legislations to protect them which runs into a cycle that yields to deprived rights to health care, education, quality of life and even survival in worst case scenarios (UNICEF, 2013).

Sobe and Kurtin (2007) emphasized how much the educational system plays a major role in the lives of children through relevant educational programs which encompass special services and programs for children with health challenges so they can be served appropriately in the educational system. In the Philippines,

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the National Statistics Office report in 2010 stated that about 97% of the children with special needs are not reached by the public education system. The implications of this situation is explicated by Posarac (2012) which explained that poverty increases the risk of disability through related poor health conditions and its related determinants which may lead to the onset of chronic malnutrition, lack or inadequate public health intervention, poor living conditions and unsafe work environments. He further noted that this can be aggravated by lack of services that should have been available. More than this, chronic health problems in children will have its effects in schooling and relationships Collaboration is needed to promote services and limit the restrictions for these children (Licuan, 2009) This study recognizes the importance of looking into the profile and related factors concerning children with chronic health and dental issues and analyzing its implications in health and education services as springboard for the development of a community-based intervention framework. This yields to the creation and implementation of educational modules that can be used and applied in the grassroots or primary level of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s health care and educational delivery systems primarily at the barangay level and preparatory basic education and special education levels, respectively. This developmental study attempted to cross the limitations posted upon by the barriers to services that children with disabilities especially those with chronic health conditions in a developing country, especially those with chronic health and dental issues, faces hence help achieve optimal outcomes for their lives.

Research Design of the Study Anchored on the studyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s paradigm (Licuan, 2015) presented in Figure 1, the data gathered describes the profile and status of access of children chronic health and dental issues as well as explains the implications of these variables in the quality of life of the respondents through narratives. Mixed method research design was used thereby examining real-life contextual understandings, multi-level perspectives, and cultural influences. Magnitude and frequency of constructs are described through quantitative arm of the design, but the meaning and understanding of such constructs are explored by its qualitative research arm.

This mixed-method design was fundamental in gathering the holistic interpretative framework in the generation of potential solutions or new understanding of the problem (Creswell, 2014; Dominguez, 2014; Hesse-Biber & Nagy, 2010; Niglas, 2009; Onwuegbuzie, & Leech, 2006; Tashakorru, A. & Creswell, 2007; Zhanga, 2014). And since the results of the study paves the way for the development of educational module guidelines, paradigm and framework for practice and implementation in community-based setting (i.e. schools and barangay), it can also be factored-in that action research design is integral to the paper.

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Figure 1. Paradigm of the Study (Licuan, 2015)

Significance of the Study The studyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s end goal is the development of a community-based intervention framework for a developing country like the Philippines as basis for the creation and utilization of educational modules for children with chronic health and dental issues which will help in promoting both health and education services despite the impact of poverty and disability in their quality of life. The ultimate outcomes of the research paper benefits the children with chronic health and dental issues especially in developing countries since it promotes access to services, both health and education in nature, that will help address their needs at an earlier period which then aides in deterring or even lessening the negative impact of their condition. Such will facilitate and promote activity and social participation thereby promoting quality of life.

The parents/caregivers, teachers of children with chronic health and dental issues as well as community workers particularly the barangay level health advocates also benefit from this study as they learn new ways of helping the child achieve the benefits of education through utilization of basic instructional strategies following the educational modules that will be developed based on the proposed framework. The educational framework and eventually the modules developed in this study will increase health literacy as generalized in community and educational settings hence empowering the stakeholders.

Feldman (1989) has noted how crucial education is for better health.

The Statement of the Problem and Objectives of the Study The study aimed to find out what community-based intervention framework can be developed for a developing country like the Philippines as basis for the creation and utilization of educational modules for children with chronic health and dental issues which will help in promoting both health and education services despite the impact of poverty and disability in their quality of life.

Anchored on such general problem, the study specifically answered the research

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questions that determined the childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s profile (e.g. health condition, family situation and economic status) and services (health and education) access status in the research locale which serves as micro-representation of a developing country- the Philippines. Moreover, it aimed to analyze the implications of the profile and access status as bases for developing the desired framework.

Method of Procedure The study is basically a mixed quantitative-qualitative in design. Profile and access to services survey questionnaires and interview checklist were used tools were used to gather data. It was validated by experts in the field of rehabilitation medicine, dentistry, special education and allied health consultants who are clinical practitioners in the field of occupational therapy and speech and language pathology. Descriptive statistics specifically frequency distribution, percentage, and mean as well as thematic analysis were used to interpret the findings of the study. The subjects of the study were children with neuromotor disabilities with developed or likelihood of developing chronic health and dental issues. Purposive sampling was used gathering 112 children, less than 18 years from the top three cities of Cavite province given the highest population namely Dasmarinas, Imus and Bacoor. Conceptual mapping of information gathered was used to scaffold and develop the framework proposal as outcome of the study. Given the profile of the subjects, 65/112 or 58% were diagnosed of cerebral palsy of varying kinds ranging from mild to severe presentation of health challenges; 15/112 or 13% with genetically-related syndromes or condition and 32/112 or 29% belong to varying undiagnosed conditions presenting with motor; cognitive and sensory problems. Mean age of the subjects was 10 years with the youngest age presented as 5 years old and oldest at 18 years. The inclusion criteria for age was limited between the age 4 to 21 years covering pediatric age span whereby schooling can be started ideally at the day care or preparatory school at 4 years and transition schooling ending at the age of majority which is 21 years.

Collection of Data Population screening and selection of qualified respondents were done given the data retrieved from the offices of the local government units of the representative cities of the research locale in-charge of persons with disability affairs. Consent of the qualified respondents was taken. After which, data to answer the objectives of the study were gathered by letting the respondents answer the research instruments which dealt on determining the profile (e.g. health condition, family situation and economic status) and services (health and education) access status. Respondents were guided in understanding the questions if they are not able to read. Interview method was utilized to gather other significant information that may come out related to the study outside what is incorporated in the survey tool. Implications of the profile and access status as bases for developing the desired framework were also explored during the interview process. To facilitate a more cooperative nature in the interview process, the 112 respondents and their families or caregivers were grouped by

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location and were also subjected to focus group discussions scheduled in series of meetings spread in a three-month period.

Treatment of Data The profile (e.g. health condition, family situation and economic status) and services (health and education) access status were treated using basic statistical methods involving frequency distribution, percentage and mean. Data gathered during the interview process to gather implications were processed using thematic analysis of the information used in qualitative research design whereby patterns of the information gathered were determined through data familiarization, codes and themes. (Braun and Clarke, 2006).

Findings Profile of the Respondents Results of the study showed that 78 out of 112 or 70% of the child respondents of the study have chronic health issues associated with their condition including, but are not limited to,frequent cough and colds (48%), asthma (34%), pneumonia (28%), bed sores (15%), and others (10%) [i.e. accidental wound/scratches or skin problems and insect bites; fainting/dizziness, and swallowing problems]. Dental issues on the other hand have 96% occurrence presented as 107 out of 112 among the respondents of the study, whereas 4% or 5/112 where uncertain of their answers. Dental issues expressed by the respondents show that halitosis, known in layman as bad breath (87%), was the most common complaint followed by the personal issue of the child being afraid of the dentist (74%), dental caries (67%), pain (46%), bleeding gums (29%) and others (14%)which included tongue or lip injury and oral sores.

Respiratory illness is common to children and it can be acute or chronic in nature given genetic, environmental factors or both (JAMA, 2010). Asthma is the most common problem between children ages 5 to 14 years old (Asher, I & Pearce N, 2014) and Pneumonia is the most common reason for death of severely disabled children. Seddon and Khan (2003) noted that several factors lead to such problems not limited to poor nutrition, frequent aspiration, poor coughing and ability to clear airway. Skin problems are also common among children with disabilities due to limited skin sensation and inactivity (Wach & Sheehan, 2013).

Oral health is no exception in terms of issues that affect children with disabilities. Dental caries is common brought about by prolonged bottle feeding matched with poor oral hygiene and occlusion problems (Laguilles, 2008 & Zemani, 2006). All of these can elicit the common symptom of pain (Oliva , Kenny , & Ratnapalan , 2008) which serves as the most common reason for emergency dental visits (Shqair, A. et al., 2012). Tartar formation leading to halitosis or bad breath is also a dental issue. All these validates the importance of dental visits to keep the gums and teeth healthy (CFD, 2016), however such is disliked by children because of fear of injection and extraction (AlSarheed, 2011).

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The variable measured concerning the family situation yielded to 100% response as compromised where 96% (108/112) responded highly compromised while the remaining 4% moderately compromised. Majority justified their compromised situation answer by the complexity of their life in terms of addressing the needs of the child’s health, education and finances together with other family issues particularly the need for food, stable work and other family member’s daily demands. The variable on economic status showed that 34/112 or 30% of the respondent’s family belong to middle class, 45/112 or 40% within poverty line, 33/112 or 20% below poverty line.

The relationship of poverty and disability has been strongly established. The former can cause the latter and the latter can be complicated by the former (WHO, 2012). Children belonging to poor families are more likely to experience the negative impact of their disability compared to families who belong to upper societal class (World Bank, 2009; Walker, S. et al., 2007) given the risks which Grantham-McGregor S et al. (2007) and Walker SP et al. (2011) identified.

Access to Services The variables measured related to the status of access to services showed that among the 112 respondents 66 or 50% have accessed and 66 or 50% have not accessed health services. Top three reasons for non-access to health are attributed to fear of expenses given financial limitations, transportation and lack of knowledge on available medical experts who can render services that are preferred by respondents to be free of charge. This can be related to the factor that greatly influenced health access of which majority is achieved through medical mission consultations and nearby city health hospital services giving free consultations. Among those who have accessed health, 45/66 or 68% have accessed it inconsistently and 21/66 or 32% consistently.

Reasons for inconsistency in health access showed barriers related to finances, transportation and accessibility of nearby health facility as detriments.

Educational services variable on the other hand, showed that 60/112 or 54% respondents have accessed education and 40/112 or 36% have not accessed it.

Respondents are able to access education through the free public school regular and special education system. The top three primary reasons for non-access on the other hand were due to the perception that education is not anymore relevant for the condition of the child, expenses related to education, and availability of family member or caregiver to attend to the daily demands of bringing the child back and forth to school. Among those who have accessed education, 35/60 or 59% have accessed it inconsistently and 25/60 or 41% consistently. Inconsistency in access showed barriers related to finances, availability of person to bring the child back and forth to school and lastly at equal presentation are factors related to transportation and accessibility of nearby school or educational facility as detriments.

Health and education services are crucial to better the lives of special children in the community. Such children are prone to deprivation of basic treatment even vaccinations (United Nations Children’s Fund, Innocenti Research Centre, 2007)

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which is detrimental to their situation. Suitable health care and nutrition enables them to live longer and helps them improve their developmental capacity (Kerac et al. 2012).

As children with chronic health and dental issues grow older, education introduced at an early age becomes fundamental in the success of their learning and development (Education for all global monitoring report, 2007). The problem, however, is that they are introduced late, sometimes denied of access to schooling or does not stay long in the system when introduced (WHO, 2012; Filmer, 2008). UNESCO (2009) noted that children who are not in schools are most likely the once with disabilities. Special children in schools however are often segregated and are receiving poor-quality learning opportunities (WHO, 2012).

Additional educational accommodations and modifications as well as related services like therapeutic rehabilitation are also needed by these children. The challenge however is that majority of those services are inadequate and if available are expensive, promoting segregation and are rarely available. (Engle, 2007; United Nations Children’s Fund, Innocenti Research Centre, 2007; United Nations Children’s Fund, 2008; McConachie , 2001).

Implications of the Profile and Access Status Thematic analysis of the data gathered during the interview process and focus group sessions yielded to three major themes regarding the implications of the profile and access status as bases for the development of the community-based intervention framework.

Theme 1: Health as a Priority Analysis of narrative data gathered among the respondents related to the profile and access to services showed that health, inclusive of medical and dental nature associated with the child’s condition, as a priority is considered but not apparent in the practice and actual life situation of the respondents. Children with chronic health and dental issues who were able to answer the interview questions realize how important their body functioning is when they are symptomatic and the family or caregivers also put health of the child as a priority only during such times of symptomatic episodes. Preventive measures, however, like regular preventive check-ups and health/dental monitoring, are not yielding as priority where financial situation are factored-in and other basic family needs considering the welfare of the family (i.e. food, shelter, work stability) are prioritized. There is also a common concern for the expenses incurred and related to medical (including therapy sessions) and dental services. MedicalTherapeutic and dental services are perceived to be expensive with a notion that such services specific for their child are more specialized hence more expensive compared to regular individuals without disability. It is also apparent that health as a priority for the child with chronic health and dental issues are also reflective of the same priority expressed by the families of the respondents to themselves. Even the family or caregivers who participated in the study believes and practices that visit to health professional are only done when the situation highly demands of it. There is no need for consultation if home remedies can be

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done and if the finances are scarce which is still strongly subjected to the more important priorities of food, shelter and work stability.

Successful life outcomes can happen if the parents and families of these children experience economic security and services access (United Nations, 2010). Social protection programs to overcome barriers will be crucial which requires coordination between different servicing sectors (UNICEF, 2012 & Mont, 2006).

Early intervention action is a vital element embedded in the regular delivery system (WHO, 2012).

Theme 2: Education and Family Dynamics Education in the eyes of children with chronic health and dental issues are seen as an enjoyable task by the majority of the child respondents. They appreciate the social aspects attached to their school participation and integration. Such variable, however, is not seen as a priority by the family or caregivers of the child. The existing perspective that their children can only do so much and will not really be able to experience the benefits of education like independence and future work exists as a major deterrent affecting the access and participation of the child in school. Other priorities further interfere with this perspective considering the basic needs of the family whereby food, shelter obligations (e.g. home rental, utilities etc.) and other more important obligations considered by other members of the family that must be attended-to are dominantly expressed.

Given commonly expressed limitations in finances, education and its related expenses are prioritized for non-disabled siblings or members of the family and the child is commonly left at home as reflected in the responses given by respondents who have not at all accessed education or were able to access it inconsistently. The family situation whereby existing parents of the child, if present, are commonly pre-occupied with obligations to earn for the family is also apparent. This scenario commonly leaves the child attended-to by the grandparents or other non-working relatives or in worse scenario by the neighbor expressed by about 7/112 or 6% of the respondents. It was also apparent during the interview and focus group sessions that the basic family unit comprising of immediate family members is also challenged among majority of the respondents. About 68/112 or 61% of the families where the child is affiliated have extended families living in their household. This means that more than the main family involved with the child, relatives connected as inlaws given expansion of the family are still living in the same household which complicates the family dynamics given financial and social demands.

Bonding of family members and children with chronic health and dental issues are vital for the protection, development and welfare of these children. Bonding starts with acceptance of own family members which later transcends to the community level. It is important that services are made available to help parent and family members gain proper and accurate knowledge and skills (Simeonsson , 2000) to support and advocate the need of their child with

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disability. Service providers must work closely with the families of these children in coming up with culturally appropriate and effective programs (Gabarino & Ganzel, 2000; Garcia & Magnuson , 2000; Lynch, & Hanson, 2004).

Family expectations and adjustment is challenged in a life-long period for children born with disabilities. Pleasant expectations become a serious challenge when a child is born with unexpected disability (Ritchie, 2013). Priorities change and the life that awaits the family as they have envisioned it becomes confronted with challenging decisions and situations. Extended and multi-leveled family structure also poses complication in the household set-up and priorities.

Research yield to evidence that extended families’ well-being is challenged and the need for effective programming is vital. Further, studies show that grandparents on paternal side are more likely to undervalue the impact of health promotion on intervention. (Malde et al.,B., Scott M., & Vera-Hernández, M.,2015)

Theme 3: Job Stability and Resource Provision for the Child Given the members of the child’s household, about 40% or 45/112 have a parent or family members having a stable job and 80% (36/45) of them are identified in middle class families and 20% (9/45) among those within poverty line. The sourced finances, however, are prioritized for spending on families’ needs for food, shelter, transportation, utilities, education and health as needed. About 60% or 67/112 of the respondents’ families declared instability in job where a permanent source of income is apparently challenged in almost all periods of the year. Finances sourced from such families are primarily spent on basic needs for food and shelter and they are represented among those identified within (21/67 or 31%) and below (46/67 of 69%) the poverty line. The job stability factor consistently appeared as a dilemma in nearly all of the focus group discussions and this has well connected itself to the provision of resources for the child.

Directly connected with job stability is the consistent and reliable source of income which was noted as 90% (110/112) not sufficient and 5% (6/112) sufficient to address the needs of the family as a whole. About 5% (6/112)of the respondents were uncertain of answers to probing question on sufficiency of financial resources. The health needs of the child with chronic health and dental issues are regarded as important but not as a priority unless the health problem is symptomatic and perceived as life threatening. Priority given to the education of the child with chronic health and dental issues is not as high compared to the level of priority given to non-disabled siblings or members of the family also needing education. The basic provisions of food, shelter and safety particular to having someone look after the child ensuring he/she is not in danger, however, are prioritized specific to the child compared to health and education services provision.

The most dominant call to spend for the services needed to help support children with chronic health and dental issues alarm parents and family members. Expenses will demand regular source of income and it will be favorable if it is readily accessible. Financial stability and long-term career goals

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are noted to be attained by family members who are working. All these factors stress the importance striving for job security (Heibutzki, R., n.d.).

Community-based Intervention Framework The needs of the special children who are subjects of this study are established following the data gathered on the profile and implications of variables related to the health condition and family dynamics and economics. Developing countries like the Philippines are faced with members of its community where the primary priority still falls on the addressing of basic needs of food and shelter for the family. Expenses consumed in expressed priorities leave health and education for the child compromised hence, the need to integrate educational modules that would empower the families through health promotion and further understanding of the child’s condition uplifting the child’s quality of life is needed delivered through a Community-based Intervention Framework (CbIF) that crosses the financial barrier and regular expenditure priorities of the family.

Given the profile, dynamics and situation of the family engaged with the child with chronic health and dental issues, the framework to be used as a basis for the development of the educational modules in 2017 will follow set guidelines on its planning, writing, validation, publication and distribution phase.

The framework development process shall proceed with the planning phase considering the following general considerations as guidelines: (a) advocates of the De La Salle Health Sciences Institute – College of Rehabilitation Sciences (DLSHSI-CRS) for the services and education of children with disabilities will spearhead the leadership of the planning group and shall involve the different stakeholders for the program which include, but are not limited to, the parents, teachers and local government representatives involved in the administration of health and education services to the community, barangay health workers and most especially the children with health and dental issues themselves who can represent the group as direct recipients of care and education; (b) the utilization of the collaborative leadership models as presented by Ryan Estis and associates (n.d.) illustrated in Figure 2 and the collaborative model developed by the Center for Creative Leadership (2016) as presented in Figure 3 to guide the people involved in the program planning and development; (c) regular and scheduled brainstorming sessions of the detailed platform of the program and contents of the educational learning modules with primary goal to set the schedule of tasks and outcomes desired given a timeframe set from planning to publication and distribution phase;(d) selection of qualified educational module developers which will serve as core group belonging in the fields of health, dentistry and special education, (e) accurate documentation of inputs from the members of the planning team which are validated in succeeding meetings and converted into workable outputs given the outcomes of each session, and (f) identification of potential sources of funding from the private and public sectors to sponsor the project and all its requirements until it reaches the publication and distribution levels.

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Figure 2. Collaborative Leadership Model (Estis and Associates, n.d.)

Figure 3. Collaborative Leadership Model (CCL, 2016)

The writing phase of the educational modules will be guided by the following approaches: (a) selection of the members of the writing team spearheaded by the experts identified by the core planning team to work on the contents of the modules, (b) presentation of “gratis-initiated” writing offer to the identified writing team members subject to the availability of funds for the project, (c) official agreement among members of the planning and writing team on the schedule of tasks and deadline of outputs given the assignments per group, (d) use of the facilities and resources of the DLSHSI-CRS to facilitate the meeting

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sessions and writing endeavors of the experts developing the educational modules, and (e) conduct of regular meetings for the members of the writing team to ensure standardization of writing format, content synthesis, critiquing and resolution of concerns and issues related to the writing process duly recorded in minutes of regular meetings.

The validation phase of the educational modules will cover the following guidelines: (a.) identification of experts outside the membership of the writing team who will validate the contents of the modules, (b.) the expert validators will be determined by both the members of the planning and writing team, (c.) expert validators will comply with standard schedule of review and deadlines set by the planning team, (e.) extent of module validation will be dependent on the decision of the experts identified as validators which can cover pilot testing, content, face and construct validation, and (f.) depending on the availability of funding, expert validators are subjected to â&#x20AC;&#x153;gratis-initiatedâ&#x20AC;? service.

The publication phase of the educational modules will cover the following guidelines: (a.) DLSHSI-CRS will need to set an agreement with the local government units on the details and technicalities related to the publication and ownership of the educational modules, (b.) both groups may consider external agencies that can provide funding for the publication expense subject to set guidelines declared by the sponsoring agency, and (c.) all final arrangements pertinent to ownership and publication shall be duly stipulated in a memorandum of agreement signed by all parties concerned in the planning, writing and publication phases.

The distribution phase of the educational modules will cover the following guidelines: (a.) DLSHSI-CRS and the local government units involved, where the educational modules will be used, will set the detailed guidelines to promote massive use and distribution of the educational modules, and (b.) the Department of Education in the Philippines will be tapped and communicated with concerning the use and integration of the educational modules in the basic and special education programs of the public schools for use of teachers situated in the locale where the modules will be distributed.

The educational modules will proceed following the paradigm presented in Figure 4 where the barriers identified to hinder the access to health and education services of children with special needs, specifically those with chronic health and dental issues associated with their condition, are eliminated using strategies that can be implemented in the community-based settings (i.e. schools and barangays). The attempt is to determine evidence-based strategies incorporated in educational teaching and learning modules that can be used by parents, teachers and community-health workers to empower them to promote health and effective learning outcomes among children with special chronic health and dental issues encountered in the barangay and school settings.

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Figure 4. Paradigm of Developmental Process for Educational Modules for Children with Chronic Health and Dental Issues using Community-based Framework (Licuan, 2015)

The educational module framework for practice and implementation in communitybased setting will proceed with the following three major basic guiding principles throughout the program delivery in school and barangay level settings: (a.) community participation and collaboration, (b.) stakeholder empowerment, and (c.) evidence-based approaches to health and education applicable to children with chronic health and dental issues.

Conclusions and Implications of the Study The need to address the needs of children with chronic health and dental issues are established in the study following the data gathered on the profile and implications of variables related to the child’s condition, family situation and economic status of the family. The outcomes of having educational module guidelines across all phases of development (i.e. planning, writing, validation, publication and distribution); utilization of educational module paradigm; and use of educational module framework for practice and implementation in community-based setting is recommended as output. It is evident that children with chronic health and dental issues are affected by health concerns related to their condition affecting their quality of life. These children belong to families with compromised situations affecting the child’s access services. It is implicated that medical and dental health associated with the child’s condition, is not a priority unless symptomatic and life threatening. The value placed on education of the child is challenged by the negative perception of the family members on its impact in the child’s life and its effect in changing the child’s condition. The dynamics of the family where the child belongs to is extended (multi-leveled) and complex creating an impact in the prioritization and needs of the family which have direct effect in the provision of health and education services for the child. All variables previously noted are affected by the challenges in job

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stability of the members of the family that serves as primary predictor for the financial resources needed not just for the child’s needs but primarily for the basic needs of the family like food and shelter which remains to be dominantly prioritized.

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The Author Dr. Ma. Cecilia D. Licuan is currently the Director for Alumni Services and Continuing Professional Education and Clinical Preceptor for Physical Therapy Program at De La Salle Health Sciences Institute (DLSHSI) where she is affiliated as a full-time full professor since 1998. She also serves as one of the accreditors of the Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities (PAASCU). She graduated with the degree of Bachelor of Science in Physical Therapy in the same university in 1997, proceeded with the program Masters in Education major in Educational Management at De La Salle University-Dasmarinas as a Highest Distinction Awardee in 2007 and finished her Doctorate Degree in Philosophy major in Special Education at the University of the Philippines – Diliman in 2007 graduating as Academic Excellence Awardee with her dissertation research nominated as Best Research Paper during SY 2006-2007. Other than her full-time professor status in DLSHSI, Dr. Licuan is also currently affiliated in other prestigious universities in the Philippines since 2006 up to present as a graduate school part-time professorial lecturer given her expertise in the fields of educational leadership and management as well as special education. She has served as a part-time graduate school faculty in University of the Philippines – Diliman and St. Paul University-Manila and is currently still serving as part-time professorial lecturer in De La Salle University – Manila, De La Salle University – Dasmarinas and University of Perpetual Help System – DALTA. Dr. Licuan is passionate in developing health services and educational programs especially for children with disabilities. She is a strong community service advocate in the Philippines and has written several researches and scholarly works. This research paper which was presented in the International Conference on Education and Business in January 2016 at Disney Board Walk Conference Center in Florida, USA was awarded as Best Paper Presentation in the cluster by Clute Institute as organizers of the event.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 97-109, June 2016

Recover the Lost Paradigm: Technology Guided by Teaching Methods Simona Savelli UniversitĂ degli studi Guglielmo Marconi Roma, Italia

Abstract. Looking at the educational context, the paper illustrates some multifactorial and integrated models that highlight the key role of didactics in the teaching-learning process, even in the current environment characterized by a high technological level.

Keywords: learning; teaching; didactics; pedagogy; technology.

Introduction As is known, there are many factors affecting good teaching, as versatile they are the characteristic aspects of the teaching profession.

Among them, "the subject knowledge and the pedagogicalmethodological knowledge represent two fundamental pillars [...] as the research in the field shows", but "the current cultural scene needs to consider a further equally essential component: the technological knowledge " (Messina, L., & De Rossi, M., 2015, p. 86).

Technological knowledge does not refer so much to the acquisition of technical skills necessary to use traditional and digital devices, as to the possibilities of use of such technologies in teaching. More precisely, it refers to how to translate the potentialities therein in solving specific pedagogical and teaching problems situated in given contexts and how to develop situated knowledge of what technologies are able to do for those who use them.

Starting from these considerations, I intend to propose some models on the educational uses of technology, in which technological knowledge is connected with pedagogical, didactic and subject knowledge and and that that can form the basis for an equally integrated instructional design.

The development of integrated models It is in 1983 that Lee Shulman, professor emeritus at the Stanford Graduate School of Education, raises the problem of the loss of a teaching paradigm (Shulman, 1999). In those years, he notes in particular, the lack Š 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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of scientific research on the interactions that occur between subject matter content and pedagogical-didactic principles.

The author aims to highlight how the relationship between the understanding of the contents of teaching by teachers and education that teachers provide to students is particularly neglected (Shulman, L., 1986a).

Therefore, in the model of pedagogical-didactic knowledge of contents he proposed and which is related to the teaching profession (the Pedagogical Content Knowledge model or PCK), they are represented the set of contents (the subject matter knowledge, Content Knowledge or CK), the set of pedagogical and didactic principles (the Pedagogical Knowledge or PK). The PCK is the result of the merger of the previous sets and constitutes "an understanding of how specific topics, problems or issues are organized, represented and adapted to the different interests and abilities of the students and presented for instruction" (Shulman, 1987, 8). These representations can arise from research or originate in the practical experience and they include analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, demonstrations (Shulman, L., 1986b).

In a second step, to the model is added the set of knowledge of the students' learning process (the Student Learning Knowledge or SLK).

This recognizes, explicitly, among the basic expert teacher's skills, the ability to transform the content knowledge possessed in pedagogically powerful forms and therefore adaptable to the different skills and experiences of the learner (Shulman, L., 1987) (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Pedagogical Content Knowledge model (PCK).

To the basic PCK model many additions follow (even by Schulman himself). Noteworthy is the Pedagogical Content Knowing model (or PCKg) developed in the environment of teachers' training by Kathryn Cochran, James DeRuiter and Richard King, of the University of Northern Colorado (Cochran, K., DeRuiter, J., and King, R., 1993) (Figure 2). Here Š 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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the emphasis is on the dynamic and situated nature of the learning process, which provides an integrated understanding on the part of the teacher of pedagogical-didactic principles, contents, student characteristics and context. The dynamism is created by the interaction of all components with each other and is the result of the maturation of new experiences and of participating in new learning activities.

Figure 2: Pedagogical Content Knowing model (PCKg).

• •

• • • •

Having thus outlined a framework that can give an account of the components of the teacher's pedagogical-didactic knowledge, Professor Shulman moves in search of the steps and actions necessary to the transformation of personal understanding into forms that can be understood by those who learn. The pedagogical reasoning model resulting (Shulman, L., 1987) is cyclical in nature and includes: understanding the purpose and structure of the subject matter content, of the ideas inside and outside the discipline; the transformation of content knowledge in pedagogically powerful and adaptable forms (articulated in the phases of preparation, presentation, selection, adaptation to students’ characteristics); education, which includes several observable forms of teaching and active learning; evaluation, with verification of students’ understanding and evaluation of teaching; reflection, stimulated from the critical analysis of their own performance and that of the class; new understandings of the purpose of teaching and of disciplines, of students, of themselves.

Conceptually linked to the studies above, the concept of didactic transposition (transposition didactique) as used by Yves Chevallard, professor emeritus at the Université d'Aix-Marseille, to designate the transition from wise knowledge, addressed to the explanation of © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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phenomena, to taught knowledge, aimed to the teaching of knowledge (Chevallard, Y., 1981-82).

In fact, scientific knowledge, can be considered the subject, both of a selection of contents by politicians and experts for the construction of formal programs (external didactic transposition) and of more socially negotiated transformations through didactic contracts within the system, where the interactions between teacher, students and taught knowledge take place and lead to the real and implemented educational program (internal didactic transposition).

Even in this case, the concept is developed by various scholars including Michel Develay (1987), professor at the Université Lumière Lyon 2 and Philippe Perrenoud (1998), professor emeritus at the Université de Genève. Starting from their contributions they are confirmed and integrated some aspects of the didactic transposition which result in the following key elements: • the constant dialogue between knowledge and prevailing social practices and wise knowledge; • the occurrence of an external didactic transposition concerning the knowledge to be taught which flows into the formal program; • the occurrence of an internal didactic transposition related to the teaching-learning process leading to the taught knowledge and to students' learning.

As Laura Messina, Full Professor at the Università di Padova, says, the conceptualizations of Shulman and Chevallard despite the dated epistemology, retain undisputed heuristic significance and they still try conjugations of it (Messina, L., & De Rossi, M., 2015).

In this direction, trying to highlight the dynamic interaction among pedagogical knowledge, pedagogical knowledge of the subject matter, didactic transposition and personal constructs, Frank Banks, Jenny Leach and Bob Moon professors at the Open University UK elaborate the Teacher's professional model, a model of the teaching profession (Banks, F., Leach, J., & Moon, B., 1999) (Figure 3). The core components that the authors identify are defined in terms of: subject knowledge, school knowledge (didactic transposition), pedagogical knowledge and personal constructs. Personal constructs are made up of beliefs and prior knowledge, learning experiences, personal views on what is good teaching and act as catalysts of the three domains of knowledge considered.

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Figure 3: Teacher's professional model.

The technological dimension The diffusion of technologies for information and communication increases the amount of knowledge that needs to be capitalized by the teacher. It is not just to know and master technological tools, but above all, to reconsider the way we think about technology. We need to rethink our relationship with technological devices and to operate an effective integration of them in teaching through the resolution of real problems (Mishra, P., & Koeler, M., 2003).

From 2005, Matthew Koehler and Punya Mishra, professors at the Michigan State University, develop in this sense the PCK paradigm of Shulman, proposing a new model, the Technological Pedagogical And Content Knowledge model, TPCK or TPACK (Koehler M., & Mishra P., 2005). It consists of three basic forms of knowledge (content, pedagogical and technological) and of the interactions of these forms among them, which result finally, in a integrated comprehensive knowledge of a technological, pedagogical and content type (Figure 4).

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Figure 4: Technological Pedagogical And Content Knowledge model (TPACK).

Content knowledge refers to concepts, theories, procedures, explanatory frameworks, pursued objectives, forms of representation within the disciplines.

Pedagogical-didactic knowledge concerns processes, methods, teaching and learning practices, principles and educational objectives, theories of development cognitive and socio-cognitive theories, direction of the class, educational planning and teaching and its implementation, evaluation.

Technological Knowledge extends from traditional media to digital ones.

Pedagogical content knowledge questions the differences among disciplines and the opportunity to use the same teaching strategies in different disciplines.

Technological content knowledge deals with the way contents are modified through the application of technology, the choice of the most appropriate technologies to address certain topics, how arguments determine or modify technologies.

Technological-pedagogical knowledge is to know the pedagogical affordances and limitations of technological tools in relation to projects and appropriate teaching strategies from a disciplinary and evolutionary perspective.

The concept of affordance is the basis of the interesting PST model (Pedagogical Social Technological model) proposed by Qiyun Wang, associate professor at the National Institute of Education in Singapore, in 2008, to complete the TPACK of Koehler and Mishra (Wang, Q., 2008).

With the term affordance you define the perceived and real property of a thing, especially the functional characteristics that determine how you might use that particular thing (Pea, R.D., 1993). A further definition Š 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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of affordance is that of signifier, indicator, signal of the physical or social world, which can be interpreted in a meaningful way (Norman, D.A., 2008).

In the educational field the connotation of the term tends to move more and more on feasible uses and relationships and it is in this sense that is used by Wang. The author distinguishes three types of affordance in relation to the integration of technologies in the teaching-learning process: • pedagogical affordance, concerns the characteristics of an instrument that determine whether and how a learning activity can be implemented in a particular educational context; • social affordance, refers to the real and perceived properties of an instrument that can promote social interaction of users; • technological affordance, pertains to the way a tool allows to realize a set of tasks in an efficient and effective way and in a way that satisfies the users (Wang, Q., 2009).

The TPACK is therefore proposed as a "neutral" model that does not indicate the contents to teach, the pedagogical approaches to use and the technologies to adopt in teaching, but expresses a cognitive framework whose possibilities of implementation are open to multiple solutions.

The Conversational Framework In that same spirit is conceived the learning model of Diana Laurillard, professor at the London Knowledge Lab (Laurillard, D., 2014) (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Learning model.

The author, from an extensive analysis of the existing literature, represents in a single view, the main concepts and relationships associated with learning seen as an active process, and takes as reference © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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the associative, cognitive, experiential, socio-constructivist, conceptual, constructionist, collaborative modes. The structure is formulated to be relevant in any context of learning (implicit, informal, formal) and it consists of continuous and iterative cycles, which are summarized below.

In the learning process the student brings into play some internal cognitive components that the teacher tries to influence and formulates objectives, which may consist in wanting to elicit a response from the teacher generating a conceptual network or in attempting to generate action to elicit an outcome in the environment.

In the teaching process, the teacher, starting from its own concepts and through the explanation, modulates the student's concepts; the student generates new conceptual organizations that allow the teacher to understand the situation; in turn the teacher creates a new explanation or comment to modulate the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s concepts. In these cases the feedback that is provided from the teacher to the student is extrinsic to the action.

In a similar way, the environment generates an action pattern that modulates the student's practice; the student's practice creates an action that matches the pattern; the environment generates the result of such action, which modulates the practice of the student. In these cases the feedback that is provided to the student from the environment is intrinsic to the action.

Starting from this basic learning-teaching representation, Laurillard elaborates what she herself defines Conversational Framework, since "inspired by the Conversational Theory of Gordon Pask, a cybernetic model of teaching and learning" (Laurillard, D., 2014, p. 128) (Figure 6).

This framework provides "the most simple static visual representation possible for capturing the complexity of collective ideas produced in the literature on what is needed to learn and therefore what is needed to teach" and "it shows all the ways in which the teacher and other subjects learners activate the iterations in the internal learning cycle" (Laurillard, D., 2014, p. 128-129).

Figure 6: Conversational Framework. Š 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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•

•

•

•

The communication cycle with teacher's revision allows each learner to modulate his conceptualizations connecting them with those of the teacher (activity 1 of the model); the teacher’s extrinsic feedback motivates each student to ask questions or to articulate knowledge and practice (activities 2 and 1).

In the practice cycle with teacher's revision the extrinsic feedback provided by the teacher motivates each learner to modulate his practice by generating the actions suggested (activities 4 and 1).

The modeling cycle with teacher's revision motivates each learner to modulate his practice by generating actions suggested by the intrinsic feedback provided by the modelling environment (activities 4 and 3).

The peers communication cycle allows each learner to modulate his conceptualizations comparing them with those of his peers (activity 6); activates each learner to produce a conceptual network with extrinsic feedback from his peers (activities 5 and 6).

In the peers modeling cycle each learner generates actions in a practice environment, while sharing the results of his practice (activities 4 and 7); it allows each learner to modulate his practice, using as a model the results obtained by peers (activity 8).

Exploring the specific learning activities that can take place in an educational context, the author distinguishes those typically individual (appropriation, research, practice, production) from those typically social (discussion, collaboration) and outlines their features.

In individual learning the learner conducts an internal dialogue, while he thinks about what he is trying to learn. He reflects on what he is listening or reading, or receiving through feedback and reviews and inspects his own theoretical and practical knowledge in a coordinated mode: through appropriation, the learner, reads, listens or witnesses a teacher's explanation or observes a teacher's pattern of action and reshapes his own personal knowledge, but does not generate action or thought; through research, the learner is encouraged to select resources that reflect the knowledge and ideas that are taught; the learner has more control over the path, but is guided in comparing knowledge and information, in investigating and using resources and data; he reshapes its conceptual organization thanks to the researches carried out and the exposure of what was found; through practice, the learner uses his actions, puts theory into practice while working for a purpose, performs an action to reach it and uses the feedback to modulate action and knowledge; teaching offers a modeling environment that requires an action and provides an intrinsic feedback; through production the learner is motivated to consolidate what he has learned, to articulate the knowledge acquired and the ways to use it in practice; the exposure of the learner's thought allows the teacher to © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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respond with extrinsic feedback, directions and further explanation.

In learning through discussion the teacher provides some stimuli and learners produce ideas and questions that set in motion the need to remodulate personal ideas, this generating additional ideas and questions.

In learning through collaboration (which includes discussion, practice and production), the teacher provides means to create shareable results, identifies a task aimed at creating a common product and an environment for the modeling and practice, aimed at developing personalized results. Students exchange the products or the results obtained from their practice and are thus motivated to remodulate their actions and to produce a discussion on the reasons that have determined their choices.

Each activity can be based on technologies, from the most traditional to the most advanced (Table 1). In the case of research teachers can use a set of materials and digital resources, make a field work, visit sites and virtual reality environments. In the case of practice they can refer to type-answers, examples of work, interactive games, simulations, microworlds and adaptive models. In the case of production they stimulate the learner to realize an essay or a representation, but also to undertake the solo exposition of his own thought. In learning through discussion they can be employed work in small groups, seminars, asynchronous on-line discussion forums and synchronous chats. In learning through collaboration they can make use of group projects, group work in modeling environments, wikis and other online environments for the construction of knowledge.

Table 5: Learning types and types of activities that can be performed with traditional and digital technologies.

LEARNING

ACTIVITIES WITH TRADITIONAL TECHNOLOGIES AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES

Appropriation

Reading of texts and documents; listening to the teacher's presentations in person; lessons; participation in experiments, expert classes.

Reading of multimedia content, web sites and digital resources; listening/watching podcasts, webcasts, animations and videos.

Research

Use of study guides based on texts; analysis of multiple materials and resources to search for information and ideas; use of conventional methods for

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collection and analysis of data; comparison of texts for research and evaluation of information and ideas.

Use of online tips and guides; analysis of a wide range of digital resources searching for information and ideas; use of digital tools for collection and analysis of data and for comparison of digital texts in research and evaluation of information and ideas.

Practice

Conducting exercises; realization of projects based on practice; participation in laboratories, study visits, on site role playing.

Use of models, simulations; participation in micro-worlds, experiments and study virtual tours, online role-playing games.

Production

Production of articulated thoughts using documents, essays, reports, projects, performances, artifacts, animations, models, videos.

Production of digital documents, projects, performances, artifacts, animations, models, resources, slideshows, photos, videos, e-portfolios.

Discussion

Participation in tutorial classes and seminars; discussions in groups, forums, classroom; comments in blogs.

Participation in on-line tutorials and seminars; discussions by e-mail, in group, in forum; participation in synchronous and asynchronous videoconferencing.

Collaboration

Implementation of projects in small groups, discussion of the results of the class mates, joint creation of products.

Implementation of projects in small groups using online forums, wikis, chats; discussion of the results of other participants; joint creation of products in digital format.

Conclusion A similar lack of paradigm in teaching, as that found by Lee Schulman in the 80s, is perceived nowadays. Scholars who take a closer inspection can see how, today, technologies for communication and education themselves remember their own role in learning: that of new Š 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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particularly brilliant companions next to their solid older colleagues. The studies treated in these lines, resulting in some modeling, give an account of this type of approach.

Technologies, due to their social penetration, consequence of their versatile utility and thanks to that sense of urgency that they impose on their use in teaching, are making it inescapable a further reflection on what is didactics itself, what are the meanings that it assumes, which are exactly the educational values it promotes and how to concretely realize all this in the learning-teaching process. In the end, I think it will be through the knowledge of itself that it will take that leading role that is widely hoped-for.

References Banks, F., Leach, J., & Moon, B. (1999). New understandings of teachers' pedagogic knowledge. In J. Leach, & B. Moon (Eds.), learners and pedagogy, 89-110.

London: Paul Chapman. doi: 10.1080/09585170500256446.

Chevaillard, Y. (1981-82). Pourquoi la transposition didactique? Communication au Séminaire de didactique et de pédagogie des mathématique de l'IMAG, Université scintifique et médicale de Grenoble. Paru dans les Actes de l'année 1981-82, 167-194.

Chevaillard, Y. (2010). La didactique, dites-vous?. Education & Didactique, 4 (1), 139-148. doi: 10.4000/educationdidactique.771.

Cochran, K.F., DeRuiter, J.A., & King, R.A. (1993). Pedagogical content knowing: An integrative model for teacher preparation. Journal of Teacher Education, 44 (4), 263-272. doi: 10.1177/0022487193044004004.

Develay, M., (1987). A propos de la transposition didactique en sciences biologiques.

Aster, 4, 119-138. doi: 10.4267/2042/9179.

Koeler, M.J., & Mishra P. (2005). What happens when teachers design educational technology? The development of technological pedagogical content knowledge.

Journal of Educational Computing Research, 32 (2), 131-152. doi: 10.2190/0EW701WB-BKHL-QDYV. Koehler, M.J., Mishra, P., Kereluik, K., Shin, T.S., & Graham C.R. (2014). The technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Framework. In M.J. Spector, M.D. Merrill, J. Elen, & M.J. Bishop (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology, 101-111. Springer Science & Business Media.

Doi: 10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5.

Laurillard, D. (2014). Insegnamento come scienza della progettazione. Costruire modelli pedagogici per apprendere con le tecnologie. Milano: FrancoAngeli.

Laurillard, D. (2013). Teaching as a Design Science: Building Pedagogical Patterns for Learning and Technology. NY: Routledge. ISBN: 978-0-415-80385-4.

Loveless, A. (2010). Pedagogy and ICT: a Review of Literature. Education Research Centre, School of Education, University of Brighton. Crown copyright. In Orbit: The Open Resource Bank for Interactive Teaching. A Jisc OER 3 project at the Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge.

Messina, L., De Rossi, M. (2015). Tecnologie, formazione e didattica. Roma: Carocci.

ISBN: 9788843076727.

Norman, D.A. (2008). Signifiers, not affordances. Interactions, 15 (6), 18-19. doi: 10.1145/1409040.1409044.

Pea, R.D. (1993). Practices of distributed intelligence and designs for education. In G. Salomon (Ed.), Distributed cognitions: Psychological and educational considerations, 47-87. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Perrenoud, P. (1998). La transposition didactique à partir des pratiques: des savoirs aux compétences. Revue des sciences de l'éducation, 24 (3), 487-514.

Schulman, L.S. (1986a). Paradigm and research programs in the study of teaching: A contemporary perspective. In M.C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.), 3-36. New York: Macmillan.

Schulman, L.S. (1986b). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching.

Educational Reasearcher 15(2), 4-14.

Schulman, L.S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform.

Harvard Educational Review, 54 (I), I-22.

Schulman, L.S. (1999). Foreward. In J. Gess-Newsome & N.G. Lederman (Eds.), Examining pedagogical content knowledge, IX-XII. Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Wang, Q. (2009). Guiding teachers in the process of ICT integration. Analysis of three conceptual models. Education Technology, 49 (5), 23-27.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 110-126, June 2016

Using Debate to Teach: A Multi-skilling Pedagogy Often Neglected by University Academic Staff David Onen Makerere University Kampala, Uganda

Abstract. This paper describes both qualitative and quantitative studies that addressed the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy in a graduate level course at Makerere University (Uganda). The investigation was triggered by persistent complaints from students who had participated in international exchange programmes where they were taught using different pedagogical methods including debate. They wondered why they were hardly taught using debate; yet, its use would equip them with extra skills. Using a descriptive cross-sectional survey design, the study established that: a whole 20 percent of the student participants had never been taught using debate; the academic staff respondents acknowledged their limited use of debate due to hurdles; and all respondents reportedly perceived the use of debate as an effective pedagogical strategy for enhancing class participation, oral communication, research, and critical thinking skills. It was concluded that members of academic staff were aware of the benefits of using debate as a pedagogical tool; though they were unable to use it, regularly. The author recommends academic staff in universities to consider using debate since it is perceived not only to encourage active learning, but to equip learners with additional competences.

Keywords: academic staff; debate; graduate students; multi-skilling; pedagogy

Introduction World over, the call for effective teaching and learning at all levels of education is on the increase. Practically, the concern about ineffective teaching is not only being raised by parents, but virtually all stakeholders in education including school administrators, civil society as well as scholars. In higher education in particular, the apprehension about using poor methods of teaching has equally been raised by students. Yet, effective teaching requires making choices from a repertoire of pedagogical strategies that do not only enhance learning, but also promote the development of additional competences such as communication, Š 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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critical thinking as well as interpersonal skills among others. But choosing an appropriate teaching strategy, even for the most accomplished teacher, is no easy feat. The case of academic staff at the College of Education and External Studies (CEES) of Makerere University does not seem to be an exception. In this study, the researcher looked at how often the graduate students at CEES were taught their courses through debate and whether the students perceived the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy to enhance their class participation, oral communication, research, and critical thinking skills. In this section, the author presents the statement of the background, the research objectives, and questions.

Historically, while several scholars seem to agree that the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy occurred many years ago, there appears to be controversy over who developed it and when it was first used. According to Vo and Morris (2006), the use of debate might have been pioneered by Sophists and Aristotle.

But Darby (2007) and Hall (2011) believe that it is Protagoras of Abdera who initiated using debate as a pedagogical technique around the 5th century.

Nonetheless, there is consensus that the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy emanated from ancient Greece well before it spread to other parts of the world.

However, as a pedagogical method, debate flourished during the 19th and early 20th century, before it somehow lost popularity and its use in schools actually diminished (Zare & Othman, 2013). But the curiosity to use debate as a pedagogy across the world again started in the 1980s. According to Darby (2007), this renewed interest was premised on the philosophy that debate helps to promote critical thinking, logic, and oral communication skills. This belief still persists amongst educators up to the present day. As a result, the author hypothesised that the use of debate to teach graduate students in education courses is a worthy pedagogical tool to consider by those who teach (or lecture) such students; thus, the genesis of this study.

Over the years, a number of scholars have investigated the role debate plays in teaching, and how it can be successfully used to teach different disciplines in different contexts. According to Shen (2015), debate has been successfully used as a pedagogical strategy to teach several disciplines. For instance, while Fallahi and Haney (2011), revealed that debate has been successfully used in teaching psychology, Healey (2012) and Combs and Bourne (1994) respectively reported the successful use of debate to teach geography, and marketing. In addition, debate has also been found to be effectively used in teaching sociology (Green & Klug, 1990), and more recently, in on-line teaching (Park, Kier & Jugdey, 2011).

However, many of these studies were conducted in the context of developed nations. Moreover, most of these studies focused on investigating the use of debate in teaching undergraduate students. This study, however, was focused on examining the benefits of using debate in teaching graduate students pursuing education-related programmes. Besides, the context of this study is that of a developing nation; therefore, the researcher expected that the study findings would fill this knowledge gap.

According to Vargo (2012), the results of several previous studies have revealed that using debate to teach allows students to take responsibility for their own Š 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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learning since it grants the students the opportunity to prepare and present their work to other fellow students. As such, its use as a pedagogical tool is in line with the pedagogic theory which states that individuals learn well when they study together and interact. But Zare and Othman (2013) add that using debate to teach helps the students in many ways - including in how the students can make use of library resources, think, analyse issues, and be able to present their arguments in a logical manner. These imply that the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy can help in developing other additional skills like research, critical thinking and communication skills (Brown, 2015). This study was thus intended to verify these claims in the context of graduate education.

In this study, three key concepts were focused on, namely: debate, pedagogy and multi-skilling. Debate, according to Darby (2007, p.1), is “an old teachinglearning strategy that presupposes an established position, either pro or con, on an issue, assertion, proposition, or solution to a problem.” But Hall (2011, p.1) defines debate as “an education strategy that fosters clinical reasoning and thinking skills as well as heightens awareness of attitudes, values and beliefs”.

However, as a pedagogical method, debate enables students to express their opinions over an issue from two different perspectives. This is done in order to contradict one another’s argument (Chang & Cho, 2010). In this study, the researcher focused on investigating formal debate organised for the purpose of teaching a topic in a course in a classroom setting. The second major concept of interest in this study was pedagogy. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2016), the word pedagogy is used to refer to the method and practice of teaching. It may also be looked at as the art or profession of teaching. In this study, pedagogy was used to refer to the use of debate as a teaching method.

Finally, the study also focused on the concept of multi-skilling. The term multiskilling has different meanings depending on the context in which it is used.

According to Macquarie Dictionary (2016), multi-skilling refers to the situation where individual workers are made to possess several skills that make them versatile in a work situation. In that regard, a multi-skilled worker is one who possesses or acquires a wide range of skills and knowledge that he/she can apply to accomplish tasks well beyond the original training. In the context of this study however, the term multi-skilling was used to refer to a range of skills that a student was expected to acquire when taught using debate including class participation, oral communication, research, and critical thinking skills.

In terms of context, the researcher investigated the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy at CEES. This College is one of the nine colleges that was established by the University Council in 2011 when the University adopted the collegiate system of administration and management (Makerere University, 2011). The College is comprised of three schools, namely: the School of Education (SoE), School of Distance and Life-long leaning (SoDLL), and the East African School of Higher Education Studies and Development (EASHESD). Each year, the College enrols approximately 100 students on its different masters and taught-PhD programmes (Makerere University, 2014a). The College employs 119 academic staff of different ranks ranging from teaching assistants to professors (Makerere University, 2014b). Of recent, the College has experienced some cases © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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of student unrest. One source of student discontent has been over the manner in which they are allegedly taught. Some groups of graduate students of the College who had participated on different international exchange programmes in which they reportedly were taught using diverse teaching methods including debate, wondered why at CEES they were hardly taught using such techniques.

Yet, they claimed that debating would make their lessons interesting and could improve on their presentation, public speaking and critical thinking skills. This kind of complaint was amongst the factors that prompted the researcher to conduct this study in order to verify what the rest of the other students and academic staff think about such claims; hence, the genesis of this paper.

Study objectives. Overall, the study investigated the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy in graduate level course in education courses at CEES. However, the study intended to achieve the following specific objectives: (1) to find out how often the graduate students at CEES were taught their courses through debate; and (2), to establish the perception of the graduate students and the academic staff (or faculty) of the benefits of using debate as an effective pedagogical strategy in enhancing: (a) class participation, (b) oral communication, (c) and (d) critical thinking.

Research questions. The study sought for answers to the following research questions: (1) how often are you taught your courses through debate as a pedagogical strategy? (2) What is your perception about the benefits of using debate as an effective pedagogical strategy to enhance your: (a) class participation, (b) oral communication, (c) research, and (d) critical thinking skills?

Literature Review Theoretical Review. Theoretically, this study was underpinned by the social theory of learning. The theory is attributed to the work of scholars such as Albert Bandura, and the Russian teacher and psychologist, Lev Vygotsky (Bandura, 1977; Vygotsky, 1962). According to the theory, people often learn in a social context (learn from each other); therefore, educators (or teachers) should learn to construct a social environment where active learning can occur (Bandura, 1977).

In that regard, the main role of the teacher is to create an active community of learners by enhancing social interactions and engagements. In addition, the theory stipulates that culture is an important factor for knowledge creation because it is through the cultural lens that individuals learn through their interaction with one another (Vygotsky, 1962). In this study, the social theory of learning was preferred because the researcher looked at using debate to teach as an opportune moment for the teacher to create a social environment within which individuals learn from each other through imitations, interactions and engagements. It was therefore hypothesised by the researcher that through using debate, a teacher would create an active learning environment and community which should enhance not only the understanding of the concepts and issues being taught and learnt, but also facilitate the development of additional competences in the learners such as participation, oral communication, research and, critical thinking skills, among others. Š 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Related Literature. Several scholars have already written about the importance of using debate as a pedagogical strategy. Many of these writings have covered studies on how to use debate to teach in different contexts and disciplines. According to Berdine (1984), for instance, there are different types of debate that a teacher can conduct to enhance learning. Shen (2015) identifies some of these as: “dividing students into opposing groups that present in turn or discuss in a relatively unstructured way, free-flowing form, as well as role-playing or simulations of media and court debates” (p.1). Vargo (2012) meanwhile classifies debate in form of: “four corner, role-play, fishbowl, think-pairshare, and meeting house debates” (p.5). However, much as the format of debate can vary, Shen (2015) contends that: a classroom debate that serves effective teaching and learning is encouraged to incorporate four conceptual components: (a) development of ideas with description, explanation, and demonstration, (b) clash of opinions supported by reasons and evidence, (c) extension or arguments against criticisms, which again are refuted by the opponent, and (d) perspective, the process of weighing ideas and issues to conclude with a logical decision is made, either about the issue or about the presentation of arguments. (p.1) This implies that when planning and conducting a debate as a pedagogical strategy, the teacher (or faculty or lecturer) must ensure that the exercise would lead to the development of ideas; that there would be differences in opinions supported by evidence; that the arguments raise would be countered, and that the arguments would be weighed against each other. As a result, apart from gaining new knowledge, participants would be able to strengthen their oral communication as well as critical thinking skills.

Regarding the roles that debate plays when used as a pedagogical strategy, several studies have already revealed significant correlations between the use of debate and the benefits that accrue from it. Fallahi and Haney (2011) for instance revealed that the use of debate has been found successful in involving in undergraduate students in the teaching-learning process. Berdine (1984) supports that view but adds that the use of debate facilitates verbal participation and better involves students in class. This is because, according to Snider and Schnurer (2002), the use of debate discourages passive learning, and makes the students play an active role in understanding what is being taught. In fact, the benefits of using debate as a pedagogical strategy according to Green and Klug (1990), is not only enjoyed by the debaters, but even members of audience due to the post-debate discussions that often ensue. However, the majority of these studies were focused on undergraduate classroom settings. This particular study instead looked at the use of debate in the context of teaching graduate students.

According to Shen (2015), debate has “also been found to improve learning outcomes” (p.1). For instance, one short-term benefit of debate has been found to enhance knowledge acquisition because as Kennedy (2009) puts it, it enables © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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students to master what they have already been taught. However in the longrun, debate helps students to gain “better comprehension, application, and critical evaluation skills when a controversial topic” is presented for discussion (Omelicheva & Avdeyeva, 2008, p.607). These same authors also add that debate helps to improve students’ listening and public speaking skills, while Combs and Bourne (1994) contend that it opens up opportunities to develop oral communication skills; and Vo and Morris (2006) say it enhances creativity. All these, and more, were some of the benefits of debate that this study intended to re-affirm in the context of graduate education .

Methodology In this study, the researcher used the descriptive cross-sectional sample survey research design, where both quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection and analysis were used. The descriptive design was preferred because the study was aimed at investigating how the use of debate enhances the learning outcomes of graduate students at CEES. The study specifically used the cross-sectional survey design. This was intended to allow the researcher to collect data from a cross-section of the study population at one point in time in order to avoid wasting time returning to the field to collect additional data that would make the process rather time consuming and costly if the design was longitudinal in nature. In addition, using the design would help to generalise the findings obtained from the sampled population to the targeted population of graduate students pursuing masters and doctoral programmes in education as well as the academic staff of CEES. Data were collected from 55 students and four members of academic staff (two female and two male staff) drawn from the College through survey and interview methods. The survey tool was adapted from previous studies (Darby, 2007), and data analysis was conducted using content analysis and descriptive statistical techniques.

Results This study looked at how often the graduate students at CEES were taught their courses using debate and whether the students perceived the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy to enhance their class participation, oral communication, research, and critical thinking skills. In this section, the results of the study are presented in accordance with the research questions that guided the investigation. But first, a description of the characteristics of the student respondents in terms of their gender, study programme and year of study is presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Distribution of respondents by their background characteristics

Background Variable Gender

Program

Attributes

Frequency

Percent

Female Male Total PhD Masters Total

22 33 55 19 36 55

40 60 100 34.5 65.5 100

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Year of Study

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Above 3 years Total

21 25 5 4 55

38.2 45.5 9.1 7.3 100

The results in Table 1 indicate that of the 55 graduate students who participated in the study, 60 percent (33) were males. The remaining 40 percent (22) were females. This finding was in agreement with the enrolment records in the Department of the Academic Registrar which showed that there were more male students enrolled on the masters and PhD programmes at CEES than their female counter-parts (Department of the Academic Registrar, Makerere University, 2016). In terms of programme of study, master’s students dominated in the study (65.5% or 36). There were only 19 (34.5%) PhD students who participated in the study. This was also in consonant with the enrolment data in the Department of the Academic Registrar which revealed that there were more masters students enrolled in the College than their PhD counter-parts. Finally, in terms of year of study, the majority of the respondents were second year students (25 or 45.5%). These were followed by students of first (21 or 38.2%), third (5 or 9.1%) and more than 3 years (4 or 7.3%). The dominance of the second and first year students respectively in the study was the result of their presence on campus during the time of data collection. The third years and those on their study programmes beyond three years were students who were engaged in producing their dissertations and they were rarely on campus during such times. Overall, the data for this study were collected from students pursuing masters and taught-PhD programmes. Therefore, they were in position to provide valid information regarding whether their teachers (or lecturers) use debate to teach the different courses, and whether they perceived the use of debate to enhance their class participation, oral communication, research, and critical thinking skills.

Research Question One This study intended to establish how often the graduate students at CEES were taught their courses using debate as a pedagogical strategy. The question which guided the achievement of this objective was stated as, “How often are you taught your courses through debate as a pedagogical strategy?” Under this question, the respondents were asked to rate the frequency with which they were taught through debate on a scale of: 1=Never, 2=Rarely, 3=Seldom, 4=Often, and 5=Always on three different questionnaire items. The results of their ratings are presented in Table 2 below.

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Table 2: Distribution of student respondents by their ratings on how frequently they are taught through debate

Questionnaire 1 Item N

2 R

3 S

4 O

5 A

Mean S.D

I am taught 8 using debate (14.5%)

27 (49.1%)

13 (23.6%)

5 (19.1%)

2 (3.6%)

2.38

0.97

Our courses are structured in the format of debate Our courses are delivered through debate Overall Total

12 (21.8%)

20 (36.4%)

16 (29.1%)

7 (12.7%)

0 (0%)

2.33

0.96

12 (21.8%)

21 (38.2%)

14 (25.5%)

6 (10.9%)

2 (3.6%)

2.36

1.06

32 78 43 18 4 2.36 (18.29%) (44.57%) (24.57%) (10.28%) (2.29%)

0.99

The results in Table 2 indicate that the majority of the respondents (Never=14.5% and Rarely=49.1%) reported that they were hardly taught using debate as a pedagogical strategy with a mean response rate of 2.38, and a standard deviation of 0.97 - implying that there was high level of agreement over the issue among the respondents. On whether their courses were structured in the format that allows the use of debate, the majority of the respondents (Never=21.8% and rarely=36.4%) again rated that their courses were hardly structured to allow the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy with a mean response rate of 2.33, and a standard deviation of 0.96. Overall, the results in Table 2 show that the students who participated in this study were in agreement with the fact that they were rarely taught their courses using debate with an overall mean response rate of 2.36, and a standard deviation of 1.06. The finding that the graduate students at CEES are hardly taught using debate as a pedagogical strategy was corroborated by interviewing some members of the academic staff of the College.

During interviews, one senior lecturer acknowledged that he hardly uses debate as a method of teaching. According to him, “debating is time consuming, and most times, it is difficult to ensure proper class control during debate”. He also reiterated that with debate, “it needs a lot of prior planning on the part of both the teacher and the students”. He claimed that he “has no such time to think of and to plan for debating” in his classes. Another lecturer, who said that she uses debate to teach her students once in a while, said she does so because “many of these students are lazy. When you give them work to research on, they hardly do a good job”. According to her, “this discourages me from frequently employing debate to teach my classes”. Another lecturer who teaches research methodology also acknowledged limited use of debate to teach his course unit.

He attributed this to “lack of sufficient time to enable me complete the course © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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syllabi in time”. These qualitative findings therefore validated the quantitative ones that were obtained from the students.

Research Question 2(a) The second question that guided this study was stated as, “What is your perception about the benefits of using debate as an effective pedagogical strategy to enhance your class participation skills?” The researcher asked the respondents to rate their responses on a scale of: 1=Not at all true (NAT), 2Slightly true (ST), 3=True about half the time (THT), 4=Mostly true (MT), and 5=Completely true (CT) on seven questionnaire items. The results of the ratings of the student respondents on the issue of class participation are presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Distribution of respondents’ by their ratings on how true using debate enhances their class participation

Questionnaire Item Debate increases my …

Class participation Interaction with course mates Interaction with teachers Class attendance

1 NAT

2 ST

3 THT

4 MT

5 CT

Mean S.D

0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)

3 (5.5%) 2 (3.6%)

13 (23.6%) 15 (27.3%)

25 (45.5%) 24 (43.6%)

14 (25.5%) 14 (25.5%)

3.90

0.84

3.91

0.82

1 (1.8%) 2 (3.6%)

2 (3.6%) 8 (14.5%)

16 (29.1%) 7 (12.7%)

19 (34.5%) 28 (50.9%)

17 (30.9%) 10 (18.2%)

3.89

0.96

3.65

1.06

Engagement with study materials Ability to get more subject content Attention during lessons Overall Total

0 (0.0%)

3 (5.5%)

19 (34.5%)

21 (38.2%)

12 (21.8%)

3.76

0.86

1 (1.8%)

1 (1.8%)

12 (21.8%)

30 (54.5%)

11 (20.0%)

3.89

0.81

0 (0.0%)

1 (1.8%)

13 (23.6%)

21 (38.2%)

20 (36.4%)

4.09

0.82

4 20 95 168 98 3.87 (1.04%) (5.19%) (24.68%) (43.64%) (25.45%)

0.88

The results in Table 3 indicate that on the item “debate increases my class participation,” the majority of the student respondents (Mostly true=45.5% and completely true=25.5%) agreed that use of debate enhances their participation in class with a mean response rate of 3.90, and a standard deviation of 0.84. But on the issue of whether “debate increases my interaction with course mates”, the majority were also in agreement with 43.6 percent rating themselves as mostly true, and 25.5 percent as completely true with a mean response rate of 3.91, and © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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a standard deviation of 0.82. On the issue of whether “debate increases my interaction with my teachers”, again the majority of the respondents rated themselves as mostly true (19 or 34.5%), and completely true (17 or 30.9%) with a mean response rate of 3.89, and a standard deviation of 0.96. On the issue of “debate increases my class attendance”, the majority of the respondents agreed that it is mostly true (20 or 50.9%), and completely true (10 and 18.2%) that debate increases their class attendance with a mean response rate of 3.65, and a standard deviation of 1.06. On the statement on whether use of debate “increases my engagement with study materials”, the majority of the respondents agreed that it is mostly true (21 or 38.2%), and completely true (12 or 21.8%) that the use of debate increases their engagement with study materials with a mean response rate of 3.76, and a standard deviation of 0.86. On the statement on whether the use of debate "enables me to get more subject content”, the majority of the respondents indicated that this is mostly true (30 or 54.5%), and completely true (11 or 20.0%) with a mean response rate of 3.89, and a standard deviation of 0.81.

Finally, on the issue of whether the use of debate “makes my lessons interesting and I pay more attention”, the majority of the respondents agreed that it is mostly true (21 or 38.2%), and completely true (20 or 36.4%) with a mean response rate of 4.09, and a standard deviation of 0.82. Overall, the majority of respondents rated that it is mostly true (43.64%), and completely true (25.45%) that the use of debate increases their class participation with a mean response rate of 3.87, and a standard deviation of 0.88. This implies that the students perceived the appropriate use of debate to enhance their class participation skills, other factors held constant. These findings were triangulated by interviewing some members of the academic staff who expressed similar views about the role of debate in enhancing class participation skills.

During the interview with members of academic staff, a respondent who is at the rank of senior lecturer pointed out that the use of debate compels some students to engage in the teaching-learning process. He said this happens “when the usually quiet students are assigned active roles in debating”. Moreover, the senior lecturer added that “debating would force such quiet students to bring out what they have researched on thereby making them active in class.”

However, one lecturer observed that “for a debate to enhance class participation, the teacher must take care of the roles that are assigned to the different students, otherwise some students may dodge to participate in the debating activity”. All in all, there was consensus between the students and their teachers on the role debate plays in enhancing active learning in the classroom environment.

Research Question 2(b) The third question that guided the study was stated as, “What is your perception about the benefits of using debate as an effective pedagogical strategy to enhance your oral communication skills?” The researcher asked the respondents to rate their responses on a scale of: 1=Not at all true (NAT), 2Slightly true (ST), 3=True about half the time (THT), 4=Mostly true (MT), and 5= Completely true (CT) on five questionnaire items. The results of the ratings of the student respondents on the issue of oral communication are presented in Table 4. © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Table 4: Distribution of student respondents’ by their ratings on how true using debate enhances their oral communication skills

Questionnaire Item Debate…

Develops my public speaking skills Builds my confidence to speak in public Helps me communicate fluently with others Enables me to persuade others Enables me to arrange logically my arguments Overall Total

1 NAT

2 ST

3 THT

4 MT

5 CT

Me an

S.D

0 (0.0%)

1 (1.8%)

9 (16.4%)

23 (41.8%)

22 (40.0%)

4.20

0.78

0 (0.0%)

2 (3.6%)

9 (16.4%)

26 (47.3%)

18 (32.7%)

4.09

0.80

0 (0.0%)

0 (0.0%)

9 (16.4%)

23 (41.8%)

23 (41.8%)

4.25

0.73

0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)

2 (3.6%) 0 (0.0%)

13 (23.6%) 6 (10.9%)

20 (36.4%) 31 (56.4%)

20 (36.4%) 18 (32.7%)

4.05

0.87

4.22

0.63

0 (0.0%)

5 (1.8%)

46 (16.7%)

123 (44.7%)

101 (36.7%)

4.16

0.76

The results in Table 4 indicate that on the item debate “helps to develop my public speaking skills,” the majority of the student respondents (Mostly true=41.8% and Completely true=40.0%) agreed that debate develops their public speaking skills with a mean response rate of 4.20, and a standard deviation of 0.78. On the issue of whether the use of debate “helps to build my confidence to speak in public”, the majority of the respondents were also in agreement that using debate helps them build confidence in public speaking with 47.3 percent rating their feelings as mostly true and 32.7 percent rating as completely true with a mean response rate of 4.09, and a standard deviation of 0.80. On the issue of whether using debate “enables me to communicate fluently with others”, again the majority of the respondents rated that it is mostly true (23 or 41.8%), and completely true (23 or 41.8%) that debate enhances them to communicate fluently with other people with a mean response rate of 4.25, and a standard deviation of 0.73. On the issue of whether the use of debate “enables me to persuade others to support my argument”, the majority of the respondents agreed that it is mostly true (20 or 36.4%), and completely true (20 or 36.4%) that debate helps them to persuade others with a mean response rate of 4.05 and a standard deviation of 0.87. On the question of whether the use of debate “enables me to logically arrange my arguments”, the majority of the respondents agreed that it is mostly true (31 or 56.4%), and completely true (18 or 32.7%) that debate helps them to arrange their arguments with a mean response rate of 4.22, and a standard deviation of 0.63. Overall, the majority of respondents rated that it is mostly true (36.72%), and completely true (44.7%) that debate enhances their oral communication skills with a mean response rate © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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of 4.16, and a standard deviation 0.76. This implies that appropriate use of debate would make learners acquire better oral communication skills, other factors notwithstanding.

During interviews with the academic staff, a respondent who is at the rank of senior lecturer pointed out that “the use of debate practically engages students in the teaching-learning process and since debating involves talking, it must induce students to learn how to speak in public”. “Frequent participation in debate therefore can enable individuals learn how to speak in public”, the interviewee added. Another lecturer who was also interviewed observed that “since debate makes students discuss issues from different perspectives, it helps them learn how to persuade others to look at an issue from their perspectives”.

This, the interviewee added, “can be helpful in developing persuasion and negotiation skills”. Moreover, the interviewee also said, “frequent use of debate should help to reduce fears and anxiety that many individuals face when they are made to speak in public especially to a large audience”. In that regard, use of debate as a pedagogical strategy makes students gain confidence in themselves and in their ability to convince others.

Research Question 2(c) The fourth question that guided the study was stated as “What is your perception about the benefits of using debate as an effective pedagogical strategy to enhance your research skills?” The researcher asked the respondents to rate their responses on a scale of: 1=Not at all true (NAT), 2-Slightly true (ST), 3=True about half the time (THT), 4=Mostly true (MT), and 5=Completely true (CT) on six questionnaire items. The results of the ratings of the student respondents on the issue of research skills are presented in Table 5.

Table 5: Distribution of respondents’ by their ratings on how true using debate enhances their research skills

Questionnaire Item Debate enhances my…

Literature search skills Organization skills Data collection skills Analytical skills Discovery skills Discussion skills Overall Total

1 NAT

2 ST

3 THT

4 MT

5 CT

Mean S.D

0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)

2 (3.6%) 4 (7.3%) 7 (12.7%) 3 (5.5%) 1 (1.8%) 1 (1.8%) 18 (5.45%)

14 (25.5%) 21 (38.2%) 14 (25.5%) 18 (32.7%) 17 (30.9%) 9 (16.4%) 93 (28.18%)

24 (43.6%) 22 (40.0%) 27 (49.1%) 24 (43.6%) 24 (43.6%) 24 (43.6%) 145 (43.94%)

15 (27.3%) 8 (14.5%) 7 (12.7%) 10 (18.2%) 13 (23.6%) 21 (38.2%) 74 (22.43%)

3.94

0.83

3.62

0.83

3.62

0.87

3.75

0.82

3.89

0.79

4.18

0.78

3.83

0.82

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The results in Table 5 indicate that on the item “debate enhances my literature search skills,” the majority of the student respondents (Mostly true=43.6% and completely true=27.3%) agreed that debate enhances their literature search skills with a mean response rate of 3.94, and a standard deviation of 0.83. But on the issue of whether the use of debate “enhances my organization skills”, the majority were also in agreement with 40.0 percent rating as mostly true and 14.5 percent rating their feelings as completely true with a mean response rate of 3.62, and a standard deviation of 0.83. On the issue of whether the use of debate “enhances my data collection skills”, again the majority of the respondents rated that it is mostly true (27 or 49.1%), and completely true (7 or 12.7%) with a mean response rate of 3.62, and a standard deviation of 0.87. On the issue of whether the use of debate “enhances my analytical skills”, the majority of the respondents agreed that it is mostly true (24 or 43.6%), and completely true (10 or 18.2%) with a mean response rate of 3.75, and a standard deviation of 0.82. On the question of whether the use of debate “enhances my discovery skills”, the majority of the respondents agreed that it is mostly true (24 or 43.6%), and completely true (13 or 23.6%) with a mean response of 3.89, and a standard deviation of 0.79. On the question of whether the use of debate “increases my skills for discussion”, the majority of the respondents indicated that this is mostly true (24 or 43.6%), and completely true (21 or 38.2%) that the use of debate enhances their discussion skills with a mean response of 4.18, and a standard deviation of 0.78. Overall, the majority of the respondents rated that it is mostly true (43.94%), and completely true (22.43%) that the use of debate enhances their research skills with a mean response rate of 3.83, and a standard deviation 0.82. This implies that an appropriate use of debate should make students acquire different research skills including the skills to review literature, collect and analyse data and make concrete discussions.

During interview with members of academic staff, a respondent who is at the rank of senior lecturer pointed out that “the use of debate compels some students to do research on the topic being debated and this helps them to master the skills not only of reviewing literature, but also to be critical and analytical in their reviews.” Such skills, the senior lecturer said “can be very helpful to a student during the time of writing his or her dissertation”. However, one lecturer observed that “for debate to enhance the student’s research skills, the teacher must take care of the roles that are assigned to the different students otherwise some students may dodge to participate in the debate”. All in all, there was consensus between the students and their teachers on the role debate plays in enhancing the learner’s research skills.

Research Question 2(d) The fifth question that guided this study was stated as, “What is your perception about the benefits of using debate as an effective pedagogical strategy to enhance your critical thinking skills?” The researcher asked the respondents to rate their responses on a scale of: 1=Not at all true (NAT), 2-Slightly true (ST), 3=True about half the time (THT), 4=Mostly true (MT), and 5= Completely true (CT) on five questionnaire items. The results of the ratings of the student respondents on the issue of critical thinking are presented in Table 6. © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Table 6: Distribution of student respondents’ by their ratings on how true using debate enhances their critical thinking skills

Questionnaire Item Debate…

Develops my critical thinking skills

1 NAT

2 ST

3 THT

4 MT

5 CT

Me an

S.D

0 (0.0%)

5 (9.1%)

7 (12.7%)

26 (47.3%)

17 (30.9%)

4.00 0.90

Helps in organizing my thoughts Helps me prioritize information Helps me to form my opinions Enhances me to deconstruct others’ opinions

0 (0.0%)

1 (1.8%)

14 (25.5%)

25 (45.5%)

15 (27.3%)

3.98 0.78

0 (0.0%)

3 (5.5%)

15 (27.3%)

28 (50.9%)

9 (16.4%)

3.78 0.79

0 (0.0%)

3 (5.5%)

11 (20.0%)

26 (47.3%)

15 (27.3%)

3.96 0.84

0 (0.0%)

7 (12.7%)

8 (14.5%)

25 (45.5%)

15 (27.3%)

3.87 0.96

Overall Total

0 (0.0%)

19 (6.91%)

55 (20.0%)

130 (47.27%)

71 (25.82%)

3.92 0.85

The results in Table 6 indicate that on the item, debate “develops my critical thinking skills,” the majority of the student respondents (Mostly true=47.3% and completely true=30.9%) agreed that debate develops their critical thinking skills with a mean response rate of 4.00, and a standard deviation of 0.90. But on the issue of whether the use of debate “helps in organizing my thoughts”, the majority were also in agreement with 45.5 percent rating mostly true, and 27.3 percent rating completely true that debate helps to organize their thoughts with a mean response rate of 3.98, and a standard deviation of 0.78. On the issue of whether the use of debate “helps me to prioritize information”, again the majority of the respondents rated that it is mostly true (28 or 50.9%), and completely true (9 or 16.4%) that debate helps them to prioritize their information with a mean response rate of 3.78, and a standard deviation of 0.79.

On the issue of whether the use of debate “helps me to form my opinions”, the majority of the respondents agreed that it is mostly true (15 or 27.3%), and completely true (26 or 47.3%) that debate helps them to form their opinions with a mean response rate of 3.96, and a standard deviation of 0.84. On the question of whether the use of debate “enhances me to deconstruct the opinion of others”, the majority of the respondents agreed that it is mostly true (25 or 45.5%), and completely true (15 or 27.3%) that using debate helps them to deconstruct others’ opinions with a mean response rate of 3.87, and a standard deviation of 0.96.

Overall, the majority of respondents rated that it is mostly true (47.27%), and completely true (25.82%) that debate enhances their critical thinking skills with a mean response rate of 3.92, and a standard deviation 0.85. This implies that an appropriate use of debate would make students think critically. © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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During interviews with the academic staff, a respondent who is at the rank of senior lecturer pointed out that “the use of debate enables students to organize their thoughts and set out what information to give out first or later”. This, he said, “is helpful in strengthening their thinking abilities”. Besides, the interviewee observed that “during debate, participants on either side listen carefully to the arguments of their opponents which they often try to counter”.

This shows that “debate equips the participants with the ability to deconstruct the opinions of others”, the interviewee said. Such critical thinking abilities are generally helpful to the individuals not only during debating, but even in different life-settings.

Discussion In this study, five key findings were made. First, that members of academic staff (or lecturers) at CEES hardly employ debate to teach graduate students. This finding is not strange. According to Darby (2007), the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy started to decline across the world at the beginning of the 19th century and it was until the 1980’s that the move to revive debating began, again. Since then, the use of debate as a pedagogical tool has remained intermittent in many classroom settings. But bearing in mind the numerous benefits of debate, university teachers (or academic staff) need to think about the need to effectively employ debate as a possible means of enhancing effective learning where students would not ordinarily learn, but acquire other additional salient skills including communication, critical thinking and research skills.

Second, the study established that the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy is perceived to generally enhance student’s class participation. This is in agreement with the findings of many other scholars. For example, as Vargo (2012 points out, debate engages the students in active learning because it provides them with the “opportunities to talk, listen, read, write and reflect as they approach the course content” (p. 3). In addition, earlier research has also shown that the use of debate encourages class participation among those students that typically do not talk in class (Darby, 2007). However, this can only happen if the teacher (or academic staff) carefully assigns the roles different students play in debate.

Third, the study found out that using debate is perceived to help students develop critical thinking skills. This is also in agreement with the findings of many other earlier researchers. Darby (2007) for instance found out that debate enhances active learning of students because according to him, debate encourages talking, listening, and reflecting on what others say. According to Omelicheva and Avdeyeva (2008), using debate to teach does not only enhance the acquisition of basic knowledge on the subject content being discussed, but it can enable students think harder and develop more critical thinking skills that will not be used only for understanding the current subject matter, but for solving other life-problems as well. This is because, debaters must critically analyse the issues at hand if they are to ably oppose the other debating side. This process of analysing issues helps to develop individuals’ oral communication skills, and as Combs and Bourne (1994) put it, debating refines the listening © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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skills of the students who engage in it so that they are able to make effective rebuttals. As a result, the use of debate enhances the development of critical thinking skills in the participants. This, Combs and Bourne (1994) said, is true not only for those that actively engage in debating, but even for those in the audience. And this view is not far from that of this author.

Fourth, the study furthermore established that using debate is also perceived to enhance students’ research skills. This is also in agreement with Vargo’s (2012) findings where he argues that the use of debate makes participants search for new materials (or points) from literature and other sources, and assemble them for presentation to their opponents in a persuasive manner (Omelicheva & Avdeyeva, 2008). As a result, debaters often acquire literature review, organization, gathering information and discussion skills. All these skills are very helpful to the learner when he or she later gets engaged in research work.

Finally, the study confirmed that the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy is perceived by both students and staff to enhance the development of student’s oral communication skills. This is also in consonant with the findings of earlier researchers who pointed out that debating engages students in talking, defending and persuading others over the issues that are debated upon (Combs & Bourne, 1994). Besides, debating helps participants deconstruct the opinions of others as well as form their own opinions. These competences are helpful to the debaters for gaining self-confidence and for making effective oral communication. The findings of this study, however, are generally in consonant with that of several other scholars; although, this study explored the use of debate as a pedagogical strategy in the milieu of graduate education.

Conclusions and Recommendations On the basis of the study findings, the researcher concluded that the students at CEES were not regularly being taught their courses using debate; yet they would prefer it that way. Secondly, the members of academic staff at CEES were aware of the benefits of using debate as a pedagogical tool; though they were unable to use it regularly for diverse reasons. Finally, it was also concluded that both graduate students and academic staff have a positive perception on the use of debate as a teaching-learning strategy. Therefore, the author recommends that academic staff at CEES and elsewhere should embrace the frequent and planned use of debate as a pedagogical strategy since it is perceived not only to encourage active learning, but also enable the acquisitions of extra competences by learners.

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Hall, D. (2011).Innovative teaching to enhance critical thinking and communication skills in healthcare professionals. In the Internet Journal of Allied Health Sciences and Practice, 9 (3).

Healey, R. L. (2012). The Power of Debate: Reflections on the Potential of Debates for Engaging Students in Critical Thinking about Controversial Geographical Topics. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 36(2), 239-257.

Kennedy, R. R. (2009). The power of in-class debates. Active Learning in Higher Education, 10(3), 225-236.

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Omelicheva, M. Y., & Avdeyeva, O. (2008). Teaching with lecture or debate? Testing the effectiveness of traditional versus active learning methods of instruction. PS: Political Science & Politics, 41(03), 603-607.

Park, C., Kier, C., & Jugdev, K. (2011). Debate as a Teaching Strategy in Online Education: A Case Study. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology/La revue canadienne de l’apprentissage et de la technologie, 37(3).

Shen, D. (2015).Debate. Retrieved from http://ablconnect.harvard.edu/debate-research on 29 December, 2015.

Snider, A., & Schnurer, M. (Eds.). (2002). Many sides: debate across the curriculum. IDEA. Vargo, S.P. (2012).Teaching by debate. A paper completed and submitted in partial fulfilment of the Master Teacher Program, a 2-year faculty professional development program conducted by the Center for Faculty Excellence, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY. Vo, H. X., & Morris, R. L. (2006). Debate as a tool in teaching economics: Rationale, technique, and some evidence. Journal of Education for Business, 81(6), 315-320 Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (Original work published in 1934).

Zare, P. & Othman, M. (2013). Classroom Debate as a Systematic Teaching/Learning Approach. In World Applied Sciences Journal, 28 (11): 150

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 127-137, June 2016

Constructivism- Linking Theory with Practice among Pre-Service Teachers at the University of Trinidad and Tobago Leela Ramsook and Marlene Thomas University of Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad Abstract. In this paper, the authors investigated how the Year Two cohort of pre-service teachers in the primary specialization at the University of Trinidad and Tobago linked the theory of constructivism with practice in the implementation of their lessons during practicum. A mixed method approach was adopted and the sample included 108 participants. Data were gathered using multiple methods such as questionnaires, focus group interviews and reflections which facilitated triangulation of data. Findings revealed that most participants are familiar with the tenets of the theory of constructivism. Many preservice teachers have applied the principles during practicum but others opted to engage in the traditional mode of teaching and learning.

Participants‟ experiences are demonstrated in the following themes that emanated: „active learning‟, „sharing ideas‟, „student centred and interactive learning‟, „engaged in the learning process‟ and „learning by doing‟. It can be concluded that while some pre-service teachers were able to translate theory into practice, many of them found it challenging to change from a traditional frame of reference.

Keywords: pre-service teachers, constructivism, theory, practice

Introduction The literature revealed multiple definitions of constructivism with variations based on the perspectives of various authors. This research focused on constructivism as a theory which explains how each child constructs meaning through the learning experiences provided by the teacher. The theory incorporates cognitive, social and radical constructivism. The research explored whether pre-service teachers have adopted a constructivist approach in teaching and learning during their practicum.

Situating the Study At the University of Trinidad and Tobago all pre-service teachers in Year Two have been exposed to mandatory foundational courses such as „Student Centred Pedagogy‟ and „Psychology of Learning‟, in which constructivism forms a significant component, thus all pre-service teachers would have been introduced to constructivist-based theory and pedagogy. The study attempted

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to discern the extent to which the theory of constructivism was translated into practice by pre-service teachers.

Literature Review The Theory of Constructivism There are multiple perspectives of constructivism such as cognitive constructivism, social constructivism and radical constructivism. Many definitions have been proffered including the following: The central principles of this approach are that learners can only make sense of new situations in terms of their existing understanding. Learning involves an active process in which learners construct meaning by linking new ideas with their existing knowledge. (Naylor & Keogh, 1999, p. 93) The central focus of constructivism is that knowledge is conceptualized as a process in which the learner actively constructs meaning and learns through experience. Beyhan and Köksal (2013) note, “What is important in constructivist learning is how the individual makes meaning out of knowledge rather than adopting it” (p. 172).

Constructivism and Teaching Teachers who use the principles of constructivist theory provide interesting activities for students so that they are engaged in active learning. Chaille (2008) maintains that “constructivism is the theory that underlies the choices and decisions you make about how you set up the classroom, choose the curriculum, and respond to the children‟s work and ideas” (p. 5). As facilitators of learning, teachers mentor and guide students to construct their own meaning (Piaget, 1970; Jones & Brader-Araje, 2002). “Learning is a constructivist activity that the students themselves have to carry out . . . the task of the educator is not to dispense knowledge but to provide students with opportunities and incentives to build it up” (von Glasersfeld, 1996, p. 7). A similar view is expressed by Hackthorn, Solomon, Blankmeyer, Tennial & Garczyn, 2011). Authentic experiences that are meaningful are provided for pupils so that they may explore, discover and solve problems based on their prior knowledge. Chaille (2008) notes that “. . . constructivism underlies all aspects of children‟s activities and experiences in the classroom” (p. 3).

Teachers also encourage learning by doing (Hackthorn, Solomon, Blankmeyer, Tennial & Garczyn, 2011) which includes problem solving activities, inquiry based learning (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) and cooperative learning (Friend & Cook, 2010) so that pupils can be involved in direct engagement (Tobias & Duffy, 2009; Taber, 2016) to share, collaborate and negotiate with each other (Kagan, 1994; Johnson and Johnson, 1999). A conducive environment (Tobias & Duffy, 2009) and the necessary resources are provided to support learning for each individual student. Teachers promote cognitive and social development by using constructivist principles as students are scaffolded to their next level of learning (Vygotsky, 1970; Beyhan & Köksal, 2013).

Teachers function within frames of reference and they use these frameworks to formulate their plans, interpret their experiences and respond to classroom © 2016 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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events (Kennedy, 1999). From a very impressionable age pre-service teachers were „conditioned‟ by traditional methods of teaching and learning, thus when they are encouraged to use an entirely different type of teaching, they are asked to shift to an entirely different frame of reference. The literature is replete with examples of the tendency of pre-service teachers to teach the way they were taught as students (Fosnot, 1996; Kennedy, 1999; McCrea, 2012). “The endurance of traditional teaching practice derives in part from the fact that teachers are highly likely to teach in the way they themselves were taught (Kennedy, 1999, p.

55). Pre-service teachers view learning as the acquisition of facts and perceive the teachers‟ roles as showing and telling students what they need to know (Fosnot, 1996; McCrea, 2012). There is therefore need to promote the self-efficacy of pre-service teachers (Flores, 2015), deconstruct their beliefs (Prawat, 1992) through “activity, reflection and discourse in both coursework and fieldwork throughout the duration of the programme” (Fosnot, 1996, p. 206). In addition, Kennedy (1999) notes, The apprenticeship of observation is an important omission from the received wisdom model of teacher learning . . . This apprenticeship gives teachers a frame of reference that allows them to interpret their experiences and gives them some ideas of how to respond to them. (p. 55)

Cognitive Constructivism Piaget‟s (1970) cognitive constructivism proffers that learning is active cognizing whereby each child constructs personal meaning through his/her experiences.

One of Piaget‟s (1970) principles is that learning is an adaptive process whereby children build on their previous experiences and this has implications for the way in which information is presented by the teacher. Piaget (1970) postulates „learning by doing‟ which suggests that teachers need to provide hands-on experiences for students. The theorist believes that a learner assimilates and accommodates new knowledge into his/her existing schema, thus information is always reviewed and re-constructed in new ways (Selley, 1999; Tobias, & Duffy, 2009).

For Piaget (1980), interaction means “a cognitive subject that is dealing with previously constructed perceptual and conceptual structures” (von Glasersfeld, 1996, p. 5). Teachers must therefore provide meaningful activities which are related to the „real‟ world, that is, students‟ social, cultural and language background to enhance cognitive development. However, while cognitive constructivism has contributed substantially to effective teaching and learning, a major critique levelled against the theory by observers such as Taber (2016) is that it fails to address the issue of subjectivity.

Social Constructivism Social constructivism, advanced by the theorist Vygotsky (1978) emphasized the collaborative nature of learning and the role of the cultural and social environment. The theory advocates that learning takes place in a social environment in which there is dialogue, discussions and problem solving activities. Learning is seen as a social phenomenon and teachers employ © 2016 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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collaborative teaching and learning methods (Jones & Brader-Araje, 2002), so that teamwork and group skills are developed.

Cooperative learning, which involves positive independence, individual accountability, equal participation and simultaneous interaction (Kagan, 1994) forms key components of social constructivism. With cooperative learning activities (Slavin, 1990; McCrea, 2012), children are supported by each other or more knowledgeable others (Vygotsky, 1978; Tobias & Duffy, 2009).). Theorists Johnson and Johnson (1999) include face-to-face promotive interaction, interpersonal and small group skills and group processing as critically important criteria for constructivist activities. These cooperative learning principles are supported by commentators such as Beyhan and Köksal (2013); Naylor and Keogh (1999) and Taber (2016).

Radical Constructivism Radical constructivists such as von Glasersfeld (1996) believe that each individual makes associations and constructs unique interpretations but the process of understanding is based on the person‟s subjective interpretation of the experience, thus suggesting that even though an experience may be identical, there is no way of knowing that the understanding or meaning constructed is the same. Knowledge is constructed from experience, “. . . because they are individual constructs, one can never say whether or not two people have produced the same construct (von Glasersfeld, 1996, p. 5).

Researchers such as Riegler (2015) argue that for radical constructivists, the senses, which mediate the external, may not represent the configuration of objects or even interactions in a unified way, which makes „reality‟ very subjective.

Co-teaching Co-teaching has been defined in multiple ways but for the purpose of this research it involves team work of two persons to plan and implement lessons, as well as assess a class of students. This type of co-teaching is also referred to as „team teaching‟ where the members of the team co-teach alongside one another and share responsibility for planning, teaching, and assessing the progress of all students in the class (Cook, 2004; Titus, 2013). In order to utilize this method of teaching while using constructivist principles, pre-service teachers communicated, collaborated, built trust and creatively constructed lesson plans with their peers. They became involved in cooperative learning activities (Kagan, 1994; Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Friend & Cook, 2010) to determine teaching strategies and students‟ activities in formulating their lesson plans. The pre-service teachers shared responsibility, set mutual goals and ensured combined ownership of the development and implementation of lessons.

In the process of planning their lessons they were engaged in constructivist learning by sharing ideas with their partners (Cook, 2004), cooperating teacher and practicum advisors. The aim was to build competency (Flores, 2015) and collegiality among themselves as well implement effective lessons to increase students‟ learning. They were expected to apply constructivist learning © 2016 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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principles in their classes and refine their technique and personal style (Kennedy, 1999; Taber, 2016) throughout the field teaching exercise in the classroom.

Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to investigate whether pre-service teachers understand the theory of constructivism. It also attempted to determine whether the participants applied the theory of constructivism in their practical teaching.

In addition, the research examined the experiences of the participants in the application of the theory.

Research Questions 1. Do pre-service teachers understand the theory of constructivism?

2. Do pre-service teachers apply the theory of constructivism in the implementation of their lessons during practicum?

3. What were the experiences of pre-service teachers in applying the theory of constructivism in their classes?

Methodology and Design Sample The sample included a Year Two cohort of pre-service teachers at the University of Trinidad and Tobago. The participants were enrolled as full-time students at the Centre for Education programmes at the Corinth Campus, in the southern part of Trinidad. In the second term of the academic year, the participants engaged in co-teaching, one day per week for three consecutive weeks during which each team planned and implemented six lessons.

Instruments This research adopted a mixed method approach (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004) including both a qualitative and quantitative methodology and design.

Mixed method research closes the gap between qualitative and quantitative research (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). A questionnaire was used as the instrument to collect data. The instrument was pilot tested to determine the appropriateness of the items (Miles, Huberman & Saldana, 2014) and some of the questions were reworded for clarity which increased the validity of the data collection procedure (Creswell, 2012). The items included fifteen questions consisting of eleven yes/ no responses and four open ended questions. The questionnaire was administered to 130 participants and 108 responses were received. No coercion was used in the data gathering process as participants were informed beforehand that participation was totally voluntary.

Focus groups interviews using structured questions were conducted with five co-teaching teams to acquire one on one information about experiences. The interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. The transcripts were returned to the participants for verification of the data, thereby establishing accuracy and authenticity (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). Pre-service teachers also Š 2016 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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wrote reflections about their experiences and the practical application of constructivist teaching. The multiple methods of data collection allowed for triangulation as well as affirmed credibility and confirmability (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007; Creswell, 2012).

Results From the data, 96.2 % of the participants revealed that they understand the principles of constructivism. When asked if the theory of constructivism influenced their personal philosophy of teaching and learning 98.1% of the preservice teachers answered affirmatively and 1.9 responded negatively. A total of 81.48% of them stated that they applied constructivist principles in the implementation of their lessons while 18.52% revealed that they neglected to do so.

The majority of pre-service teachers, 90.7%, reported that they employed hands on activities but 9.3 stated that they did not. The data showed that 89.8% of the pre-service teachers used cooperative learning while 10.2% mentioned that they omitted to do so, thus implying that they would have retained traditional modes of teaching and learning. A significant number, 75.9% explained that they utilized problem solving activities while 24.1% stated that they overlooked the approach during practicum.

Table 1: Responses from Questionnaire Represented in Percentages

Questions

%Positive responses

1. Have you been exposed to Constructivism as a 96.2 learning theory?

% Negative responses 3.8

2. Do you know about Cognitive and Social 87.03 Constructivism?

12.97

73.14

26.86

3. Are you familiar with Radical Constructivism

4. Have you been exposed to learning theories 97.2 and student-centred pedagogy?

2.8

5. Has the theory of constructivism influenced 98.1 your personal philosophy of teaching & learning?

1.9

6. Do you think that the constructivist theory is 95.3 useful for practicum/ classroom practice?

4.7

7. Did you use Cooperative learning during your 89.8 practicum?

10.2

8. Did you apply constructivist principles in the 81.48 implementation of your lessons?

18.52

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86.1

13.9

10. Did you have constructivist problem solving 75.9 activities for your students?

24.1

11. Did you engage your students in hands-on 90.7 activities

9.3

9. Was your lesson student-centred?

The experiences of some pre-service teachers are outlined below as the qualitative data cannot be quantified (Creswell, 2012). Common themes (Lichtman, 2006) that evolved include: „active learning‟; „sharing ideas‟; „student centred and interactive learning‟; „learning by doing‟ and „engaged in the learning process‟. The themes are congruent with the reflections that pre-service teachers stated in writing, also with the focus group interviews as well as the answers to the open ended questions on the questionnaires.

The team members of the focus groups explained their experiences as follows: Team A Learning was effective because we did not use „chalk and talk‟ teaching strategies.

We involved the students in active learning through the use of manipulatives, guided instructions and guided questions. We also engaged them in peer activities to promote peer tutoring and . . . peer assessment. We also activated their schema about the concept by eliciting their previous knowledge at the beginning of the class which is important for the students making meaning . . . with regard to the concept and redounds to long term memory.

Team B Learning was indeed effective because of the level of participation and enthusiasm shown by students . . . sharing ideas. They were able to manipulate resources . . . engage in discussion and peer learning . . . and the assessments were completed with a high degree of accuracy by the majority of students.

Team C Our lessons were very student centred and interactive with the additional support of effective age appropriate resources. The lessons were student centred, eye catching and most important informative. When higher order questions were asked, the students responded brilliantly . . . and you realized the importance of involving them in group activities.

Team D Learning was effective because the students learnt from each other by exchanging ideas on how to do the activity . . . they were engaged in the learning process . . .

We were able to assist all students by taking them from one level to the next according to Vygotsky‟s zone of proximal development.

Team E: Learning was effective as the students were able to learn by doing, not by the teacher telling them but by actively participating . . . based on student centred and interactive learning. © 2016 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Some reflections that students wrote, which are aligned with the themes that emanated from the data, include the following: 1. Students collaborated . . . they came up with their responses.

2. Students were given the chance to actively engage in the lessons.

3. Students were able to do the activities and were given the experience.

4. Students were more involved due to the new methods and the activities used.

5. The problem-based learning . . . and the constructivist strategies used were effective.

The findings revealed that all pre-service teachers are familiar with the theory of constructivism. Secondly, a significant percentage used constructivist learning principles and activities such as cooperative learning in their teaching during practicum. In addition, five themes about pre-service teachers‟ experiences which emerged are as follows: „active learning‟, „sharing ideas‟, „student centred and interactive learning‟, „engaged in the learning process, and „learning by doing‟. However, a number of the participants indicated that they did not use constructivist principles of teaching and learning, for instance problem solving, in the implementation of their lessons and did not create activities for students to construct their own meaning. An „outlier‟ that emanated from the study can be summarized in the following statement by one participant: “Students were able to answer questions and the learning objectives were met . . . they understood the task because they did well in the evaluation”. These responses indicate that some pre-service teachers perceive teaching and learning as product rather than process.

Discussion While a majority of respondents are familiar with cognitive and social constructivism, approximately twenty five percent are not familiar with radical constructivism. This suggests that the concept of radical constructivism (Reigler, 2016) has to be deconstructed during practicum so that pre-service teachers have a holistic orientation to constructivism. Most of pre-service teachers indicated that they used constructivist activities in the implementation of their lessons, which means that they were able to translate theory into practice. However, a minority continued in the traditional domain.

The implication is that some of the pre-service teachers continue to be challenged with the translation of the theory of constructivism into classroom practice. Others may still be steeped in the ideology of traditional teaching and have difficulty applying constructivist principles of teaching and learning.

This may be attributed to the ways in which they were taught by their former teachers (Kennedy, 1999; Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) or their frames of reference.

Another explanation is that pre-service teachers modelled their cooperating teachers who utilized traditional methods of teaching and learning. A further suggestion is that the pre-service teachers found it easier to plan and deliver © 2016 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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traditional lessons. It may also be an indication of their fears about failure or uncertainty about changing from a traditional frame of reference to a new mode of teaching and learning. In addition, there may be implications for self-efficacy, self-competence, self-confidence and the emotional challenges affiliated with being assessed by practicum advisors during the co-teaching practicum.

It must be noted that during their first year, the pre-service teachers in this study were exposed to “observation practicum” which consisted of observing their cooperating teachers in the conduct of their classes. They also experienced campus based practical sessions in which they were given the opportunity to teach in simulated classrooms. The lack of one hundred percent success in transitioning to constructivist practices therefore demonstrates the power of tradition and the difficulty associated with changing ingrained cultural patterns.

As Titus (2013) notes, practicum advisors may need to shift their current paradigm of “knowledge for practice” . . . to . . . “knowledge of practice” (p. 13) which is more meaningful to pre-service teachers and this suggests a restructuring of teacher education programmes.

Conclusion For successful constructivist practices, there needs to be continuous reflective practice and effective mentoring of pre-service teachers by practicum advisors in collaboration with cooperating teachers. Practicum tutors need to engage pre-service teachers in discourse to discern the difficulties of implementation, issues of time constraints, limitations and other individualistic concerns.

Resistance to change from one frame of reference to another must be interrogated and the necessary intervention strategies employed. One suggested method to mitigate concerns and heighten transformation is to engage pre-service teachers in simulated activities on a regular basis.

Continuity is required if constructivist practices are to prevail. Those who used constructivist principles also need reinforcement to refine their teaching skills. For the traditionalists, a consistent reflective approach is necessary if beliefs are to be modified. Practice, observation, modelling and coaching need to be conducted throughout the duration of the programme to facilitate modification of pre-service teachers‟ perceptions, to assist those who are steeped in the transmissionist mode of teaching in the transition process, and to ensure the continuation of constructivist principles for teaching and learning.

Recommendations The findings of this study imply that other pertinent aspects of classroom implementation of pre-service teachers need to be investigated in order to gain a deeper understanding of the issue of translating the principles of the theory of constructivism into practice. To this end, it may be necessary to examine pre service teachers‟ early experiences in teaching and learning. This investigation may clarify reasons for the continuation of the retention of traditional methods of teaching and learning by pre-service teachers whilst on teaching practice.

During field teaching, pre-service teachers do spend a considerable amount of time being supervised or mentored by cooperating teachers, thus it may be

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necessary to conduct an investigation into the methods of teaching and learning that cooperating teachers implement in their classes.

Acknowledgement We wish to acknowledge the contributions of all the pre-service teachers who participated voluntarily in this research.

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Retrieved 16.5.16 from http://www.wjeis.org/FileUpload/ds217232/File/23_a_omer_beyhan__onur_kok sal.pdf Chaille, C. (2008). Constructivism across the curriculum in early childhood classrooms big ideas as inspiration. Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. New York, NY: Routledge.

Cook, L (2004). Co-teaching: principles, practices, and pragmatics. Albuquerque, NM: New Mexico Public Education Department Retrieved 21.5.16 from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED486454.pdf Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.) (2011). Handbook of qualitative research. (4th ed.).

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Flores, I. M. (2015). Developing pre-service teachers‟ self-efficacy through field-based science teaching practice with elementary students. Higher Education Journal, 27, 119. Retrieved 20.5.16 from http://www.aabri.com/manuscripts/142012.pdf Fosnot, C. T. (Ed.). (1996). Constructivism, perspectives and practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Friend, M & Cook, L. (2010). Interactions: Collaboration skills for school professionals. (6th ed). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Hackthorn, J., Solomon, E. D., Blankmeyer, K. L., Tennial, R. E. & Garczyn, A. M. (2011).

Learning by doing: An empirical study of active teaching techniques. The Journal of Effective Teaching 11 (2) 40-54.

Retrieved 14.5.16 from http://uncw.edu/cte/et/articles/Vol11_2/Hackathorn.html Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1999). Learning together and alone: Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Johnson, R. B. & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33 (7) 14-26.

Jones, G.M. & Brader-Araje (2002). The impact of constructivism on education: Language, discourse, and meaning. Journal of American Communication 5 (2).

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San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.

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https://msu.edu/user/mkennedy/publications/docs/Teacher%20Ed/RoleofTELDH/Kennedy99%20Role%20of%20TE.pdf Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J. & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist.

41 (2), 75-86, DOI: 10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1 Lichtman, M. (2006). Qualitative research in education. A user‟s guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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Prawat, R. S. (1992). Teachers‟ beliefs about teaching and learning: A constructivist perspective. American Journal of Education 100 (3) 354-391. Retrieved 21.5.16 from https://wahooreading.wikispaces.com/file/view/teachers+and+their+beliefs.pdf Riegler A. (2015). What does the future hold for radical constructivism? In Raskin J. D., Bridges S. K. & Kahn J. S. (eds.) Studies in meaning 5: Perturbing the status quo in constructivist psychology (pp 64-90). New York, NY: Pace University Press.

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Taber, K. S. (2016). Constructivism in Education: Interpretations and Criticisms from Science Education. In E. Railean (Ed.), Handbook of Applied Learning Theory and Design in Modern Education (pp. 116-144). Hershey, PA: IGI Global Titus, N. E. (2013). A review of literature investigating co-teaching influences in teacher Education Programs. Pennsylvania Teacher Educator 12, 11-23.

Tobias, S & Duffy, T. M. (Eds.) (2009). Constructivist instruction. Success or failure. London, UK: Routledge. von Glasersfeld, E. (1984). An introduction to radical constructivism. Retrieved 22.5.16 from http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/EvG/papers/070.1.pdf von Glasersfeld, E. (1996). Introduction: Aspects of constructivism. In Fosnot, C. T. (Ed.), Constructivism: Theory, Perspective, and Practice (pp. 3-7). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 138-147, June 2016

Pupil Perception of Teacher Effectiveness and Affective Disposition in Primary School Classrooms in Botswana Molefhe, Mogapi and Johnson, Nenty Educational Foundations, University of Botswana

Abstract. Teacher effectiveness, in the eyes of learners, in the classroom is to a large extent determined by the atmosphere created by teachers‘ classroom behavior especially the degree to which a teacher ‗carries the class along‘ during lesson. Children are leading the way in demanding accountability from teachers and one important expectation is a classroom which is psychologically conducive for learning. Such classroom tends to induce from the learners desirable affective behaviors that are conducive for teaching and learning. This study aims at finding the relationship among pupil- perceived teacher effectiveness and their own level of exhibition of desirable related behavior in their classrooms. Survey data was collected from 472 learners taken from 29 primary schools drawn through stratified random sampling method from urban private schools and rural remote areas in Botswana. The relationship between pupil's perceived teacher effectiveness factors and their own affective disposition in the classrooms were found using Pearson correlation analysis. The results showed that generally pupil‘s perceived level of their teachers effectiveness in terms of classroom assessment behavior, teaching strategy, provision of feedback and their overall effectiveness in teaching English language have significant influence on their interest in the following key areas; subject of study (e.g., English Language) , classroom environment, perceived level difficulty of learning English, preference for group work in the class and general attitude towards the going-ons in the class. The findings were discussed and related recommendations made.

Key words: teacher effectiveness; affective dispositions; primary schools; pupil input; Botswana.

Introduction and Background Children are leading the way in demanding teacher accountability on the classroom (Cox, Dyer, Robison-Pant. & Schweisfurth, 2010). One important attribute pupils expect from their teachers is a classroom which is

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psychologically conducive for learning. The way primary pupils perceive their teachers in terms of effectiveness tends to influence their affective disposition in the class room. Such perception can make the pupil cool and withdrawn or lively and active in the class. Pupils that perceive their teacher as ineffective tend to feel that there is not much they can learn from the teacher, and this can ultimately affect their performance in the class. Learning under a teacher one perceives to be effective prompts attention, participation, and good feelings in the classroom. Hence a pupil‘s perception of the effectiveness of the teacher in front of him/her in a classroom situation tends to be governed by, to an extent, the quality the affective and cognitive environment he/she has created in the classroom.

Teacher effectiveness becomes a significant factor to which pupil easily attribute their performance (Ee & Cheng, 2013; Hughes, 2012;Metto & Makewa, 2014). For example, according to Akiri and Ughurugbo ( 2009) "Poor academic performance of students in Nigeria has been linked to poor teachers performance in terms of accomplishing the teaching task, negative attitude to work and poor teaching habits which have been attributed to poor motivation‖ (p.109).

In this study, teacher effectiveness as an important factor in classroom climate was defined in terms of learners‘ perception of their teacher's classroom teaching behavior, teaching strategy; assessment behavior; provision of feedback; effective use of visual media; and effectiveness in teaching English.

Theoretical Foundation To Medley and Shannon (1994) teacher effectiveness exists in three dimensions: (1) the degree to which a teacher achieves desired effects on students; ( 2) the extent to which a teacher has the requisite knowledge and skills; and (3) how a teacher behaves in the process of teaching. While the first one incorporates mainly affective behavior; the second one is mainly cognitive; and the third one mainly psychomotor, with some component of both cognitive and affective behavior. As key operators in a service industry good social foundation and interpersonal skills are necessary skills that must be possessed by all teachers for them to be effective in the classroom. Exhibition of these skills creates a conducive classroom environment which enhances learning. For example, it is difficult for a child to learn from a teacher he/she deems unfriendly. Teacher training programmers tend to overlook this essential behavior of the teacher.

The nature of the classroom atmosphere determines the quality of the relations, strategies and processes that goes on in the classroom of the classroom and ―personal interaction is valued more by primary school students than qualities related to teaching and learning‖ (Jeffery, 2001, p. 2). Teacher‘s emotions therefore are considered to be important factors in teacher training, development and practice because they affect teachers‘ commitment, interest and personal welfare (Jeffery, 2001). Personal interaction is an aspect of what might be termed effective personality, which is a large component of classroom climate.

Possession of necessary knowledge and skills is fundamental to effectiveness in teaching and a teacher is effective to the extent that he/ she exhibits these skills. An © 2016 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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effective teacher is one that is versed in the content to be taught and competent in the skills to be imparted. Even if the teacher possesses very good interpersonal skills and is very good in his/her subject matter but lacks the skills on how to deliver the materials he she cannot be said to be effective (Nikolova, Todorova, & Valcheva, 2006).

The extent to which a teacher possesses and exhibits these skills attracts or repels pupil‘s attention, participation and involvement in the classroom, and tends to develop in them some favorable or unfavorable dispositions in primary school classrooms. Such affective disposition may include perception of the classroom as being conductive or nonconductive to learning; or the disposition might engender difficulty in learning the subject or preference or lack preference for group work. The deposition might also make learners to develop favorable or unfavorable attitude towards the subject matter (Cole, 2008).

Problem and Purpose of the Study The lack of ability to create and maintain a conducive classroom atmosphere, which is an important aspect of effectiveness in teaching, limits pupil‘s ability to develop favorable dispositions during classroom processes.

This ultimately has an unfavorable effect on learning. Teacher training programmer do not tend to take trainees‘ emotional or affective development into serious consideration during training, but according to Medley and Shannon (1994), teacher effectiveness involves, among others, the degree to which a teacher achieves desired or favorable effects upon students. This provides an overriding foundation for the development of favorable cognitive behavior. The absence of a classroom with conducive affective or emotional atmosphere, does not enhance the replication of the favorable emotional or affective behaviors by the pupil, and also does not maximize learning by the pupil. This study aims at finding the relationship among pupil perceived teacher effectiveness factors and their own level of exhibition of related behavior in their classrooms.

Research Hypothesis The main hypothesis of the study is that pupil perception of teacher effectiveness has a significant influence on their affective dispositions in primary classrooms. This will be tested at .05 alpha level.

Literature review Akiri and Ugborugbo‘s (2009) study with a population of Nigerian teachers found that teachers who were rated as ineffective actually produced students of lower academic ability. However, the difference found in the mean performance of the students was statistically not significant. This agrees with an earlier study by Adu and Olatundun (2007) which found that effective teacher produced high performing students. Lamb, Schmitt and Cornotto (2010), expressed the same sentiments when they observed that students· ratings of classroom processes correlate positively with teacher‘s level of effectiveness.

Literature sources show that the learner is the main customer in the educational system. The learning and teaching process cannot take place without learners going to school and attending classes. For example, it was noted in © 2016 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Education for Kagisano (1977) that: The principal aim of education is individual development. The individual is of unique value and it is only through change in the development capacities and attitudes of individual that society changes.

The focus of education in schools and classrooms should therefore be upon learners; enabling them to acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behavior that will give them a full, successful life and continued personal growth; and of education in school and equipping them to participate affectively in a rapidly changing society (p. 23 ).

It therefore follows that educational policy and practice be centered on the needs of the leaner. However, educational research that seeks to identify variable that influence school and teacher effectiveness tend to concentrate on such inputs as availability and quality of resources, teacher experience, teacher motivation and school management issues, to mention but a few of the key input variables. Sawchuk (2010) observed that researchers tend to focus on education administrators, school heads, and other practitioners in the field of education but less attention is given to the learners themselves. Learners as the central players in the process of learning can offer valuable information with respect to which teacher are the most effective.

The same viewpoint is expressed by Charakupa (I 995) in a study entitled â&#x20AC;&#x2014;Why we learn Science: A time to listen to junior high school pupils in Botswanaâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;. The author made a comment to the effect that: Normally when science curricula are drawn up in Botswana, learners are not considered as participants for official planning purposes. It therefore follows that such learners may not be aware of why they are required to study science since it is not common practice to provide students with policy documents (p. 201).

Research continues to show that delivery of education differ markedly by region or location and these variations can negatively or positively affect each learners experiences. Primary schools in urban centers characteristically have access to better educational infrastructure such as libraries, electricity, computers and other instructional resources. These have a positive bearing on the teaching and learning process. Rural and particularly remote primary schools in Botswana, on the other hand, have limited access to the important instructional resources resulting in less than satisfactory learning and teaching environment. Research works focusing on school effectiveness and variables that influence it have documented qualitative difference between regions, as the following quotation clearly indicates: The first reason is that some schools are located in privileged areas in the sense that students in these schools come from homes whose parents care about their child's education, ensure that their children are well fed, try to help their children to learn to read as possible, show interest in school work, provide ready access to books in the home and so on. (Postlethwaite & Ross, 1992, p 1) The apparent diversity and complexity of educational enterprise makes it even more imperative that educational planners, policy makers, school administrators, teachers and other key stakeholders put in place process and procedures that will ensure systematic incorporation of learner perspectives in

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the day to day school activities. The United Nations (1989) recognized the need for soliciting and implementing the learners‘ views by publishing the Convention on the Rights of Children (Resolution 44/25) that was ratified by the General .Assembly of 20th November 1989. Article 12 of the Convention on the Rights of Children (CRC) states that: States Parties should assure the child who is capable of forming his or her own views the right to express those view freely in all matters affecting the child, the views of the child being given due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the child.

Therefore, there is evidence in the literature indicating that learners are the main recipients of educational service provided within a country. Secondly evidence seems to point to a situation where the learner‘s views and ideals are not adequately incorporated into mainstream decision making machinery. The current study attempts to solicit learners‘ views and perceptions regarding teacher effectiveness and investigates how these perceptions influences their attitudes towards school work.

Methodology and Design The study followed a quantitative research approach as the data collected is analyzed using quantitative techniques. The study used a survey design to determine the degree of association between pupil perceptions of teacher effectiveness and their own perceived affective depositions in the classroom. A questionnaire was distributed to learners in primary schools to capture their views in relation to teacher effectiveness variables.

Sampling Survey data was collected from 472 learners taken from 29 primary schools drawn through stratified random sampling method. Private schools located in an urban environment and public remote schools were sampled to ensure a representation of the population subgroups in the country. It was necessary to sample from a larger pool of rural remote schools so as to be faithful to the apparent geographic diversity in the country. Table 1 shows the proportion of the sample to the total population. In each of the sampled schools, all the Standard 7 pupils were given a questionnaire to complete. A total of 472 learners completed the questionnaire. They ranged in age from 11 to 13 years.

Table 1 Sampling Guide

Population (n) Sample (n) Sampling Ratio (%)

Urban school 15 6 40

Remote school 39 13 33

Total 54 19 35

Instrumentation and Data Collection A Pupil Questionnaire made up of 44 Likert-type items was developed and used for collecting data from the pupils sampled for the study. This measured, on the part of the pupil; learners‘ perception of: interest in English language (3 items), classroom environment (7 items), difficulty in learning English language (2 items), preference of group work (2 items), and attitude

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towards class (8 items). On the part of the teachers; learners‘ perception of: classroom teaching behavior (5 items), classroom assessment behavior (2 items), teaching strategy (3 items), provision of feedback (3 items), effective use of visual media (2 items), and effectiveness of teaching English language (7 items).

The researchers secured the permission to carry out the study under the auspices of Examination, Research and Testing Division (ERTD) of the Ministry of Education. The permission of the head-teachers and the teachers were secured through a letter written in advance before the researchers visit. On each appointed day, the researchers visited the schools and administered the questionnaire to all Standard 7 pupils in each of the 19 schools in the study.

Data Analysis and Interpretation of Results To test the single but composite hypothesis for the study, a Pearson correlation analyses between each aspect of the pupil perception of teacher effectiveness variable and each of the affective disposition in primary classroom variables were carried out. The results gave the entries in a correlation matrix presented in Table 2. These show that except for the relationship between pupil‘s perception of teachers effectiveness in the use of visual media and both preference of group-work and attitude towards the class, all the other relationships were significant at an alpha level of .05 (see Table 2).

Generally teaching behavior as perceived by pupils was found to significantly related to pupil‘s interest in the subject- English language, Classroom environment, their perceived level difficulty of learning English, their preference for group work in the class and their general attitude towards the going-ons in the class. Positive correlations were also found between teacher‘s affective depositions and pupils‘ perception of the teacher‘s teaching effectiveness in terms of classroom assessment behavior, teaching strategy, provision of feedback and their

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Table 2 Matrix of Pearson Correlations among variable representing Teacher Effectiveness and Pupil‘s Affective Dispositions in the classroom.

Interest in Classroom Difficulty Preference Attitude English environment in learning of Group towards language English work class language Classroom teaching behavior Classroom assessment behavior Teaching Strategy Provision of Feedback Effective use of visual media Effectiveness in teaching English

.214*

.170*

.110*

.252*

.225*

.316*

.316*

.095*

.130*

.275*

.220*

.222*

.099*

.204*

.150*

.350*

.298*

.109*

.210*

.174*

.086*

.190*

.086*

.068

.011

.291*

.211*

.170*

.257*

.325*

*p< .05; df =469; Critical r =.082 overall effectiveness in teaching English Language. Pupil‘s perceived level of teacher effectiveness in the use of visual media was found to have a significant influence in their interest in the subject matter and the extent to which they perceive the subject to be difficult or easy.

Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations The study has established a significant relationship between learners perception of teacher effectives and how the level of effectives influence their attitude towards learning in general. Specifically, the study has established a significant relationship in four key areas. The four key areas are teacher‘s teaching behavior, classroom assessment skills, provision of feedback and effective use of visual media.

Teacher's teaching behavior Variables that influence the perceived effectiveness of the teacher include content presentation ability, ability to use group work and close supervision of the class. Effective teachers not only present content clearly but ensure that all learners understand the current information before proceeding to the new material. Dividing learners into groups and walking around the class to assist and provide feedback to groups enhances learning and thus improves teacher effectives. Therefore, group work by itself is not very effective; it has to be supported by supervision and provision of feedback to the group members.

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Classroom Assessment Skills Formative assessment in the classroom allows the teachers to determine whether the learners are following or not. In most cases teachers are the ones who pose questions: but questions from the learners themselves may provide more useful diagnostic information that the teacher can use to assist the class or the individual child. According to the views of the learners; effective teachers encourage learners to ask questions and at the same time they show appreciation of the contribution that the leaner in bringing into the classroom. Therefore, the teacher should be able to set up learning and teaching environment where learners are free to ask questions and learners are also free to stop the teachers at any time if they do not understand the information.

Provision of Feedback For formative assessment at the classroom level to be effective, the teacher should constantly prove the learners with relevant and timely feedback.

This allows the learner to see how well they are progressing and identity and act on problematic areas. Learners perceive effective teachers as those who give assignments (homework), marks accordingly and provide relevant and timely feedback..

Effective Use of Visual Media Though information and communication tools are gaining popularity in schools, teachers especially in primary schools still have to do a lot of writing on the blackboards. In some schools the board is the main medium that the teacher uses to teach on daily basis. Therefore, the condition of the board and the teacher‘s level of effectives in using it directly impacts on the learner. One way of creating a conducive learning environment in the classroom is to make sure that the information written on the board is legible so that learners can copy it on to their exercise books.

The big question for this study was how well primary pupil‘s perception of the learning environment created by a teacher in the class influence their development of effective behavior conducive to learning in that class? In order words, to what extent do pupils hold teachers‘ behavior in their classrooms accountable for their own behavior and how does teacher induced behavior impact their learning of English Language? Essentially, the perception of students are used to evaluate the level at which the teacher is able to teach effectively. Numerous research studies have been carried out to determine the relationship between teacher effectiveness and learner performance (e.g., Akiri & Agborugbo, 2009; Akiri, 2013; Onyekuru & Ibegbunam. 2013). Suffice to mention at this juncture that the studies produced contradictory results. For example, Akiri (2013) tested the significance of the relationship between teacher effectiveness and learner performance using Pearson product moment correlation coefficient. A positive correlation was established but the results were not statistically significant. Following from the findings of the study, the researcher subsequently noted that students‘ grades and test scores do not reflect the quality of instruction because teachers‘ input is not the only factor that influences student academic performance in schools.

Similarly, Starr (2002) had identified peer influence, race, ethnicity, gender, motivating income, intellectual aptitude of the students, personality of students, self-confidence, and previous instructional quality received by students, house-hold environment, and parental education as student‘s related © 2016 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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factors that influence the academic performance of students On the other hand, a study by Onyekuru and Ibegbunam (2013) found a significant relationship between teacher effectiveness and teaching experience.

Also, Medley and Shannon (1994) also found a significant relationship between teacher effectiveness and the performance of learners in the classroom. The current study has provided more evidence in support of a positive and significant relationship between teacher effectiveness and learner performance.

Teacher effectiveness construct in this case is indicated by pupils‘ response to survey items that required them to rate the level of effectiveness of their teachers. The evidence shows that pupils associate teacher effectiveness with the ability of the teacher to create a conducive learning environment that caters for the cognitive as well as the affective dispositions of learners. It is difficult for a learner to learn from a teacher whom one does not appreciate in terms of his/ her teacher‘s classroom teaching behavior; teaching strategy; assessment behavior; provision of feedback ; effective use of· visual media; and effectiveness in teaching English.

A warm personal interaction skill, which is a large component of one‘s affective personality, is valued more by primary school students. Teacher emotions therefore are considered to be important factors in teacher training, development and practice because they affect teachers‘ commitment, interest and personal welfare (Jeffery, 2001). This study has shown that teacher effectiveness variables relate significantly to the affective behavior exhibited by the pupils in the classroom. A conclusion can be drawn that pupils tend to adjust their behavior according to the personality of class teacher. A part from the professional personality, the affective personality of teachers matter in the type of learning environment they create in their classroom. Here it is shown that pupil‘s perception of some aspects of the teacher‘s affective personality has significant influence on pupil‘s difficulty in learning the subject; preference or lack of preference for group work; favourable or unfavorable attitude towards the subject; and interest or lack of interest in learning the subject. The views of the learner play an important role in the way learners themselves appreciate the teaching and learning processes within the classroom. This perception is an important determining factor in the child‘s attitude towards the subject and learning itself. Therefore, incorporating learner‘s affective feelings both at the policy generation and implementation levels should be standard practice. This will go a long way in making learning and teaching more meaningful and transparent to learners of the 21st century. Additionally, teacher training and development both at the pre-service and in-service should incorporate modalities that will assist teachers to develop positive affective dispositions that will benefit learners in the classroom.

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