Vol 16 no 3 march 2017

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p-ISSN: 1694-2493 e-ISSN: 1694-2116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.16 No.3

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 16

NUMBER 3

March 2017

Table of Contents Multicultural Problem-based Learning Approaches Facilitate ESP Language Acquisition ......................................... 1 Diane Boothe, DPA, Melissa Caspary, Ph.D., and Clifton D. Wickstrom, Ph.D. Learning in Motion: Teachers‟ Perspectives on the Impact of Stationary Bike Use in the Classroom ..................... 15 Julie Lynn Mueller, Amanada Wudarzewski and Yoad Avitzur Expanding Areas of Influence at Azores University: Virtual Campus, Regional Clusters and Points of Presence 29 Rogerio L. Roth Can You Tell Me Why: Two Extreme Cases in Translation Learning Results ............................................................. 38 Yvonne Ying-Ya Wen Can Student Engagement in Online Courses Predict Performance on Online Knowledge Surveys? ....................... 73 Bernard BAHATI, Uno Fors, Matti Tedre Effects of Computerized Cognitive Training on Working Memory in a School Setting ............................................ 88 Tessy T. Pumaccahua, M.A., Eugene H. Wong, Ph.D. and Dudley J. Wiest, Ph.D. How Cooperating Teachers and Interns Understand “Teaching for a Better World” During Internship ............. 105 Twyla Salm, PhD and Val Mulholland, PhD

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 1-14, March 2017

Multicultural Problem-based Learning Approaches Facilitate ESP Language Acquisition Diane Boothe, DPA Boise State University, College of Education Boise, Idaho, USA Melissa Caspary, Ph.D. Georgia Gwinnett College, School of Science and Technology Lawrenceville, Georgia, USA Clifton D. Wickstrom, Ph.D. Managing Director, Educational Pathways Round Rock, Texas, USA Abstract. This paper discusses language teaching that incorporates Problem-based Learning (PBL), which will actively engage English for Specific Purposes (ESP) learners from diverse cultural backgrounds. When English language students who are native Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) are a portion of the learning group, it introduces an added level of complexity to the instructional design. The instructional designer is confronted with an ESP within ESOL dynamic, which becomes one of the most significant impacting variables in the learning environment. This topic will be approached utilizing examples appropriate for a variety of cultures and ESP content areas including engineering, technology and the sciences. The methods described, however, have equal value in other disciplines with unique English language components. The paper will explore use of PBL in a multicultural ESP situation. It is being developed with the purpose and objectives of including an overview of the key strategies for success in language acquisition focusing on ESP, and outlining exemplar programs that can actively engage learners in defined subject-matter contexts. We begin with the initial notions of PBL in ESOL, and ESP, as separate methodological arenas, and then the integration of the two (multicultural situation) yields the PBL of ESP within an ESOL environment.

Introduction There is an adage in the contemporary American education community that seems most appropriate in the situation we address in this presentation. It is: “To teach them, you have to be able to reach them.” In the multi-cultural ESP environment, a language teacher must confront the confounding complexities imposed by a largely ESOL student population. Reaching that student group is a challenge that is difficult enough when teaching simple conversational English.

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It becomes considerably more imposing when ESP is the language being taught.

As journal articles have noted, legal and medical English have an almost exclusively Latinate character, which contributes to an easier understanding and quicker grasp by those ESP students whose mother tongue is a romance language. But other ESP focus areas may not offer so easy a path. This is particularly true in the science and engineering disciplines that have emerged in the late 19th and 20th centuries. The rapid development and global deployment of these science, technology, engineering and mathematical (STEM) disciplines has led to the accumulation of new words in the English lexicon that are simply “grabbed” from the linguistic environment from which they were first observed.

Thus the ESP vocabulary of these disciplines is, while not “filled”, at least sprinkled with terms that need specific explanation at first usage to provide clear understanding of the term, even to the native English speaker. ESP researchers in Asian nations have noted particular difficulties in this regard in recent publications (Hoa & Mai, 2016; Liu, 2016: and Banditvilai, 2016), as will be discussed in greater detail below. The recent literature also contains methodological suggestions for increasing the effectiveness of ESP learning, which will also be highlighted (Privas-Breaute, 2016; Kleanthos and Cordozo, 2016; and Wu, 2014) The Eclectic Character of English Spanish and French have formal bodies that "authorize" the addition of words to their officially recognized lexicon, which insist on consistency with internal phonetic protocols for the formal inclusion of a word into the languages. German often adds words by combination of existing simpler German words into more complex structures that are then conjoined to generate a more complex word form, similar to a phrase, which expresses the meaning.

The English language is primarily Germanic and Latinate in its origins as any scan through the etymological segments of the Oxford English Dictionary will illustrate. But, the near global reach of the British Empire led to the early accumulation of many words in that lexicon not of European origins. This is not a new phenomenon. The word "khaki", for example, is Hindi (from Sanskrit) meaning “dust” or “dusty in appearance”. It came into English during the Raj in the 18th and 19th Century to describe the tan colored cotton field uniforms issued to local troops of the British colonial army elements. It ultimately became the common term in English for any tan hard finish cotton fabric, or even pants made from such fabric.

When one begins to teach ESP, you observe these types of terms frequently, especially from science or engineering research and practice in nonEuropean areas. Where a local population has a term that describes an observed item, phenomenon or event very specifically, that term has been incorporated directly into English. The English vocabulary of the biological sciences is literally filled with common plant and animal names used in the regions where they were first identified. Thus we find baobab and saguaro, orangutan and coatimundi in our lexicon along with violet and lily of the valley, and lion and catfish. But the phenomenon is not unique to biology. Several examples will follow to illustrate this point. This is in addition to English use of Italian,

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Spanish, French or German words, as they are, without any anglification. Thus “portico”, "arroyo", "creme de la creme", and "zeitgeist" are in our dictionary, and common usage instead of, or in addition to, a distinct English term with the same meaning. We just grab the term, and use it rather than "create" an English word that fits the “formal structures” of the language.

To illustrate the pattern of simple inclusion of non-European origin terms described above, as relates specifically to the sciences, one need only ask from whence did the nouns “monsoon”, “haboob”, “monadnock”, “alkali”, “taiga” and “fynbos” make their way into the ESP lexicons of meteorology, geology and ecology? They are Hindi, Arabic, and a colloquial New England geographic element, Egyptian Arabic, Russian and Afrikaans, respectively. It is easy to see from these examples that a glossary at least, or a dictionary at best, is an essential tool in any teaching of the ESP for the newer parts of the science realm.

So long as the terms in question are nouns, the situation is relatively manageable, with a good glossary, without any etymological components required. When we begin to incorporate English words that have identical spelling for their noun and verb forms, or where the past tense of a verb is also used as an adjective, for example, the situation becomes far more complicated.

Two examples come immediately to mind. The first is “structure”. As a verb it means “to construct”, “to build” or “to arrange”. As a noun it means “an object that is built or constructed”. The past tense of the verb, “structured” can also be employed as an adjective, as in “a structured vocabulary”. A far more complex example is the word “stuff”. As a verb it means “to fill, frequently to capacity or beyond”. As a noun, it is a plural collective, referring to any assemblage of items, without specific description. To further complicate the usage of “stuff”, the past tense of the verb, “stuffed” is also used, at least colloquially, as an adjective, frequently in cooking terms, to imply an object with a cavity that is filled with other material, as in a “stuffed goose”.

Thus we see that the eclectic, complex character of English makes it more difficult for the conversational ESOL learner, and the specialized ESP learner in the Sciences is frequently, confronted with vocabulary not of traditional Germanic or Latinate origins, adding to that difficulty. Addressing these issues requires a very carefully planned approach where problem-based learning methodologies can be employed to overcome these inherent complexities of contemporary English, particularly within the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) environments.

Problem-based Learning (PBL), an Explanation PBL has its origins in medical education in Canada, and thus has roots in a discipline where ESP is an integral part of the educational process. It quickly attracted attention and usage in the English-speaking medical education community, and from there spread into post-secondary settings in the United States and other Anglo-phone nations. Problem-Based Learning is a flourishing approach to learning that is extremely useful in promoting critical and analytical thinking, and in addressing the rapid technological changes and dynamic workplace of the 21st Century (Nicolaides, 2012). PBL is founded on an unconventional pedagogical model when viewed alongside the conventional

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didactic one and it offers greater benefits to the quality of student learning (Greening, 1998). The similarities to the case study methodologies employed in the business education community were also quickly recognized. The advantages of PBL over the case method were quickly recognized, since the frequently complex case development process could be avoided by focusing on an unstructured problem in the abstract, without the need of the detailed background, setting and circumstance development that cases involve. This is also the case relating to the science field and further attention is being devoted to exploring active learning methodologies for language learners in the scientific curriculum (Caspary & Boothe, 2016).

Problem-based learning is defined as “an approach that challenges students to learn through engagement in a real problem. It is a format that simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problemsolvers confronted with an ill-structured situation that simulates the kind of problems they are likely to face in complex professional circumstances” (Stover, 1998). Gvardjancic notes (2001) “PBL emphasizes the learning part of the teaching-learning process. It is based on the idea that learners learn what is meaningful to them and learn better if they feel in control of what they are learning.” “The philosophy behind Problem-based learning is that knowledge and skills are acquired through a progressive sequence of contextual problems, together with learning materials and the support of the instructor” (eLearning Industry, 2014).

PBL is not new. Stepien and Gallagher suggest that, “it has been a major success since the 1970s. PBL turns the instructional setting topsy-turvy, shifting the learning environment from a teacher centered to a learner centered one. In the place of covering the curriculum, learners probe deeply into issues searching for connections, grappling with complexity, and using knowledge to fashion solutions” (Stepien & Gallagher, 1993). Yew and Goh (2016) focus on the process and impact on learning provided by Problem-based learning, and examine its effectiveness concluding that “studies comparing the relative effectiveness of PBL are generally consistent in demonstrating its superior efficacy for longerterm knowledge retention.”According to Stover (1998) PBL “will increase retention of knowledge, help students transfer concepts to new problems, enhance students’ interest in the content and enhance self-directed learning”.

Realistic problems are the key to the use of the PBL model. But what are the characteristics of good problems? Duch (1996) lists some of the characteristics of good problems as: 1. “An effective problem must first engage students’ interest and motivate them to probe for deeper understanding of the concepts being introduced.

2. Good problems require students to make decisions or judgments based on facts, logic and/or rationalization.

3. Cooperation from all members of the student group is necessary in order to work effectively through a good problem.

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4. The initial questions in the problem should have one or more of the following characteristics; they should be: open-ended connected to previously learned knowledge controversial issues that will elicit divers opinions.

5. The content objectives of the course should be incorporated into the problems, connecting previous knowledge to new concepts and connecting new knowledge to concepts in other courses and/or disciplines.”

Ron Purser (2010), a faculty member in the graduate management program at the San Francisco State University notes, “Problem-based learning is student-centered. PBL makes a fundamental shift--from a focus on teaching to a focus on learning. The process is aimed at using the power of authentic problem solving to engage students and enhance their learning and motivation.” There are several unique aspects that define the PBL approach: “Learning takes place within the contexts of authentic tasks, issues, and problems--that are aligned with real-world concerns.

2. In a PBL course, students and the instructor become co-learners, coplanners, co-producers, and co-evaluators as they design, implement, and continually refine their curricula.

3. The PBL approach is grounded in solid academic research on learning and on the best practices that promote it. This approach stimulates students to take responsibility for their own learning, since there are few lectures, no structured sequence of assigned readings, and so on.

4. PBL is unique in that it fosters collaboration among students, stresses the development of problem solving skills within the context of professional practice, promotes effective reasoning and self-directed learning, and is aimed at increasing motivation for life-long learning.”

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PBL is a multilevel approach to learning that incorporates relevance and complexity while strengthening critical and analytical thinking, and provides an opportunity for self-assessment and continuous improvement. PBL guides exploration, and students who learn using this model develop a sense of selfesteem and ownership for their work. Through the use of this model, opportunities abound for linguistic development coupled with acquisition of content area knowledge. Scott (2014) focuses on a multilevel analysis of Problem-based learning design characteristics and “proposes and tests a multilevel of PBL design characteristics reporting findings that reinforce the importance of problem design characteristics and effective team facilitation while raising new questions about team-level characteristics.”

The key to the success of English language acquisition through PBL is to utilize selected constructive problems purposefully designed to address the desired learning outcomes. These problems are often influenced by social and contextual factors. Most students already possess conceptual knowledge in their native language. Cummins (2000) states: “Conceptual knowledge developed in

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one language helps to make input in the other language comprehensible.”

Careful lesson planning is necessary in terms of language learning and content knowledge. When using the PBL model, content is introduced in the context of real world problems. The learners’ acquisition of knowledge is achieved through a combination of learning strategies that are self-directed, independent, and collaborative, while also emphasizing communication skills and providing ongoing reinforcement.

Although the sources of problems and the contexts for their classroom use may vary, PBL has common features: problems should engage students’ interest and motivate learning, require students to develop a line of reasoning that is backed by evidence, be complex enough to motivate participation of a group of students rather than just a single individual, be open-ended enough at the outset to allow participation by all students, incorporate the learning objectives of the course, and allow for many legitimate paths to a single resolution (Duch, 1996).

Problem-based Learning in an ESOL Environment Kosel (2002) points out that use of PBL is relatively new in the field of language teaching and learning. According to Gvarsjancic (2001), the teaching approach was introduced with the desire to integrate language and content study to facilitate autonomous learning. He contends that the idea to use PBL in language learning was developed by a Leonardo da Vinci pilot project for the year 1999/2000 entitled Teaching English for Technical Purposes—TENTEC. Gvardjancic (2001) says the following about the results: “The results of the project showed that was especially appropriate for teaching languages across the curriculum for some reason. Firstly, there is the question of motivation. ESP teachers sometimes find it difficult to motivate their technically or professionally oriented students for language learning. Even carefully designed curricula, which follow needs analysis, do not always meet the real interests of young student population. Updated textbooks soon become boring and obsolete since new information is easily accessible on the internet. So, a real-life problem raises motivation. Secondly, and closely connected with the question of motivation, is the significance of teaching languages across the curriculum. Languages at tertiary level are often treated as secondrate subjects. This situation is reflected in students’ attitude towards language as a faculty subject which they consider a necessary evil but not linked to what they believe to be their genuine study program. This situation can be changed. Working closely with “subject teachers”, language specialist becomes involved with the faculty programmes, while the students feel they can combine their professional knowledge and their knowledge of language”.

Kosel (2002) enumerates the following as some of the advantages of PBL approach in teaching English across the curriculum:

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1. “A real problem raises motivation, much more than a preselected sequence of information from a course book.

2. In the model, students can integrate their professional knowledge and their knowledge of English.

3. The model makes them better equipped with functional skills needed for their professional careers and thus makes them more competitive on the job market.

4. Individual and social learning are combined.

5. English is learnt while doing something else, which goes together with the slogan “Learn by Doing.”

Problem-based learning can be used to actively engage learners and bridge the gap between English language learners and their subject matter.

Methodology rooted in inquiry can be particularly effective for teaching science and mathematics (Stoddart et al., 2002), and can enhance comprehension for primary grade learners up through the specialized focus of higher education coursework. In PBL, students are asked to apply a newly acquired skill set to a real life problem, where the students are the active centers of learning and the instructors serve as the facilitators. This educational model can help to communicate relevance in science and engineering disciplines which are plagued with a stigma that dictates these subjects should be difficult and daunting. The PBL paradigm asks students to take on an active role in their education, where the learning becomes everyone’s responsibility.

In Polanyi’s (1966) definitions of explicit and tacit learning, explicit knowledge is defined as transmittable by formal, systematic language and tacit learning refers to knowledge attained through action. For students struggling with language acquisition, tacit learning, which is grounded in experimentation and experience, is the optimal mode for gaining expertise in a given subject. It is recognized that current educational policies and practices do not support desired outcomes with English language learners (Lee, 2005). By providing students with an inquiry-based approach for solving real-world problems, students working hard to gain proficiency in English speaking and literacy can gain understanding in a discipline through performance. “When students are driving the problem posing and decision making, it has been found that these inquiry-based methods personalize the project, increase relevance, and create ownership” (Johnson and Kean, 1992). The following illustrations from the world of praxis are good examples.

At the elementary school level, PBL was used in the creation of an outdoor classroom in Athens, Georgia. Students were charged with the task of creating a flexible outdoor classroom space. The students were asked to participate in every part of the implementation process, from brainstorming the design, through the execution of the project, and finally with the development of a curriculum around the conceived environment. A range of kindergarten through fifth grade students were taken to the proposed outdoor classroom site

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and then asked to imagine their ideal outdoor learning environment. They had the opportunity to illustrate these thoughts and share them with a Master’s of Landscape Architecture student at the University of Georgia. The graduate student then took the student designs and compiled their ideas into a conceptual plan. The students assisted in the grading and planting of the site, as well as engineering a rain garden with French drains, a bog, a brick pathway, and retaining walls. The planting and installation of over 40 different native perennial plant species ensured a botanical wealth of learning opportunities for future classroom participants. The service-learning component of the project provided equitable learning opportunities where language barriers could be crossed through student collaboration toward a common goal.

This creation of the outdoor classroom required elementary students to make a personal investment in their education and into the project, where they were more likely to use their support network of parents, teachers, friends and the community to help them meet the goals of the project. English language learners who participated in the project were given a cooperative learning environment to strengthen peer relationships. The hands-on nature of the project created a sense of ownership among project participants and catered to a wide range of skill and ability levels. The problem-based approach took the focus out of the lecture-based classroom and into an environment where learning involved doing, and ESOL students experienced a rich opportunity to develop specialized language skills in an applied setting.

In an example from higher education, master’s students in the College of Environment and Design at the University of Georgia assisted in the creation of a master plan for the State Botanical Garden of Georgia. These students brought together skills from the fields of geography, archeology, architecture, art, horticulture, and plant biology and worked as a dynamic and collaborative whole toward addressing the infrastructure problems of an entire institution and anticipating future needs of the facilities. English language learners in the group found themselves on equitable footing with other members of the group. Any language challenges students faced were resolved through the give and take of peer interaction, where shortcomings in one area were matched with a display of skill in other areas. The students were called on to demonstrate their proficiency with technology through the use of mapping software, their skill in design, and a competency at representing the conceptual plan in presentations to garden staff. These project requirements all reinforced specialized language acquisition for English language learners without drawing unwanted attention to individual deficiency or necessitating abstract language acquisition techniques. Instead of being allowed to go unattended in a classroom instructional setting, each student’s needs were addressed in the light of achieving a common goal.

A new program aimed at improving international student performance is now being offered to students at one United States university. Golden Gate University (GGU) in San Francisco, California, is offering a specialized English language program. The GGU Preparation in Language and University Studies (PLUS) program has been designed specifically for ESOL students, who have limited speaking and writing skills, to participate in a collaborative process to improve their English proficiency. GGU has a large Asian international student population, with students from Mongolia, South Korea, Japan, China and

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Taiwan, needing to increase their proficiency in written and spoken English.

PLUS is designed to encourage students to work in collaborative sessions, geared to solving common problems associated with the business curriculum, in which most students are enrolled. The program has a remarkably high 80-85% success rate as reported by Karin Fischer (2011) in her Chronicle of Higher Education article on PLUS. Focus on STEM ESP As noted above, the eclectic character of English has added numerous words to the lexicon with origins remote from the language’s Western European roots. This phenomenon is evident throughout the language, and has been of particular impact in the sciences, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) communities, as they become increasingly global in character, and have begun to rely upon English as a common medium of information exchange. The teaching of English as a “foreign language” has reached global proportions, with special schools teaching ESOL appearing literally in every corner of the planet.

The demand for teachers of ESOL has increased dramatically at the same time.

What has become increasingly evident is that traditionally trained ESOL teachers may not be able to fully prepare non-English speakers in the STEM fields. This issue has been commented upon as applies to engineering students in Saudi Arabia (Alqahtani, 2015, p93), Taiwan (Wu, 2014, p122), and Viet Nam (Hoa and Mai, 2016, p155), and may be generalized as particularly true in Asian countries, where vocabulary issues and passive learning styles impede ESOL learning situations. Boothe and Vaughn (2011) note that, often, lecture in STEM fields is difficult for English language learners to follow coherently. They become lost in the dialogue that may be too fast paced for them, and thus have little opportunity for reinforcement of language skills. This is at least partially explained by the increasing use of specialized, discipline specific, vocabularies within the various fields. In addition, the traditional language teaching methods have proven to be less than effective in these fields because of the need to successfully build student facility in these specialized English vocabularies.

Contemporary researchers have proposed numerous methods to overcome these problems. These include the avatar/spect-actor process proposed by PrivasBeaute (2016, p40-52), corpus building as proposed by Wu (2014, p120-127), blended learning as proposed by Banditvilai (2016, p220-229) and collaborative vocabulary building through blogging as outlined by Kleanthos and Cordozo (2016, p225-229), among others. It is our proposal that the use of PBL methodologies, as outlined above, and especially those proven to have positive impact in other ESOL arenas, may be of particular utility in building ESP proficiency among non-English speakers within the STEM communities.

Integration: PBL of ESP within an ESOL environment, Why and how?

The authors contend that it is crucial for PBL to be infused throughout ESP strategies and learning activities. Teamwork and collaboration are the keys to the majority of workplace endeavors and professionals are being challenged to inspire original and critical thinking. Innovation and creativity thrive among settings where employees and learners in other venues can move forward and

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achieve in their area of expertise supported by ESP achievement that fits the task at hand. As English language skills and communication improves, the tools and support are in place for impressive outcomes.

Krashen (1981) advocates the use of a natural approach to strengthen new language acquisition. PBL supports his research and surpasses traditional language acquisition methodologies. Students are required to make connections as group communication is strengthened. By applying language skills to the workplace, students develop survival skills for the working environment, increase their workforce marketability, and prepare themselves for lifelong learning.

The PBL model ensures that language skills are strengthened by experience with a broader scope of disciplines at the same time. “Collaboration and hands-on learning will lower the affective filters that Krashen cautions will deter students from successful language learning.” By combining language with new professional content knowledge using PBL, language skills are reinforced through group dynamics, workplace reality, and content area knowledge.

Language learning and logical thinking are linked to future endeavors and the students’ fields of work.

Flexibility and improvement of quality and achievement will be realized when an opportunity to incorporate ESP learning and instruction is supported through proven reinforcement activities that actively engage participants. There is a significant need to strengthen English language skills, recalibrate expectations, and better position native English speakers and professionals who are employed in English language settings. Expertise in their discipline is greatly appreciated, yet the greatest positive impact is realized when ESP is successfully coupled with performance in their occupation. The result is a significant shift in workplace expectations and needs. PBL makes the adjustments to collaborative and innovative activities more workable. English language learning, solutions to problems, and innovative advancements are realized simultaneously. Coupling strong subject matter and language learning strategies eliminates disconnects between content knowledge advancements in the workplace and English language competency challenges. The greatest positive impact in both areas is apparent as long as PBL activities are properly aligned to the learner’s occupation.

On the assessment side, gains will be evident and incremental successes will be enhanced, not just one time, but in an on-going and increasing basis throughout the process as we seek solutions for balancing and restructuring ESP and workplace endeavors. Specific experiences with PBL (Kaufman, et al, 1989) and meta-analyses of outcomes (Albanese and Mitchell, 1993) from PBL curricula in the medical school context have shown that content learning in PBL matches that in a traditional curriculum. Additional outcomes in PBL include greater retention of knowledge and greater satisfaction with the educational experience.

When language accommodations are no longer required, additional time and energy will be available for implementation of greater workplace skills requirements. A program combining PBL and ESP strives to strengthen accomplishments of employers and employees alike, and enhances strong teamwork with an emphasis on creativity and innovation. As professionals are

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walking down the situational paths relevant to the environment in which they work, they can acquire new knowledge and language proficiency simultaneously. Employing PBL and ESP strategies that change the context in which we reach educational and occupational investments will result in significant accomplishments and gains in both areas.

Examples from the International Community Globally, examples abound of the employment of PBL methodologies to increase ESP facility. The country of Korea is rapidly adapting PBL to the field of ESP in the information age. They are striving to challenge competitors and are promoting improvement of educational quality and enhancement of accessibility using PBL in the workplace, cyber-culture, and the English language classroom.

At universities and in corporate business settings, English is becoming the key to advancement, rising in importance over seniority and subject area/discipline specific education.

For example, securing a position as a flight attendant is a highly competitive and coveted accomplishment. Recruitment events draw hundreds of applicants. English skills and a university education are required along with grooming and excellent social skills. In fact, academies called hagwons are springing up to prepare aspiring applicants and provide PBL opportunities with a strong focus on ESP. There is an abundance of math and science majors in Korea who are interested in securing teaching positions in the public schools. Teaching is a respected occupation in Korea and jobs are highly competitive. One reason for this is that there is a high level of job security until the mandatory retirement age of 65, and teachers receive tenure during their first year on the job. However, English competence is in significant need, and although coursework is offered, excellent English teachers with clear pronunciation and speaking competence are not available in the quantities necessary to meet the need. As a result, English courses are often taught by Korean professors who are limited in their English acquisition because they, too, were taught by Korean professors who do not have optimum English language competency. It is interesting to note that exchange programs are growing that focus on bringing Korean teachers to the United States to accept difficult to fill math and science positions. This requires at least two years in English language pre-service preparation at US universities in order to meet the qualifications of both content and pedagogy. The necessary government visas need to be obtained to ensure that this is successful. A large part of the pre-professional training will focus on PBL and activities appropriate for the classroom setting. It is also worthy of note that private instruction in English, taught by native English speakers, is in high demand, and teachers for such programs are being continuously recruited in England, Canada, the United States, Australia and New Zealand.

In Italy and Germany, ESP is a crucial area and numerous ESP programs and conferences are available. Often PBL sessions are held at the workplace. For example, corporations such as Hewlett Packard have sites in both countries and offer mandatory PBL training sessions in English related to the specific qualifications and responsibilities of an employee’s position.

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Conclusions and Recommendations We suggest that the examples above illustrate that use of problem-based learning tools have much to offer in the teaching of English for Specific Purposes. This is particularly true in the case of the STEM disciplines which have emerged to full development and proliferation in the 20th Century and expand in importance in the 21st. One conclusion we reach in this regard is that the problem definition, and then systematic solution seeking emphasis of these disciplines lend themselves uniquely to the PBL approach to learning the unique English of the fields, and that the scholars and practitioners in these fields will be the ultimate beneficiaries.

Several of the authors referenced have noted that there are attitudinal and learning style issues that impede effective ESP learning. They have noted: - indifference to use of English, in spite of globalization of disciplinary communications; - vocabulary weakness with little interest in building term knowledge to a critical mass associated with effective written or verbal exchanges within a professional setting; - student passivity in academic settings that reflects cultural reluctance to confront authority figures, even in the face pressures to adapt; - and, conversational pace inhibiting clear understanding of both theoretical and practical considerations. It is our conclusion and suggestion that the use of a problem-based approach in ESP learning situations, especially those in STEM fields, will help to overcome these obstacles to learning, and contribute to greater facility in English by the learner, within and without the area of specific emphasis.

References Albanese, M. A. & Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based learning: A review of literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. Academic Medicine, 68, 52-81.

Alqahtani, M.A. (2015). Teaching English for Specific Purposes: Attitudes Among Saudi Engineering Students. English Language Teaching, 8(7), 76-94. Retrieved from https://www.eric.ed.gov/EJ1075441 Banditvilai, C. (2016). Enhancing Students’ Language Skills through Blended Learning.

Electronic Journal of e-learning, 14(3) 220-229.

Retrieved from https://www.eric.ed.gov/EJ1107134 Boothe, D. & Vaughn, R., (2011). Innovative English Language Acquisition Through Problem-based Learning. Presented at International Conference on the Future of Education, June 16-17, Florence, Italy.

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Privas-Breaute, V. (2016). Creating an Avatar to Become a Spect-Actor of Ones’s Learning of ESP. The EUROCALL Review, 24(1), 40-52. Retrieved from https://www.eric.ed.gov/EJ1096401 Purser, R. (2010). Problem-based Learning (excerpt from course description for Management 405).

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 15-28, March 2017

Learning in Motion: Teachers‟ Perspectives on the Impact of Stationary Bike Use in the Classroom Julie Lynn Mueller Wilfrid Laurier University Waterloo, Canada Amanada Wudarzewski Run for Life Yoad Avitzur Wilfrid Laurier University Waterloo, Canada Abstract. The potential of physical activity to support self-regulated learning in the classroom has encouraged the implementation of stationary bicycles across Canada and the United States. Positive testimonials suggest that their use by students has positive outcomes, but there is limited empirical evidence supporting the efficacy of this pedagogical practice. The current study analyzes teachers‟ perceptions of the use and impact of stationary exercise bicycles in classrooms as part of a community running program initiative through a nationwide survey of 107 participants. Key findings identify teacher perceptions of positive outcomes in students‟ social, emotional, and cognitive development, as well as to the learning environment. A small set of unique challenges were posed by the bike integration, including limited distraction and some scheduling difficulties. Teachers approached the integration of the bikes on a spectrum of control from “studentregulated” to “teacher-regulated” with some combination of both, and movement from teacher-directed use to more student-initiated use after the bike was in use for some time. The implications for the use of stationary bikes as a tool for self-regulated learning in an active classroom are discussed and future research measuring learning outcomes is suggested.

Keywords: self-regulated learning; active education; aerobic activity; teacher perceptions

learning;

elementary

Research across disciplines suggests that physical fitness and exercise have a positive effect on brain activity, working-memory, executive function, and emotion regulation, as well as a mitigating effect on age-related cognitive decline and disease (Berg, 2010; Pontifex, Hillman, FernHall, Thompson, & Valentini,

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2009; Van Praag, 2009; Ratey, 2008; Shanker 2012; Sibley & Beilock, 2007; Tomporowski, Lambourne, & Okumra, 2011). Aerobic exercise acts as a stimulant to the brain, increasing cerebral blood flow, synaptic activity and neural connections, which potentially improve learning (Berg, 2010; Pontifex et al., 2009). Multiple studies testing brain function before a period of moderate to significant weekly exercise and afterward found that exercise improves overall brain function (Van Praag, 2009).

The cognitive effects of exercise are not limited to an increase in overall brain activation, but physical activity enhances neurotransmitter activity affecting higher order cognitive functioning, executive control, and working memory as well. A variety of studies have shown a relationship between exercise and complicated task performance, including increased inhibitory control, increased focus, and an improved ability to resist distractions (Hillman, Pontifex, Raine, Casterlli, Hall, & Kramer, 2009; Hillman, Snook, and Jerome, 2003; Pontifex et al., 2009; & Sibley & Beilock, 2007). It is therefore suggested that children‟s ability to regulate their emotions can be enhanced by aerobic activity which helps in the management of anger, stress, fatigue, and restlessness which can present roadblocks to on-task behaviour and readiness to learn (Berg, 2010; Mahar, Murphy, Rowe, Golden, Shields, & Raedeke, 2006; Ratey, 2008).

The importance of physical activity to the overall functioning of the human brain is recognized by scientific literature. One study found that aerobic exercise led to improved behavioural and academic performance for children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) when compared to a control (Pontifex, Saliba, Raine, Picchietti, & Hillman, 2013). Additionally, Ratey (2008) describes the correlation between physical exercise and academic performance in a case study of a secondary school in Naperville, Illinois. Naperville students engaged in moderate to vigorous physical exercise before learning, resulting in improvements to student achievement, including increased test scores and an enhancement of students‟ attention, alertness, and relaxation. In addition to improving overall cognitive functioning, morning exercise increased students‟ capacity to ignore distractions and effectively regulate their emotions, thus improving students‟ ability to learn. The success of the Naperville Project provided the impetus for the adoption of similar programs throughout the United States, including the PE4life programs, which “have trained over one thousand educators and 350 schools to emulate their program” (Stattlesmair & Ratey, 2009, p. 370).

This evidence suggests that exercise can be used as a tool by teachers to help maintain and facilitate cognitive functioning in children. Tranter & Kerr (2016) identified physical exercise as an important „up-regulating‟ strategy, to be used throughout the school day, particularly when students‟ focus might dwindle.

Exercises included activities such as stretching, yoga, jumping jacks, and dancing. In Ontario, Canada, the Ministry of Education mandated 20 minutes of compulsory Daily Physical Activity (DPA) in response to research that identified advantages to student self-regulated learning (SRL), including student attitude, and willingness to meet the challenges of daily life (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2005).

Self-regulation can be conceptualized as a process of ongoing mental adjustment; one that requires the constant monitoring and modification of

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emotions; focussing or shifting attention; controlling impulses; tolerating frustrations; and, delaying gratification (Shanker, 2012). Self-regulated learning (SRL) deals with equipping students with the skills necessary to observe their bodies and adjust their states of arousal to maximize the potential for learning to occur. This „optimal‟ state requires staying alert, focused, and relaxed, and necessitates an intimate knowledge of one‟s emotional and physical states so that one could discern how these states are distracting or contributing to processing and assimilating information (Shanker, 2012). Cognitive mechanisms including executive functioning, inhibitory control, and concentration, necessary for self-regulation and a readiness to learn, are enhanced by physical exercise (Pontifex et al. 2009; Van Praag, 2009; Ratey, 2008; Sibley & Beilock, 2007; Tomporowski et al., 2011; Woltering & Lewis, 2009).

Monitoring and adjusting negative emotions is a necessary component of emotional self-regulation, but it is not sufficient. In addition to regulating or managing negative emotions, children must be encouraged to develop positive ones through nurturing feelings of self-worth and security (Shanker, 2012).

Physical exercise could be seen as an activity that builds self-esteem and wellbeing in addition to countering stress, fatigue, anger, and anxiety. Physical activity has the potential to support self-regulation of negative emotions in a learning environment as well as increase feelings of self-esteem.

Educators across Canada have introduced classroom use of stationary bikes in an effort to improve SRL in children, promoting the control of both negative and positive emotions in preparation for learning. Bikes were intended to provide an opportunity for any student who is feeling distracted, anxious, tired, or angry throughout the school day to „hop on‟ and pedal until he or she is ready to learn. Canadian national news media have reported largely positive teacher and student feedback following the implementation of stationary bike programs in public schools (Senick 2017; Thomson 2016; Mitton & Barth, 2016). Yet, one opinion piece (Bennett 2016) is more critical, stating that “Self-regulation – with or without spin bikes – may turn out to be another passing fancy in education reform.” Further, in his opinion piece, Bennett (2016) notes the lack of research on the subject and asks “where‟s the research to support these classroom spin bike experiments?”

Indeed, the growing popularity of stationary bicycles in the classroom setting is contrasted with the absence of empirical study on the impact of this intervention on classroom dynamics and student learning. An analysis of the use of stationary bikes in classrooms should discern its effects on classroom management and dynamics, as well as its influence on student emotions and behaviours, including self-esteem, relaxation, mental awareness, and well-being.

The current study initiates this necessary evaluation by examining teachers‟ perspectives of the impact of classroom use of stationary bikes, and the variables that might predict student self-regulation and learning outcomes.

Method One hundred and seven Canadian teachers from urban, suburban, and rural schools from across the country completed a 44-question online survey about the use of stationary exercise bikes in their schools. Participating teachers worked in

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varied school contexts, in which schools were either publicly or privately funded, with populations ranging from under 100 to over 500 students, with students in Kindergarten to Grade 12. All participants were enrolled in Sparksfly, a stationary bike program offered by Run for Life--a non-profit community organization that deploys bicycles into classrooms to support students‟ active learning and self-regulation.

The survey (see appendix A) was comprised of five parts including both forced-choice and open-ended questions examining consent; pedagogical strategies related to bike use; perspectives on observed behavioural outcomes; any challenges encountered during the implementation; and, demographic questions describing the schools and classrooms, funding, and future recommendations. Qualitative answers were recorded in Word documents and coded by two researchers for emerging themes. Any discrepancies were resolved through discussion.

Results Description of Stationary Bike Use The majority of teachers (83%) indicated that their stationary bikes were located in their classrooms, while the remainder were located in a resource room or in another type of shared space. The specific location within the classroom varied across respondents. Teachers indicated that their bikes had been in their current location for a range of time; from less than a month (11%) to more than a year (24.3%). A slight majority of teachers (52%) indicated that the bikes were somewhat new, in the present location for a few months.

The clear majority of teachers indicated that students used the bikes at least once per week (98%). Seventy five percent of teachers provided their students with specific bike-use guidelines while the remaining 25% did not. Among those teachers that did provide guidelines to their students, 68% gave instructions on turn-duration, ranging from one minute to 30 minutes, with 74% of teachers instructing their students to use the bikes for less than 10 minutes at one time. Qualitative answers indicated that duration of use depended on several factors, including demand and student need, e.g., “10 – 15 minutes depending on demand,” or “at least 5 minutes,” or “in my case, there is no misuse, and no time limit.”

Participants were also asked to describe how they decided which students used the bikes and when. Qualitative answers were coded into four categories according to the degree of teacher/student control over the decision of by whom, and when, the bikes were used. Fifty-five percent of answers were coded as student regulated, while 19 percent of answers were coded as teacher regulated.

A significant number of responses were coded as a combination of the two (17%), and 9 percent changed approaches beginning with a teacher regulated approach and later moved to a more student regulated method.

There were two student regulated subcategories, based on the degree of autonomy students were given to determine bike use. Some teachers allowed students to use the bikes on a permission-basis, according to which students first recognized their need to self-regulate, and then asked the teacher if bike use was permitted at that moment by raising their hand or displaying some type of

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signal, e.g., “Students can use a hand signal to ask to use the bike any time when the teacher is at the front of the room teaching or explaining.” Some teachers created an open/closed sign for the bike, and „opened‟ the equipment‟s use during work periods or other independent work time and „closed‟ it during instruction, while others allowed for constant student-controlled bike- use. The second subcategory in the student regulated theme, granted the most student control in determining bike-use. Decisions in this subcategory were based on a first-come-first serve basis. If students felt the need to regulate because of boredom, agitation, anxiety, or other distracting emotion or sensation, they were allowed to simply get out of their seats and use the bikes.

The „teacher regulated’ category included three subcategories that also varied in degree of teacher control. The first subcategory included teacher-identified use where the need for bike use was recognized by the teacher rather than the student based on the student‟s agitation, anxiety, or boredom. The teacher recognized the need and suggested that the student use the bicycle, e.g., “if I see subtle cues to anxiousness I will ask if the student might like to jump on the Spark Bike.” A second subcategory divided access across students but with some students having priority over others based on their specific needs, e.g., “we have a schedule made so all students get an opportunity to use the bike.

However, some names are on the schedule more than others.” The third subcategory still included teacher control but in a scheduled approach. Turns on the bikes were offered to all students equally and students were allowed to choose to either take their turn or to forfeit it. An example illustrating this subcategory is one teacher‟s invention of „The Bike Cup‟, which passed “from student to student. The student may choose to pass or ride the bike. If they pass, the cup goes to the next student. If they bike, they bike for two-three minutes and then pass the cup to the next student. In the morning, the cup is placed on a random student's desk and they decide which direction the cup will go.”

Seventeen percent of teachers reported using both types of approaches simultaneously, typically allowing for student-regulation, but electing students to go when a student‟s need to self-regulate goes unnoticed by that student. For example, one teacher said “the students decide when I am teaching and they feel they have sat too long on the mat or when they are finished work; I decide when they are needing a refocus.”

Lastly, 9% of teachers described their experience as one in which the bikes went through an initial period of teacher-control, and as students became more familiar with the equipment they were granted more autonomy for regulation.

One teacher explains: “At first, there was a class list and they went in order.

After a few days, we developed a signal (twirl your finger in the air). As the novelty faded, kids don't require permission. They just hop on whenever they want.”

Additional Classroom Physical Activity In addition to stationary bike use, 77% of teachers surveyed indicated that they incorporated other physical activity opportunities in the classroom for their students. These other activities were categorized into three themes: dynamic full-

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body movements, outdoor physical activity, and stationary activities in their seats.

Eighty-five percent of responses fit in the full body category, and included activities like: BrainBreak, Gonoodle, Daily Vigorous Physical Activity (DVPA), yoga, running on the spot, jumping around, dancing, Zumba, and stretching. A smaller percentage (8%) of responses indicated that they took their students for outdoor physical activity, and six percent had their students perform different stationary activities in their seats, such as under-the-desk pedalling, active seating, breathing exercises, and meditation.

Teachers were also asked if they modeled bike use in the classroom, and if so, how often students saw them using the stationary bike, on a five-point scale, ranging from 1 (Not at All) to 5 (More Than Once a Week). The mean score of 2.56 and standard deviation of 1.73 suggests significant variance amongst teachers, wherein a large number (45%) of teachers do not model bike-use to their students at all while 35% use the stationary bikes in front of their students at least once a week.

Perceived Outcomes of Bike Use: Benefits Teachers were asked to agree or disagree with six statements about the perceived benefits of stationary bike use for students, on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), 3 (neutral). These questions asked whether teachers believed that the use of the stationary bikes increased students‟ sense of accomplishment, relaxation, mental-alertness, and self-esteem; whether they had observed any positive physical changes in students; and whether students enjoyed using the stationary bike (see Table 1 for means and standard deviations).

Table 1. Means and standard deviations for perceived positive outcome variables.

Outcome

Mean

SD

n

Enjoyment

4.5

.67

102

Accomplishment

3.93

.87

88

Relaxation

4.24

.64

98

Mental Alertness

4.24

.68

95

Self-Esteem

3.96

.76

91

Physical Changes

3.23

.87

78

A Perceived Positive Outcomes variable was calculated as an aggregate of the six separate questions (α = .89) for participants who answered each of the relevant questions (n=66). Overall, teachers reported that the stationary bikes had a positive effect on students in their classrooms (M= 4.05, SD = 0.59). A multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine what specific variables might predict teachers‟ perceived positive outcomes. Six variables were entered into the regression: how long the bike has been in its location; how often an individual student gets to use the bike; intensity with which the students use the bike; how often the

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students see their teacher using the stationary bikes; physical activities in the classroom other than the bikes; and teacher perception of targeted use (whether the teacher found that students with attention or behavioural difficulties were particularly drawn to the stationary bike). The linear combination of these six measures was significantly related to perceived positive outcomes, F (6, 94) = 10.51, p < .001.

The adjusted R square was .37, indicating that approximately 37% of the variance of perceived positive outcomes can be accounted for by the linear combination of the measures outlined above. Five out of the six independent variable were statistically significant (smallest t= 2.12, p= .04 to largest t = 3.96, p<.001). The only variable that did not significantly add to the regression was how long the bike has been in its location, t=1.25, p=.21.

In addition to perceived positive outcomes, teachers were asked to use their own words to describe any other benefits that they perceived to result from student bike use. Thirty-six percent of participants provided answers that were categorized by five themes describing benefits related to physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development, as well as the learning environment. Teachers reported observing several physical improvements in their students due to the use of the stationary bikes, e.g., one kindergarten teacher said that the bike they have in their classroom “helps strengthen our students‟ gross motor development”, while another reported that bike use “increased better cardio in students.”

Perceptions that bike use led to cognitive improvements were detailed as an increase in students‟ attention capacities, time-management skills, and ability to take effective breaks from learning. For example, one teacher reported that “some [students] are able to sustain attention longer than they were doing before I got my bike”, and that “students [were] becoming more independent in their break choices.”

Improvement in students‟ emotional development were primarily related to an increased capacity for emotional regulation. For example, one teacher said that they “have found that for some students it helps to reduce anxiety to have that physical release. They are also more aware of their own moods and feelings as it has prompted us to do more focused learning of the recognition of these things.”

Another teacher reported that students “generally seem more relaxed and ready to settle in to work”, another that students are “more aware of their bodies and brain development”, and lastly, “as well as having a calming effect, it [the bike] can also pep up tired students.”

Indications of improvements to students‟ social development were found in teachers‟ reflections on students‟ ability to share objects, take turns, and avoid or resolve conflicts with no teacher involvement. For example, “[there is] less conflict in cases where specific students who have issues around anger management have shown a tendency, in part from use of the bike, to avoid asserting themselves aggressively toward other students.”

Finally, references to the stationary bike‟s impact on the learning environment included comments such as “students can remain in class more, as they can go on a bike rather than going for a walk” and “when they work while they are on the bike with the portable table that they put on the handles, they are more focused on what they are doing.”

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Perceived Outcomes of Bike Use: Challenges When asked to rate the bikes as a source of distraction on a five-point scale, teachers indicated that the bikes were generally not seen as a distraction M=1.82, (SD = 0.95), ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), 3 (neutral).

Correlation analyses between scores on the distraction variable and three other variables indicated a significant relationship: duration of bike in classroom; frequency of student use; and perceived positive outcomes. The duration in which the bike had been in its specific location was negatively correlated with the perceived distraction-level of the bikes, R= -0.26, p<.01, suggesting that the longer a bike had remained in its location, the less distracting it was perceived to be. An independent samples t-test found a statistically significant difference t(96)= 2.54, p<.01 in the mean scores of perceived distraction between participants who had bikes for less than one year (M= 2.0, SD= .88) when compared to those who had the bikes for one year or longer (M= 1.51, SD=.99).

It appears that teachers that have had the bike for one year or less perceived them to be significantly more distracting than teachers that have had the bike for one year or longer. Distraction was also significantly correlated with Frequency of student use, R= -0.31, p <.01; more frequent bike use was related to lower levels of perceived distraction.

Not surprisingly, the level of the bike‟s distraction was negatively correlated with the perceived positive outcomes composite variable, R= -0.4, p <.01.

Nearly one quarter of teachers (23%) reported a situation in which a student was unable to use the stationary bikes, and one third (29.3%) faced a situation in which a student was reluctant or did not want to use the bikes. Explanations for students‟ inability to use the bikes were classified into two main categories: physical limitations of the student and inappropriate dress. Forty-two percent of answers referenced situations in which a student was not able to use the stationary bike because of physical limitations, such as the student‟s size, injury, or disability. It is important to note, however, that physical disability did not necessarily inhibit bike use. Indeed, teachers identified situations in which a student with physical or other limitations still managed to “one little girl who has a disability in a lower grade was really good on the bike. […] she loved it!”

Explanations about student reluctance to use the bikes were grouped into three subcategories: the student did not like the bike; the bike was too difficult for the student to use; and the student was afraid or socially intimidated. It appears that “some students just don‟t like it, find it too hard, or [the bikes are] of no interest to them.” Some students are hesitant to use the bikes, and others appear to be afraid, e.g., “student was scared. Student may not feel that they will be successful.” Some teachers reported that students may perceive the stationary bikes as socially intimidating, and would prefer to avoid the unwanted attention that using the bicycle attracts, e.g., “some students do not feel comfortable to exercise in front of others, so they started off passing, but now most students use it daily.”

Nearly half of the survey‟s respondents (49) answered an open-ended question asking what other challenges they encountered due to stationary bike integration. Participants‟ answers were categorized into three general themes:

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classroom management concerns, difficulties with the bike itself, and access challenges.

Classroom management concerns accounted for the largest percentage of the reported challenges (76%), and included student misconduct, horseplay, and inappropriate use of the bicycles, problems with turn-taking, bikes being used during inappropriate times, and bikes being used to avoid work. Examples of these behaviours include reports of “times that students are interrupting the lesson to discuss who gets to use the bike” or instances of students “hogging the bike”, and “disputes over who has the right to be on it.” A smaller number of additional problems involved difficulties with the bicycle itself, including reports that students cannot “do work on or read while they are biking”, and complaints over the bike‟s tension knob not working, or wheels becoming squeaky with use.

The remaining comments reported access challenges, including not having enough bikes in the school/classroom and wanting more, issues with the cost of the bikes, and challenges encountered while fundraising for the equipment.

Solutions to Challenges Participants were asked to share some of their solutions to address the challenges that they reported. Forty percent responded. The majority of responses (79%) addressed classroom-management challenges, suggesting things like “students need to self-regulate the taking of turns”, and “having a sign-up list has been helpful for some teachers in our school.” Teachers also discussed the importance of explaining the purpose of the bikes to students, namely the principles of self-regulation and how these relate to different students‟ needs.

One teacher asserted students should know “that fair doesn't always mean even.

Many of my students require the bike more than others.” Other teachers stressed establishing clear expectations with students on the consequences that might result from breaking guidelines by saying things like “stay firm and consistent on the consequences.” Other proposed solutions to challenges included using an open/closed sign for the bicycles to prevent their use during inappropriate times, and providing safety/usage instructions.

A much smaller percentage of responses (13%) addressed access and technical issues, and included suggestions on how many bikes a school/classroom should have, fundraising tips, and ideas for how to modify the bikes to make them better, e.g., “having more bikes (2-3) per class”; “the community [should] get involved in fundraising efforts”; “a table top for completing work”; or “building a frame/box in front of the bike to allow students to place something so they can work/read while they bike”; and, assembling a “small tool kit with some extra parts so that it can be fixed easily and promptly” in case the bicycle malfunctions and requires repair.

Recommendations When asked if they would recommend the implementation of stationary bicycles to other teachers, 99% of respondents said they would and 38 teachers gave a rationale. Favourable comments generally spoke to recommendations based on the observed benefits related to physical exercise and self-regulation in the classroom. Teachers suggested that the stationary bicycle provided students with a convenient means of exercising and lead to an increased awareness of the benefits of exercise. Teachers‟ comments also noted that the bicycles had a role

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in improving student focus, motivation, productivity, processing, calmness, and well-being, for example, “I think it is a great way to teach students that even a little bit of exercise has many benefits- helps with concentration and attention, alleviates stress, gets rid of nervous energy, [and] is fun.” and “it's a no-brainer.

Kids need to move and the spin bike is a wonderful and sustainable strategy to promote wellness, mind-body connections and self-awareness!” Teachers suggested that “bikes help students regain focus and they can produce more work and remain in the classroom while having a physical/emotional break.”, and that the bikes are a “fantastic addition to the classroom. Self regulation and exercise are huge benefits. Try sitting for five hours!” Overall, there was wide agreement across answers that stationary bicycle use is “an outlet for kids”, and that students generally “process better if they are moving.”

Discussion When reviewing teachers‟ responses across a variety of survey questions, it is apparent that the perceived effects of stationary bike integration were largely positive, although the unique set of challenges posed by integration should not be overlooked. Key reflections made by teachers included proposed solutions to the challenges reported. One specific concern of integration of a new technology or pedagogical approach is the distraction and impact due to its novelty. Results suggest that this was a challenge that dissipated with time. The perceived positive outcomes of bike use reinforced the importance of incorporating learner-centred pedagogies to effectively support self-regulated use of stationary bikes.

The study‟s 107 participants were a diverse group of teachers that used stationary exercise bikes as participating members of Run for Life‟s SparksFly program. Participants came from 8 different provinces/territories, a variety neighbourhood types, worked in broadly different settings in which school and class size varied widely, and taught different grades, ranging from Kindergarten to Grade 12. The survey followed a mixed-methods design containing both open and closed-ended questions. The collection of data by researchers independent of participating schoolboards ensured that teachers were free from any possible job-related repercussions, which allowed teachers to share both positive and negative opinions of the SparksFly program and its impact.

The perceived benefits of stationary bike implementation on individual students were captured in participants‟ scores on the perceived positive outcomes variable and qualitative responses to open ended questions about bike use and its impact on student development. Those outcomes were aspects of self-regulated learning including enjoyment, sense of accomplishment, relaxation, mental alertness, self-esteem and physical changes. All of the perceived outcomes were seen as neutral to higher with the largest impact related to enjoyment, relaxation and mental alertness. Physical changes were scored lowest on average, more neutral than agreement, however. This is not surprising as the average frequency and duration of bike use was limited. The integration of stationary bike use was intended to capitalize on the connection between physical activity and readiness to learn rather than having any great impact on the level of physical fitness more generally. The bike use was one

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aspect of what were recognized as physically active learning environments.

Indeed, most teachers reported integrating other class-wide physical activity routines in addition to the stationary bikes, and about half of those surveyed used the bikes themselves.

Qualitative data analysis revealed that following the introduction of the stationary bikes, teachers reported improvements in their students‟ physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development, as well as benefits to the learning environment. Some teachers‟ answers included perceived improvements in students‟ physical development due to bike use, for example, “increased better cardio”, “students biking to school”, and observations that the bike “helps strengthen our students‟ gross motor development.”

Perceptions that bike use led to cognitive improvements were detailed as increases in students‟ attention capacities, improvement in time-management skills, and independent choice to take effective breaks from learning. The reported benefits on students‟ emotional development included students‟ ability to observe, reflect, and regulate their emotions. Students‟ social development manifested in positive changes to students‟ ability to share objects, take turns, and avoid or solve conflicts. Teachers identified an increase in students‟ ability to recognize not only their need to self-regulate through the bike use but an overall increase in empathy toward other students and their individual needs, for example, “My students are very empathetic to students who need the bike in a moment of distress or disruption.” Finally, references to improvements in the learning environment included the ability to keep students in the learning context and working while they took a physical break from sitting.

Despite the numerous benefits of stationary bike implementation as indicated by teachers, the use of bikes in the classroom setting did pose a unique set of challenges, including physical limitations and student reluctance to use the stationary bikes; classroom management concerns; technical issues related to the bike itself; access difficulties; and the bike‟s potential to distract students from on-task behaviour. Although there was a range of scores related to perceived amount of distraction, the bikes were not generally seen as a distraction. The longer a bike remained in its location, the less distracting it was perceived to be.

Although, perceived positive outcomes were significantly predicted by several variables, including intensity and frequency of use, the length of time that the bike had been in the same location was not a significant predictor, suggesting that positive outcomes may be seen right away. Teachers expressed that the challenges posed by stationary bike implementation are most palpable during the first few phases of the integration process, but lessen with the passing of time. In other words, when students are exposed to a classroom with a stationary bike for the first time, the bikes are extremely popular and it may seem like every student wants a turn. The great demand for the bike can lead to disruption and student conflict, especially when the bike is unregulated by the teacher. The constant activity surrounding bikes during this introductory period can be distracting for both teachers and students, and some teachers felt that they needed to be proactive regarding student bicycle use during this period, often coming up with creative ways to ensure students respectfully shared the bicycle without interrupting the learning of others. Suggestions to counter the

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novelty effect that the bikes may elicit included having “discussions around it and development of rules by and with the students.”

Qualitative responses regarding how bike use was regulated demonstrated a spectrum of control from student-regulated to teacher-regulated and a combination of both. According to respondents, as the novelty of this new equipment faded, the bicycles became more available for students that would benefit most from their use. Regulating students‟ bicycle use sometimes evolved as the class became better acquainted with the bike and teachers relinquished control. Some teachers initially chose to heavily regulate bike-use to allow every student to have a turn. After bike-use became normalized, some teachers lessened their control to a permission-based strategy in which students selfidentified their need to use the bikes and then asked the teacher for permission to do so. Some teachers adjusted the rules so that bikes were used on a firstcome-first-serve basis, in which any student who felt the need to self-regulate by using the stationary bicycle could do so without being a distraction. When the bike is implemented with the intent to develop self-regulation in students, it is important that teachers recognize and use pedagogical approaches that allow for student choice and decision-making. Differentiated instruction becomes the norm.

If students are instructed to use the bicycles with moderate to vigorous intensity until they feel relaxed and ready to learn whenever they feel hyper, angry, tired, anxious, or any other distracting emotion, they begin to actively „monitor‟ their emotions and act on their self-evaluations. This mindfulness helps to mobilize SRL when coupled with a strategy (i.e. stationary bike use) intended to help mitigate the distracting emotions and lead to increased learning. The stationary bike is there for any student to just „hop on‟ until they become “calm, alert, and learning” (Shanker, 2012).

Three key findings from this study include:  The most common challenge of implementing stationary bikes in the classroom was the initial distraction. The distraction was limited, however, and readily overcome through discussion and practice.

Introduction of the bike may have contributed to students‟ ability to recognize individual learning needs.  Teachers perceived a number of positive outcomes in relation to the use of stationary bikes. The initial purpose of the bike, to improve self-regulation leading to an increase in learning, was accomplished on various levels, contributing to individual social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes as well as an overall positive impact on the classroom learning environment.  The results of this study identified a spectrum of control around the use of the bike, ranging from student-regulated to teacher-regulated.

The position of control along that spectrum has implications for the level of student self-regulation.

Implications and future research The positive outcomes and limited challenges identified in this study suggest that use of stationary bikes in classrooms is one potential strategy for supporting self-regulated learning across grades and contexts.

The

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implementation of the bike should be part of an overall pedagogical approach to supporting self-regulated learning and should be treated as any other emerging instructional tool. Teacher knowledge, examples of success, easy access, and support are critical to ensuring a positive experience (Mueller, Wood, Willoughby, DeYoung, Ross, & Specht, 2008). Although the teachers in this study were perhaps „champions for the cause‟ and included physical activity in other aspects of their classrooms, the findings of this study offer evidence to support a broader implementation of stationary bikes as a tool for self-regulated learning.

Although the current study included a survey of teacher perceptions rather than direct measurement of student outcomes, the findings and implications are a significant addition to the literature examining self-regulated learning and the impact of physical activity on learning. Wendel, Benden, Zhao and Jeffrey (2016) identified positive results of stand-biased desks versus seated classrooms on student BMI increases after two years of intervention. Future research that includes extended intervention projects and measurement of actual student learning outcomes following use of the bikes will expand on the evidence base and provide specific support for successful implementation.

References Bennett, P. (2016, April). Stationary bikes in the classroom: Are we spinning out of control? The Globe and Mail.

Berg, K. (2010). Justifying physical education based on neuroscience evidence. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 81(3), 24-46.

Hillman, C. H., Pontifex, M. B., Raine, L. B., Castelli, D. M., Hall, E. E., & Kramer, A. F. (2009). The effect of acute treadmill walking on cognitive control and academic achievement in preadolescent children. Neuroscience, 159(3), 1044–1054.

Hillman, C.H., Snook, E.M., & Jerome, G.J. (2003). Acute cardiovascular exercise and executive control function. International Journal of Psychophysiology. 48, 307-314.

Mahar, M. T., Murphy, S. K., Rowe, D. A., Golden, J., Shields, T., & Raedeke, T. D. (2006).

Effects of a classroom-based physical activity program on physical activity and on-task behavior in elementary school children. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 38 (12), 2086-94.

Mitton, P. (Writer), & Barth, W. (Director). (2016, March). Classroom stationary bikes encourage kids to blow off steam while learning [Television series episode]. In Kalbfleisch, C., Nasser, S., & Pagel, J. (Producers), The Current. Toronto, Ontario: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.

Mueller, J., Wood, E., Willoughby, T., DeYoung, T., Ross, C., & Specht, J. (2008).

Identifying discriminating variables between teachers who fully integrate computers and teachers with limited integration. Computers and Education, 51, 1523-1537.

Ontario Ministry of Education. (2005). Resource Guide. Daily physical activity in schools.

Grades 4 to 6. Ontario Ministry of Education.

Pontifex, M. B., Hillman, C. H., Fernhall, B., Thompson, K. M., & Valentini, T. A. (2009).

The effect of acute aerobic and resistance exercise on working memory. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise,41(4), 927-934.

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Pontifex, M. B., Saliba, B. J., Raine, L. B., Picchietti, D. L., & Hillman, C. H. (2013).

Exercise improves behavioral, neurocognitive, and scholastic performance in children with ADHD. The Journal of Pediatrics, 162(3), 543–551.

Ratey, J. (2008). Spark: The Revolutionary New Science of Exercise and the Brain. New York: Little, Brown and Co. Senick, J. (2017, January). Saskatoon teachers use stationary bikes to help students concentrate. Global News.

Shanker, S. G. (2012). Calm, Alert and Learning: Classroom Strategies for Self-Regulation.

Toronto: Pearson.

Shanker S. G. (2012) Emotional Regulation through the Ages, in Foolen A., Ludtke U.M., Racine T.P. & Slatev J. (Eds) Moving Ourselves, Moving Others: motion and emotion in intersubjectivity, consciousness and language, pp. 105–138.

Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Sibley, B. A., & Beilock, S. L. (2007). Exercise and working memory: An individual differences investigation. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 29(6), 783791.

Stattlesmair, J., & Ratey, J. (2009). Physically active play and cognition: An academic matter? American Journal of Play, (1), 365-374.

Thomson, A. (2016, March). How Canadian classrooms are being transformed by a revolution on two wheels. The Toronto Star.

Tomporowski, P. D., Lambourne, K., & Okumra, M. S. (2011). Physical activity interventions and children‟s mental Function: an introduction and overview.

Preventive Medicine, 52, s3-9.

Tranter, D., & Kerr, D. (2016). Understanding Self-Regulation: Why stressed Students Struggle to Learn (Research Monograph No. 63). What works? Research into Practice. Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat and the Ontario Association of Deans of Education. Ontario.

Van Praag, H. (2009). Exercise and the brain: Something to chew on. Trends in Neurosciences, 32(5), 283- 290.

Wendel, M. L., Benden, M. E., Zhao, H., & Jeffrey, C. (2016). Stand-biased versus seated classrooms and childhood obesity: A randomized experiment in Texas. American Journal of Public Health, 106(10), 1849-1854.

Woltering, S., & Lewis, M.D. (2009). Developmental pathways of emotion regulation in childhood: A neuropsychological perspective. Mind, Brain, and Education 3(3), 160-169.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 29-37, March 2017.

Expanding Areas of Influence at Azores University: Virtual Campus, Regional Clusters and Points of Presence Rogerio L. Roth University of the Azores Ponta Delgada, Portugal Abstract. The tripolarity of the University of the Azores, characterised by three campuses and facilities has been shown to be economically unviable, socially unjust and at the same time insufficient to allow the attendance of all nine islands of the archipelago. The location in an outermost region of the European Union does not guarantee a positive discrimination. The solution might lie in a paradigm shift, based on a decapolar structure and through partnerships establish regional clusters, points of presence and a virtual campus.

Keywords: regional clusters; points of presence; paradigm shifts; virtual campus

Introduction

The University of the Azores (UAC) is a Portuguese public institution, created within the framework of regionalization of higher education.

It is important to bear in mind that the issue of insularity in the region involves specific solutions that fit to the geographical, economic and social realities of the Azores archipelago, located in the middle of the northern hemisphere of the Atlantic Ocean.

source: http://www.visitazores.com/en source: http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A7ores Š 2017 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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The issue of insularity provides a tripolar character to the region, with poles in the cities of Ponta Delgada, Angra do Heroísmo and Horta, which gave rise to the present Azorean campuses.

In this paper I focus on analyzing the tripolar physical campus model used by UAC, analyze similar institutions and propose a new model of expansion, based on regional clusters, points of presence and a virtual campus.

The paper draws on findings from the research “Implementation Strategies and Development of an Open and Distance Education System for the University of the Azores” (Roth, 2013), funded by the European Social Fund. The main objective of this research was to observe the recent events related to likely paradigm shift in the educational area and propose to UAC the adoption of solutions that can, at the same time, correct implementations already carried out in previous experiments and respond to these new challenges.

After 36 years since its creation, the University continues to face challenges, particularly arising from the inexorable process of globalization – phenomenon started in the 15th century with the era of Portuguese discoveries, of the knowledge-based society and the policy effects of chronic underfunding of public higher education in Portugal.

However, as we’ll see, UAC has been unable to serve the entire archipelago with the structure defined in 1976. This concept is being questioned today. The latest concern is with old theories about the functioning and costs of the tripolar infrastructure. There are those who are once again defending the centralization of UAC on a single island, claiming that the three infrastructures is that it hinders the financial management of the academy (Lima, 2012).

Would it be a priority to invest in education in times of crisis? Probably not...

Would it be possible to have more and better education for all, without further costs? Certainly…

Referring to Portugal, Crato (2012) says that: “the greatest debt that a country can generate is the perpetuation of ignorance”. However Morgado (2011), previously in a self-criticism, recognizes the difficulties faced in the country: “think and talk is easy. But roll up their sleeves and put hands to work is something else. We are a speaking society”.

The analysis shows that the current structure does not serve physically the whole archipelago forcing the movement of students and professors (Roth, 2013). In addition, it is impossible (in the current model), to have the pretension to meet the natural demands (geographical vocation), services, industry, interests (public and private) and personal choices of each citizen who does not need to be limited to any demands, initiatives and existing course offerings locally and always will determine the movement or to another island, or to the mainland or overseas, often a path without return – many azoreans are going to study elsewhere and they do not come back to the Azores (exodus). However, this can be bypassed. © 2017 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Nowadays, it is possible to offer the “world” – without the need to leave home, city, island or region – through partnerships and agreements with other national and international institutions to offer and develop different kinds of courses, targeting to specific needs, enabling multiple certifications and joint development.

In recent years UAC has missed the train in relation to various demands, and that applies in relation to e-learning, the lack of struggle against resistance of professors in the use of technology; the lack of attention to migratory diversity of the Azores, the lack of support to students in mobility; the lack of approximation of departments – that can be considered watertight areas that hardly communicate with each other, compete among themselves and hardly collaborate on joint projects; the failure to reply to the invitation to participate at OpenCourseWare (OCW) Universia and the non-participation in calls that could improve their infrastructure, reducing the effects of insularity, effective presence in all the islands, reduction of maintenance costs, increased visibility, external projection and internationalization by finding new customers outside its surroundings (Roth, 2013).

Cabral (2012) points out the future challenges, doubts and related issues that the azoreans themselves also seem to have doubts: “…our academy will also have to make an effort to restructure and adapt to the new reality of these times”. “…it is necessary that the university engage more with the society, in order we realised and be involved in supporting its operation. The university should clarify, to all of taxpayers, which is the strategy it intends to take for their survival, and how to solve numerous problems of management, exploitation and investments; for which we keep hearing questions and major concerns”.

Medeiros (2013) recognizes these difficulties, stressing that “the University of the Azores to become a true university of the 21st century would have to innovate and transform themselves in order to follow these new concepts introduced by the Europe 2020 strategy. These concepts will require a new dynamic only possible by introducing new mobilizing structures, new working methods, new ways of dealing with the community, new strategies in the fields of scientific production, new capabilities to mobilize other audiences, new axes for social and technological transformation and new ideas to intervene in society that continues to see the university as the main promoter of qualification, innovation and creativity”.

Several Portuguese universities are betting on their own projects. Moreover, we cannot deny the role of the universities of Aveiro and Minho which are among the most technological universities of the country. http://www.ua.pt/ http://www.uminho.pt/

The pursuit of national references to support the implementation of projects mediated by technologies usually refers to the Portuguese Open University (UAb), a distance education public university, created in 1988. http://www.uab.pt/ © 2017 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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This connection cannot be neglected, however UAb have not innovated in any aspect and was fully based on the Spanish congener National University of Distance Education (UNED). Ever since April 2008 there has been extensive cooperation through a collaboration agreement for the establishment of forms of cooperation regarding innovation in distance education; as well as the creation of joint academic activities in various scientific fields (Activities Report, 2008). http://www.uned.es/

Apparently, UAb (2008) has opted to follow completely this model rather than adopt the updated format used by the also Spanish, Open University of Catalonia (UOC) where the whole process, including assessments, can be performed by distance. To wit, UAb migrated from previous pedagogical model (correspondence courses via post system) in the same way as UNED and holds the same aftereffects, unlike UOC which, since its creation, adopted the technologies. The greatest implication of these sequels refers to assessments and examinations that still take place through in-person tests, although there are safe technologies to make it totally by distance – as does UOC (Roth, 2007). http://www.uoc.edu/

As a consequence, the model adopted in Portugal is not open, and cannot even be fully applied at distance, which contradicts UAb motto: “Portuguese Open University – Anywhere in the World”, since it is not possible to make and complete a course from anywhere or even totally at distance.

In this sense the model of UAb, without adaptations, is not best suited to the Azores region, since it does not eliminate totally the displacements of students and/or professors.

Currently it is possible to safely apply distance evaluations through various systems including video or not. Properly used – as a means and not as an end in itself – technologies do not become a problem for evaluations. But evolution does not necessarily passes through the technology, but by production of better quality assessment systems, customised, that is not reproduced and applied to the same group of students, or worse, maintained year after year without substantial changes, as if the knowledge did not evolve over time or even if the evaluators did not update their skills over time. Demonstrating interest in developing an updated assessment is in line with the development of the current education – not just technologically – and is part of the work of a professor in the same way as updating a particular discipline (all semesters) and the relevant bibliography (Roth, 2013).

The creation of different problems and situations unique to each student inhibits a behavior that has been verified also in other groups, trying to replicate the answers given by others. Moreover, the freedom to use all possibilities available – including the internet – such as it occurs in real life, comes not only to meet new needs (problem-solving) as it reproduces our normal behavior of using all possible means to find a solution.

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The present-day needs are no longer focused on the accumulation of knowledge, that is, memorization of contents is no longer important. The focus should be in the ability to solve problems. Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a studentcentered pedagogy in which students solve problems collaboratively and reflect on their experiences. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem-based_learning

The challenge for universities with classrooms everywhere is more educational than technological, because pedagogy remains focused on traditional instructive proposals, not to mention that resists becoming technologically sound (Evans, 2001; Stoll, 2000).

The fact that UAC has not yet found its best way or even is not considered to be the first domestic university to explore the technologies must be seen as an asset: not to repeat the mistakes of other universities – applying the premise attributed to Otto von Bismarck (Gale & Buzzell, 1989).

Similarly, one of the main goals of studying history is not to repeat the mistakes of the past. If the institutions do not learn from the mistakes of the congeners, how can they avoid them in the future?

To meet the whole the Azorean archipelago, UAC has to adapt to the effective use of technologies. However, replicating the UAb model does not mean any innovation, but would only replicate the outdated model of UNED with all its sequels. Before that, adopt the model of the UOC, or better still, evaluate all existing models and extract the best that we can do with the different technologies, not necessarily inventing or developing something new, but using everything that already exists, often free of charge and developed by others.

Rodrigues (2012) launched an appeal: the University has to be of the Azores and not only of the three islands. He spoke in the sense that UAC should be present on every island, somehow (physical, blended or virtual learning). Perhaps it is time to talk about it...

The lack of attention and sensitivity to regional demands, which does not always mean additional costs – on the contrary, could mean additional revenues – have been represented by a long process of internal disinterest of professors in adopting effective technologies in supporting their educative actions, misguided collaboration protocols, lack of interest in attending all islands and the opening up of spaces so that the counterparts occupy the unwanted space (Roth, 2013).

On 14 December 2010, UAb (2010) and UAC signed a cooperation protocol. It is inevitable that the prospects of achieving this bear hug on a regional scale will lead to a stage of profound risk aversion, low investment and unemployment.

And as we can see, this situation is already reflected: Portuguese Open University opens Learning Center in Terceira Island (Lusa News Agency, 2008).

Without claiming to want to turn UAC on a distance university, in many aspects it must adapt and act as such, mainly due to the need to meet its target area, an archipelago composed of nine scattered islands. © 2017 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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The lack of a specific national legislation, at the same time allowing a high autonomy and flexibility, ends up causing the lack of standards. And at some point they will have to be established in order for accreditation and audit by the Agency for Assessment and Accreditation of Higher Education (A3ES). http://www.a3es.pt/

In terms of performance, UAC should already long ago have evolved the model (inefficient, inadequate, insufficient and unsustainable) of three infrastructures, for points of presence in all the islands (the 9 islands), more than one point on each island, depending on the settlements. In other words, evolve towards the direction of flexibility, through various forms of presence and performance not only in three contact points but in numerous other places.

The costs of building and maintaining these traditional physical campuses make any speech of expansion inviable, considering the economic times and the current situation - the european debt crisis, the Portuguese economic crisis, the chronic underfunding of education by the Portuguese state and the economic situation of UAC. But it is not impossible. It is simply necessary to change the focus, the means and ways. If it is not done now, another train will pass. And this one will certainly not come back.

Roth (2013) argues that the best cost-benefit option is based on the deployment of a decapolar structure (UAC10X), combining a fully virtual campus with nine physical structures – regional clusters in the whole islands with points of presence (POPs) in various places of each island that can be associated with existing ICT facilities.

How is this to be accomplished?

Some previous experiences of UAC itself have shown the way, but they did not follow ahead. People who do not want things to change are those that, for some reason, feel they have a disadvantage with the change.

Probably effective changes will only be observed through mechanisms of pressure, derived from the current situation where crisis, reduce costs and budget constraints have become watchwords.

In the same way that UAb did not use financial resources from its own budget to establish itself and maintain in the Azores, UAC can do the same to expand its presence in its main area of operation before others do...

In addition to its headquarters in Lisbon, UAb has delegations in the cities of Porto and Coimbra and, in partnership with civil society and local, has been creating a network of small units, devoted not only for learning support known as Local Learning Centers (CLAs). http://www.uab.pt/web/guest/organizacao/servicos/servicos-desconcentrados/cla

The CLA Ribeira Grande (São Miguel Island, Azores) is a partnership between the Portuguese Open University and the Municipality of Ribeira Grande. http://www.uab.pt/web/guest/organizacao/servicos/servicos-desconcentrados/cla/ribeira-grande © 2017 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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The CLA Praia da Vitoria (Terceira Island, Azores) is a partnership between the Portuguese Open University and the Municipality of Praia da Vitoria. http://www.uab.pt/web/guest/organizacao/servicos/servicos-desconcentrados/cla/praia-da-vitoria

The first UAb partnership with municipalities, for the establishment of CLAs, was with the municipality of Praia da Vitoria, having been progressively widening the network of CLAs the whole country, favoring inland counties without higher education offer.

Roberto Monteiro, who spoke at a press conference (Lusa News Agency, 2008), said that “one of the axes of the county development will only be sustainable if based on professional development and human resources skills”. The project with UAb, aims to “educational development, training and technology” in a mode using “the new generation of distance learning”. The praiense municipality is responsible for providing and maintenance of the facilities, as well as financing of equipment, while UAb is responsible for service of exams, salary of center coordinator and promotion of courses. UAb will provide short courses and disciplines to complement and professional valuation, as well as undergraduate courses, masters and doctorates.

The former rector of UAb, Carlos Reis, stressed that this partnership, “the first in this new format” matches “strategic priorities” of the institution. These priorities are “collaboration and openness to civil society, cooperation with partners that have similar concerns and the technical and pedagogical innovation”. This new teaching mode “responds perfectly to the institutional vocation” of the university, that has a pedagogic provision for qualification and re-qualification of human resources in the active. Domingos Monteiro, former pro-rector, revealed that “all the educational offer is in accordance with the restructuring required by the Bologna Process” and of distance learning, which “included the new information and communication technologies, as well as personalized assistance to students”. “Will be made available over three hundred disciplines that can be attended individually, in short courses, specifically created according to the needs of students and the municipality of Praia da Vitoria”.

In 2008, UAb had about 10 thousand students, of whom two thousand in Africa and more than 300 in the Azores (Lusa News Agency, 2008).

Rocha (2016) demonstrates that there are increasingly more students are opting for university education in the distance and the Portuguese Open University is increasingly sought after in the Azores.

The site of the Council of Rectors of Portuguese Universities presents current data (2017): UAC: 4179 students, 258 professors UAb: 12085 students, 155 professors

http://www.crup.pt/universidade-dos-acores/ http://www.crup.pt/universidade-aberta/

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The last annual report (UAC, 2016, page 22) shows that the number of new students (enrolled for the first time) continues to decline: 2011/2012 (954), 2012/2013 (811), 2013/2014 (741), 2014/2015 (724) and 2015/2016 (672).

I conclude by suggesting that the solution to UAC passes through the establishment of regional clusters and points of presence, without the use of financial resources from its own budget, through partnerships and agreements with existing schools, municipalities, regional government and public and private companies.

The project should start by building a structure that allows the realization of studies, trials and investigations related to the development of technologymediated education through creative and innovative approaches to teaching and learning. It involves promoting training sessions and support directed to departments, covering a set of varied themes on the various existing solutions and didactically validated at trial groups. Seeking, this way, a professional and organizational evolution to obtain a more effective education, through the creation of a dynamic research, development and resource center that carries out the exploration, testing, disclosure, dissemination, socialization and contribution to the development of this area of knowledge, through active participation in actions and collaborations at local, regional, national and international.

References Activities Report (2008). Working meeting between the rectorate teams of the National University of Distance Education (UNED) and the Portuguese Open University (UAb) Noble Hall, April 14, 2008. Retrieved April 6, 2017, from http://www.uab.pt/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=2e6123bc-3a09-466b8389-813371bbe093&groupId=10136 Cabral, O. (2012). Save the University (Salvar a Universidade). LusoPresse. Vol. XVI - nº 276. Retrieved April 6, 2017, from http://lusopresse.com/2012/276/Salvar_a_Universidade.aspx Crato, N. (2012, May 11). Parliamentary Debates. Portuguese Parliament. page 6, series I, number 107. Retrieved April 6, 2017, from http://debates.parlamento.pt/catalogo/r3/dar/01/12/01/107/2012-0510?sft=true&pPeriodo=r3&pPublicacao=dar&pSerie=01&pLegis=12&pSessao=0 1&deputado=438 Evans, R. (2001). The human side of school change: Reform, resistance, and the real-life problems of innovation. 1ª ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 336 p. ISBN 9780787956110.

Gale, T. B, & Buzzell, R. D. (1989). Das PIMS-Programm – strategien und unternehmenserfolg. Wiesbaden: Gabler. 256 p. ISBN 9783663095460.

Lima, A. (2012, June 4). Autonomy or guerrilla warfare? (Autonomia ou guerrilha?).

Açoriano Oriental, p. 14. Retrieved April 3, 2017, from http://www.acorianooriental.pt/pagina/edicao-impressa/2012-06-04/regional Lusa News Agency (2008, January 9). Azores: Portuguese Open University opens Learning Center in Terceira Island. Retrieved April 7, 2017, from http://noticias.sapo.pt/lusa/artigo/ed97f8ed599924a3c73eb8.html Medeiros, J. (2013, May 4). Letter from the Dean (Mensagem do Reitor). Retrieved April 6, 2017, from http://archive.is/fG6MO (archived from http://www.uac.pt/mensagem/reitor) and https://dre.pt/application/file/496853 © 2017 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Morgado, P. (2011, February 21). Jornal das 10. SIC Notícias. Retrieved April 3, 2017, from http://sicnoticias.sapo.pt/pesquisa?q=21.02.2011 Rocha, M. (2016, February 8). Portuguese Open University is increasingly sought after in the Azores. RTP Açores. Retrieved April 7, 2017, from http://www.rtp.pt/acores/local/universidade-aberta-e-cada-vez-maisprocurada-nos-acores-video_49477 Rodrigues, C. (2012, September 13-14). Meeting on online teaching and virtual learning (Encontro sobre ensino e aprendizagem virtual). Ponta Delgada: UAC. Retrieved April 3, 2017, from http://sites.uac.pt/encontroeav/ Roth, R. (2007). Analysis of Formative and Experiential Experiences in ICT, addressed to Spanish Teaching Staff and Strategies for Combating Resistance of Professors in using these Technologies. UNED. 65 p. Retrieved April 6, 2017, from http://espacio.uned.es/fez/view/bibliuned:AlumnosUNED-Trabajos-Rroth5000 Roth, R. (2013). Implementation strategies and development of an open and distance education system for the University of the Azores. ESF/EC. Ponta Delgada: UAC. 162 p. Retrieved April 3, 2017, from http://hdl.handle.net/10400.3/2327 Stoll, C. (2000). High-tech heretic: reflections of a computer contrarian. New York: Anchor Books. 240 p. ISBN 9780385489768.

UAb (2008). Joint cooperation in masters programme. Retrieved April 6, 2017, from http://www2.uab.pt/newsletter/new_detail.php?id=518 UAb (2010). UAb signs cooperation with University of the Azores. Retrieved April 7, 2017, from http://www.uab.pt/web/guest/noticias//journal_content/56/10136/2973032 UAC (2016). Annual report 2015. Retrieved April 7, 2017, from http://novoportal.uac.pt/sites/default/files/2016-0510p4.1uacrelatoriodeatividadesuac2015corrigido.pdf

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 38-72, March 2017

Can You Tell Me Why: Two Extreme Cases in Translation Learning Results Yvonne Ying-Ya Wen1 PhD Candidate in the Department of Education University of Taipei, Taiwan

Abstract. While conducting an experiment in translation teaching methods between 2013 and 2014, the researcher found two participants especially distinctive. One who seemed rather likely to fail turned out to do quite well in the posttest beside his mid-term examination, while the other who ranked on top in the pretest ended up ranking at the bottom in the posttest. To find out the reasons why, the researcher invited them both for in-depth interviews, which were respectively conducted in May 23 and 31, 2014. The former explained the reason why: He made up for the skipped periods by taking extra effort to study on his own, utilizing the library of National Formosa University and the online files uploaded by the lecturer at the e-3 Campus Digital Learning System. The latter said, just trying to do something different for a change, he adopted another strategy in the posttest. Both regarded two factors conducive to their achievements in learning English-Chinese Translation, namely, pleasure reading and influences from supportive parents and Chinese teachers in their earlier education. Beside the approach of case study, part of the research findings will be presented in the form of narrative inquiry, for both cases are information-rich and inspiring.

Keywords: translation learning results; case study; narrative inquiry

Introduction Between the end of 2013 and the beginning of 2014, the researcher conducted an experiment in translation teaching methods, employing the traditional approach of “repositioning components” in the control group in contrast with a more innovative approach of “mental images portraying” in the experimental group (Wen, 2014a). From the results of pretest and posttest, two extreme cases stood

1

Yvonne Ying-Ya Wen is a lecturer in the Department of Applied Foreign Languages in National Formosa University, Taiwan as well.

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out. To the surprise of the researcher, one participant (referred to as Tom in the following discussions) in the control group, who was not supposed to do too well, did make it nevertheless, while the other (referred to as Bob in the following discussions) in the experimental group who got the highest score in the pretest got the lowest score in the posttest. These two cases were too distinctive to be ignored. The reasons behind these phenomena are worth further exploring and, if figured out, are likely to be conducive to translation learning and education in general as well.

In fact, Tom did not show up for two consecutive weeks right after the beginning of the semester; that is, he missed 4 periods of classes. Therefore, the instructor did not expect him to get a high score in the mid-term examination.

Yet he outdid 14 of his classmates in it. In his class of 27, hardly any students had ever skipped classes. In other word, half of his class who, without fail, attended all periods before mid-term failed to get a score higher than he did. As for Bob, he ranked on top in the pretest. After the pretest, the instructor showed participants their test results and explained how the pretest was scored. With these explanations given, two more weeks of treatment in the control group, and his success right at the start, Bob should have done better than the rest of his class. How come he ended up ranking at the bottom in the posttest? There must be a reason. The researcher decided to explore all possibilities as to the reasons why these two cases took place: why Tom did better than his classmates who hardly ever skipped a class and why Bob succeeded at first and failed at last.

Therefore, she invited both of these two participants to receive an in-depth interview respectively.

Methodology The purpose of this study is to find as many probable reasons underlying the outstanding translation learning results of the two participants as possible. The interest of the researcher lies mainly in finding more things behind the extreme phenomena and describing them rather than verifying a hypothesis. The approaches of case study and narrative inquiry were adopted, while unstructured interviews remained the major research tools among others. Case study can help the researcher understand the unique experiences of the participants for the reference of other learners and instructors. Since many stories of the interviewees are information-rich and inspiring, the researcher had the interviewees tell their own stories in the first person narrative in a latter part of this paper. Narrative inquiry also helps the participants make sense of the experiences which they have gone through.

1. Case Study The earliest use of case study research can be traced to Europe, predominantly to France; in the United States it was most closely associated with The University of Chicago Department of Sociology, where the Chicago School was preeminent in the field and the source of a great deal of the literature from 1900's to 1935 (Tellis,

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1997). As Stake (1995) points out, each case of interest in education and social service is unique in many ways, and we seek to understand every one of them and would like to hear stories of each case.2 According to Patton (1990), case study is particularly useful where one needs to understand some special people, particular problem, or unique situation in great depth, and where one can identify cases rich in information—rich in the sense that a great deal can be learned from a few exemplars of the phenomenon in question (p. 53).

This happens to coincide with the situations of the two cases in focus. The two students are special and unique in a sense that they can be considered as extreme cases. Therefore, case study is appropriate for looking further into these cases. Stake (1995) declares that “Case study is not sampling research. We do not study a case primarily to understand other cases (p. 4),” for sometimes an unusual case helps illustrate matters we overlook in typical cases. This point further endorses the use of case study approach in this study: These two special cases are certainly extraordinary and cannot be taken light of in a business-as-usual manner.

Merriam (1998) does not think that the sampling statistics in quantitative research apply to qualitative research. The sampling method most often taken for case study is purposive sampling (Lin, 2000). Cases are in the limelight instead of variables now. Interpretations and explications can be complicated and described around a person or an event; insights and rich details take the place of statistics in quantitative research (Neuman, 2008). Hopefully, the researcher will find insights that is conducive to others’ learning (Fraenkel, J. R. & Wallen, 2003).

Though case study appears to be a poor basis for generalization, these cases studied at length revealed some activities, problems, or responses coming up again and again none the less; therefore, certain generalizations can still be drawn in some cases as Stake (1995) suggested. Hitchcock and Hughes (1995) also agree that a certain amount of generalization is possible in a case study.

However, Stake (1995) had it that they are not to be thought of as generalizations and may need some label such as “petite generalizations” (p.7) which regularly occur all along the way in case study. Nevertheless, Stake (1995) considered the real business of case study to particularization rather than to generalization. For him, the first emphasis is on understanding the case itself; that is, the first objective of a case is to understand the case (Stake, 2006).

By definition, the prime referent in case study is the case, not the methods by which the case operates (Stake, 2006). For Patton (1990), a case can be “a person, an event, a program, an organization, a time period, a critical incident, or a community (p. 54).” Yet Tellis (1997) considered the unit of analysis in a case 2

In this research, most of my data collected took the form of stories and remain this way.

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study is typically a system of action rather than an individual or group of individuals. Stake (1995) in reflections figured out what it is not: “The case is something special to be studied, a student, a classroom, a committee, a program, perhaps, but not a problem, a relationship, or a theme (p. 133).” As was pointed out, cases are special. Yet Tellis (1997) had another viewpoint. He found that case studies tend to be selective, focusing on one or two issues that are fundamental to understanding the system being examined. For Stake (2006): “A case is a noun, a thing, an entity; it is seldom a verb, a participle, a functioning (1).” However, the case can be used as an arena or host “to bring many functions and relationships together for study” (Stake, 2006: 2).

As for the total number of cases to be studied, it is up to the researcher’s design.

Single or multiple cases are both rightful situations to be covered (Yin, 1993). If a single case is chosen, the case can serve exploratory, descriptive, or even causal purposes provided that it is a “critical case,” in which the empirical data are used to test an important theory (Ibid.). If multiple cases are involved, the logic bringing these cases together should be considered a replication logic rather than sampling logic (Yin, 1993).

Stake (2006) regards that the single case is meaningful, to some extent, in terms of other cases; in other word, any case would be incomprehensible if other somewhat similar cases were not already known. Therefore, he considers that, even when there is no attempt to be comparative, the single case is studied with attention to other cases. The cases categorically bound together somehow are members of the same group or examples of a phenomenon. Stake (2006) calls this group, category, or phenomenon a “quintain (p. 6),” an object or phenomenon or condition to be studied. Stake (2006) also claims that the researcher may study what is similar and different about the cases in order to understand the “quintain” better and that the researcher may give proportionate or disproportionate attention to the quintain and individual cases.

I agree with Creswell (2013) when he said that case study research, as a methodology, is a type of design in qualitative research that may be an object of study as well as a product of the inquiry. Though most teachers, graduate students, and researchers in education have encountered cases studies in training or work, Merriam (1988) thinks there was little consensus on what constitutes a case study. Quoting Smith (1978; quoted in Merriam, 1988; See also Stake, 2006), Merriam (1998) defines “a bounding system” as the focus of the investigation. She also defines “an examination of a specific phenomenon such as a program, an event, a person, a process, an institution, or a social group (p. 9)” as case study. Just like Stake (1995), Merriam (1988) also finds it helpful to point out what case study is not in addition to what it is while defining case study: She thinks that case study research is not the same as casework, case method, case history, or case record. In the definition of Merriam (1998), the qualitative case study is an intensive, holistic description and analysis of a single entity, phenomenon, or social unit and it relies heavily on inductive reasoning in handling multiple data sources. Merriam (1998) is not the only person who finds

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the significance of multiple data sources. Creswell (2013) in his definition of case study also mentions this; he considers case study to be a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a real-life, contemporary bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (multiple cases) through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information, such as observations, interviews, audiovisual materials, and documents and reports and then reports a case description and case themes.

2. Use of Multiple Data Collection to Ensure Reliability and Validity As Earl Babbie (2005) points out in the ninth edition of his classic The Practice of Social Research, there is a certain sort of interactive dynamic between validity and reliability. Taking factory workers for an illustration, he says that in an effort taken to understand the morale of a factory it is scientific for the researcher to calculate the total number of workersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; complaints, yet the validity of talking to workers on the assembly line is even higher though it is hard to do so without compromising the reliability. That is a dilemma the researcher often faces in choosing research methods: When the validity increases, reliability declines. You cannot have your cake and eat it. a. Research Tools As aforementioned, Creswell (2013) and Merriam (1998) both state multiple data collection in their definition of case study; furthermore, Gay, Mills, and Airasian (2009a, 2011a) also recommend the use of multiple sources of data collection so as to address such issues as trustworthiness in narrative research, which is one of the two research methods taken in this study.

Tellis (1997) also said that, case study is known as a triangulated research strategy. For Stake (1995; Tellis, 1997), triangulation comprises the protocols that are used to ensure accuracy and alternative explanations. As a result of the ethical need to confirm the validity of the processes, triangulation arises (Tellis, 1997). In case studies, this could be done by using multiple sources of data (Yin, 2001). Therefore, to best encounter the criticism against narrative research as fictitious, romanticized versions of school life, the researcher decided to employ alongside the major research tool of unstructured interviews in this research multiple sources of information, including the research tools of test results, survey questionnaires (Wen, 2014a), semi-structured interviews, and videos from the mother research (Wen, 2014b).

Besides, in-depth interviews of the two cases were videotaped, and the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own classroom observations were taken into consideration, too. Gay, Mills, and Airasian (2009b, 2011b) deem tapes as convenient and reliable research tools, for they ensure the availability of the original data anytime.

Videotapes, which contain not only sound but also images, are even more helpful. Interview videotapes are especially good for analysis and exploration, for they can be stored and played back for many times (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003).

This way of data collection is more effective in that it keeps the researchers from losing sight of meaningful non-verbal details that are happening simultaneously

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during the interviews. Moreover, since one triangulation method recommended

by Hitchcock and Hughes (1995) is to have results checked by the interviewees, the results of this study were sent to the interviewees to see if the information is correct. b. Unstructured Interviews For this study, open-ended interviews were respectively conducted on 23 and 31 in May, 2014. In this type of interview the interviewees give their in-depth opinions about some key events or facts (Stake, 1995; Wu, Hsieh, Huang, & Chen, 2006). As one of the data collection tools in narrative inquiry, these “unstructured interviews” are normally conducted with open-ending questions.

Such dialogues go on back and forth between the interviewer and interviewee (Henning, Stone, & Kelly, 2011). As researchers raise questions to find meanings, interviewees are allowed to take up most of the time in the conversations. Such unstructured interviews can be deliveries of life story, narrative history and biographical interviews (Ibid.).

Unstructured interviews are either non-directed or focused, yet education researcher prefers focused interviews to non-directed interviews so as not to waste time (Lin, 2012). But Krathwohl (1998) says it is the non-directive interviews that are especially important for interviewers to master. For one thing, they keep the interviewees instead of the interviewers at the center of attention; for another, they decrease the risk of missing the unexpected, which may open up new opportunities to significant findings.

Unstructured interviews are little more than a casual conversation that allows the qualitative researcher to inquire into a certain thing that presented itself as chance to learn about something at the research setting; their goal is not to get answers to predetermined questions but rather to find out where the participants are coming from and what they have experienced (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009b). In these informal interviews, the researcher respects the interviewees’ feelings and interpretations of their own experiences, trying to interpret the behaviors or attitude of the interviewees from their own perspectives (Fan, 2004). Patton (1990) also said that the interviewers are to understand the feelings, thinking, and intentions of the interviewees and to describe the events.

In the interviews going on between researchers and participants, transcripts are made, possibilities for further discussions are kept, and these interviews become part of the ongoing narrative record (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). The interviewer may start from talking about the current events and then depart from here to the past or the future (Gay, Mills, and Airasian, 2011). Unstructured interviews are spontaneous: Both the interviewer and the interviewees are to freely talk about issues in which they are interested so that they have a grasp of each other’s thinking and make comparisons among their different perspectives (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003).

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3. Narrative Inquiry Narrative inquiry, or narrative research, is applied in part of the descriptions of the two cases studied here, because both the interviewees’ stories in this study are information-rich and inspiring; they can be best understood in the words of the speakers themselves from the first person’s point of view. According to F. Michael Connelly and D. Jean Clandinin (1990): The study of narrative is the study of the ways humans experience the world. This general conception is refined into the view that education and educational research is the construction and reconstruction of personal and social stories; learners, teachers, and researchers as storyteller and characters in their own and other's stories.

A relatively new qualitative methodology, narrative inquiry is a way in which narrative inquirers think narratively about experience throughout inquiry, following a recursive, reflexive process of moving from field with starting points in telling or living of stories to field texts to interim and final research texts (Clandinin & Huber, in press). Since it is a research method and way of thinking at the same time, it is not easy to define (Ho, 2005). It is used when willing individuals are available to tell their stories and the researcher would like to report their stories (Creswell, 2012). For educators seeking personal experiences in actual school settings, narrative research offers practical and specific insights; as a literary form of qualitative research with strong ties to literature, narrative inquiry provides a qualitative approach in which the researcher can write in a persuasive literary form (Ibid.).

Narrative Inquiry is easily confused with narrative. Wiebe (2009) tells one from the other by pointing out that narrative inquiry is a methodological approach that investigates narrative and/or employs narrative to present a view of phenomena, whereas a narrative is often a story about a significant event or experience in an individual’s life. In fact, the origin of the word “narrative” can be found in Aristotle’s Poetics (Eliott, 2005), in which a narrative is said to be a story with a beginning, a middle, and an end. A narrative has a plot and is not just a chronicle that offers no explicit links between events in the sequence (Foster, 1979). Connelly and Clandinin (1990) thinks that narrative inquiry can be traced to not only Aristotle's Poetics but also Augustine's the Confessions (Ricoeur, 1984) and that narrative inquiry may be said to have various adaptations and applications in a variety of areas including education. Unlike event-centered research, narrative research is meaningful experience-centered, distinguishing personal narratives from other representations as sequential in time (Squire, 2008). It is characterized by the following elements (Gay, Mills, and Airasian, 2009a): a focus on the experiences of individuals, a concerns with the chronology of individual’s experiences, a focus on the construction of life stories based on data collected through interviews, restorying as a technique for constructing the narrative account; inclusion of context and place in the story; a

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collaborative approach that involves the researcher and the participants in the negotiation of the final text; a narrative constructed around the question, “And then what happened?” It does not attempt to describe cultural images as ethnography does; nor does it try to establish abstract theory as grounded theory does (Wang & Wang, 2012).

For some authors, internal validity is to be improved by the use of narrative, for participants are empowered to provide more concrete and specific details about the topic discussed and to use their own vocabulary and conceptual framework to describe life experiences; however, other researchers considered storytelling to be a sense-making activity in the process that individuals are forced to reflect on those experiences, to select the salient aspects, and to order them into a coherent whole (Eliott, 2005). A further important issue in the validity of narrative interview is the question of whether narratives are produced specifically for the researcher in a qualitative interview or whether the narratives told in interviews are closely related to those which occur spontaneously in conversation and other aspects of daily life (Ibid.). To decide whether an interviewee is telling the truth, the researcher need to consider what questions or topic are being addressed in the research, and what type of truths or insights are to be obtained from an interview (Ibid.). If the research focus is more on the meanings attached to the individual’s experiences and/or on the way that those experiences are communicated to others, then narratives provide an ideal medium for researching and understanding individuals’ lives in social context (Ibid.). That is why narrative inquiry is appropriate for presenting part of the research findings of this study: The researcher conducted this narrative inquiry with a view to finding meaningful experiences of the interviewees. With the words right form their mouth, the interviewees communicate directly their personal experiences to the reader who may have a better understanding of what they went through.

Research Background As Susan Bassnett (2002) stated in the introduction to her Translation Studies, translation studies is a young discipline. In an interview, Leo Tak-hung Chan (Shan, 2015) said that translation studies have been conducted for thirty years.

Yet over the last three decades translation studies have developed into a fledgling discipline (Zhang & Lee, 2014). Currently, questions generally accepted as relevant and important enough to be asked in the field of translation studies are very different from what they were; it has now come to mean something like “anything that claims to have anything to do with translation,” whereas in the past it meant only “training translators”(Basnett & Levevere, 1998). For example, history is one of the things that happened to translation studies since the 1970s (Ibid.). Geoge Steiner (1998) identified 4 stages of translation development and listed famous translators with their works of different phases. In his classification, we are now in the modern current. Posen Liao (2013) sorted out

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six stages of translation history based on the six peaks of translation development in sequential order. Yet Lefevere and Bassnett (1998) themselves discussed the historical divisions by means of “models” rather than time sequence. Another change observed by Lefevere and Bassnett (1998) is the strategies employed to serve the different functions of four types of texts: to inform, to entertain, to do both, or to translate texts that belong to the cultural capital of a given culture (Ibid.); however, functionalists tend to regard texts as informative, expressive, or operative (Reiss, 2001; quoted in Liao, 2013). As for the field coverage, in Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Munday (2001: 10) presented a chart displaying the applied branch of translation studies based on the Holmes/Toury “map,” in which the three subfields translator training, translation aids, and translation criticism belong to the categories of applied translation (See Fig. 1). It can be seen that translator training has been an important issue of translation studies for years and still remains a significant one.

Today, in the twenty-first century, boundaries are less contrstraining than any other time in history and movement of peoples across boundaries is increasing because of the advanced Internet technology. This also has its influence on translation studies. Since 1990s interest generated by corpus-based translation enquiry opened distinct lines of research that continue to flourish (Bassnett, 2002). For example, Dr. Chung-ling Shih (2006) proposed machine translation and translation memory tools as a possbile route to modify current translation teaching so as to achieve the goals of practability, authenticity nad relevance. Yet machine translation is missing in the above figure by Munday (2001: 13), whereas Posen Liao (2013: 5) in his quote of Toury’s depiction of Holme’s analysis includes machine translation in the diagram.

“Applied” Translator training

teaching evaluation methods

Translation aids

testing curriculum techniques design

Translation criticism

revision

reviews evaluation of translations

IT applications dictionaries grammars

translation

on-line

use of

Figure 1: The applied branchdatabases of translation studiesinternet (Munday, 2001: 13). software

Globalization is another trend that enters into the field of translation studies in the twenty-first century. When he was asked by Teh-Hsing Shan (2015) about types of research he has done in an interview, Leo Tak-hung Chan said that

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translators should have unique viewpoints concerning the issue of the globalization of the English language and he admitted that he has published articles on that. Another example is a paper on student expectation of translating and interpreting training programs in graduate institutes in Taiwan was conducted by Chen and Liao (2014) from the perspective of globalization, too.

Translation pedagogy, or translation teaching, from which this study derived, is considered by some to be drowned out by the endless debate over theory versus practice today: Translation theory is typically criticized as at best irrelevant to the professional translator and at worst distracting and misleading (Baer & Koby, 2003). But it may not be the right way to look at the relationship between theory and practice. Colina (2003) said when models and hypotheses are isolated in need of empirical validation, the application of theoretically based methods to the classroom is a useful source of data to test validity and instructional effects while these data can in turn be used to revise models and hypotheses. The researcher is in line with Pym (2016) when he says it is not right to segregate theory from practice. On the one hand, theories may be of help to solving conflicts that arise in discussions of the translation classes. On the other, teachers may introduce terminology when students are in need of such theoretical supports in their debate. The results may be fruitful when theory is introduced into the translation classroom in such cases. And the knowledge produced in classroom teaching may also be conducive to the field of translation studies.

Among all these controversies between theory and practice, the target audience of translator education, the translation learner or student is a good subject to take into consideration. Echeverri (2015) said that helping students to take better control of their own learning is an aspect that can be influenced by knowledge produced in educational research. This is verily so, and the researcher proposes here that learners’ own personal experiences may also shed some light on translation teaching in return and open some more possibilities in future educational research in translation studies. For example, Liao (2016, 2007) has done a certain research on college students’ translation strategy use, which is a learner-centered study. He also conducted another research on the relationships between students’ learning styles and their translation competence (Liao, 2011), which is also an example of learner-centered study. Understanding students’ way of learning can be a route that leads to productive findings that helps researchers figure out how to advance their learning.

Case study has been a research method for translation studies for years. For example, Zhang Rui and Lee Tong-King (2014) has conducted a case study on the methodological issues in translation research in China. They examined the unjustified claims made by Yan Fu, Lin Shu and Lu Xun, analyzed possible reasons, and made recommendations to enhance methodological awareness in translation research and teaching. In an interview conducted by Bo Li (2014), Prof. Douglas Robinson mentioned that he used case study as his research method once when theorizing practical applications, looking at one specific problem of a single translator, namely Alex Matson, who was Finnish born but

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raised in England and translated both ways from English to Finnish and Finnish to English. Besides, he also conducted a case study by taking a close look between two English translations of Dostoevsky, in which he found them to be very similar. Shahhoseiny (2015) also presented a case study of first-year translation students at a university of applied science and technology in Iran.

From the above cases, it is not too far-fetching to infer that case study is already an accepted method of research for translation studies.

Research Process In the unstructured interviews conducted, the interviewees were given the freedom to talk about whatever that came to their mind in the beginning, while near the end of the interviews they were asked which people or events in their earlier education were considered helpful or relevant to their current translation learning results. In the interviews, the two participants were making sense of their past learning experiences and trying to find their relevance to their present translation learning experiences. These interviews were conducted respectively on 23 and 31 of May in 2014 as the second follow-up study of the mother research (Wen, 2014a; See Fig. 2).

Mother Research

Pretest Survey

Treatment

Posttest Survey

Follow-up Study 1

Experimental SemiGroup Recruiting Structured PrePostMental Participants Interviews test test Imagery N1=40 N2=20 Portraying n=22 Control Group Repositioning Components n=18 Dec. 13 & 19 Dec. 16 & 19 Dec. 23, 26, 30, 2013 Jan.13 & 16, Jan.6~14, 2013 2013 Jan. 2, 6, 9, 2014 2014 2014

Follow-up Study 2 Unstructured Unstructur Interviews Ned 3= 2

Interviews

May 23 & 31, 2014

Fig. 2 Research Process. This figure was adapted and translated from the mother research (Wen, 2014a) and the first follow-up study (Wen, 2014b). This research is Follow-up Study 2.

Research Findings I. Tomâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Case The first participant interviewed was Tom, who, in the mother research (Wen, 2014a; See also Fig. 2), was in the control group, that received the more traditional training of repositioning components as their major method of translation. In the very beginning of the semester, Tom skipped classes during

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the second and third weeks. In other word, he missed four periods while almost all of his classmates had never missed any. Yet in the mid-term examination he got a score higher than 14 classmates in the class that totaled 27; that is, he outdid more than half (51.85%) of his class.

In the mother research (Wen, 2014a; See also Fig. 2) from which this study is originated, the perfect scores for both pretest and posttest were 55. Tom got 23.5 in the pretest while the average of his classmates was 13 and the standard deviation was 6.69. He came the second in the pretest; his score was higher than 20 (90.9%) of his group members (n=22). In the subsequent posttest, he got 42 while the average of his group members was 25.3 and the deviation was 9.25. He still maintained his silver medal in the posttest.

In the first survey of the mother research conducted before pretest (i.e. pre-test survey; See Fig. 2), Tom said that he read the handouts but did not finish doing it, neither did 13 (33.33%) of the participants (N= 40) in the mother research.

Only 3 (7.5%) participants said that they finished reading the handouts for sure.

One of those in the control group won the gold medal in both the pretest and posttest. Although Tom did not finish the assigned reading of handouts, he was still one of the best. In the interview conducted on May 23, 2014, Tom disclosed that he had a part-time job on weekends; Saturday and Sunday are his work days. He was exhausted every weekend. That is the reason why he overslept for two times and did not come to the class that was scheduled on Monday morning.

When asked how he made it in the mid-term examination and the posttest, Tom explained the way he made up for the missed lessons: Firstly, he asked his classmates what was taught and borrowed notes from them; secondly, he downloaded the electronic versions of handouts from e-3 Campus Digital Learning System of National Formosa University, which are in PowerPoint format, rearranged them in his own order, and went over the handouts on his own; thirdly, and finally, he went to the library, checked out the reference books listed in the handouts, and read not only parts that were quoted but also those that were not.

The researcher was overwhelmed by Tom’s hard work, for such painstaking effort was hardly taken by any students, and she asked Tom why he was so highly motivated. Tom revealed that, after he had skipped classes for two consecutive weeks, he was warned by the researcher teacher that he was on the verge of being flunked. He was told that, if he was absent again without any justified cause, he was sure to fail this required course, Chinese-English Translation I.3 After that he never dared to skip any class. Apparently, the researcher teacher’s warning, or threatening, worked: It spurred Tom to work harder than most of his classmates subsequently.

The next thing by which the researcher is much impressed is that Tom checked out the references books in the library and went over the original literature from

3 Though

the name of the course is “Chinese-English Translation,” it includes translations of both ways.

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which the handouts were adapted. The researcher remembered that at one point he even offered a journal article to the researcher and recommended that she use it in students’ oral presentations of mock conferences.4 In addition, Tom has his own organization of the downloaded PowerPoint files. That means he has a unique way of arranging these teaching materials. The researcher responded to Tom by saying that most schoolmates who passed the qualifying examination in her PhD program in the University of Taipei had their own arrangements of materials, too.

Tom’s second point also reminded the researcher of one of her own journal articles (Wen & Wang, 2008): Students reported that, when they, for whatever reason, missed a period or two, they found it helpful to have a second chance by visiting the virtual classroom online, where they were able to make up for their loss by downloading the teaching materials available online and view their classmates’ discussions on classroom activities.5 Tom’s case showed that a certain warning in time can motivate a student. In his case, he took tremendous effort to make up for the missed course content and eventually outdid not only most of his group members in the experiment but also more than half of his classmates in the mid-term examination. However, this may not be the only reason. Based on the classroom observations, the researcher found that Tom obviously has a better command of the language in reading and/or vocabulary. At one point the researcher gave the group a translation assignment to do in class. Most of Tom’s classmates had a hard time doing it, yet he finished doing it in no time. When his classmates were still struggling with it, Tom went to the toilet and returned to the classroom where not too many of his classmates were enjoying the freedom as he was. This is not the end of the story, either. In the interview, Tom also admitted that attending applied foreign language program in his senior high school days helps him procure a solid base of vocabulary, whereas many of his classmates said in the semi-structured interviews of Follow-up Study 1 that vocabulary is their Stumbling Block Number One in doing translations (Wen, 2014b). Among the 7 types of translation strategies they offered in the semi-structured interviews, 5 (71.43%) were those dealing with new words they didn’t know (Ibid.). Twelve (60%) out of the 20 interviewees in the first follow-up study directly or indirectly mentioned their difficulties in vocabulary. It is not far-fetching to make an inference that Tom’s vocabulary knowledge to a certain degree gained ground for him. Therefore, his senior high school education with specialization in English can be another significantly favorable factor for his performance.

4 From

the fall semester of Academic Year 2009 to winter 2014, the researcher accommodated “mock conference presentations” in the curriculum as part of students’ oral report/peer teaching.

5 Students in this class were asked to write weekly learning logs online onto the discussion areas in the e-3 Digital Learning System of National Formosa University, offering their reflections on what was learned in class. © 2017 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

51

II. Bob’s Case Bob was in the experimental group and received the treatment of mental imagery portraying as the major method of translation. In the pretest of the mother research (Wen, 2014a; See also Fig. 2), he got 26.5 and ranked on top in the pretest. The average score of his class was 16.06 with the standard deviation of 7.45. After the pretest, the instructor showed participants their test results and explained how the pretest was scored. With these explanations in mind, two more weeks of treatment, and his success in the pretest, he should have done much better. Yet he failed in the posttest and got only 12 in it; the average of his class reached 23.08 with the standard deviation of 8.68. He lost his crown in the end and, even worse, he ranked precisely at the bottom. How come he who won the championship at first ended up ranking at the bottom?

On May 31, 2014, Bob was asked this question in the last quarter during the one-hour interview. From his pretest result, it can be easily seen that he already mastered the translation technique. The researcher asked him why he used another strategy and did the posttest in a rougher way. Since the teacher explained how the pretest was scored and what those scores meant after the pretest, he should have already known that his former strategy did work. Why did he not just do the same in the posttest as he did in the pretest? Why did he change his strategy and use another method of translation? His answer came all too instantly and curtly. He said that he wondered whether the posttest would be evaluated in a rather different way. If the posttest is scored in exactly the same way as the pretest, then they were just two sets of questions to be solved in like manner. For him, it would not be so interesting to repeat that same way of translation in the posttest; therefore, he decided to make a change. He was not in a hurry, nor was he rushed through the posttest. He was not tired, either. He told the researcher it is not that there were new words. There are always new words whenever translation is to be done, he said. In his posttest, he simply took another strategy. In short, it was not for any mysterious reason that he failed in the posttest, he just did not want to repeat himself by doing translations in the old way. He wanted to try something different to see if it will be more interesting.

Narratives of the Participants’ Learning Experiences In the interviews that last for one hour, both interviewees were free to talk about their learning experiences from childhood up to now besides asking the interviewer questions concerning their learning. Inspiring stories came along here and there all the time. The researcher decided to let them tell their own stories in this section. The researcher not only raised questions [represented by “Int”, shortened from the word Interviewer], while the participants took up most of the time talking about their own experiences. These narratives were not rearranged; they were numbered in the original order with a subheading as well as ellipsis in between narratives. The original interviews were in Chinese. The narratives offered here are the researcher’s translations. They were checked by

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the interviewees and were confirmed of their accuracy.

I. Tom’s Narratives 1. Tom is a Lover of Literary Works of Art. Int:

Let’s start from your childhood. Has your Mandarin Chinese always been good ever since you were in the primary school?

Tom: Mme. My Mandarin Chinese was not especially good when I was in the elementary school. I should be grateful to my junior high school Chinese teacher.

Int:

Why?

Tom: She paid a lot of attention to our handwriting and pronunciation.

Int:

Does that mean you are not supposed to miswrite a word?

Tom: That’s right.

Int:

Well, is it like a floating that comes to the surface of the water, since your learning results come to the fore after so many years?

Tom: Yes. ….

Tom: She told us the backgrounds of the articles in the textbook in great detail.

Tom: The next time when something similar came up, she would tell us those backgrounds of these articles all over again. And she raised questions to see if we still could remember. Then we had to try very hard to think of these background story once again.

Int:

It makes all the difference. When you think it over, you will be much impressed.

Tom: (Nodding.) And I am especially interested in literature.

Int:

Do you get high marks in Chinese compositions?

Tom: Compositions? (Nodding.) Ever since childhood, my Mandarin Chinese compositions have been good. But I am not good at sciences such as physics and chemistry. I got low scores in them.

Int:

Did you read many famous literary works of art since you were a child?

Tom: I did read some, but not too many.

Int:

Of what kind?

Tom: When I was in the elementary school, I read things like folk tales. When I went on to junior high school, I read translated modern Mandarin versions of ancient Chinese novels like Journey to the West.

Int:

Right! Right!

Tom: And then…. I am interested in poetry, too.

Int:

Children’s?

Tom: Yes. I also read novels. Modern novels mostly, such as Lung Ying-tai’s.

Int:

Lung Ying-tai never wrote a novel. She wrote essays instead of novels.

Tom: Essays, essays, essays….

Int:

Collections of essays.

Tom: In senior high school days, my Chinese teacher started to teach us literary works of art.

Int:

Have you ever been persecuted for reading these “outside” readings other than your textbooks?

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Tom: I like to read. My mother encouraged me to read more literary works of art.

Int:

You have a great mom. My mother is a Chinese teacher, yet when I read modern Chinese literary works of art, she persecuted me.

Tom: She bought many books for me to read.

Int:

Really? I was scolded for reading such books.

Tom: [Gesturing a pile.] She bought sets of folk tales in Taiwan for me, and she made me read them. She said those tales were very important.

Int:

It makes all the difference. It makes all the difference. It makes all the difference. I borrowed children’s version of world-famous literary works of art from the library. They are pollution-free; if you read grown-up’s versions translated from the original, there are pollutions in the translations.

Tom: So, then…. I read mostly essays. I also read some novels, but not too many.

Int:

So, you yourself are a lover of literary works of art.

Tom: (Nodding.) I like to read.

Int:

So do I. Would you tell me your mother’s background? Why did she encourage you to read?

Tom: There is nothing special in her background. She is just an ordinary woman, not too well-educated.

Int:

Most parents would like their children to focus on schoolwork. My mom wouldn’t allow me to read any other books.

Tom: She is concerned about my academic achievements; and she also knows that I like to read literary works of art.

Int:

She makes you who you are.

Tom: Yeah. She makes me who I am.

Int:

Your mother is so great!

Tom: (Nodding.)

Int:

She spends a lot of money cultivating you. I went to the library to borrow books, and actually there were not many books in my parents’ house.

Tom: (Nodding.)

Int:

Then I grew up and started to buy books for myself.

Tom: That was when I was a child. Now I am an adult. She tells me to borrow books for myself.

Int:

Yeah, you are a grown up now. You know how and where to get them.

2. Pleasure Reading and Influences from Junior High School Chinese Teacher Int:

Now what kind of books do you borrow from the library?

Tom: Later on,… Later on,… I borrowed those related to what I study.

Int:

Course-related.

Tom: Yes, course-related. For example, I took Children’s English in my sophomore year and I borrow children’s books from the library.

Int:

In Mandarin or English?

Tom: English. [I read] English picture books. I even bought some very famous ones as part of my collection.

Int:

Oh, Huh-huh….

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Tom: Such as those by Dr. Seuss.

Int:

When I took my daughter to coffee shops with picture books, I read them together with her. It was fun.

Tom: They are interesting. What is taught in class is limited; therefore, I look for more information in similar fields.

Int:

With no limitations, your world grows much wider.

Tom: Yes. Int:

Were you always like this before, looking for more books to read by yourself?

Tom: Yes. Int:

Since when? How old were you when you started to look for books by yourself?

Tom: Since I was a junior high school student. And my teacher is the facilitator. She shared her own collection of books with us, putting all the books she had in the classroom.

Int:

She was not afraid of losing them?

Tom: No, she was not. Every year she did the same: she asked students to read her books.

Int:

Oh, she sows many seeds. I wonder how great the harvest she may

reap? So

you see the influence of a good teacher may become obvious 10 years later.

Tom: Mme. (Nodding.) She’s my Chinese teacher.

Int:

How interesting a teacher can be! When I asked my Mom a question in Chinese literature, she took it for a challenge.

Tom: An inspiring part of her teaching is that she raises questions and asks students to do brainstorming. When no one replied, she went to the back of the classroom and said, “Call me when you find the answers.” And the class was stalled.

Int:

She forced you to think, to use your brain?

Tom: The class was stalled, and she took a break. And I always was the first one to call her back, for I considered waiting for an answer a waste of time.

Int:

What kind of questions do you answer, something she already taught you or the brainstorming?

Tom: Both.

Int:

Then you become a thinker, because she forced you to be one.

Tom: You have to come up with some kind of an answer.

Int:

I think I need to interview her. Huh-huh.

Tom: So was my senior high school Chinese teacher.

Int:

It’s a grace. Not everyone has such great Chinese teachers.

3. Influences from Senior High School Chinese Teachers Int:

Can you tell me how your senior high school Chinese teacher taught you?

Tom: Chinese teacher?

Int:

Yes, you said your senior high school Chinese teacher taught in a similar way to your junior high school one. But how? What did she do exactly?

Tom:

Exactly…. She.… There are introductions to the writers in the Chinese textbook, and there are notes and many other things.

Int:

Yes, yes.

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55

Tom: She started teaching us from the introduction to the article and then she moved on to the introduction to the author. She told us the background of each writer and their style.

Int:

Was it done in a way of storytelling?

Tom: Yes, and she taught it in a vivid way, never rigid. And she made it fun. She told us what had ever happened to the authors. That’s how she raised our interests.

Int:

Yeah, yeah. One of my high school Chinese teachers was like that. She could spend two hours telling us the life story of Tsai Yuen-pei (or Cai Yuanpei). I was overjoyed, for it was storytelling. Students like stories.

Tom: And anecdotes of the ancient writers are interesting, such as who hated whom and libeled against whom.

Int:

That’s funny.

Tom: Yes, and who befriended whom.

Int:

And your interest grows.

Tom: She never taught in a rigid way.

Int:

Ancient Chinese scripts could be rigid, but she made it interesting.

Tom: Yes, in an enlivened way.

Int:

Then students got interested in the text.

Tom: (Nodding.) And she cared about our handwriting. She did not like simplified Chinese characters. If we write simplified Chinese characters, we would be punished and write correct characters many many times.

Int:

I hat simplified Chinese characters too. Huh-huh.

Tom: I myself do not like simplified Chinese characters, either. My classmates use simplified Chinese characters, but I don’t like it. Movies downloaded always contain simplified Chinese subtitles, and I can’t read them. My classmates told me, “If you see more movies with simplified Chinese subtitles, you will get it.”

But I just don’t like simplified Chinese.

Int:

Low-level culture.

Tom: Low-level culture. We shall never do without traditional Chinese characters.

Int:

No. Never.

4. Use of the Internet Int:

How about the library in your senior high school? Were there many books in it?

Tom: Just so-so.

Int:

You did not borrow many books from your school library then?

Tom: At that time, I used the Internet more often than the library.

Int:

At home?

Tom: Yes. Int:

Well, this is an important piece of information. What kind of information did you look for?

Tom: Key words.

Int:

For example? Jargons in your professional courses?

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Tom: Yes, this semester you taught us “allocation.” Then I went on line to look for relative information. When I find some pieces of useful information, I save them to “My Favorites.”

Int:

That is, you have the self-learning habit of going on line?

Tom: Yes. Int:

Which search engine do you use?

Tom: Google.

Int:

Do you find Google to be the best?

Tom: Yes. Int:

And you save what you find important?

Tom: Yes. I save them.

Int:

So you look for related information by using Google Search Engine?

Tom: Yes, but if I find too few pieces of information, I will start looking for books.

Int:

Your priority is the World Wide Web and books are your second choice?

Tom: Yes. It is more convenient to use the Internet.

Int:

Your order reverses mine. I look for books first. If I don’t find any, then I go online.

Tom: I get online first.

Int:

When did you start the habit of going online?

Tom: Since I was in senior high.

Int:

Senior high. But you just said you went home late.

Tom: I did not work part-time when I was in high school. I went online over the weekends then. But to tell the truth, I did not consult many pieces of information on the Internet when I was in senior high. At that time, teachers gave you a lot of information, so I did not have the need to go on line searching information by myself. In class, could hardly catch up with my Chinese teacher, putting down what she said. I did not need to look for more information. It is in college that you ought to take up responsibility of your own learning.

Int:

Yes. Yes. Yes. But not every one of your classmates thinks so. You really have to take up the responsibility of your own learning. Really!

Tom: I used to put the blame on others when I was a freshman. I wondered why our teachers taught us so few things. Then one of my classmates who always gets good grades, told me, “You are to look for it by yourself. In college, teachers are not supposed to give you everything.” ….

Int:

Can you tell me what kind of books you read other than folk tales in Taiwan that your mother bought you? Did you read detective stories like Sherlock Holmes?

Tom: No. Int:

How about martial arts novels [or kung-fu novels]?

Tom: No. I am not so interested in martial arts novels as essays.

Int:

How about science fiction?

Tom: No. Int:

What you mean by “essays” includes commentaries like those by Ying-Tai Lung?

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Tom: Yes. That was when I was still in junior high. When I was small….

Int.

What kinds of books did you read?

Tom: I read stories.

Int: Tom: Int:

Of what kind? Those in Taiwan or from overseas or…?

In Taiwan, folk tales.

So you read Taiwanese folk tales.

Tom: Yes, Taiwanese folk tales and children’s books, picture books. I read those since childhood.

Int:

And what series of children’s books in particular? What’s the name of the publishers?

Tom: Publishers? I haven’t noticed.

Int:

Are these all bought by your mother or borrowed from the library by yourself?

Tom: My mom bought them for me.

Int:

Many of them are children’s picture books?

Tom: Yes. Very many.

Int:

One of the students who ranked on the top in the mid-term exam years ago shares this point with you.

Tom: There are fewer words in the picture books. Children are not able to read too many words.

Int:

Right. Starting from these picture books, children learn more words little by little.

The results can be amazing years later.

Tom: I am good at Mandarin Chinese. After attending your classes, my sensitivity to Chinese characters is even more sharpened.

Int:

I talked about differences between expressions.

Tom: (Nodding.) Before attending your classes, I didn’t pay too much attention to the details, because I wrote by typing Chinese characters. Since you direct our attention to the structure, now I read what I type after writing a statement or a paragraph to see if my structure is fine. My classmates found me to be….

Int:

Meticulous?

Tom: Exactly.

Int:

My translation teacher told us one of her friends was told by a net friend that she must be more than 40 years of age for there is no mistyping in her net talk.

Tom: My classmates say I sound official [or bureaucratic].

Int:

As if you were writing an article….

Tom: Exactly.

Int:

People of my generation correct typographical errors all the time. If we mistype anything and it was already sent out, we apologize for the mistake.

Tom: Me, too. And my friends always say it doesn’t matter.

Int.

So long as you get your points across,….

Tom: Yes. Int:

[To be a good translator,] you need to have a certain kind of insistence [on word choices].

Tom: (Nodding.) Yes.

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58

Int:

I think both your Chinese teachers in senior and junior highs have a certain influence on you.

Tom: Yes. Especially the Chinese teacher in my high school years, she rather hates simplified Chinese characters.

II.

Bob’s Narratives

1. He Was a Design Major in Senior High School Days Int:

Were you transferred from another university or department?

Bob:

I wasn’t in the applied foreign language program in my senior high school days. I was in the advertisement design program.

Int:

So, why are you here in this department?

Bob:

I started learning English as a primary school boy. I have studied English in the cram school all the way through the graduation of junior high. When I took the Joint College Entrance Examination, my mom insisted that my elder sister fill out the card of priorities for me. I told my elder sister that I never enjoy drawing pictures, and I do not want to enter any of its relative fields.

Int:

Did she do it on purpose?

Bob:

I don’t know.

Int:

Or was it just your destiny?

Bob:

She crossed a wrong code and I got into the advertisement design program of a vocational senior high.

Int:

Oh! My!

Bob:

For this, I made phone calls and asked for a copy of the card of priorities. I did not believe how this could take place. I wanted to know what really had happened. When I received it, I saw that the wrong code was crossed. My elder sister was speechless. So was I. Then I attended that program.

Int:

Ah, huh-huh. You should have transferred to another department when you were a freshman. Why did you go on studying all the way to your junior year?6

Bob:

No, it was when I was a senior high freshman. Then I drew pictures everyday with my classmates. I did not do well in drawing pictures, but I did well in computer graphics. Then in my senior high sophomore year, the time came for mock tests for Joint College Entrance Examination. My teacher asked me what I would like to study in college? I talked it over with my family. My mom asked me which subjects I was interested in? I said I was interested only in mathematics and English. My mom said, “Why don’t you go on to a department of applied foreign languages in college?” Then I said, “O.K.” That’s why I am here.

Int:

So you took a different set of examination from the one design majors did. And then?

Bob:

In the beginning, it was a pity: in the mock test I scored around 300 to 400 or more. But I made a gradual progress over time. It took me one year to study on my own without going to a cram school. Everybody else went to a cram school, studying, studying, and studying. My mom said, “It is not that I do not want you

6

At that time, the interviewer was still at sea about Bob’s case.

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to go to a cram school. Nor is it that I have no money for you to do so. It is just that I hope you give it a try to study on your own. You can make it.” Then from a schoolmate I learned how to prepare for the examination by myself. She also changed her major from art design to English just as I did. Then I know what to read. Then I bought some of the books she recommended, and I also read some relative materials online. During that time, I went directly to study after dinner from 7:00p.m. till 1:00 or 2:00a.m. Every night I studied hard. And that last throughout a whole year. When the Joint College Entrance Examination was approaching, the scores I got in the mock test were very close to my first choice, National Formosa University. It’s not far from my home. My home is in Chiayi.

My mom said, “It is close. If you try hard enough, you may get into National Formosa University.” The threshold for entering National Formosa University was then 560 points. I got 550 in the mock test, very close to it. On the first day of the Joint College Entrance Examination, I found that I know the answers to nearly all the examination questions. In the past I hardly calculated how many points I got right after a test. But that day I checked all my answers right after the Joint College Entrance Examination.

Int:

You were sure you would make it.

Bob:

Yes, yes, yes. After taking the first day’s exam, my mom asked me, “Will it affect your exam tomorrow? Why don’t you just wait until tomorrow?” I said, “But I’m confident.” I knew I did quite well.

Int:

You knew you would make it.

Bob:

It turned out that I got very high scores. I thought I would have to study even harder the next day, for the next day I would take the exam in math. And the next day when the examination was over, I calculated my total scores, they added up to at least 570 points.

Int:

You made it.

Bob:

Then I started to relax and have a good time, waiting for the result. I got 590 points in total, because there were still scores for my compositions. I was even offered a scholarship. Therefore, I entered this university with a score much higher than the threshold, which equaled 556. My mom asked me if I wanted to attend National Yunlin University of Science and Technology. But their minimum was 597. Also, with my score I could still go on to National First Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology or National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences. But I decided to attend National Formosa University as was planned. And my mom kept her promise and bought me a car.

Int:

Wow! Huh-huh-huh.

Bob:

For it is not far from my home, I can drive home.

Int:

Everyday?

Bob:

No, on weekends and holidays. Ever since I went on to college, my family members have tended to trust me. For example, I just have to tell them where I was going, my mom will say, “O.K. O.K. Go anywhere you want to.”

Int:

She trusts you.

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2. A Bad Boy in Junior High School Days Bob:

But I used to be a bad boy. People who know me well are all aware of that. All my friends know that when I was in junior high school, I was bad. I was in low-grade class in the ability grouping system. I skipped classes. After I listened to teachers’ lecturing for 5 minutes, I started to fall asleep. In the classroom, I talked with my classmates and left the classroom once I got bored.

Int: Bob:

Ho-ho-ho.

To a degree that my parents had to apologize to the principal of the junior high. I fought with guys. My parents had to go to the Office of Students’ Affairs to clean up the mass for me.

Int:

Somebody hit you? Or…?

Bob:

I hit others and got into troubles. It was a mass.

Int:

Huh-huh-huh.

Bob:

I smoke cigarettes at that time. I quit it after my mom, crying, begged me to behave myself and study harder. She only asked me to finish my junior high school education.

Int:

Huh-huh-huh. Poor thing!

Bob:

Later I just became good. I was frustrated in the First Basic Competency Test (BCT). The perfect score was more than 300 points, while I got only 147.

Int:

Less than a half.

Bob:

Less than a half. My mom said, “Study on your own, and take the second BCT.” Then I studied hard and took the second test. The second time I got more than 200 points. I thought, “Great, I finally could….” My life is indeed a bumpy journey. Then I have got a national high school to attend. Actually I wanted to take the applied foreign languages program.

Int:

But a wrong code was crossed.

Bob:

My elder sister crossed advertisement design program for me. I have a serious weakness for design majors. A designer should not have color blindness (color amblyopia) or color weakness (partial tritanopia), but I have color weakness. My roommates laughed at me when I mixed yellow slippers with green ones in the toilet…. I had a hard time receiving training in advertisement design. Every day we paint still life. My classmates were having a good time.

Int:

They are good at it.

Bob:

They were happy doing it, but I just sat there with my drawing paper empty.

Then my teacher came and saw nothing was there on the paper. He knew how I got there, so he started to teach me how to paint still life. In spite of his explanations, I did not make much progress. Teachers let me pass, for they knew what had happened to me. Then I got 590 in the Joint College Entrance Examination. I came the second in my senior vocational high. In my senior high,….

Int:

You became a legendary figure.

Bob.

That same year my schoolmate who scored on top in the senior high got 597 points in the Joint College Entrance Examination.

Int:

Was she admitted to National Yunlin University of Science and Technology?

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61

Bob:

Yes, she was. And my schoolmates in the applied foreign language program said how come this person in the advertisement design program did better than the rest of us. And their home room teacher told them, “See, you have been struggling for all these three years. He spent only one year studying English and now he outdid you, you see. What have you been doing?” Indeed some of them went on to better universities than I did, such as National First Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology.

Int:

You got enough points for entering that university, too. But you just didn’t go on to college there.

Bob:

I didn’t go there. Some said I was a fool. But I thought, since I am a higher-achiever, it will be easier for me to study here. And it won’t cost me that much. I don’t have to worry that I might not be able to keep up with others, either. My mom also said, “You want to study in the department of applied foreign languages? Why don’t you just go on to Wenzao Ursuline University of Languages?” Their English is quite good, but it costs a lot more money to study there.

Int:

It is a private one, so it costs more. They do excel in language learning, though.

Bob:

Indeed.

Int:

Their graduates are competent to work as professional translators.

Bob.

My friends in the Department of French said their oral training is very good.

Int:

Yes, even their French majors’ English is better than that of the average college students. How can it not be? They spent 19 hours weekly speaking English.

Bob:

They listen and speak and then listen and speak all along. Though it costs them a lot, they are surrounded by such outstanding English learners.

Int:

You are not in need of money. Why did you not go on to Wenzao Ursline University of Languages?

Bob:

I come from a single-parent family.

….

3. Bob Ran away from the Primary School Bob:

As a child, I lived in Chiayi County. We moved to Chiayi City later on. When my family moved to Chiayi, I had difficulties adapting myself into the new environment. I resisted going to the elementary school. So I began to skip classes when I just started my schoolboy days. In the middle of the class, I would say to my classmates, “I want to pee.” Then I went climbing over the fence of the primary school and walked straight home.

Int:

Oh, no. Did you?

Bob:

Then I knocked the door of my house and rang the door bells. Then my mom answered the door. She said, “You’re home again.” I told her, “I don’t want to go to school. I don’t like it. It’s boring.” I watched TV at home. It was my Dad that brought me back on track. One day he warned me that, “You have come home from school for a week. If you dare to come home once again tomorrow, I will beat you up.” But I wouldn’t listen to him, I just went straight home again the next day after the first period was over. My dad was waiting for me at home with

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a stick in his hand. He gave me a discipline. The worst part of it is not that. My mom sent me back to school. It was hot at the time, and I wore short sleeved shirts. There were blacks and blues all over my body. My teacher saw that I was injured, took me to the nurse in school and had my wounds treated. I was much impressed. Even the primary school principal found that out and came to comfort me. He wanted to know whether I was O.K. and he wondered why my Dad had beaten me so badly. My neighbors also saw my injuries. They asked me questions, too: “What happened a few days ago? Why were you beaten up?” I said with a smile, “Nothing. I was not good."

Int: Bob:

Huh-huh.

And I behaved myself for a time after that.

Int:

After being beaten up, you changed.

Bob:

Yes.

4. How Bob Got Phrases Needed in Translations Int:

May I have one more question? In your earlier education, you didn’t go to school regularly. Then how did you get enough phrases for doing translations?

Bob:

How did I get the phrases? Aww! Yeah. I did outside readings.

Int:

Of what kind?

Bob:

Novels. And….

Int:

By whom?

Bob:

I read those by Fujii Itsuki.

Int:

A Japanese?

Bob:

A Japanese.

Int:

But these books were translations.

Bob:

Yes. For a time, I read his books.

Int:

Can you give me the names of those books?

Bob:

Er…. They made up a set.

Int:

Which Series?

Bob:

Sort of bibliotherapeutic series.

Int:

When did you read them?

Bob:

In my senior high school days. My teacher in high school encouraged us to read books.

Int:

Which teacher? Chinese teacher or home room teacher?

Bob:

Chinese teacher. Ah, I read Harry Potter for a time.

Int: Bob:

These are all translations; they are not supposed to be helpful.

Most of the books that I read were translations. I did not read many books in Chinese. In fact, I don’t really like to read.

Int:

So you hardly read creative literary works of art in Chinese. Most of the books you read are translations.

Bob:

Hardly any.

Int:

Oh.

Bob: Int:

Yes, it’s weird. I was not a school frequenter. Where did I pick up those phrases?

There are ways you agglomerate vocabulary.

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63

Bob:

Aww! Yeah. I went to a cram school. It must be the reason why. It was when I was a primary school boy.

Int:

When was that? In which subject?

Bob:

I studied in a cram school for nearly three years; I attended Chinese courses there.

Int:

So you went to cram school when classes were over? What kind of institution was that?

Bob:

It is…. It is named Stanford. They offer after-school tutoring in the industry of supplementary education.

Int:

You studied English and Chinese there?

Bob:

Yes, in the same cram school.

Int:

But you would not go to school. How come you were willing to go to the cram school?

Bob:

It was my mom who made me go there. She said, “Since you don’t go to school, you must go to the cram school. At least learn something there.”

Int:

How come you were willing to go to the cram school?

Bob:

My mom made me go there.

Int:

It was after you had been beaten up by your father?

Bob:

Yes, after that. My mom made me go there. Then I did.

Int:

Huh-huh-huh.

Bob:

My teacher and I came face to face with each other. When I was writing my homework, she would sit there to make sure I do it. When she taught me, I took notes.

Int:

Did she teach you how to write compositions?

Bob:

Yes. She also taught me during summer and winter vacations. She gave me a thick stack of examination questions and made me answer 2 sheets of them a day.

After I finished doing them, she would correct them for me. Then she taught me something concerning composition writing.

Int:

Which version of examination questions? In which subjects? Chinese?

Bob:

Yes, in Chinese by Kang-hsuan.

Int:

So they were examination questions on Chinese textbooks.

Bob:

Yes.

Int:

Were they helpful?

Bob:

I also learn something other than schoolwork. Mme, it’s strange. Aww! Yeah. I did many assessments. My parents bought a lot of such things.

Int:

At home?

Bob:

Yes. Before every monthly examination, my mom would tell me, “This week you are to complete answering this much of assessments. Next week that much.”

Int:

Who was it that corrected your answers for you?

Bob:

My mom.

Int:

With the answers in the appendix?

Bob:

Yes. My mom corrected the answers for me. If she found mistakes, she would check if I made them right after her corrections. If I still had the wrong answers, she beat me up.

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64

Int:

Huh-huh-huh.

Bob:

I can still remember this period. That was when I was still in the primary school.

Int:

Weren’t you a bad boy in the primary school?

Bob:

After I had been beaten up by my father, I became good, for I was afraid that I might have been beaten up again. Every time the monthly examination was coming, my elder brother and I had to stay home and behaved ourselves, answering questions in the assessments. At one time, my elder brother found our mom wasn’t in and suggested that we copied the answers in the appendix. But I don’t think that makes any sense. So we were beaten up again and again for answering wrong. During that time we did get higher scores in the monthly examinations. It really worked. When I went on to junior high school, I became a bad boy again. My mom said, “Then you go on to study in the cram school.”

Int:

Huh-huh-huh. It is your elixir.

Bob:

“Go to the cram school and study there,” she said, “I’ll pay for it.”

Int:

How many subjects did you study there? What are they?

Bob:

Chinese, English, mathematics, and natural sciences.

Int:

You also studied Chinese in the cram school.

Bob:

Yes.

Int:

Tell me what the teachers there did.

Bob:

Teachers in cram school….

Int:

Chinese teachers.

Bob:

They scheduled the progress based on that of the school. The only difference was that they used assessments by another publisher. Though the textbooks remained the same, we had a different set of tests in the cram school. They corrected our answers and explained in greater detail. It was not so in school. School teachers just checked the answers for us and asked if anyone has questions. If no one answered, then it was over. We just handed in our examinations. Even though I studied in the cram school, I still made the same mistakes when I took the monthly examinations in school. I did not like natural sciences. I am interested in English and mathematics only. My Chinese is alright. But I didn’t do well in natural sciences. I couldn’t figure out what my teacher in natural sciences said….

….

Int:

How many students did the primary school Chinese teachers teach?

Bob:

There were 20 students in general. But there were only 10 students in the Chinese class, because many think we are native speakers.

Int:

But she offers one-on-one service.

Bob:

She usually taught us on the platform. After she finished teaching one lesson, she would give us an examination. Then she came down to us and saw how we were doing.

Int:

One after the other.

Bob:

Yes, one after the other. And she corrected our answers.

Int:

Did she explain one answer after another?

Bob:

Yes.

Int:

So patiently. Can you tell me her educational background?

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65

Bob:

She said she graduated from Tunghai University. The other was a graduate from Tamkang University. I found the latter to be the better, for I could understand her explanations.

….

Bob:

The one from Tamkang University taught me from junior high school to senior high schools.

Int:

What kind of outside readings did she want you to read?

Bob:

Some martial art novels [or Kung-fu novels] by Yung Chin.

Int:

Did you read them?

Bob:

No, I didn’t. She brought a lot with her and placed them in the classroom. She asked us to take them home. But nobody heeded it.

Int:

Oh, what a shame. What a shame!

….

Int:

What do you think about the Chinese teachers in the cram school and those in school? Which ones are more helpful?

Bob:

Those in the cram school.

Int:

Really?

Bob:

I hardly paid attention to my schoolwork. It was boring.

Int:

How about the Chinese teachers in your senior high school?

Bob

Awful. Just awful.

Int:

Is that all you can remember?

Bob:

Very terrible.

Int:

That’s all?

Bob:

I had to rewrite many, many times those words that I miswrote. Maybe it is the reason why my Chinese gets better.

Int:

Yet you were much impressed in a negative way.

Bob:

In a negative way. We were left standing as a punishment when we did not answer correctly.

….

Discussions and Reflections From the narratives of Tom and Bob, differences as well as similarities can be drawn. As for the differences, Tom and Bob stand on two extremes: Tom is a lover of literary works of art7 and borrows course-related books from the library to study on his own. Though he skipped classes in the beginning of the semester, he went back on the right track because of the researcher teacher’s warning. Yet Bob confessed that actually he does not like to read.8 7 So

were 2 of his schoolmates: One high-achiever in a former study is also a lover of literary works of art (Wen & Tseng, 2007). Another high-achiever, who was asked by the researcher after mid-term examination what she had read, also said that she read many children’s picture books in childhood.

8 Fortunately, Bob, who was a runner away from school in his earlier school experiences, admitted that it was never boring in the researcher teacher’s classes. Even after he has taken up a part-time job, he insists attending her classes, rejecting the demand by his boss to stay and work overtime. © 2017 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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In Tom’s learning experiences, going to school and receiving instructions contribute to his present performance, for not only did his Chinese teachers make the lessons interesting to him but also the applied foreign language program in his senior high reinforced his background knowledge of vocabulary which is indispensable for doing transitions. In contrast, Bob’s earlier learning experiences hardly ever seemed interesting enough to keep him in school. He was a class skipper in both the primary school and junior high school. After being beaten up by his father, he went to school, but he did not like it any better.

He would rather go to the cram school where he received better tutoring. His personal history of learning is a bumpy journey: He ran away from school in the very beginning; he was forced to go to school and the cram school; he was a bad boy again in the junior high; he failed the First Basic Competency Test but got higher scores in the second after working hard for it; however, he did not enter the applied foreign language program as Tom did in senior high schools; nevertheless, he went on to the Department of Applied Foreign Languages in National Formosa University after studying on his own when school is over for one year. For Bob, scarcely was learning delightful, nor was it ever easy. It includes several terrible memories, such as being beaten up by both parents, an awful senior high school Chinese teacher who punished him all the time for writing words incorrectly. In addition, he never enjoyed the boring school instructions. Eventually, Bob professed that the strict disciplines from parents and school teachers might be a significant factor to his successful translation learning results.

Bob’s senior high school Chinese teachers shared some similarities with Tom’s: They both paid much attention to students’ handwriting; students were punished if they did not put down words in the correct way.9 Tom and Bob both consider Chinese teachers in earlier education helpful to their present translation performance. Two of the teachers shared their own collections of books with their students and encouraged students to read outside readings: one in Tom’s junior high; the other in Bob’s cram school. This is part of the reason why Tom has the habit of “pleasure reading.” Bob also did some pleasure reading by himself,10 though he did not take seriously the cram school teacher’s advice of bringing martial art novels (or kung-fu novels) home. Still both of them did some sort of pleasure reading in their leisure time despite the differences in their responses to their teachers’ encouragements.

Their parents encouraged them to study hard and did not forbid them to read outside readings. That is quite contrary to the researcher’s own personal experiences. She was persecuted by her mother, a senior high school Chinese teacher, when she read literary works of art or some books to encourage herself in the senior high school days. It can be that examinations today require learners to know more than just schoolwork: Such things as contemporary issues in the 9

In fact, the researcher teacher did the same in translation courses.

Bob read were mostly translations, which the researcher considered to be not so “pollution-free” as adapted versions for children.

10What

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daily news can be tested now in entrance examinations. For parents, only what is to be tested is to be studied by their children, just like what Tom Peters said, “What gets measured gets done.”11 For this sake, parents today are more open to books other than textbooks. It appears to be a positive change of mode of tests, students are to learn real-life stuff, authentic issues, and to know more than just what there is in the textbooks and how to take examinations, lest they should learn only to get high marks instead of learning to think on their own.

As can be seen, both students are grateful to teachers in the discipline Chinese of previous education. Their contributions were recognized and came to the fore after as many as 10 years. Although some strict demands might make negative impressions on learners, both Tom and Bob regard influences from Chinese teachers in previous education as one possible reason why they did better than their group members and classmates. Even the researcher’s warning can also serve as a catalyst or incentive that spurred Tom to work harder.

In western educational theories, writers hardly agreed on the issue of corporal punishment (Lin, 2005). There is a saying, “Spare the rod, spoiled the child.”

Many parents today do not discipline their children, for many of these children are the only sons or only daughters in the family. But indulgence does not help children grow to be a responsible person. It is said in the Holy Bible, “Train up a child in the way he should go: and when he is old, he will not depart from it” (Proverbs 22:6). It is also said, “Withhold not correction from the child: for if thou beatest him with the rod, he shall not die” (Proverbs 23:13), for “He that spareth his rod hateth his son: but he that loveth him chasteneth him betimes” (Proverbs13:24). At least, it works in Bob’s case. Without his parents’ disciplines and persuasions, he might have gone astray long ago. Bob took up his responsibility of studying on his own after the researcher had warned him. What if the researcher had never grown to be aware of his absence? He might have also stayed in bed sound asleep while he should have been in class. As educators, what we do is not just teaching, we are also teaching students to be a responsible person in the society. A timely advice can help change the course of a student’s life. In Bob’s case, he quit smoking, for his mother begged him to behave himself.

If she had never asked, Bob might have never grown out of it. As translation teachers or educators, if we never maintained our standards or requirements, students are bewildered: They do not know where they are up to. And we will never know what can take place when we do ask.

Conclusion In this follow-up research, two extreme cases in the mother research were examined carefully. What is intriguing is that the one who seems most likely to succeed did fail at last; furthermore, the one who seems most likely to fail succeeded anyway. To know the reasons why, interviews were taken from both 11

Quoted in “Head for the Edge: What Gets Tested Gets Taught” by Doug Johnson (2007), who offered an amusing reflection on this phenomenon. Obviously, it is not the westerner’s privilege to do so.

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extreme cases. It turned out that Tom succeeded as a result of his own make-up learning; Bob failed because he simply took another strategy of translating.

In the narrative inquiry, both interviewees’ reviews on their previous education and its possible contributions to their present achievements were presented.

Reading in Chinese, supportive parents and Chinese teachers in their earlier education were considered to be possible conducive factors to their learning results.

Bob, who was a bad boy in his primary school and junior high school days, was able to attend a national senior high school and then to go on to a national university of science and technology, for his loving parents have never ceased to be caring for him. He was forced by them to go to school and cram school where he has got most of the phrases he needs in doing translations from the Chinese teachers there. Though he admitted that he does not like reading that much, he did some pleasure reading of translations nevertheless. And that can also be a favorable factor to his translations, too. Without the supervision of his parents, Bob might not be able to become what he is today. Similarly, Tom’s mother bought him outside readings, including Taiwanese folklores, and encourages him to do a lot of pleasure reading. As a lover of literary works of art, Tom is himself a reader. That can be part of the reason why he did translations better than his group members: he has acquired rich phrases in Chinese to employ in his translations. His previous education in the applied foreign English program in his senior high school days also has built him a solid knowledge background from which sufficiently abundant resources can be drawn to do translations.

Tom skipped classes in the beginning of the semester to a degree that the researcher teacher had to warn him that he might have failed because of it.

Amazingly, he turned himself into a self-learner, made up for the classes missed, and ended up a high-achiever in both the mid-term examination and the pre-test as well as post-test in the experiment of the mother research. In these two extreme cases, attention paid by seniors, including parents and teachers, plays an indispensably significant role in their turning points. If not for their close watch over these two learners, they might have gone astray and taken a wrong turn in their life.

It is revealed in both cases that, as teachers, we had better keep an open mind to students’ learning results since we never know who will really make it at the end. It may not turn out as we expected; somehow the table might be turned any time without our foreknowledge. What can be done is to offer our advice and instructions, be mindful and keep watch in case any might fail. From Bob’s case, it can be seen that remedial education offered by cram school sometimes makes up for what is initiated yet not completed by school education. For students who do not enjoy going to school, there might as well be a second chance, another choice, or just an alternative, where they can make it up for what cannot be picked up in their formal educational experiences.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 73-87, March 2017

Can Student Engagement in Online Courses Predict Performance on Online Knowledge Surveys?

Bernard BAHATI, Uno Fors, Matti Tedre University of Rwanda, Stockholm University

Abstract. The link between student engagement and academic performance has been widely examined. However, most of these studies have focused on ascertaining the existence of such a relationship on the summative assessment level. By comparing students’ experience points in an online course and students’ scores on online knowledge surveys (KS), this study examined the relationship between student engagement and performance on online KS on the formative assessment level. Knowledge surveys were developed and formatively administered in four sections of an online Integration of ICT in Education course. Using Moodle Feedback Module, knowledge surveys were designed based on three key elements: learning objectives, the course content, and the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of learning objectives. Using rated multiple choice KS questions, the correlation between students’ scores on KSs and students’ experience points was calculated using SPSS. The results show that students’ confidence levels in ability to answer KS questions increased in some of the course sections and decreased in others. The student engagement in online course was positively—but weakly—related to student performance on online KS and the strength of this relationship increased as the course unfolded. Our conclusion is that student engagement in online courses would not be an accurate predictor of student performance on online Knowledge surveys right at the beginning of an instructional process.

Keywords: Formative engagement

e-assessment,

knowledge

survey,

student

1. Introduction and theoretical background The relationship between student engagement and performance has attracted many educational researchers’ and practitioners’ attention. Student engagement is a glue or mediator that may establish a link between various contexts of student’s learning (Christenson et al., 2012) and for Dunne (2013), "engaged student" is synonymous with "successful student." Presumably, the more students engage with a learning subject, the more they learn about it (Kuh, 2009). In their comprehensive review of the research on the influence of colleges on students’ learning, Pascarella & Terenzini (2005) are considered as the

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pioneers of engagement-learning pairing. They argued "the greater their engagement with academic work, the greater the level of knowledge acquisition.‖ The advent of Internet and digital technologies have profoundly revolutionized and altered the way teaching and learning events might occur. Online learning is pervasive, is here, is not going away and the question is not whether it works but how (Shea-Schultz & Fogarty, 2002). One of the biggest questions or challenges associated with online learning is student engagement. In her blog on eLearning dilemma, Gutierrez (2014) observed that while there are already many issues related to student engagement in other learning settings, online learning may bring about additional obstacles resulting from a number of problems, including lack of (or) reduced interaction student-teacher and student-student interaction. Paradoxically, these interactions are key to an effective online student engagement and correspond to Moore (1989)’s widely applied approach to designing distance education whereby three online student engagement types should prevail: learner-learner engagement; learner-teacher engagement; and learner-content engagement.

Learner-content engagement is at the heart of any instructional activity and there cannot be education if the learner does not interact with the subject of study (Moore, 1989). The second type of engagement described by Moore points to the interaction established between the learner and the expert who prepared the learning material or any other person who acts as an instructor. Despite the increasing use of technologies in teaching and learning, the role of the teacher is as important as ever. Technology will hardly replace a teacher because, as Earle (2002) put it, technologies are just tools and they can only be valuable when a "human intelligence" uses them productively. In the classroom, the human in question is the teacher. The third type of student engagement in online learning appertains to the interaction between learners. This "inter-learner" interaction, argues Moore (1989), can take place between one learner and other learners, alone or in group settings, with or without the teacher ’s synchronous or asynchronous presence. A number of research studies have suggested that student-student interaction in online learning can impact the learning process in various ways. In his study that examined student success, failure, withdrawal, and satisfaction in online course, J. Moore (2014) suggested that student-student interaction is one of the strongest predictors of success and satisfaction in online courses (see also Chang & Smith, 2008) and the higher the level of student interaction with other students, the higher the level of student satisfaction as well as learning (Hiltz, 2005). Moore (1989)’s theory of student interaction is well-known and can be applied to any educational setting. However, as online learning was growing in popularity, research studies started to increasingly question the completeness of the three-dimensional construct as a way to explain student interaction in online learning (Zimmerman, 2012). To address this concern, the original three-dimension interaction theory was revisited and a fourth dimension was added: the "learner to interface‖ interaction was proposed by Hillman et al. (1994) who contended that this

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interaction was critical because its failure could inhibit student learning. In this interaction, interface refers to various technologies, platforms, and applications students need to use and manipulate in order to interact with course content, teachers and peers (Bourne & Moore, 2003). Ultimately, the student engagement in online learning revolves around four dimensions as we conceptualise it in Figure 1 for the purpose of this study.

Figure 1: Conceptualisation of student engagement in online learning environment Figure 1 portrays a functional relationship that characterises the four dimensions of student engagement in online learning whereby the learner-interface interaction serves as a gateway to other interactions. In other words, a successful and effective learner-interface interaction will be a catalytic factor for effective and successful learner-learner, learner-instructor, and learner-content interactions. Conversely, a failed learner-interface interaction may compromise other interactions and thus inhibiting successful learning 1.1.

Pairing student engagement and performance

The relationship between student engagement and academic performance has been well investigated. Results from McClenney et al. (2012)’s 20-year research study on undergraduate students were unequivocal: "the more engaged students are" —with teachers, peers and subject matter —"the more likely they are to learn‖ and keep a sustained focus and efforts on their studies and realise their learning goals. In the same vein, Li et al. (2008) found out that student engagement was associated with better grades while GUNUC (2014) demonstrated significant relationships between student engagement and the student’ s academic achievement. In a study that involved 1,058 college and university students, Carini et al. (2006) examined the association between student engagement and various measures of academic performance and found out that student engagement was positively linked with targeted learning

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outcomes and grades. In general, strong relationships have been found between students’ time investment, interest, and effort in various educational activities and increased performance, persistence as well as satisfaction on academic task, Trowler (2010) and Kuh (2009) concluded that: "students gained more from their studies and other aspects of the college experience when they devoted more time and energy to certain tasks that required more effort than others".

Research studies on the relationship between student engagement and performance have focused on traditional (face-to-face) as well as online educational settings. The results from Rodgers (2008)’s study that examined the impact of the student engagement in online learning process on their end-ofyear examination results, showed that greater interaction in online learning has a positive and statistically significant impact on academic performance (see also Wong, 2013). Johnson-Smith (2014) compared associations between learner’s engagement and academic performance in technology enhanced and traditional (face-to-face) learning environments, and found out a significant difference between students’ grades in those two learning environments. He concluded that multiple factors, coupled with the use of technology, led to an increased students’ involvement in technology enhanced learning environment compared to the traditional one. Several other research studies concurred with these findings. Student engagement in online learning activities can be used as indicator of online learning experience and academic performance (Henrie et al., 2015); learners who are actively engaged score higher grades compared to less engaged learners (Kushwaha et al., 2015); and strong association was established between performance in midterm exams and a deliberate practising and problem-solving activities using online interactive spreadsheets files (Bertheussen & Myrland, 2016).

1.2. Knowledge surveys Knowledge surveys consist of sets of questions that cover the entire content of the course (Wirth & Perkins, 2005). They can serve as tools students can use for analysing their understanding of the course contents, and teachers can use them for organising and reviewing the curricula (Bell & Volckmann, 2011), like a sort of self-evaluation procedure. The theoretical background of knowledge surveys is rooted into metacognition, or the student’s ―abilities to predict their performances on various tasks and monitor their current levels of mastery and understanding" (Bransford et al., 1999). Knowledge surveys build on two key features: breadth and depth. The breadth of a knowledge survey tool requires that the survey questions cover the entire content of the course, while depth requires the coverage of different levels of the cognitive domain (Wirth & Perkins, 2005).

Knowledge survey practices can serve formative assessment purposes by providing students with an opportunity to monitor their understanding of the learning material as the teaching and learning process goes on, to know where and when they have deficiencies, to monitor their progress, and to get a prompt feedback which allows them to continuously track learning gains as the course unfolds (Nuhfer & Knipp, 2003). Knowledge survey also enhances student confidence and self-efficacy (Johnson, 2017; Villafañe et al., 2016) thus fostering self-regulated learning (Nilson, 2013) although student self-confidence and self-

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efficacy do not always translate into real skills or knowledge mastery (Forsberg et al., 2016; Mac Giolla Phadraig et al., 2016; Pantziaras et al., 2015). More clearly, knowledge surveys may support formative assessment purposes by serving as a blueprint for students, explicitly laying out the expected competencies to be learned from the class, indirectly evaluating these competencies and immediately indicating student’s strengths and weaknesses which leads to a more tailored learning experience (Baumgart & Hassemer, 2008).

The use of KS as an instructional tool has not been widely researched. Research studies in this area focused on examining the link between pre-and post-KS and student performance in final exams. By using pre-and post-knowledge surveys, Bowers et al. (2005) claimed that KS was not a reliable measuring tool of student learning as measured by final marks or exams, while Wirth & Perkins (2005) compared knowledge survey responses and examination results and suggested that knowledge surveys provide meaningful measures of learning gains. Later on, still in contrast with Bowers et al. (2005), Bell & Volckmann (2011) demonstrated that students’ confidence levels on knowledge surveys were accurately reflected in their actual knowledge and Favazzo et al. (2014) showed that knowledge surveys could be an effective assessment tool of knowledge in terms of both breadth and depth.

Unlike previous studies that sought to examine the relationship between KS and final summative exams by using pre-and post-KS, this study used KS not in a pre-and post-format but rather as an online formative assessment tool that was implemented throughout the course. This study sought to use KS not as a diagnostic (pre-KS) and verification (post-KS) assessment tool, but as an assessment for learning tool that was implemented throughout the course to assess the student progress and not the end product (Smith, 2014). In addition, this study focused on the relationship that was examined in this study was between student engagement and performance on KS and not between KS and student performance on final summative exams.

2. Context of the study This study was conducted in one of the colleges of the University of Rwanda (the College of Education) and focused on the undergraduate teacher training program. The study was carried out amid drastic reforms in Rwandan public higher education that led to a merger of all public higher learning institutions into one University of Rwanda. Among other expected outcomes, the merger aims at addressing the increasing demand for higher education by means of streamlining Open and Distance Learning and introducing e-learning. In addition, this study follows up and builds on others studies previously conducted at UR in the same area. Ngendahayo (2014) advocated for increased emphasis on assessment for learning practices. Ngendahayo & Askell-Williams (2016) called for the use of new assessment methods and practices that focus on collecting information on student learning and monitoring student’s learning and progress, such as the use of technology in production, publication and engagement with formative feedback in order to address ―time and large class

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constraints‖ (Bahati et al., 2016). These constraints were found to compromise inclass formative assessment practices, and thus, overlooking students’ needs as they prefer to be involved in assessment activities that are integral parts of the teaching and learning process (Mugisha, 2010).

3.

Methodology 3.1. Study design In this study, a correlational study design was used to assess the relationship between two continuous variables (SAGE research methods online [electronic resource], 2011): student engagement in and online course (Integration of ICT in Education) and performance on online knowledge surveys, gathered from all students in a single course.

3.2. Research question and hypothesis By assessing the relationship between the two variables mentioned above, this study wanted to answer the following research question: Is there a significant relationship between student engagement in an online course and performance on online knowledge surveys? The reviewed literature shows links between student engagement and performance, thus lending support to a testable hypothesis that student engagement in online courses and and performance on online knowledge surveys are positively and significantly related.

3.3. Sampling The participants in this study were selected through convenience sampling.

The study sample was made of third-year student-teachers at the University of Rwanda-College of Education. Selection of the students invited to participate in this study was based on them being conveniently and readily available (Salkind, 2010; Grove et al., 2014). Each and every third-year student-teacher is required to take Integration of ICT in Education course (EDC 301). In view of this, 109 students were enrolled in the course and were ipso fact conveniently considered as research participants and they all gave their consent to voluntarily participate in this study.

3.4.1 The online module EDC 301 This 10-credits module was taught during the first semester of academic year 2016-2017 at the University of Rwanda-College of Education and was delivered through the UR online learning platform (Moodle). The instructor used Knowledge Surveys in 4 of the 5 sections of the module. 109 students were enrolled in this course. However, since the use of KS was voluntarily based, some of them opted not to do KS as shown in Table 3 below: Table 1: Expected and submitted responses to Knowledge Surveys Knowledge Surveys KS 1 KS 2 KS 3 KS 4

Expected responses109 109 109 109

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Submitted responses 103 93 95 85

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3.4.2 Measuring student performance on knowledge surveys Knowledge surveys for EDC 301 were developed basing on three key elements: learning objectives, the module content, and the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of learning objectives (Krathwohl, 2002). The KS question items were developed using Moodle Feedback module and were sequenced along the four sections of the module. Questions were distributed among the various levels of the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of learning objectives as follows: Table 2: Distribution of Knowledge Survey Questions into 6 levels of the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of learning objectives Knowle dge Surveys KS 1 KS 2 KS 3 KS 4

Number of questions 32 27 26 23

6 7 4 10

Total

108

27(25%)

Remem Understa Apply ber nd 8 6 3 3

4 4 5 2

Analys Evaluate Create e 4 3 3 3

4 3 6 3

6 4 5 2

20(18.5%) 15(13.5%) 13(12%) 16(14.8%) 17(15.7%)

Sample question-items taken from KSs that were administered to students are presented in Table 3 below: Table 3: A sample of Knowledge Survey Question items Revised Bloom’s levels

% in KSs

Remember 25

Understan 18.5 d

Apply

13.5

Analyse

12

Sample question-items (1). Define ICT. (2). What is the overall goal of ICT in Rwandan education policy? (3.). What are the main areas under which the findings from ―Coping with change in ICT-based learning environments" are analysed?

(5). Draw a chronological line showing the evolution of ICT in Education in Rwanda. (6). Why Rwanda ICT Essentials for Teachers training module can be seen as a good example of blended learning?

(7). Write a brief outline about how much/well any in-service teacher would change upon completion of this training module. (8). What do you think would happen next if all Rwandan secondary teachers completed this training module on ICT Essentials for Rwandan Teachers?

(9). By using convincing examples distinguish between "teaching ICT" and "teaching with ICT." (10). What do the

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Evaluate

14.8

Create

15.7

authors of this research paper assume about Coping with change in ICT-based learning environments?

(11).

Having in mind the current level of "available resources" in Rwandan school What do you think should be prioritized: (1) Teaching ICT or (2) Teaching with ICT? Defend your position. (12). The Rwandan ICT policy statement may appear "utopian" for some and ―realistic but aiming-toohigh" for others. What is your stand on this? Justify your answer.

(13). Basing on a SWOT analysis you developed before (or you have to develop). Propose an implementation strategy for the 7th ICT policy area in your school. That is: "management, support, and sustainability." (14). If you were a head teacher and had all required resources how would you plan and implement a school based training for your teachers using ICT Essentials training module?

3.4.3 Delivery of Knowledge Surveys Knowledge surveys that were used in this study aimed at serving formative assessment purposes by helping students to monitor their understanding and progress throughout the EDC 301 module delivery. Prior to KSs delivery, students were given explanations on how and why KSs were going to be used in the EDC 301 module, and it was emphasised that KS was not an exam and thus they were not expected to know and give all the correct answers. Rather, for each question item of the KS, students were asked to rate their confidence in ability to answer the question on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 means "not confident at all" and 5 means "absolutely confident."

3.4.4 Scoring of Knowledge Surveys The KSs were not formally graded. However, question items were assigned scores using Moodle rated multiple choice questions whereby each option had a numerical value associated with it using one point for "not confident at all" response, two points for "neither confident or unconfident" response, three points for "somewhat confident", four points for "confident", and five points for "absolutely confident‖. Therefore, the higher the student’s score, the greater the student’s confidence level in ability to answer the KS question-items.

3.4.5 Measuring student engagement in EDC 301 online course Student engagement in EDC 301 course was measured by using a Moodle block plugin called "level up". This Moodle plugin automatically captures and attributes "experience points" to student’s actions in online course. The block listens to various events triggered in a learning management system, and

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captures and records some events based on pre-defined rules. In this study, three pre-defined rules that were used to serve as "cheat guard‖ included: (1) the time frame for maximum actions was set to 60 seconds, which the student could not exceed; (2) ten actions that would count for experience points during the time frame and any subsequent actions were ignored; (3) the time required between identical actions was set to 180 seconds.

4. Results 4.1. Analysis of knowledge survey results The results from the students who completed the surveys (see Figure 2) show that, in general, students were confident (KS1: 43%, KS2: 45%, KS3: 40%, and KS4: 48%) in their ability to answer the KS questions.

Figure 2: Knowledge survey results Combined with the number of students who rated themselves as absolutely confident (KS1: 16%, KS2:15%, KS3:13%, and KS4: 21%) in answering the KS questions, the overall picture of the knowledge survey results changes. The results show that, for all of the four KSs, more than 50% of the students perceived themselves as confident or absolutely confident (KS1:59%, KS2: 60%, KS3: 53%, and KS4: 69%) in answering the KSs questions. As mentioned earlier, although KSs were not graded per se, KS questions-items were assigned scores using Moodle rated Multiple choice questions and the students’ scores are summarised in Figure 3.

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Figure 3: Distribution of students’ scores on Knowledge surveys Figure 3 shows that, for all of the four KSs, the distribution of students’ performance in all four KSs is negatively skewed thus most of the students scored above the average. The maximum score obtained for KSs was 150 out of 160 for KS1, 124 out of 135 for KS2, 125 out of 130 for KS3, and 113 out 115 for KS4 and the minimum score was 64 for KS1, 58 for KS2, 52 for KS3, and 36 for KS4. To determine whether students’ experience points could be used as accurate predictors of students’ performance on KSs, we plotted KSs scores against experience points (Figure 4) for each section of the online module EDC 301.

Figure 4 shows that there was no correlation (with Spearman’s rho: 0.099) between students’ scores on KS1 and students’ experience points in section one of the course. The correlation coefficients for section two and three (with Spearman’s rho: 0.212 and Spearman’s rho: 0.235) were relatively negligible but more significant for section four (with Spearman’s rho: 0.454).

Figure 4: Plot of the relationship between students’ performance on KSs and students’ experience points

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5. Discussion In this study, KS was used as an online formative assessment tool in 4 out of 5 sections of EDC 301 online course. By completing knowledge surveys, we expected students to predict their ability to perform in various activities of the course but also monitor their level of mastery and understanding, and reflect on their learning. Student engagement in online course and student confidence in ability to answer KS questions were analysed to ascertain whether experience points (used to measure student engagement) could accurately predict student performance on KSs. Unlike Bowers et al. (2005), who observed a significant increase of students’ confidence over the semester in all of the sections of the course, we found out that students’ confidence in ability to answer KS questions was not generally following a uniform pattern as students were progressing in the course. Actually, the students’ confidence increased in section two, decreased remarkably in section three and then increased again dramatically in section four.

We assumed that an increase or a decrease in student perceived mastery was dependent upon a number of overlapping factors related to the course content, motivation to learn, teaching strategies, and the learning environment. For the course content, students’ level of confidence was higher in two sections (two and four) whose content was part of the teacher-prepared course textbooks — reliance on textbooks (Kitao & Kitao, 2013) —and low in sections whose content was taken from other readings. We thought student motivation to learn, learning environment and the unfamiliar teaching and learning strategies were critical as well. At the beginning of the semester, students were experiencing a sort of "performance anxiety." Taking an online course (for their very first time) in a non-conducive learning environment (inadequate ICT facilities) and student-led assessment practices were putting students in a somewhat uncomfortable situation characterised by "the fear of failing‖ and affecting their motivation to learn. The students perceived confidence level in section one (at the beginning of the semester) and three (where unstable internet connection and a frequently inaccessible UR e-learning platform were observed) was lower and increased in sections two and four where the students’ motivation to learn and self-assessment skills had been improved (Wirth & Perkins, 2005).

This study’s findings concur with some studies (Ehrlinger et al., 2016; Stankov et al., 2014; Miller & Geraci, 2011; Bell & Volckmann, 2011; and Sieck et al., 2007) conducted previously about the phenomenon of students’ overconfidence in rating their ability to perform. Despite the aforementioned challenges and uncertainty that students were facing in the course, the knowledge survey results show that, for all of the four KSs (See Figure 2), more than 50% of the students perceived themselves as confident or absolutely confident (KS1:59%, KS2: 60%, KS3: 53%, and KS4: 69%) in answering the KSs questions. This was also reflected in the students’ scores in knowledge surveys (see percentiles in Figure 3) where, in all KSs, 75% of the students scored above 50% of the possible obtainable score. The results indicate that 75% of the students who submitted

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their answers scored at least 100 out 160 in KS1, 86 out of 135 in KS2, 78 out 130 in KS3, and 80 out 115 in KS4. We agree with Favazzo et al. (2014) who suggested that asking students to provide a reason for their choices or rate their confidence and answer the questions at the same time would decrease overestimated confidence.

This study’s data do not support the hypothesis of a positive and significant relation between student engagement in online course and performance on online knowledge surveys. There was no correlation at all between student engagement (as measured by students’ experience points) and student performance on online KS (as measured by students’ scores in KSs) at the beginning of the course. In subsequent sections of the course, the student’s level of confidence in their ability to perform in the course did not follow a uniform pattern. It increased in section two, decreased in section 3 and increased again in section four. Although the correlation between their experience points and scores in KS kept on increasing, it was still negligible. The highest correlation coefficient (with Spearman’s rho: 0.454) was observed in the last section of the course. Our data suggests that student engagement in online course was positively—but weakly—related to student performance on KS and the strength of this relationship increased as the teaching and learning progressed. In view of this, we contend that student engagement in online course would not be an accurate predictor of student performance on online knowledge surveys at the beginning of an instructional process. When the focus is put on the middle and towards the end of the semester, our data slightly deviate from Bowers et al.

(2005)’s claim with regard to an increase in student confidence in their knowledge of the course material. This study’s results indicate that the students’ confidence increased and decreased while the correlation between their level of confidence and their performance in KSs kept on increasing.

Despite clear guidelines and clarifications that were provided to students, there were some concerns about their ability to accurately rate their level of confidence in ability to answer the KS questions and this might have impacted the KS scores. We thought the students’ ability to self-assessment takes longer to develop (Carroll, 2009) and can take more than just one course and go well beyond one semester (King & Kitchener, 1994).

6. Conclusion and future work In this study, Knowledge Surveys were used as an online formative assessment strategy. The main purpose of this research was to study whether there exists any relationship between student engagement in online course and the student performance on online KS. Additionally, we wanted to answer the question of whether student engagement in an online course can predict performance on online KSs. Based on our data, we suggested that student engagement in this online course was positively—but weakly—related to student performance on KS and the strength of this relationship increased as the teaching and learning progressed. In view of this, we concluded that student engagement in online course would not be an accurate predictor of student performance on online Knowledge surveys right at the beginning of an instructional process. However,

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we think that this study’s findings are not based on quite conclusive evidence due to some limitations relating to the lack of well-established students’ selfevaluative skills, the limited scope of the study in terms of the reduced number of experimentation cases (only one course) during only one semester, and the teaching and learning environment that was not as conducive as expected.

Therefore, the future research studies to be carried out in this area (and in more or less similar context and teaching and learning environment) should take into account these limitations.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 88-104, March 2017

Effects of Computerized Cognitive Training on Working Memory in a School Setting Tessy T. Pumaccahua, M.A. University of Rhode Island, Psychology Department Kingston, Rhode Island, USA Eugene H. Wong, Ph.D. California State University San Bernardino, Psychology Department San Bernardino, California, USA Dudley J. Wiest, Ph.D. California State University San Bernardino Special Education, Rehabilitation & Counseling San Bernardino, California, USA Abstract. Academic performance and executive functioning are two factors strongly related to positive life outcomes; whereas, decreased cognitive functioning is associated with negative developmental outcomes. An important aspect of executive functioning is working memory, which is a strong predictor of academic abilities and life skills.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of computerized cognitive training to improve working memory in a school setting. Participants consisted of a total of 81 students, with a mean age of 12.8 years, who were recruited from a private school in Southern California that focuses on providing education to children with learning disabilities. First, participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; working memory levels were assessed prior to the intervention. Next, an intervention consisting of 20 hours of computerized cognitive training across 10 weeks was implemented. Results from this study indicated that students with delayed working memory were able to make gains, in two distinct measures of working memory, whereas their peers with typical working memory were not. Additionally, results indicated that delayed students were able to approximate the visual working memory abilities of their typical peers by the end of the training. Results from this study support the use of computerized cognitive training as a promising intervention for children experiencing working memory deficits, particularly in the area of visual working memory. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Keywords: Working Memory; School Interventions; Computer assisted learning; Computerized Cognitive Training.

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Introduction Academic success is a pivotal component of a child's development.

Recently, executive functions (EF) have been a major focus of school-based research that has examined factors associated with successful school performance. Welsh (2002) broadly defined executive functions as the cognitive processes that are critical for the development of goal directed behavior, allowing an individual to concentrate on tasks and to control impulses.

Specifically, the core cognitive mechanisms that comprise an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s EF includes planning, problem solving, verbal reasoning, task switching, initiation, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, monitoring of actions, attention, and working memory (Barkley, 1997; Chan, Shum, Toulopoulou, & Chen, 2008; Monsell, 2003; Traverso, Viterbori, Usai, 2015).

Research in education has focused on the cognitive mechanism of working memory (WM) in order to increase learning among children. Working memory can be generally described as a system with a limited capacity that stores and processes information (Baddeley, 1986). More specifically, WM is a higher cognitive process that involves short-term memory (i.e., the amount of information that can be held over a brief period of time) and also includes other processes such as attention, and is used to plan and carry out behavior (Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, 1960). Working memory often requires retrieving information while simultaneously performing distracting or interfering activities.

Basic forms of WM are present early during development and continue to increase rapidly during a child's school-age years (Carlson, Moses, & Claxton, 2004). Studies suggest that an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s WM is related to a variety of realword abilities such as theory of mind (Perner & Lang, 1999) and academic achievement (Biederman et al., 2004). In fact, performance on WM tasks has been found to be predictive of academic skills such as literacy (Swanson, 1994) and mathematics (DeStefano & LeFevre, 2004; Swanson & Jerman, 2006). Moreover, working memory has also been shown to reliably predict performance on reading and language comprehension (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980; King & Just, 1991); learning to spell and vocabulary building (Daneman & Green, 1986; Ormrod & Cochran, 1988); following directions (Engle, Carullo, & Collins, 1991); note-taking and writing (Benton, Kraft, Glover, & Plake, 1984; Kiewra & Benton, 1988); and reasoning and complex learning (Kyllonen & Christal, 1990; Shute, 1991).

Along with the demonstrated positive relationships between WM and academic abilities, studies have also found low WM to be associated with decreased academic abilities. For instance, children between the age of 7 and 14 years who perform poorly on measures of WM also tend to perform poorly on national assessments of expected standards in science and mathematics (Gathercole, Brown, & Pickering, 2003; St Clair-Thompson & Gathercole, 2006).

Similarly, working memory problems have been identified as a central issue for children with mathematical disorders (given that WM plays such a large role in the ability to solve arithmetic problems; Passolunghi, 2006), as well as with children displaying reading disabilities and dyslexia (Melby-Lervag, Lyster, & Hulme, 2012; Swanson, 2006), and have also been related to neurodevelopmental disorders such as Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD;

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Martinussen, Hayden, Hogg-Johnson, & Tannock, 2005) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD; Kenworthy, et al., 2008).

Given the importance of working memory in supporting strong academic performance, an emerging empirical question is whether working memory can be â&#x20AC;&#x153;trainedâ&#x20AC;? or enhanced. The process of increasing WM capacity in children can involve teaching memory techniques or perhaps exposing children to repeated trials of WM tasks. Teaching memory techniques usually involves having children learn mental rehearsal strategies such as chunking, mnemonics, visual imagery, and method of loci (Brown, Campione, Bray, & Wilcox, 1973; Butterfield, Wambold, & Belmont, 1973; De La Iglesia, Buceta, & Campons, 2005; Hulme, 1992; Klingberg, 2010). However, this is not usually beneficial for young children, given that they do not use mentally based strategies until approximately seven years of age (Gathercole, 1998). On the other hand, exposure to repeated WM trials along with reinforcement contingencies and feedback has been shown to positively impact children's task performance, working memory, literacy, and mathematical abilities (Klingberg, 2010; Prins et al., 2011; Rabiner et al., 2010).

Building Working Memory with Computerized Cognitive Training (CCT) One way to potentially increase the effectiveness of WM training has been to use an adaptive computer-based program to provide the training stimuli and feedback (Bigorra, Garolera, Guijarro, & Hervas, 2016; Kirk, Gray, Riby, & Cornish, 2015; Rabiner, Murray Skinner, & Malone, 2010; Shalev, Tsal, & Mevorach, 2007). Typically, these programs begin with a low-difficulty task and the computer adjusts the difficulty as the child exhibits increases or decreases in his/her WM ability. Specifically, the adaptive nature of the computer program allows it to make adjustments in difficulty based on the performance of the user.

For example, if the user completes an exercise correctly, the next exercise presented would be more difficult. Conversely, if the exercise is completed incorrectly the next exercise would be less difficult. Therefore, the training is always targeted to the child's WM capacity and the challenge is never too hard nor too easy which may reduce motivation and/or training efficacy. It has been argued that adaptive training is important because without the automatic performance-related adjustment, faster reaction times may be produced, which is reflective of an increase in attention, but not an increase in WM capacity (Kristofferson, 1972; Phillips & Nettelbeck, 1984).

The results from CCT have demonstrated increases in attention, WM, scholastic skills, and decreases in diagnostic symptoms in children with ADHD (Klingberg et al., 2005; Rabiner et al., 2010; Shalev, Tsal, & Mevorach, 2007; Slate, Meyers, Burns, & Montgomery, 1998). Additionally, Klingberg and colleagues (2002) showed an improvement in inhibitory control and reasoning abilities in 7 to 12 year old children with ADHD through an intense WM training schedule (25-40 minutes per day during 5 weeks).

Although Klingberg (2002) supports the efficacy of WM training as an intervention for children with low WM capacity, other researchers are not as convinced (Levarg & Hulme, 2012; Morrison & Chein, 2011; Shipstead, Redick, & Engle, 2010). Altogether the research represents a combination of mixed effectiveness, with some research demonstrating evidence for limited training

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effects, and other studies showing evidence for distantly related transfer effects.

One of the issues raised by the conflicting research involves whether the setting in which WM training occurs impacts its practical benefits or not.

Computerized Cognitive Training in a School Setting To investigate the effective integration of CCT in different settings, a growing trend has been to move WM training and CCT towards applied settings such as schools. Working memory training has been explored by introducing it at schools for children with attention problems or those with ADHD. One study that best exemplifies this transition was reported by Mezzacappa and Buckner (2010). The researchers conducted a small pilot study in a school setting to investigate the potential for CogMed's RoboMemo to increase the WM functioning among young children from an economically disadvantaged neighborhood in Boston, MA. Mezzacappa and Buckner (2010) utilized a small group of participants and investigated WM functioning before and after the CCT training. These students were involved in the WM training five days a week for 45 minutes each session, over a five-week span. The researchers were able to implement the CCT within the school curriculum as a pullout program from regular classes, which has generally not been the case with other studies. Other researchers have introduced the CCT materials at the school, and had students complete the program at home (Klingberg et al., 2005); or had the programs at the school, but offered outside of the curriculum (Steiner, Sheldrick, Gotthelf & Perrin, 2011). After the five-week training period, students showed an improvement on all measures analyzed by Mezzacappa and Buckner (2010).

Teacher's ratings of the student's behaviors improved by a large magnitude and studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s performance on the Finger-Windows task (a visual spatial WM task) also showed improvement.

Another pilot study, which utilized a pull out program at a specialized school for students with learning disabilities, was conducted in southern California (Wong et al., 2012). This study investigated changes in WM functioning before and after the use of a CCT intervention. The students in the study were involved in the WM training for a total of 20 hours across 10 weeks.

The results demonstrated significant benefits in working memory for the participants.

Overall, given that CCT and WM training are still relatively new areas of research, it is important to conduct larger follow-up studies in order to establish the effectiveness of CCT within an applied setting. Clearly, children are required to use their WM capabilities in order to meet the demands of the academic curriculum; therefore it makes sense to offer them a chance to train their WM within their schools.

The present study The purpose of this study is to explore the effectiveness of CCT in increasing the cognitive abilities of children with learning disabilities in a school setting over a period of 10 weeks. We expect different levels of gains depending on the initial levels of WM capacity of the school children, such that children with delayed WM would display greater gains for visual and verbal WM from CCT. We also expect gains for visual and verbal WM from those children with typical levels of WM, although we predict these gains will not be as strong as the

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delayed WM group. Finally, although we expect that both the delayed and typical groups will have quantitatively different WM capacities after exposure to the intervention, we predict that the gap between each group will decrease to the degree that the differences between the two would no longer be significant.

Hypotheses (H1) Children with delayed WM capacity are expected to significantly improve in post-test verbal WM by a large magnitude compared to pre-test scores; (H2) Children with delayed WM capacity are also expected to significantly improve in post-test visual WM by a large magnitude compared to pre-test scores; (H3) Children with typical WM capacity are expected to improve by a small magnitude in post-test verbal WM compared to pre-test scores; (H4) Children with typical WM capacity are also expected to improve by a small magnitude in post-test visual WM compared to pre-test scores; (H5) Post-test improvement in verbal WM for both delayed and typical WM capacity are predicted to not be statistically different; (H6) Post-test improvement in visual WM for both delayed and typical WM capacity are also predicted to not be statistically different; (H7) Given the expected differences in training effects for both delayed and typical WM groups, it is hypothesized that there will be an interaction for pre and posttest verbal WM scores and group classification of WM; (H8) It is hypothesized that there will be an interaction for pre and post-test visual WM scores and group classification of WM.

Method Participants Participants consisted of 49 males and 32 females (N = 81), ranging from 11 to 18 years of age (M = 12.83). Recruitment of participants was conducted during 2010 - 2013 and took place at a private school in Southern California. This school specializes in providing education for students with learning disabilities and related disorders. Specifically, 51 of the 81 participants received one or more formal diagnosis(es); see Table 1 for the specific diagnoses. Participants in this study were parent-referred or referred by a teacher. All participants were treated in accordance to the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (American Psychological Association, 2002).

Table 1. Diagnoses of Participants Type of Disorder

Instances

Autism Emotional Disturbances Other Health Impairment ADHD (including ADD) Specific Learning Disabilities

3 5 9 13 43

Note. A total of 19 children had multiple diagnoses. The number of students with each type of disorder (as identified in this table) does not sum to 51 because of the multiple diagnoses.

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Measures Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning Second EditionTM (WRAML2) was developed by Sheslow and Adams (2003) to provide an assessment of memory for individuals, ages 5 to 90. The WRAML2 consists of a battery of tests for general memory as well as optional subtests for working memory and recognition. Specifically, the general memory battery consists of tests to assess verbal memory, visual memory, and attention. These tests can be combined into an index of general memory. The WRAML2 has been demonstrated to have a high reliability for the general memory index (Sheslow & Adams, 2003).

The Working Memory assessment consists of two tasks, one for symbolic (or visual) working memory and the other for verbal working memory, which have been normed for children ages 9 and older. The scores of both subtests can be combined into a working memory index, which has been demonstrated to have high internal reliability (Strauss, Sherman, & Spreen, 2006). Only the verbal and symbolic working memory subtests (from the WRAML-2) were used during the pre and post-test phases of this project.

Assessment of verbal working memory was based on a task where participants were provided with a verbal sequence of animals and non-animals and then instructed to recall the sequence. An additional requirement for the participants, as they recalled the sequence, was to first report the animals and then the non-animals. Participants were awarded one point for recalling the animals correctly, another point for recalling the non-animals correctly, and a bonus point for recalling both groups correctly without the intrusion of an incorrect response. If the participants responded incorrectly across two consecutive items, then the test was discontinued and the participant would only earn the points up to the point of termination. The total number of points was used to create an aggregate verbal WM raw score. The raw score was then transformed into a standardized value.

The assessment of symbolic working memory was based on a task where participants were provided with a verbal sequence of numbers and/or letters and then instructed to point on a sheet to indicate the numbers and letters they heard. Two levels of this test were administered for participants ages 9 and older. Upon completion or discontinuation of the first level, the second level was conducted. In the first level, participants were only verbally provided sequences of numbers ranging from one to eight, and instructed to point on a sheet to indicate the numbers they heard in order from least to greatest. Points were summed in order to provide a total symbolic working memory raw score. The raw score was transformed into a standard score.

Captain's Log, a computerized cognitive training program, was used as the intervention for this study. Participants interacted with this training program primarily through the use of a computer mouse and keyboard. Captain's Log is designed to develop a wide range of cognitive skills through various brain training exercises and is organized into three training sets: attention skills training, problem solving skills training, and working memory training (Sandford, 2007; Sandford & Browne, 1988). Only two of the working memory training modules from the working memory set were used, specifically the working memory skills and the auditory working memory modules. Captain's

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Log was programmed to run each module for 15 minutes, with the first session beginning at the simplest level and adjustments in difficulty were made based on the child's performance. Specifically, the adaptive nature of Captain's Log would adjust the difficulty of the modules to become easier if the participant made an error, or harder if the participant selected a correct response.

Procedure Assessment of WM was achieved through the use of WRAML2 and was completed a week before the cognitive intervention. The WRAML2 is a normreferenced measure of memory that is administered using a standardized format. Performance on the subtests of the WRAML-2 are reported in terms of a scaled score, which have a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 3. In clinical settings, a criterion of one standard deviation below the mean is widely used to establish clinical significance (Kraemer et al., 2003). This same approach was used to establish a studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s classification of WM (i.e., delayed or typical) in this sample. Therefore, participants who scored seven or greater on the WM measures were categorized into the typical WM group. Conversely, those students who scored six or below on the same measures were categorized into the delayed WM group.

Following pretesting, participants began the computerized cognitive training via the use of the Captain's Log (CL) program. Participants played CL games/activities 30 minutes per day, four days a week, for a total of 20 hours across 10 weeks. Students who were absent or late during sessions were given respective make-up sessions in order to assure that all participants completed the 20 hours of CL training. A week after CL training was completed, all participants were assessed on their WM through the WRAML2. Assessment and cognitive training both took place at the participants' school during the regular school-day hours.

Analysis of Data/Design A mixed design was used for this study based on a 2 within-subjects (i.e., pre-test vs. post-test) by 2 between-subjects (i.e., delayed vs. typical) preexperimental design. A paired samples t-test was used to assess differences across pre-test and post-test scores of working memory and an independent samples t-test was used to assess differences between delayed and typical students. Furthermore, a factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the presence of any interaction effects on working memory performance as a result of testing period (i.e., pre-test vs. post-test) and WM ability (i.e., delayed vs. typical). Finally, the significance level criterion of p < .05 was used and practical significance was assessed through the use of a Cohenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s D. (Ferguson, 2009).

Results Summary descriptive statistics for delayed and typical WM scores are presented in Table 2. An observed trend was that each group (i.e., delayed and typical) showed improvement; however, each improvement was analyzed to discern the statistical difference and magnitude.

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Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Working Memory Measures Delayed WM Pre-test

Post-test

Mean [95 % CI]

SD

Mean [95 % CI]

SD

t

df

p

d

Verbal

5.45 [4.89, 6.0]

0.82

7.27 [6.10, 8.43]

1.73

-3.03

10

p < .05

1.42

Visual

5.43 [4.38, 6.47]

1.13

8.14 [6.59, 9.68]

1.67

-2.8

6

p < .05

1.93

Typical WM Pre-test

Post-test

Mean [95 % CI]

SD

Verbal

10 [9.5, 10.49]

2.07

Visual

9.67 [9.17, 10.16]

2.13

SD

t

df

p

d

10.21[9.6, 10.81]

2.53

-0.86

69

p =.39

0.09

9.94 [9.27, 10.60]

2.89

-1.1

73

p =.27

0.1

Mean [95 % CI]

H1: A comparison of pre-test verbal WM scores and post-test verbal WM scores among children with delayed WM was conducted. The paired samples ttest indicated a significant difference between pre-test verbal WM scores (M = 5.45, SD = 0.82) and post-test verbal WM scores (M = 7.27, SD = 1.73), t(10) = 3.03, p = .013. The analysis of magnitude revealed that the difference was large, d = 1.42. The results of the analysis support hypothesis one, suggesting that children with delayed WM experience gains after exposure to CCT. H2: An accompanying comparison of pre-test and post-test of visual (i.e., symbolic) WM scores among children with delayed WM was also conducted.

The paired samples t-test was significant, t(6) = -2.80, p = .031. The analysis of magnitude revealed that the difference was large, d = 1.93. The results of this analysis indicated that children with delayed visual WM demonstrated gains after exposure to CCT. H3: In order to assess differences among children with typical verbal WM a comparison of pre-test and post-test scores was conducted. The paired samples t-test for pre-test verbal WM scores (M = 10.00, SD = 2.07) and post-test verbal WM scores (M = 10.21, SD = 2.53) yielded no significant differences t(69) = -0.86, p = .394, d = 0.09. Children with typical verbal WM did not make significant improvements as a result of exposure to CCT therefore hypothesis three was not supported.

H4: An assessment of the differences among children with typical visual WM was also conducted to examine the differences between pre-test and posttest scores. The paired samples t-test for pre-test visual WM scores (M = 9.67, SD = 2.13) and post-test visual WM scores (M = 9.94, SD = 2.89) were not significant,

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t(73) = -1.10, p = .274, d = 0.10. Children with typical visual WM did not exhibit a significant improvement as a result of exposure to CCT therefore hypothesis four was not supported.

H5: In order to assess the expected similarity of post-test verbal WM scores between children with delayed WM and children with typical WM, an independent samples t-test was conducted. Results of the analysis indicated a significant difference between the post-test scores of verbal WM of children with delayed WM (M = 7.27, SD = 1.73) and children with typical WM (M = 10.21, SD = 2.53), t(79) = -3.70, p = .001. Contrary to what was expected, children with delayed verbal WM did not approach the verbal WM abilities of their typical peers in terms of post-test scores, therefore hypothesis five was not supported.

H6: Similar to hypothesis five, the difference in post-test symbolic WM scores between children with delayed WM and children with typical WM was evaluated via an independent samples t-test. The analysis demonstrated that there was no significant difference between post-test scores of symbolic WM of children with delayed WM (M = 8.14, SD = 1.67) and children with typical WM (M = 9.94, SD = 2.89), t(79) = -1.62, p = .109. As was expected, children with delayed visual WM were able to approximate the post-test levels of their typical peers as a result of exposure to CCT, therefore hypothesis six was supported.

H7: To assess the possibility of an interaction on verbal WM abilities, a mixed-design 2x2 analysis of variance (ANOVA) with time of assessment (pretest, posttest) as the within-subjects factor and verbal WM classification (delayed, typical) as the between-subjects factor was conducted. The resulting analysis revealed a significant main effect for verbal WM classification F(1, 158) = 9.58, p = .002, ηp2 = .057, but no significant main effect for time of assessment F(1, 158) = 1.12, p = .290, ηp2 = .007 (see Table 3 for descriptive data). Similarly, the predicted interaction of time of assessment and WM classification was not significant, F(1, 158) = .087, p = .769, ηp2 = .001. As a result, hypothesis seven was not supported. Both classifications of WM ability experienced similar rates of gains in verbal WM as a result of exposure to CCT. Table 3. Main Effects for Verbal Working Memory Variable Classification Time of Assessment Interaction Note: * p < .05

df 1 1

F 9.57 1.12

eta 0.057 0.007

p 0.01* 0.29

1

0.08

0.001

0.77

H8: Finally, one last mixed-design 2x2 ANOVA of visual WM was conducted with time of assessment (pre-test, posttest) as the within-subjects factor and visual WM classification (delayed, typical) as the between-subjects factor. This analysis demonstrated a significant main effect for time of assessment F(1, 158) = 4.65, p = .032, ηp2 = .029, and a significant main effect for visual WM classification F(1, 158) = 19.13, p = .001, ηp2 = .108 (see Table 4 for descriptive data). These main effects were not qualified by an interaction between time of assessment and visual WM classification F(1, 158) = 3.12, p = .079, ηp2 =.019. Although the predicted interaction was not significant, it did

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approach significance. As a result, although hypothesis eight was not supported there appears to be a trend in support of the prediction. Therefore, its possible children with different levels of WM may experience varying rates of gains in visual WM as a result of exposure to CCT. Table 4. Main Effects and Interaction for Visual Working Memory F Variable df Classification 1 19.13 Time of 1 4.65 Assessment Interaction 1 3.12 Note: *p < .05, â&#x20AC; p approached significance

p

eta 0.108 0.029

0.01* 0.03

0.019

0.07

Discussion Overall the results highlight a trend consistent with the hypotheses.

Specifically, students with delayed WM were observed to make greater significant gains as a result of CCT in comparison to students with typical WM. Because of this pattern of findings the results will be combined when discussing their implications.

The first and second hypotheses were related to expected gains for children with delayed WM as a result of exposure to CCT. Overall, both hypotheses were supported, and demonstrated large effect sizes. Thus, it appears that CCT improved this group of children's WM, despite their previous classification as delayed WM. In fact, the magnitude of change was significantly large that the post-test scores of this group would have enabled them to be reclassified as typical WM, in terms of decision making for group classification.

This finding is similar to previous studies that have investigated gains made by special education children after exposure to CCT (Alloway, Bibile, Lau, 2013; Dahlin, 2011; Klingberg, Forssberg, & Westerberg, 2002; Klingberg et al., 2005).

This practical gain is important when considering the academic consequences associated with WM deficits, including difficulty with arithmetic (Passolunghi, 2006) and reading (Melby-Lervag, Lyster, & Hume, 2012; Swanson, 2006).

The third and fourth hypotheses predicted gains for children with typical WM as a result of exposure to CCT. These hypotheses were not supported.

Although children with typical levels of visual and verbal WM were able to make a small degree of improvement as a result of CCT, these gains were not statistically significant. Thus, it appears that children with typical WM abilities, in both visual and verbal, did not noticeably benefit from exposure to CCT. A possible explanation could be that levels of WM for this group may already be near their peak performance leaving little room for improvement. Such a conceptualization would be consistent with researchers who argue that working memory has limited capacity (see Cowan, 2001).

The fifth and sixth hypothesis were related to expected similarities between children with delayed and typical WM abilities at the conclusion of computer training. The fifth hypothesis, related to verbal WM, was not supported; however, the sixth hypothesis, related to visual WM, was supported.

Although the children with delayed WM were able to make increases in their

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post-test verbal WM abilities to the extent that they would no longer be classified as delayed WM, these gains were not great enough to be comparable with their typical peers. However, the children with initial WM deficits were able to increase their visual WM to the point that they would no longer be classified as delayed and were able to approximate their typical peersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; post-test level performance of WM. These findings suggests that children with delayed WM may benefit more from training in terms of visual WM rather than verbal WM. Consistent with these findings, a 2008 study by Abikoff and colleagues, which examined a group of 7-12 year old children diagnosed with ADHD, found that children who attended a six week summer intervention program that utilized CCT demonstrated significant increases in their post visual-spatial WM, but no increases with verbal WM. Possible reasons for this particular pattern of differences between visual and verbal WM functioning may have cognitive and developmental underpinnings.

Several researchers have suggested that there are increased cognitive demands related to visual WM rather than verbal WM (Bayliss et al., 2003; Dahlin, 2011; Gathercole et al., 2004). The taxing cognitive demands creates a situation where children with visual WM deficits may have a lower initial ability and consequently more room for improvement once these deficits are overcome compared to their typically functioning peers. Studies that investigated differences in the development of verbal and visual WM among children have demonstrated that the earlier of the two systems to develop is visual WM (Alloway, Gathercole, & Pickering, 2006; Koppenol-Gonzalez, Bouwmeester, & Vermunt, 2012; Pickering, 2004). A developmental history demonstrating an earlier relationship with visual WM, combined with opportunities for enhancement from CCT, and overcoming cognitive burdens may explain the large gains observed for visual WM. The seventh and eight hypotheses were intended to reveal more information about the differences in rates of benefits that children obtain from CCT. Findings from our study suggest that rates of benefits for verbal WM were not observed to vary significantly as a result of initial classification of WM ability, as a result hypothesis seven was not supported. Additionally, a similar assessment on the rates of benefits for visual WM was not observed to vary significantly either as a result of initial classification of WM ability and thus hypothesis eight was also not supported. However, it is important to note that the interaction tested by hypothesis eight was observed to approach the level of significance. This may provide tentative evidence that rates of gains in WM, as a result of CCT, are different between both verbal and visual WM depending on initial levels of WM. The results related to hypotheses seven and eight are similar to the pattern of findings observed for hypotheses five and six, such that it appears that a positive trend is stronger for visual WM rather than verbal WM as a result of CCT. As previously discussed, differences in development of WM may play a role on the observed differences. For example, Jarvis and Gathercole (2003) found a dissociation between verbal and visual WM among children, suggesting that even into late adolescence these subtypes of WM develop at differing rates. Additionally, Koppenol-Gonzalez and colleagues (2012) observed better performance in visual processing tasks rather than verbal processing in children, ages 4 to 15, supporting differences between theses two

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subtypes of WM. Specifically, among the older participants it was observed that children were able to supplement their performance on visual processing tasks by recoding visual information phonologically, which allowed them to outperform younger children who lack this ability. Similar to the younger children, it may be the case that children with delayed WM in the current study were not able to supplement different domains of WM tasks by utilizing additional WM skills to the same extent as their peers with typical WM. Overall, the patterns of findings from this project support CCT as a potential intervention for children with deficits in WM, particularly in the area of visual WM. Given the relationship between working memory impairments and poor academic outcomes, it appears that CCT has a strong potential to be used in interventions for children at high risk for educational underachievement.

It would be expected that the gains experienced by the children with delayed WM would translate into improved academic performance, although further research is required to confirm this.

A possible limitation of this study may have been the unequal gender distribution across groups. Two thirds of the participants were young males, and one third of the participants were young females. Previous studies have mentioned a lack of gender differences on WM assessments (Alloway et al., 2006; Klingberg et al., 2005), whereas others shared similar distributions of gender (Dahlin, 2011; Holmes et al., 2010; Klingberg et al., 2002; Mezzacappa & Buckner, 2010; Prins et al., 2011; Shavlev et al., 2007). Despite expected differences in occurrences of WM deficits between males and females (e.g., males are twice as likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than females; Polanczyk, de Lima, Horta, Biederman, & Rohde, 2007), gender would not be expected to function as a confounding variable.

Another possible limitation is that the number of children in the study with delayed WM was relatively small compared to typical WM. This could potentially affect the data analysis, however all distributions were found to not violate homogeneity. Therefore, similar patterns would still be expected given a larger number of delayed participants.

One final consideration involves a potential regression towards the mean effect, specifically for the delayed group since their mean scores shifted towards the overall mean during the post-test measurement. However, it is thought to be unlikely that such regression towards the mean has occurred, due to the utilization of a highly standardized and normed measured of WM (i.e., the WRAML2). Moreover, the pretest and posttest means for verbal and visual working memory among students in the delayed group were not at the extreme end of scaled scores (which have a range of 1-19); this reality reduces the likelihood of a regression to the mean effect.

Future Directions and Recommendations These results indicate that CCT is a potential strategy for students with deficits in WM, specifically in the area of visual WM. Given the relationship between WM, literacy, and mathematics, as well as the potential for CCT to improve these academic skills, it would appear that CCT could be a valuable intervention for children identified as having problems with WM within the Response-to-Intervention (RTI) model. The RTI model is a widely used academic

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intervention in American educational settings, which enables educators to identify different strengths and weaknesses of children (Fuchs et al., 2003). It involves an initial school-wide screening period followed by placement into different tiers of instruction that vary in terms of intensity. The intensity of the instruction is related to the deficits experienced by the students. Future studies may examine the effectiveness of CCT as an intervention within the RTI model to improve a student's academic performance by targeting core cognitive deficits.

Given the possibility for CCT to be incorporated within the RTI model, it would also be of interest for future researchers to investigate how CCT could lead to increases in various measures of academic performance. Previous research has identified that CCT leads to improved performance in mathematical reasoning abilities (Holmes, Gathercol, & Dunning, 2009) and reduction of off-task behaviors during academic tasks (Green et al., 2012).

However, a more practical measure of academic benefits such as grades, teacher/parent ratings, and scores on national assessments would help demonstrate that CCT provides benefits beyond training WM. Although not all hypotheses were supported, the general trends observed among individuals with deficits in WM are particularly powerful. The benefits of CCT still warrant additional research, the current findings regarding CCT are largely in agreement with previous literature. As a whole, parents and educators may find this information particularly useful when considering how to remedy issues associated with working memory.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 105-123, March 2017

How Cooperating Teachers and Interns Understand “Teaching for a Better World” During Internship Twyla Salm, PhD and Val Mulholland, PhD University of Regina Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada Abstract. This study utilized a descriptive questionnaire to determine how interns and cooperating teachers translate the faculty’s expectations for teaching for social justice into practice during internship. The following research questions were formulated to guide the study: what are the similarities and differences between the intern’s and cooperating teacher’s receptiveness to teaching for social justice during in internship? And, how do interns and cooperating teachers differ in their perception of being controversial and integrating world views and perspectives in content and instructional approaches during internship? The participants included 142 cooperating teachers and 54 interns. Just over half of the cooperating teachers described their interns as either rigorously or actively finding some opportunities to teach for social justice. And, even though over a third of the interns reported that they were either rigorously or actively integrating some opportunities, it is notable that fewer interns than cooperating teachers were certain that they were teaching for social justice. The site of greatest tension between interns and cooperating teachers appeared to be in relation to discussing personal biases and what it means to be intentionally controversial.

Keywords: teacher education; social justice; internship.

Introduction Like other teacher education programs across North America, our faculty has collectively made a considerable effort to better prepare teacher candidates to teach diverse learners within the contemporary context and to attend to social justice issues in education with more rigor and intention (Mills & Ballantyne, 2016; Edge, 2015; Attwood, 2011). Under the rubric of “teaching for a better world,” our faculty’s mission statement to “inspire and transform” education indicates the intent to fully integrate of social justice into the entire program, not in particular courses. Several new Education Core Studies with a distinct social justice orientation have been developed to realize the changes envisioned by our faculty in the renewal process. Although exploring colonialism, racism and indigenous knowledge in education (Dion, 2009; Earick, 2009) is a primary focus of our teacher education programs, analysis of other “isms” such as sexual

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orientation, ableism, and sexism are part of the mandate. Set within an antiracist/anti-oppressive framework a significant component of our program aims to help interns raise questions about oppressive structures and systems that continue to marginalize some while advantaging others. In an effort to encourage coherence in our program and to establish a tangible connection between course work and the major practicum experience, the evaluation tool for the mandatory 16 week internship has also been revised. The changes to the evaluation tool reflect substantial requirements for the interns to demonstrate anti-racist and anti-oppressive teaching in their final practicum.

Although the Faculty offers a unique three-day in-service opportunity for all cooperating teachers and their interns in which new aspects of the program are addressed, the adoption and implementation of the anti-racist and antioppressive methods that interns are expected to demonstrate in the fieldplacement is often poorly understood, if not resisted by co-operating teachers (authors, 2015). The task of evaluating interns in areas related to social justice poses a considerable challenge, even for the cooperating teachers who are recognized models and advocates in this area. For cooperating teachers who are unfamiliar, consciously or unconsciously resistant to anti-racist and antioppressive pedagogies, the task of creating an environment conducive for intern growth in anti-oppressive pedagogy has proven to be a considerable challenge.

The purpose of the study is to determine how interns and cooperating teachers translate the faculty’s expectations for teaching for social justice into practice during internship.

The Challenge of Praxis: Connecting Social Justice to Field Work in

Teacher Education Universally, interns regard the major practicum as the most important element of their degree and the nature of their relationship with the cooperating teacher as critical to their success (Pitt, Dibbon, Sumara, & Wiens, 2011).

Therefore, attending to the ways that cooperating teachers support interns to excel and teach in socially just ways in field placements is critical to all teacher education programs interested in making this paradigmatic shift (Sleeter, 2008; Marx, 2006; Mills & Ballantyne, 2016). Anti-racist approaches which interrogate racist assumptions that are deeply embedded in curricula and schooling (Cochran-Smith, 2000) and anti-oppressive research which attempts to disrupt social norms that marginalize some groups and privilege others (Kumashiro, 2009; Ladson-Billings, 2005) ought to be central features to teacher education programs committed to social justice (Matias, 2016). In other words, part of teaching for social justice requires that teacher candidates have the opportunity to identify sources of inequities and examine how dominant discourses privilege whiteness as invisible and often exempt from scrutiny (Terwillinger, 2011; Matias, Montoya & Nish, 2016). It appears that these kinds of opportunities are most likely to happen in foundations courses where pre-service teachers may be engaged in critical activities such as counter-narratives or autobiographies (Convertino, 2016). Such in-class experiences, however, don’t necessarily translate into a change in ideology (Mueller & O’Connor, 2007). Additionally, there are very few studies that research the actual practice of interns when they work for social justice in classrooms (Cochrane-Smith, Davis & Fries, 2004; Mills

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& Ballantyne, 2016). And, even the few studies that have studied interns in practice concluded that they were not always able to help interns create meaningful change in their conceptualizations or teaching practices (Ah Lee, 2011; Larkin, Maloney, Perry-Ryder, 2016).

The gap between what happens in course work and how it is taken up in practicum experiences has long plagued teacher education (Pitt et al., 2011), even when the focus was technical-rational. Traditionally, a narrow technical focus which is based on specific competencies and performance skills has over shadowed the need for interns to engage in critical and culturally responsive pedagogy in practice (Jackson, Green, Martin & Fasching-Varner, 2016). The trend to more practice-based teacher education which in its technical approach to teaching excludes elements related to cultural competency and critical social action, further exacerbating the issue (Zeichner, 2012). The gap becomes even more pronounced when internships are merely “add-ons” to course work and are disconnected from tenured faculty involvement (Zeichner, 2010). At best, the quality of internships tends to vary widely and can be structured quite haphazardly for sake of convenience. Quality is also dependent on the way the cooperating teachers are recruited, the extent to which they are guided and supported, and degree to which expectations are placed on both the cooperating teacher and the intern (Darling- Hammond, 2006). Exemplary programs recruit cooperating teachers who have a sophisticated way of thinking about teaching, a refined practice, and where university faculty can work in a reciprocally beneficial way to ensure “practices that are theoretically rich but also eminently practical” (Darling-Hammond, 2006, p. 154). Although our program recruits many outstanding cooperating teachers, the scale of our program does not permit every intern to be mentored by a cooperating teacher that is theoretically rich in social justice pedagogy.

Even under less than ideal conditions, the primary purpose of a practicum experience in a teacher education program is for the interns to have an opportunity to practice, take risks and explore and breathe life into the course concepts in a K-12 classroom. It is this kind of carefully coordinated practical opportunity, supported by quality feedback and mentoring, that leads to deeper learning and prepares the intern for complex teaching practices (Schultz, 2005; Darling-Hammond et al, 2005; Zeichner & Conklin, 2005). However, if cooperating teachers do not have the capacity to provide feedback that does little more than support token activities that merely recognizes or celebrates diversity, the opportunity to explore and practice social justice approaches to teaching may be lost for the individual intern.

Providing feedback that eventually culminates in both formative and summative assessment is one of the primary responsibilities of the cooperating teacher in the practicum relationship; however, the quality of the feedback can be questionable. After completing a comprehensive literature review on cooperating teacher participation in teacher education, Clarke, Triggs & Nielsen (2013) concluded that cooperating teacher feedback is often problematic because it is “narrow, particularistic and technical” (p. 13). One might safely describe it as idiosyncratic. These researchers also noted that they were surprised to find so little research which has focused on the cooperating teacher’s role in evaluation given the significance of this responsibility.

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Evaluation of Social Justice Competencies in Internship The researchers would not argue that the Likert scale used on our faculty’s internship evaluation template represents exemplary practice, much less within the social justice framework the faculty purports to value. That said, the Likert scale form is the evaluation tool accepted by our faculty, and has the enthusiastic support of our stakeholders which include the Ministry of Education, and most importantly the school divisions in which our internship experiences occur. It is not an exaggeration to say that the evaluation form at the centre of this paper is a venerable tradition with our stakeholders. Therefore, the Likert structure of the evaluation form remained intact and the faculty attempted to integrate social justice assessment into the evaluation template.

Theoretically, the tenets of anti-racist and anti-oppressive pedagogy ought to be integrated into all aspects of teaching and not appear as isolated concepts on a Likert scale. We are not so naïve to believe that specifically naming particular competencies in “teaching for a better world” ensures social action or engagement with these ideas (Maloney & Perry-Ryder, 2016). Having the social justice items included on the evaluation template, however, does demonstrate their importance in the same way that technical skills such as lesson planning and classroom management are acknowledged on the template. By naming aspects of social justice pedagogy the faculty effectively threw down the gauntlet to those who resisted the change in focus “teaching for a better world” represents.

In our teacher education program the interns are prepared in their course work to understand what is expected of them in their field-placement and they ought to have acquired multiple ways of demonstrating each social justice competency prescribed on their evaluation tool prior to the major practicum. At the very least, the concepts and language of social justice pedagogy are infused in course content across all four-years of their teacher education program.

Nevertheless, we are in the early days of a new program so we recognize that research is necessary to understand how interns interpret the social justice components of the evaluation tool. Furthermore, we do not know how cooperating teachers interpret social justice aspects of the evaluation given the intermittent relationship we have with individual cooperating teachers. Faculty who supervise internships have the opportunity to observe the dynamics at work in classroom where interns are placed, but systematic collection of these impressions are anecdotal at best.

Although faculty members serve as advisors, liaise with schools and may be perceived as source of academic and practical support by some, their influence and authority can be quite minimal. Certainly, in our program, faculty advisors have some influence but no substantial power because cooperating teachers have the primary responsibility for evaluation. Zeichner & Liston, (1985) categorized the discourse of faculty advisors post observation conferences into four types: factual, prudential, justificatory and critical. The latter two types, justificatory and critical, open spaces for interns to consider the rationale for their pedagogical decisions and to encourage alternative and critical perspectives; however, cumulatively these types only represented 11.9% of the

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discourse. Even faculty advisors that are highly invested in providing quality feedback to the intern are challenged to do so when evaluation tools are reduced to checklists that reinforce teaching as a set of technical elements to be mastered.

In this way, we recognize the limitations of our evaluation tool and the processes that we have used to train cooperating teachers in its use.

Bates & Burbank (2008) concluded that when faculty advisors perceived the intern as having general competence in the technical aspects of teaching, feedback then shifted focus to individual learning needs of a culturally diverse classroom. However, if the intern was perceived to have weak technical skills, feedback focused on specific technical performance standards. While most programs involve a faculty advisor in some capacity, the quality and quantity of involvement and feedback varies widely and the ultimate impact of this feedback is largely unknown. According to Zeichner (2010), “interns and their cooperating teachers are often left to work out the daily business of student teaching by themselves with little guidance and connection to campus courses, and it is often assumed that good teaching practices are caught rather than taught” (p.91). By providing course work in social justice and by naming social justice competencies on the evaluation template, our faculty deliberately staked out an initial step in valuing and promoting anti-racist and anti-oppressive pedagogy. The next step was to develop a deeper understanding of the context in which these competencies are being interpreted.

Research Questions The following research questions were formulated to guide the study: 1. What are the similarities and differences between the intern’s and cooperating teacher’s receptiveness to teaching for social justice during in internship.

2. How do interns and cooperating teachers differ in their perception of being controversial and integrating world views and perspectives in content and instructional approaches during internship.

Method This study utilized a descriptive, anonymous questionnaire to determine how receptive interns and cooperating teachers were to teaching for social justice during internship in a teacher education program. The participants of the study included 142 cooperating teachers (51% of population) and 54 interns (20% of the population). All of the cooperating teachers and interns were invited by email to respond to an online questionnaire after the completion of the sixteen week internship. The questionnaire questions were derived from the requirements outlined on the intern’s final evaluation template, which is called the Internship Professional Profile (IPP). Successful completion of all 44 items on the IPP is required to pass internship. Of the 44 items listed on the IPP, eight items specifically refer to issues of social justice and demonstrate the necessity to become competent in this area as well as in other more traditionally valued skills such as daily planning and instructional competence. This study is specifically focused on developing a deeper understanding of the eight items on the IPP that refer to expectations for teaching for social justice.

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In order to establish face and content validity the questionnaire was reviewed and refined by two researchers specializing in the area of teacher education and social justice. There was no reliability of the instrument established since the questionnaire was specifically designed for a particular context. However, the language and content of the questionnaire was derived from the IPP, the evaluation template, which is familiar practice to the cooperating teachers and the interns. Also, the IPP, along with the companion descriptors and instructions for evaluation were explained during an intensive three day internship seminar orientation. During this seminar cooperating teachers and interns have the time and opportunity to develop some competency and common understanding of the terms and purpose of the evaluation. Therefore, the potential for a common and deeper understanding of the language of the questionnaire may have been indirectly enhanced by the internship orientation program. One open-ended question at the end of the questionnaire was also analyzed by manually coding for emerging themes using Strauss and Corbin (1990) constant comparison method.

Limitations For good or ill, respondents represent a spectrum of attitudes to and understanding of social justice at work in the field. Even though the return rate on the questionnaire was high, we know that we do not have the full picture.

Anecdotally, returning interns report that many cooperating teachers tell interns not to worry or bother about the social justice aspects of their work. We do take satisfaction knowing that by making social justice competencies part of the conversation during the seminar, very few evaluations are returned marked “Not Applicable” in these categories as once was the case. We recognize, too, that indicating fulfillment of a particular requirement may not be indicative of full understanding.

Findings The results will be reported in two categories that relate to each of the two research questions. The first research question asked: what are the similarities and differences between the intern and cooperating teacher’s receptiveness to teaching for social justice during in internship? There were five questions on the questionnaire that contributed to a deeper understanding of research question #1. In the first question, the participants were asked to select one of six possible responses that best represented how they made sense of the items on the IPP that related to social justice. In other words, they identified the degree of intern participation in teaching for social justice.

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Table 1: Comparison of intern and cooperating teacher’s response to the extent intern’s engaged in teaching for social justice.

CT

IN

Intern engaged in rigorous action related to social justice issues

f% f %

5 3.52

2 3.70

Intern found some opportunities to integrate social justice issues into teaching

f %

67 47.18

18 33.33

Intern and cooperating teacher discussed social justices issues regularly

f %

22 15.49

10 18.52

Intern & teacher discussed social justices issues only in the context of completing evaluation templates Intern found it difficult to integrate social justice issues into teaching

f % f %

28 19.72 30 21.13

11 20.37 7 12.96

Intern mostly did not integrate social justice issues into teaching

f %

11 7.75

6 11.11

142

54

Total f: frequency, % percentage CT: cooperating teacher: IN, intern

As Table 1 demonstrates, just over half of the cooperating teachers described their interns as either rigorously or actively finding some opportunities to teach for social justice. And, even though over a third of the interns reported that they were either rigorously or actively integrating some opportunities, fewer interns than cooperating teachers were certain that they were teaching for social justice during internship. There was, however, greater consistency between the cooperating teachers and the interns who engaged less with social justice issues. Approximately, one quarter of the interns (24.07%) and cooperating teachers (28.88%) agreed that interns either found it difficult or did not integrate social justice issues into teaching. A possible explanation for the discrepancy between cooperating teachers and interns’ perceptions of engagement may be related to their interpretation of the term rigorous social justice action. Given the currency and the intensity of the intern’s course work related to social justice, it is possible that the interns held high expectations for possible internship competencies in social justice. The cooperating teachers may have been more generous with their interpretation of an activity that might be perceived by them to be within the realm of social justice. Their generosity may be rooted in the belief that any overture in a social just direction should be rewarded (Moffett & Yunfang, 2009). Given the intensity of the intern’s education in this area, they may have a broader perspective of what is possible than do their mentors. Additionally, the researchers queried whether the advanced social media networking between the interns might have been more vigorous than with the cooperating teachers and may have contributed to a higher standard of social justice competencies. This type of social sharing may have afforded the interns greater insight into practices of their peers, as reported in social media networks, especially by those who were excelling. Without similar networks in which to compare their interns’ level of social justice

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engagement, the cooperating teachers might have been satisfied with relatively superficial efforts. More research in this area is warranted.

The second question that contributed to understanding the similarities and differences between the intern and cooperating teacher’s receptiveness to teaching for social justice during in internship asked the pair to identify the degree to which interns ought to be expected to exhibit knowledge about historical and social injustices and inequities. (See Table 2).

Overall, we were encouraged by the results in this section. The majority of cooperating teachers (62.85%) and interns (66.04%) stated that exhibiting knowledge about historical and social injustices and inequities is a priority or a reasonable expectation. Given the limitations of the questionnaire, we are not sure what they think constitutes historical and social injustices and inequities.

This query warrants further investigation in another study. Given, for example, that a third of interns and cooperating teachers selected “maybe – in some settings” – we wonder if some participants believe that learning about historical and social injustices is only warranted if the participants live within a particular demographic or geographical area which is recognized as a site of historical injustice (St. Denis, 2011). Within the context in which the study is set, the social and economic disparities between white-settler and Indigenous peoples are readily apparent. As a demographic category, Indigenous people experience higher rates of unemployment, poverty and other social ills, including underfunded schools on reservations (Palmater, 2011). However, some of our teacher education students grew up in relatively racially homogenous communities dominated by white-settler populations. It is conceivable that participants from such communities may not believe that learning about historical injustices applies to their context. In fact, they often say as much. Although our course work has attempted to disrupt this myth, a third of our interns continue to be tentative about the necessity to exhibit knowledge about historical and social injustices (Tupper & Cappello, 2008). Clearly, we have more work to do in this area. While a small percentage of cooperating teachers (4.29%) and (1.89%) interns reported that this competency was not a reasonable expectation, we aspire to 0%. We are hopeful that resistance to acknowledging our shameful past and complex present will decline over time.

We were also encouraged by the cooperating teacher’s overall response.

We know the kind of social justice concepts that are taught in our course work to the interns and we expected a positive response in this area. It is difficult, however, to know the quality and extent of cooperating teacher professional development beyond the in-service we provide through the internship seminar.

The data suggests that some cooperating teachers have received a similar type of professional development that supports a greater understanding of historical and social injustices and inequities. This alignment with our field partners is promising.

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Table 2: Comparison of Responses: Need for Interns to Teach Historical & Social Injustices Inequities f-% CT IN Yes –this is a priority expectation Mostly- this is a reasonable expectation Maybe – in some settings this might be reasonable No – this is not a reasonable expectation

f % f % f %

31 22.14 57 40.71 47 33.57

f %

6 4.29 140

Total f: frequency, % percentage CT: Cooperating teacher, IN: intern

9 16.98 26 49.06 17 32.08 1 1.89 53

The next three questions posed to the participants explored injustices and inequities relating to ways interns had the opportunity to explore sexism, racism, and ableism during internship. Specifically, the questions asked: in your setting, do interns find multiple ways to explore injustices related to sexism, racism and ableism? (See Table 3).

Of the three “isms” in play, both cooperating teachers and interns suggest that interns are the least likely to explore issues related to sexism.

Similarly, ableism was just marginally more likely than sexism to be explored by interns. Racism, however, was highlighted much more frequently as the most likely issue to be explored by interns, according to both interns (68.52%) and coops at (80.44%) respectively. The researchers were somewhat surprised by the discrepancies between the “isms.” While our teacher education program intentionally emphasizes race issues, sexism and ableism are also part of the social justice agenda. This data suggests that sexism may not be taken up with the same vigor or purpose as the other isms in our courses. Comparatively, cooperating teacher participants selected responses in the “true range” (definitely, mostly and somewhat) more often than did the interns. This difference may be, at least in part, attributed to the age and experience of the teachers who may be more familiar with ways sexism can be taken up in classrooms or indeed, they may have had actually experienced sexism. Given that there are plenty of ways sexism can be enacted in school settings, we wondered if the participants, particularly the interns, resisted challenging sexism in their classroom because it was “too close to home”. We recognize that statistically there are more women than men engaged in teaching as profession.

The legacy of colonization in a white-settler society is the discourse associated with the “good woman,” a salient figure in the settlement saga. Van Kirk (1980) and Erickson (1995) studied the roles of white women in the “civilizing” of the west, as partners to the men who “broke the land” but also as the virtuous school marms who taught the values and language of the Empire to non-English settler children and especially aboriginal children. Christian churches are implicated in this Grand Narrative too, but the good woman fits in easily there.

She is busy saving those who might not even want saving. The echoes of the good colonial woman discourses persist in many contemporary quarters, not least in schools (Staples, 2010). Couple this history with the backlash to more

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current waves of feminism, and as repugnant as identifying as a racist may be to our participants, it often proves more palatable that being identified as being oppressed because or gender, or worse, a feminist. Given that the vast majority of our students are white and more than half are female, they might have a greater affinity to “help out” a racialized population, a social positioning that fits more comfortably with the discourse of the “good woman” (Gambhir, Broad, Evans & Gaskell, 2008). Indeed, sexism might have more direct impact on their lived experience and consequently be more difficult to address (Hossain, 2015).

We wondered if challenging sexism disrupts their identity more dramatically and produces a discomfort they have not been adequately prepared in their course work to recognize and resist.

Interns may think they can minimize the implications of critical pedagogy because they do not perceive the relationship between racism and their mostly white-settler lives (Stapes, 2010). Approximately, one third of the interns could not find multiple ways to explore examples of injustice related to racism during their internship (See Table 3a). Also, it is possible that some interns (those in the false range: 30.60%) may have felt unable to address race issues if the cooperating teacher did not provide an encouraging environment or may have prohibited certain anti-racist approaches to teaching. Although not ideal, the fact that 69.40% of the interns found multiple ways to explore injustices related to racism is promising. Similarly, the fact that 80.44% of cooperating teachers state that their interns definitely, mostly or somewhat explored issues related to racism during their internship suggests to us that the majority of interns are able to connect some social justice course work with their field placement practice.

Cooperating teachers also responded more frequently (75.19%) than interns (55.10%) that there were multiple ways to explore examples of injustices related to ableism (See Table 3a). The assumption here is that teachers perceive more opportunities than interns to disrupt practices and beliefs that assign inferior worth to students who have developmental, emotional, or physical disabilities. It is possible that interns have more difficulty identifying less overt disabilities and therefore, perceive they are meeting a wider spectrum of needs than they are actually doing (Lyons, 2013). Also, inclusion is a named focus in many school divisions and the interns may be aware of many visible and tangible efforts that directly challenge ableism. From that perspective, interns may have focussed on the positive advances and neglected to notice the gaps in services, skills or attitudes that foster ableism. Because almost half of interns cannot identify ways that they can address ableism, our teacher education program may need to improve how we prepared pre-service teachers in this area.

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Table 3: Cooperating teachers responses to: Interns Have Multiple Ways to Explore Sexism, Racism and Ableism f-%

DT

Interns Have Multiple Ways to Explore Sexism

f %

21 15.00

Interns Have Multiple Ways to Explore Racism

f %

38 27.54

MT

ST

SF

MF

DF

T

35 5.00

43 30.71

16 11.43

26 18.57

4 2.86

140

34 24.6

39 28.26

19 13.77

2 1.45

6

138

4.35 Interns Have Multiple Ways f 25 31 47 21 1 12 137 to Explore Ableism % 18.25 22.6 34.31 15.33 0.73 8.76 f: frequency, % percentage DT: Definitely true, MT: mostly true, ST: somewhat true, SF: somewhat false, MF: mostly false, DF: definitely false T: total Table 3a: Interns responses to: Interns Have Multiple Ways to Explore Sexism, Racism and Ableism

Interns Have Multiple Ways to Explore Sexism

f-%

DT

MT

ST

SF

MF

DF

T

f %

3 5.77

8

19 36.54

6 11.54

10 23.00

6 11.54

52

5 9.26

7 12.96

9

54

8 14.81

12 22.22

9.26 4

54

Interns Have Multiple Ways to Explore Racism

f %

8 14.81

Interns Have Multiple Ways to Explore Ableism

f %

5 9.26

15.380.

14 15 25.9 27.78 12 22.2

13 24.07

7.41 f: frequency, % percentage DT: Definitely true, MT: mostly true, ST: somewhat true, SF: somewhat false, MF: mostly false, DF: definitely false T: total

The next set of questions responded to query posed in research question #2: how do interns and cooperating teachers differ in their perception of being controversial and integrating world views and perspectives in content and instructional approaches during internship?

In this question, participants were offered four responses to the question: should interns be purposefully controversial as they integrate world views into their teaching? (See Table 4). More interns (16.67%) responded “yes – interns ought to be regularly controversial” than cooperating teachers (8.03%).

However, there was general agreement between the cooperating teachers (66.42%) and interns (70.37%) that “maybe – if it fits the content” interns should be controversial. Similarly, 15.33% of cooperating teachers stated that “they were not sure” and 9.96% of interns responded the same. Only 3.70% of the interns stated “no, interns should avoid controversy” whereas 10.22% of cooperating teachers stated interns should not be purposefully controversial.

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Table 4: Comparison of Responses: Interns Ought to be Controversial

Should interns be purposefully controversial as they integrate world view into their teaching?

Cooperating Teacher Intern

f-%

Yes

M

NS

No

Total

f %

11 8.03

91

21 15.33

14 10.22

137

f %

9 16.67

5 9.96

2 3.7

54

66.42 38 70.37

f: frequency, % percentage Y: Yes – regularly controversial, M: Maybe – if it fits the content, NS: I am not sure, No – they should avoid controversy

There appears to be some alignment in the expectation that interns ought to provoke some controversy in teaching for social justice given that two-thirds of teachers and interns indicated that they were at least contemplating being controversial as they integrated world views into their teaching. It is also reasonable to assume that they knew that challenging oppressive norms is often met with resistance (Matias, Montoya & Nishi, 2016). In this question, the discrepancy between the cooperating teachers and the interns appeared wider at the extreme ends of the Likert scale. Since more interns than teachers agreed with being controversial, we speculate that they understood from course work that controversy is a necessary part of challenging oppressive norms and worked towards that end. Being controversial was not presented as an undesirable space, and being neutral was cast as an unachievable. Alternatively, cooperating teachers may have felt the need to be protective of their interns, shielding them from some of the unpleasant consequences that can come from sparking controversy. Since 87.04% of the interns said “yes or maybe” to being controversial, the message in our program about the necessity to challenging oppressive norms appears to largely be accepted. Perhaps, the next step for our program is to assist more cooperating teachers to learn how they can be supportive of this sometimes contentious instructional competency. Ostensibly, just because interns said they ought to be controversial does not mean they necessarily realized that value in their teaching.

In the next related question the questionnaire asked “in your internship setting, were you (the intern) able to integrate a variety of world views and perspectives (including indigenous ways of knowing) in content and instructions”. This question offered insight into whether interns had the opportunity to teach for a better world, regardless of whether they wanted to or not (See Table 5). The majority of interns stated that they did (44.44%) or sometimes (38.89%) had the opportunity to integrate world views into their teaching. Slightly more cooperating teachers perceived their interns integrating world views, with 60.61% of teachers stating “yes” and 27.27% selecting “sometimes”. Given that 83.33% of interns and 87.88% of teachers selected “yes”

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or “sometimes” we suspect there was relatively high level of acceptance of, at least, talking about our social history. It appears that accepting that there are other ways of knowing is almost normalized in our context. We recognize there are many factors beyond our program/courses that might contribute to interns and teachers acceptance of other world views and culturally responsive practices. Many social institutions, including justice, health and other government services acknowledge Indigenous ways of knowing in our province.

For example, in our context, significant changes to language in provincial curriculum documents have also supported this potential paradigm shift. The term ESL has been supplanted by the EAL (English as an additional language) to draw attention to the notion that speaking one language, English, is not the norm in the world beyond our borders. We are not so naive to think that a certain degree of acceptance changes behaviour but if there is less resistance to other ways of knowing, we view this knowledge as a positive step in a potentially less oppressive direction.

Table 5: Comparison of Responses: Interns Integrating World Views and Perspectives

Intern was able to integrate a variety of world view and perspectives (including indigenous ways of knowing) in content and instruction Cooperating Teacher Intern

f-%

Y

ST

R

AN

N Total

f % f %

60 60.61 24 44.44

27 27.27 21 38.89

8 8.08 3 5.56

4 4.04 6 11.11

0 0 0 0

99 54

f: frequency, % percentage Y: Yes, ST: Sometimes, R: Rarely, AN: Almost Never, N: Never

Table 6 shows the responses to question related to culturally responsive practice and classroom management approaches.The vast majority of cooperating teachers (91.31%) and interns (98.15%) reported agreement in the “true” range of responses related to expectations that interns use culturally responsive classroom management approaches. In other words, almost all the participants agreed with the idea that classroom management practices ought to be conducted in a culturally responsive way. There was, however, greater discrepancy between interns and cooperating teachers’ responses to their own ability to discuss how their own biases influence classroom management expectations. The majority of teachers (88.99%) claimed that they, at the least somewhat, discussed their biases, whereas 71.69% of interns responded in the affirmative range.

Given the power differential between the cooperating teachers and the interns, it was not surprising to us that fewer interns than teachers were able to discuss their biases. We have used some strategies, including the introduction of

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the Adaptive Mentorship Model (Salm & Mulholland, 2015), in an attempt to support a mutually beneficial dialogue but we recognize this level of discussion is not possible for every pair. The responses to these two questions prompted us to consider how cooperating teachers and interns take up the concept of culturally responsive classrooms and what they talk about when the discuss their biases. Given the positive responses to both questions, interns and cooperating teachers report to believe in these activities but how they engage and interpret these questions warrants further investigation. Some insight into their interpretation of teaching for social justice can be gleaned by analysis of the responses to the open-ended question at the end of the questionnaire.

Table 6: Comparison of Responses: Being Culturally Responsive and Discussing Biases

f-%

DT

MT

ST

SF

M F

f % f %

64 46.3 26 48.1

38 27.5 17 31.4 8

24 17.39 10 18.52

9 6.52 1 1.85

2 1.5 0 0

f %

31 22.4

56 40.5

36 26.09

10 7.25

f %

8 15.1

21 39.6 2

9 16.98

5 9.43

1 0.7 2 3 5.7

DF

T

Interns should be expected to use culturally responsive classroom management approaches?

Intern

You were able to discuss with your coop/intern how your own biases influence classroom management expectations?

Cooperating Teacher

Intern

2 1.45 0 0

5

139 54

139 3.62 7

53

13.21

f: frequency, % percentage DT: Definitely true, MT: mostly true, ST: somewhat true, SF: somewhat false, MF: mostly false, DF: definitely false T: total

Cooperating Teachers Responses to the Open-Ended Question The participants were invited to respond to an open-ended question which asked them to make comments that “help us understand how to support cooperating teachers and interns teach for a better world.” There were 36 responses that ranged from 20 – 300 words. Many of the comments reflected an

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affinity to a technical-rationale approach to teaching that is often considered the dominant discourse and consistent with a cultural transmission rather than a transformative paradigm. This question seemed to give the teachers who are resistant or do not understand teaching for social justice an opportunity to share their concerns.

Central to their argument was a sentiment that if the IPP included social justice requirements, as one teacher said, “other important content is dropped to accommodate for implementing social justice issues.” Similarly, resistance to social justice issues was challenged as part of the evaluation which was sometimes interpreted as “imposing” compliance. A teacher comment illustrates this form of resistance is reflected in: “forcing them [taking up social justice issues] to happen during internship just felt like something we had to do, not something that helps my intern become a better teacher.” Another teacher reported that the social justice issues on the IPP were “contrived” and “forced the issue of social justice.” In these and similar comments, teachers position themselves secure in their epistemological positioning that education is a neutral act of dependent upon technological skills and procedures. As one teacher explained, “we need to focus on education and not be used by others as a means for indoctrination.” Another described teaching for social justice as characterized by “far too much emphasis is being placed on politically correct, fringe issues.”

This position is difficult to reconcile in the face of irrefutable knowledge that over 40% of Indigenous children live in poverty in our province. Others were more direct, “I would be happy to have the social justice criteria removed from the IPP.” While we might argue that some teachers are enjoying a false sense of security with their static positions, our efforts to disrupt their certainty have seemingly created an uncomfortable and unsettling environment for them. Our next challenge might be indeed to consider ways to continue promoting a social justice dialogue within the internship seminar, whilst the cooperating teachers grapple with their discomfort with challenges to their teaching identities.

Part of this education must include helping cooperating teachers understand the structural and systemic nature of oppression. One teacher commented that the questionnaire questions implied that racism and other “isms” in fact, truly exist, even in his/her school. By answering the questionnaire in the affirmative, this teacher reported that we were implying that his/her school “is riddled with examples of discrimination and injustice.” What a shock it might be for this teacher to recognize that in fact, all our institutions are implicated in injustices and the opportunity to teach about the injustices permeates all aspects of pedagogy, not just the personal spaces in her/his classroom. As with all transformations, change that involves assisting cooperating teachers as they develop a deeper understanding of teaching for a better world will involve time and fortitude (Mills & Ballantyne, 2016).

Cooperating Teachers Responses to the Open-Ended Question Almost half (47%) of the interns made comments in this section and their responses ranged from 6 – 200 words. Intern responses for this open ended question did not mirror the teachers’ resistance to a more critical approach to teaching, nor betray an unwavering confidence in the technical rationale approach to teaching. The vast majority of comments acknowledged the

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importance and their desire to teach for social justice, but the interns were more concerned about their competency to engage in meaningful social action. There appeared, however, to be a technical dimension to their call for this competency in their request for more “concrete descriptions and criteria” and “more professional development for [cooperating] teachers.” Even though their comments tended to request a desire for more support on “how to do it,” there was little question that they ought to engage in teaching for social justice. We are left to wonder what social action and teaching for social justice activities and attitudes were sufficiently developed during internship. A further examination of the ways interns imagine themselves teaching for social justice would augment this data from this study.

Conclusion The significance of this study is that the results will act as a heuristic to talk about how to move the social justice agenda ahead not only in our Faculty but with field partners. In summary, we found that interns perceived their internship as relatively receptive to teaching for social justice. Similarly, cooperating teachers agreed, at even a higher rate, which we attempted to explicate in our discussion of findings. The site of greatest tension between interns and cooperating teachers appears to be in relation to discussing personal biases and what it means to be intentionally controversial. Both co-operating teachers and interns agreed that integrating a variety of world views in content and instructional approaches, but we are not convinced that such positioning is more tokenism than an indication of shared understanding consistent with the tenets of social justice practice.

Over many years our Faculty has developed a strong relationship with teacher partners in the field. In an effort to continue in a mutually beneficial dialogue about how we move forward together, we will present the findings of this study to the next cohort of cooperating teachers (n=270) and interns (n=270).

In our context, we have a forum, the internship seminar, where all cooperating teachers and interns will hear the presentation and discuss the results with us inperson. Just as the interns face trepidation as they aim to be purposefully controversial, we share this apprehension knowing that it will disrupt a normally comfortable and easy relationship between Faculty and field partners.

There is some “safety” in critiquing as the participants at the next seminar will not be the same as the population that completed the study. There will, however, be some overlap as there will be many teachers who regularly volunteer and will be returning. Regardless, we are confident that some of the teachers and interns will hear their personal sentiments reflected and analyzed in the study, even if they were not participants. At the same time, much of what we believe to be true reflects quite positively on a population of cooperating teachers and interns that are no doubt struggling alongside us, but also embracing what it means to teach for a better world.

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