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International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.16 No.5

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 16

NUMBER 5

May 2017

Table of Contents The Sustainability of Inclusionary Practices: A Case Study .............................................................................................. 1 Catherine Richmond-Cullen, Ed.D., Dona Bauman, Ph.D., Vanessa Ferrance, D.Ed. and Sonya Kunkel, M.S. The Mathematical Beauty .................................................................................................................................................... 14 Van-Tha Nguyen and Ngoc-Giang Nguyen The Implication of Distance Learning in Competence-Based Maritime Education and Training ............................ 31 Yanning JIANG and Quan LI Education in Iran: Limitations Imposed by Theocracy .................................................................................................... 42 David V. Powell and Simin Cwick Enhancing Interactivity in Online Classes: A Framework for Enhancing Instructor-Student, Student-Student, and Student-Content Engagement ............................................................................................................................................. 53 Carl Kalani Beyer, Stephen Brownson and Suzanne Evans How a Hands-on BIONICS Lesson May Intervene with Science Motivation and Technology Interest .................. 72 Marth Michaela and Franz X. Bogner

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 1-13, May 2017

The Sustainability of Inclusionary Practices: A Case Study Catherine Richmond-Cullen, Ed.D., Dona Bauman, Ph.D. and Vanessa Ferrance, D.Ed.

The University of Scranton Scranton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Sonya Kunkel, M.S. Capital Region Education Council Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.A. Abstract. In this article the authors describe a qualitative study that researched the sustainability of responsible inclusive practices in a public elementary school in Connecticut. Through focus group sessions that included teachers, administrators and support staff, five themes were identified that demonstrate importance in the sustainability of inclusion. The data revealed the following five consistent themes as integral to responsible inclusive practices: (1) Public Service with a Moral Purpose, (2) Culture and Commitment, (3) Data-Driven Decision Making. (4) Leadership Qualities and (5) Co-Teaching and Community Involvement. Keywords: responsible inclusion; sustainability of inclusion; leadership qualities

Introduction The purpose of this study was to answer the question “what are the key factors that have sustained responsible inclusion?”. The Silver Lane Elementary School, located in the East Hartford Public Schools in East Hartford, Connecticut, was the site at which the study was conducted. Focus groups that were comprised of teachers, administrators and support staff were selected and represented a mix of veteran and non-tenured educators. Some of the educators at Silver Lane Elementary School were committed to inclusion initiatives for a longer period of time than other educators who became involved during the phase in which more inclusive practices were required and implemented at the school. The data was analyzed by the researchers to determine definable and consistent themes. The following five themes were independently identified by each of the researchers through the transcript analysis: (1) Public Service with a

Moral Purpose, (2) Culture and Commitment, (3) Data-Driven Decision Making. (4) Leadership Qualities and (5) Co-Teaching and Community Involvement.

Public Service with a Moral Purpose The issue of moral purpose of a leader is particularly interesting as it includes the implementation by the school leader of aspects of its context: 1) raising the bar for student learning; 2) treating people with respect; and 3) altering the social environment for the better (Fullan, 2002). Loehr and Schwartz (2003) base their leadership discussion on four principles one of which is; “to build capacity we must push beyond our normal limits, training in the way that elite athletes do” (p.13). School leaders need to work consistently at developing a school climate that fosters collegiality and cooperation. The metaphor of the athlete is important as it indicates the importance of diligent and consistent dedication to the advancement of the school in order to positively affect student achievement. Fullan (2004) elucidates the importance for leaders to develop new leaders in order for continuity of direction. In order for reform or change to alter the context of schools, a critical mass of people who understand, accept and are willing to continue the change must be cultivated. Random change needs to become system change. System change ensures that programs will last beyond their inceptor or creators. Leaders who affect the entire district ensure that change and reform initiatives will be pervasive within the district. Continuity of culture and vision are important to sustain new ideas and concepts. Fullan (2004) describes the necessity for leaders to be energy creators. The use of skillful and balanced management of energy is a key to effective leadership. Energy creators are enthusiastic and always positive, use critical thinking, creativity and imagination, stimulate and spark others, practice leadership at all levels, are able and willing to scrutinize their practice and willing to make their practice accessible to others and wish to improve on their previous best (p. 37). In his powerful summary statement regarding energy creators as leaders, Fullan (2004) states, “We know the sources of energy creation: moral purpose, emotional intelligence, quality relationship, quality knowledge, physical wellbeing-all mobilized to engage the mind and heart in attempting to solve complex adaptive challenges” (p. 38). The importance of an emotional connection to leadership and the people with whom the leaders work is integral in her success. Brain research indicates that when humans learn new content, the emotional area of the brain is the first to receive new information. It is in this mid-brain that decisions are made as to the importance of the information. Leaders who consider the emotional intelligence of those whom they lead have a distinct advantage over those leaders who do not. The human resource in organizations is precious and should be cultivated. Through moral and emotional connections, the leader can make a difference in how her team receives and accepts new ideas and information. Boylan (2016) states that “the increasing importance of educational collaborations and networks that blur organizations boundaries” (p. 57). The importance of engaging in collaborative leadership leads to an ethical approach

to school improvements for schools and the learners (p. 64). Altruistic and moral purposes are innate in collaborative leadership models. Moral leaders take on an identity that is driven by moral decision making. Boylan indicates that, “Movement leaders influence identity formation through the development of meaning for others” (p. 66). The new attitudes of all stakeholders begin to transform the school and foster educating and leading with a moral purpose. Perkins (2003) reflects on leaders with organizational intelligence and reports that process smart and people smart are two separate and district characteristics of great leaders. A process smart leader has an exceptional knowledge base while a people smart leader identifies emotionally with people and their values. Transformational leaders effect change in group as well as in the individuals within the group (Heifetz, 2003). Perkins’ (2003) notion of developmental leaders is concerned with leaders functioning as “exemplars, facilitators and mentors within a group, helping to move it toward a progressive culture” (p. 219). Developing human interactions through support and effective communication is a key to becoming a true leader. Referring again to types of challenges leaders face, adaptive challenges require the deep participation of the people with the problem. In other words, one must engage teachers and parents as representatives of the community in school reform. Teachers may not have the knowledge or training to implement reform tactics and can be part of the reason expected changes are not being implemented. Additionally, parents may not know or understand how to effect growth in their children. Effective leaders communicate with groups throughout the system, thereby ensuring effective understanding and acceptance of change of reform initiatives. By building communities of constituents and leaders through effective discussion and communication, a leader can positively affect the implementation of new ideas. People who feel included, who feel important, who are offered chances to express their thoughts and ideas are more likely to buy into change initiatives. Data-Driven Decision Making Since the passing of the No Child Left Behind Act, school improvement initiatives have been fueled by data (Goren, 2012). This is the age of accountability within the American school system. To respond to this call for accountability, data-driven decision-making has emerged as one of the primary school improvement strategies (USDOE, 2010). With the increasing amount of data that is being collected by schools, educators are faced with the challenge of how to best make sense of it (Anfara & Donhost, 2010). In conjunction with the many other responsibilities that teachers hold, data analysis and its application to teaching and learning can be a very complicated, dense process for teams of educators. To assist educators with this complicated task, Anfara and Donhost (2010) outline five primary phases in the data-driven decision-making process. The five primary phases in the data-driven decision-making process are: (1) organizing for success, (2) building assessment literacy, (3) identifying data sources, (4) aligning data systems, and (5) altering instruction (Anfara & Donhost, 2010). These five phases are not meant to be sequential, but rather to highlight the important areas to be considered.

Anfara and Donhost (2010) assert that educators must organize for success by ensuring that they have time, teams and trust when engaging in any data-driven decision-making process. Assessment literacy is a crucial component in the process, as raw data by itself provides little information to educators. Educators must be proficient in the act of interpreting the data (Anfara & Donhost, 2010). This brings more meaning and purpose to the datadriven decision-making process (Schildkamp & Kuiper, 2010). Educators must also be cautious when identifying data sources, as there are many shortcomings associated with state accountability tests (Peterson, 2007). Anfara and Donhost (2010) promote the use of periodic assessments to increase student achievement and enhance data-driven decision-making practices. To ease the data-based decision-making processes, data systems within the building level must be aligned. Otherwise, educators find themselves in a very complicated process of trying to make sense of disparate, unaligned data systems, since there are so many sources of data available to them (Anfara & Donhost, 2010). The final component outlined by Anfara and Donhost (2010) in the data-based decisionmaking process is the use of data to inform instruction. Collecting and analyzing data is not enough to ensure improvement of student learning or teaching practices. The data must be used to alter instruction. This component may be the most complex piece of the process, as the connection between data and instructional practice changes is the most absent in the literature (Anfara & Donhost, 2010). Goren (2012) highlights this aspect in his research when he asserts that our understanding of how data lead to improvement in education is vastly immature. Goren (2012) asserts that educators must have a deeper and better understanding of data, its use, how practitioners make sense of the data, and conditions that are most conducive for using data well. To do so, it is necessary to understand the context in which data is used within the school system as well as the meaning that teachers make of data (Timperley, 2008). Goren (2012) also argues that educators must take a closer look at what data are actually measuring and why. Once performance measures are introduced to the public, they take on a life of their own, and their intended purposes get merged with public interest. Todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s principal is expected to be able to gather, examine, translate and use data in order to improve instruction (Fox, 2013). In addition to these responsibilities, the principal must also support data-driven decision-making among his or her staff. Principals play a fundamental role in promoting the valuable and resourceful use of data for school improvement (Skalski & Romero, 2011). The leadership practices that principals embrace set the tone for how data will be used by the school staff. They can establish a culture that embraces databased decision-making practices by all employees. Due to the tremendous amount of data that educators must sift through and the use of data to evaluate the performance of students, teachers and administrators, it is all too often the case that educators have learned to become defensive and shut down when it comes to data usage. Principals can help educators to overcome this protective stance by modeling the advantageous uses of data to inform the educational process and also by creating a culture that makes it secure for educators to acknowledge that some practices are

unsuccessful (Skalski & Romero, 2011). Skalski and Romero (2011) also support the role of the principal in providing teachers with the structured times to meet for discussions of the data. Most educators are faced, not with a lack of data, but rather decisions regarding which data make the most sense for them. The principal must assist the data-based decision-making processes in his/her school by helping the staff to identify which data are most informative. He or she can do this by asking about the needs of his or her staff members and students while also asking how the data can be used to address those needs (Skalski & Romero, 2011). A principal can also support data sharing among their teachers by creating opportunities for teachers to share data between grade levels and providing professional development as well as support for his or her teachers (Skalski & Romero, 2011). Additionally, the principal must keep data reports understandable to parents and staff so that the reports can be used in a meaningful way for program improvement and enhancement of student learning. By maintaining objective and just teacher accountability, the principal can ensure that data are not used to penalize teachers for things that are outside of his or her control (Skalski & Romero, 2011). All of these efforts can contribute to a school culture that uses and values data. Fox (2013) identifies the following nine attributes of an appropriate mind-set for data-driven decision making in a principal: (1) The principal believes data is vital for sound decision-making and effective problem-solving. (2) The principal understands the classroom is the critical point of impact for student learning. (3) The principal believes one of his or her primary responsibilities is to establish a culture of continuous improvement. (4) The principal focuses on variables over which the school has control. (5) The principal understands that data is a means to an end, rather than an end in itself. (6) The principal distinguishes between change and improvement. (7) The principal establishes a “but-free zone” for problem solving. (8) The principal understands the difference between a situation and a problem. (9) The principal realizes “hope” is not a strategy. Leadership Qualities that Promote a Positive School Culture Successful school leaders evidence certain personal and professional qualities that enable them to guide the work of those to whom are under the authority of administration. Research about inspired leadership and those qualities that effective leaders possess is abundant. The Council of Chief School Officers (2002) named strategies for school improvement as manifested through successful principal leadership. They are setting high expectations for all students, sharing leadership and staying engaged, encouraging collaboration among staffing, using assessment data to support student success, keeping the focus on students, addressing barriers to learning, reinforcing classroom learning at home, employing systems for identifying interventions and defining special education as the path to success in the general education program (Fullan, p. 3). Significant change in school culture, student achievement, professional practice and community and parental involvement is contained in the research on effective leadership in school settings. According to Ouchi (2003) the keys to

developing and sustaining effective school leaders are that every principal is an entrepreneur, every school controls its own budget, everyone is accountable for student performance and for budgets, everyone delegates authority to those below, there is a burning focus on student achievement, every school is a community of learners and families have real choices among a variety of unique schools (Fullan, p. 10). Matthews (2015) states that best practices in inclusion involves the general aspects of school reform and requires a distribution of leadership actions, delegated work and expertise across a school (p. 1001). Day, Gu and Sammons (2016) discuss transformational leadership. They state, “Transformational leadership has traditionally emphasized vision and inspiration, focusing on establishing structures and cultures that enhance the quality of teaching and learning, setting directions, developing people and (re)designing the organization” (p. 224). Their research cites studies that have determined that it is essential to engage teachers in dialogue that enables them to participate in decisions about learning and the craft of teaching. Effective leadership includes practice that focuses on the internal states of organizational members as well as addressing instructional leadership (p. 225). The need for transformational leaders in a culture of outcomes based learning is still pervasive. The school administrator’s attention to school culture is important for the promotion of school improvement (p. 231). School ethos and high expectation for faculty are considered integral to effective transformational and instructional leadership strategies (p.246). Shared leadership and the distribution of leadership responsibilities extended trust and fosters a more highly personalized and enriched curriculum (p. 249). Day, Gu and Sammons state, “The work of successful principals is intuitive, knowledge informed and strategic. Successful principals build cultures that promote both staff and student engagement in learning” (p. 253). Fullan (2004) reports that solutions to developing and sustaining effective school leaders require a systems approach to school reform and a practical strategy to engage new concepts with an action plan. Fullan (2004) illuminates the “new theoreticians” as people working on real problems and solutions at the school level. His discussions include the concept of the different challenges faced by school leaders. Adaptive challenges are those issues that have solutions outside of the normal and tried methods of operation while technical problems can be solved within the context of that which is currently happening in schools. He lists eight elements of leadership which may influence sustainability of new ideas and solutions. They are completing public service with a moral purpose, creating a commitment to changing context at all levels, developing the lateral capacity and building solidarity through networks, incepting intelligent accountability and vertical relationships, crafting a culture for deep learning to take place, having a dual commitment to short-term and long-term results, ensuring cyclical energizing for all and the applying long lever of leadership (Fullan, 2005).

Method Using a case study design, the purpose of this study was to answer “what are the key factors that have sustained responsible inclusion for the school?”. Study Group In order to avoid the possibility of teachers perceiving coercion by administrators, a statement was included in the consent form that outlined the voluntary nature of participation in the focus groups. The groups were comprised of educators who had more extensive experience with inclusionary practices and those who did not. The representative sample included six general educators, two special educators, one executive coach, one education specialist, two special education paraprofessionals, one speech-language pathologist, and one administrator. Instruments and Process Each of the focus group sessions were approximately one hour in duration. Each group was asked the same questions which promoted dialogue and reflection and maintained reliability and validity. The research literature on sustainability of school reform guided the researchers on the development of questions asked in the focus interviews. The questions were given to practicing school leaders for their review and suggestions from administrators were used to edit the questions. The focus group questions are included in table 1. Table 1 Focus Group Questions

What is the history of inclusionary practices in the school? How did the school decide to become inclusive? Who were the original planners and “change agents” and are they still part of the school today? How were decisions made about inclusion? How were parents part of the planning process? What kind of training and consultation were provided to teachers and staff and is that professional development still ongoing? What types of problem solving mechanisms are available to staff? Do you have co-teaching and how is it maintained in the school? How do you as a leader sustain your school’s inclusion initiative? How do you maintain energy and renewal for yourself to sustain your focus on all learners? How do you incorporate the need to improve reading and math scores with inclusive practices? All of the focus group sessions were audio recorded and transcripts were typed by a research assistant from the University of Scranton. Following each of the focus group sessions, a summary form was completed by each of the researchers who managed the focus group. The summary form included details

about the locations and time schedules of the interviews, information on the educators who participated in the sessions, and descriptions of the content and emerging themes. The summary form was completed in a timely manner after the sessions were concluded and were then attached to the transcripts. Themes Data gathered from the focus group interviews was analyzed by each of the researchers through an independent coding and theme identification process. Through robust discussions among the researchers, the following themes were revealed: public service with a moral purpose, culture and commitment, data-driven decision making, leadership qualities, and best practices. Please see Tables 2 through 6 for reference to themes, categories, and subcategories. Public Service with a Moral Purpose The first theme was identified as public service with a moral purpose. This theme includes the establishment of a caring learning community involving all constituents (educators, school personnel, parents, students, community members) within the public school setting. The vision of this theme involves the guiding principle of teaching all children from the heart. Educators and staff have a moral obligation to provide the necessary tools for all students to be successful in school. All constituents have an equal responsibility for student success. Special and general education students are the shared responsibility of all service providers. Table 2 Theme: Public Service with a Moral Purpose

Theme Public Service with a Moral Purpose

Categories Student Centered Focus Heart Centered Vision

Subcategories That which happens has a great effect on students Teachers instruct children from the heart Inclusive Philosophy Educators need to provide the necessary tools for all students to be successful in school Moral Obligation Educators have an obligation to all students that supersedes legality. All students receive excellent and appropriate services regardless of whether or not they have an IEP. Student Responsibility Students take ownership of their and Reflective Practice learning. They learn to make life choices and to self-advocate. Professional All service providers, including Development paraprofessionals receive substantive and ongoing professional development

Culture and Commitment A collaborative culture where professionals share strategies and communicate in a natural, positive manner about the progress and successes of all students is pivotal in the theme of culture and commitment. Helping students to understand their strengths and needs while becoming thinkers, problem solvers and self-sufficient learners is a strategic aspect of a collaborative culture. In this culture, educators empower children to become all that they are created to be. Through courageous conversations, educators facilitate a positive community for all stakeholders. A collaborative culture is driven by a philosophy that includes sharing strategies to promote student success. Through shared responsibility, strong leadership, and the development of equal partnerships, all teachers are responsible for the success of all students. There is a pervasive culture of collaborative communication among school staff in which teachers are ambassadors and a voice for the program. Faculty and staff dedication helps to keep the program vital, although educators know that there will be both successes and failures. Teachers focus on student progress and empower students to become thinkers, problem solvers and self-sufficient learners by assisting students to better understand their strengths and learning needs. Table 3 Theme: Culture and Commitment

Theme Categories Culture and Collaborative Commitment

Subcategories There is a collaborative culture Teachers and stakeholders practice sharing strategies. Ambassadors Teachers are ambassadors and a voice for the program. Communication There is a pervasive culture of natural communication among school staff. Dedication and All faculty and staff are dedicated to the Intensity success of the program. Leadership Strong and effective leadership is key to the success of the program. Focus on Student There is a need for all students to be more Progress successful. Shared Stakeholders take equal responsibility for Responsibility/Equal special education students. Partnership Empowering All stakeholders are assisting students to Thinking Children understand their challenges and become thinkers/problem solvers/self-sufficient. Staff Keep it Alive The staff realize full inclusion is a process and will have successes and failures. Proactive Pre- There is movement away from re-teaching Teaching to pre-teaching; resetting the student so that he/she can learn successfully.

Data Driven Decision Making The theme data-driven decision-making is defined as the practice of collecting and reporting out on data. Data drives teaching practices, including co-teaching. An ongoing process of assessment enables teachers to reflect on grouping strategies and make adjustments. In the collection and reporting process, the principal makes presentations to the teachers and data is analyzed by a team. The teachers present at the board of education meeting to appeal for financial resources to support effective practices. Data team meetings provide staff with an opportunity to participate in the decision-making process whereby individual student achievement is analyzed. In a collaborative co-teaching environment, data-driven decision-making involves everyone on the team, including administrators, teachers, the school board, parents, paraprofessionals, and the student making adjustments to the curriculum and instruction based on the data that has been collected. Teachers and principals collect and analyze data through data-team meetings where all school staff has a choice and a voice in the process. After an initial presentation from the principal and a completed analysis by the data team, the teachers present at school board meetings to appeal for additional money in support of resources needed to drive student progress. The data drives the co-teaching practices, as teachers reflect on and make changes in an ongoing process in the classroom. Teachers make formative assessments and create instructional adjustments based on individual needs. Table 4 Theme: Data-Driven Decision Making

Theme Data-Driven Decision Making

Categories Collect Data Report Out

Subcategories and Teachers collect data The principal makes a presentation to teachers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the team analyzes the data. The teachers present at the board of education and appeal for financial support to what has been effective. Data Team Meetings The meetings provide school staff with choice and voice. Individualized Each childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s data results are analyzed. Decision Making Process Data Drives Practice The data drives the co-teaching practices. Educators reflect on and change grouping strategies. The process is ongoing.

Leadership Qualities Effective leadership that empowers teachers and staff is another theme that emerged in the transcripts. Professional development communities are established to encourage buy-in from school personnel. The school

administrators provide resources to all educators and staff in order to promote equal education for all children. The school leader values her staff and acknowledges their ideas as well as their strengths. Resources such as coplanning time and financial support are provided in order for the educational program to be successful. Table 5 Theme: Leadership Qualities

Theme Leadership Qualities

Categories Empowering Teachers

Subcategories The process uses teachers in a collaborative way so that the principal can get input and make decisions. The process energizes the school staff. The process makes school staff feel valued. Empowerment acknowledges the knowledge and abilities of staff. The process is a give and take process between collaborators. Empowerment encourages leadership through professional development opportunities. Decision Making The principal must occasionally make the hard decisions – i.e., “this is how it’s going to be” Promotes “Buy-In” The principal encourages school staff willingness – i.e., “a reason or relationship”. Providing Resources All teachers receive resources including general and special education teachers. Professional development for general education teachers on special needs services and strategies. Scheduling Time to Many models are reviewed. Collaborate/Co-Plan Time for co-planning is deliberate and built into the schedule. The schedule becomes more fluid. Promotes Range of There are many delivery options. Options

Co-Teaching and Community Involvement The best practices identified in the research study were co-teaching and strong and effective parent-school relationships. Co-teaching is based on coownership of the classroom between the educators responsible for instruction and assessment. Collaboratively developing an IEP based on the academic and common-core standards is a salient element of best practices. Administrative

input into developing a schedule which allows teachers to have co-planning time is essential. Through mutual respect and collegial participation, co-teachers learn to work well together to foster a passionate attitude toward their students. Part of the school culture is the development of strong parent-school relationships which enable the constituents to share strategies that foster student success. Parents talking to teachers and teachers talking to parents create a child-first philosophy where the “students’ faces drive the process”. The focus is on continuous development of student strengths and the efficient delivery of related services, which helps every child to reach his or her highest potential. Table 6 Theme: Co-Teaching and Community Involvement

Theme

Categories

Subcategories

Co-Teaching and Community Involvement

Co-Teaching

Co-teachers work well together. The teachers are passionate. Building a reasonable schedule allows for co-planning time. Embedding IEP goals into the general education curriculum is a key component. The teachers have co-ownership of the classroom. Standards-Based/Common Core

Parent-School Relationships

Child First Related Services

This collaboration makes a difference for a school. Sharing strategies, talking, and decision making is part of the process. The students’ faces drive the process. All stakeholders are not focusing only on student challenges but become familiar with the aligned curriculum.

Conclusion The data that was analyzed from the focus groups revealed the five identified themes which enhance the sustainability of inclusionary practices in an elementary school setting: (1) Public Service with a Moral Purpose, (2) Culture and Commitment, (3) Data-Driven Decision Making. (4) Leadership Qualities and (5) Co-Teaching and Community Involvement. The stakeholders in this culture that is designed to promote inclusion have successfully implemented the concepts and practices identified in the themes. This case study provides an exemplary model for school leaders to implement and sustain responsible inclusionary practices.

References Anfara, V. A., & Donhost, M. J. (2010). Data-driven decision making. Middle School Journal, November 2010, 56-63. Boylan, M. (2016). Deepening system leadership: Teachers leading from below. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 44 (1), 57-72. Council of Chief School Officers (2002). Expecting success: A study of five high performing, high poverty schools. Washington, DC: Author. Day, C., Gu, Q., & Sammons, S. (2016). The impact of leadership on student outcomes. Educational Administration Quarterly, 52 (2), 221-258. Fox. D. (2013). The principal’s mind-set for data. Leadership, January/February 2013, 1236. Fullan, M. (2005). Leadership and sustainability. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Fullan, M. (2004). Leading in a culture of change. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Fullan, M. (2002). Principals as leaders in a culture of change. Educational Leadership, Special Issue. Goren, P. (2012). Data, data, and more data – What’s an educator to do? American Journal of Education, 118, 233-237. Heifetz, R. (2003). Adaptive work. In T. Bentley & J. Wilsdon (Eds.), The adaptive state (pp. 68-78). London: Demos. Loehr, J., & Schwartz, T. (2003). The power of full engagement. New York: Free Press. Matthews, D. E. (2015). Clearing a path for inclusion: Distributing leadership in a high performing elementary school. Journal of School Leadership, 25, 1000-1038. Ouchi. W. (2003). Making schools work. New York: Wiley. Perkins, D. (2003). King Arthur’s roundtable. New York: Wiley. Peterson, J. L. (2007). Learning: The brave new world of data-informed instruction. Education Next, 36-42. Schildkamp, K. M., & Kuiper, W. (2010). Data-informed curriculum reform: Which data, what purposes, and promoting and hindering factors. Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies, 26, 482-496. Skalski, A., & Romero, M. (2011). Data-based decision making. Principal Leadership, 11 (5), 12-16. Timperley, H. (2008). Evidence-Informed conversations making a difference to student achievement. In L. Early & H. Timperley (Eds.), Professional learning conversations: Challenges in using evidence for improvement (pp. 69-79). New York: Springer. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation, and Policy Development (2010). Use of Education Data at the Local Level: From Accountability to Instructional Improvement (Contract No. ED-01-CO-0040). Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/rachstat/eval/tech/use-of-education-data/index.html

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 14-30, May 2017

The Mathematical Beauty Van-Tha Nguyen Phung Hung High School 14A, Street 1, Ward 16, Go Vap District, Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam Ngoc-Giang Nguyen Dr of Banking University Ho Chi Minh, 36 Ton That Dam, Nguyen Thai Binh Ward, District 1, Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam Abstract. Mathematics is a science. However, Mathematics has exceptional features that other sciences can hardly attain; for instance the beauty in cognitive development, in Mathematics applied in other fields such as Physics, Computer Science, Music, Fine Art, Literature, etc… Mathematical beauty manifests itself in many forms and is divided into many different categories. Mathematical beauty can be divided into inner and outer beauty, or it can be categorized by fields or divided into the beauty in method, in problem development, and in mathematical formulas. The charactersitics of mathematical are repetition, harmony and Nonmonotonicity. Beauty is a vague concept. It is not easy to define, measure, or estimate. Keywords. Mathematical mathematical formula.

beauty,

outer

beauty,

inner

beauty,

1. Introduction Mathematical beauty is the notion that some mathematicians generally use to describe mathematical results, methods,… which are interesting, unique, and elegant. Mathematicians often regard these results and methods as elegant and creative. They are often likened to a good poem or a passionate song. Mathematical beauty manifests itself in a variety of ways. It might be cognitive, or it might be in the form of symmetrical shapes. It might be visible or hidden away. This is a broad notion that involves a large number of aspects of life, in science and in art.

2. Main results 2.1. The concept of beauty It is quite difficult to define beauty. It is an aesthetic category. It affects the human senses and brings about feelings of joy and excitement, and creates perfection and meaningfulness. Mohammed said: “If I had only two loaves of bread, I would barter one to nourish my soul.” (Huntley, 1970) Richard Jefferies wrote: “The hours when we absorbed by beauty are the only hours when we really live … These are the only hours that absorb the soul and

fill it with beauty. This is real life, and all else is illusion, or mere endurance.” (Huntley, 1970) The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary states that, beauty is “That quality or combination of qualities which affords keen pleasure to the senses, especially that of sight, or which charms the intellectual or moral faculties.” (William, 2002) Aquinas said “Beauty is that which pleases in mere contemplation” (Viktor, 2012) According to an English proverb, “Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder.” Whether something is beautiful or not is dependent on a person’s perception. One might regard a painting as pretty and meaningful, while another regards the same painting as ugly and meaningless. A beautiful painting or statue is not likely to be loved by all. On the other hand, when it has earned the love of all people, whether the painting is beautiful or not is of little importance. Beauty is a vague concept. It is not easy to define, measure, or estimate.

2.2. The concept of mathematical beauty There are many different views on mathematical beauty. It appears in a variety of fields, from natural sciences to social sciences, and in everyday life. According to Bertrand Russell, mathematical beauty is defined as follows: “Mathematics, rightly viewed, possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty – a beauty cold and austere, like that of sculpture, without appeal to any part of our weaker nature, without the gorgeous trappings of painting or music, yet sublimely pure, and capable of a stern perfection such as only the greatest art can show. The true spirit of delight, the exaltation, the sense of being more than Man, which is the touchstone of the highest excellence, is to be found in mathematics as surely as poetry.” (Russell, 1919) Edna St. Vincent Millay said “Euclid alone has looked on beauty bare …” (Huntley, 1970) Rota wrote: “We think to instances of mathematics beauty as if they had been perceived by an instantaneous realization, in moment of truth, like a light-bulb suddenly being it. All the effort that went in understanding the proof of a beautiful theorem, all the background material that is needed if the statement is to make any sense, all the difficulties we met in following an intricate sequence of logical inferences, all these features disappear once we become aware of the beauty of a mathematical theorem and what will remain in our memory of our process of learning is the image of an instant flash of insight, of a sudden light in the darkness” (Viktor, 2012) From our point of view, the aesthetic element of mathematical beauty depends on our outlook on the perfection of methods, problems, as well as on the perspective of the mathematical subject. Mathematical beauty is the result of discovering both the inner and outer link between mathematical objects and phenomena.

2.3. The characteristics of mathematical beauty 2.3.1. Repetition As stated above, “Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder”, but the creator of a problem, a formula or a drawing can only be considered successful when his creations are acknowledged as being beautiful. The first characteristic of mathematical beauty is repetition.

Picture 1. Pythagorean Tree A piece of music has repetitive beats in addition to choruses. A poem has repetitive rhymes. The most common and obvious feature of repetition is symmetry, which is when an object has similar parts that can rotate or swap places without changing the overall shape of the object itself. There might be no other field in Mathematics that has as beautiful symmetrical shapes as Fractals. The Pythagorean Tree above, as well as the following Mandelbrot set, expresses the captivating beauty of repetition.

Picture 2. Mandelbrot set

2.3.2. Harmony Harmony is an abstract concept. There is a combination of elements that gives off the impression of being beautiful. Any two things are considered harmonious when they are in tune with each other. For example, if the movements of a swimmer (hands, legs, breathing, etc.) correspond, his posture will look graceful and elegant; on the other hand, if his movements are messy and out of tune, which indicates a lack of harmony, it is difficult to stay afloat. In a painting, if the most important visuals are shoved into one corner while the rest of the painting is blank, it is inharmonious, since the size of the piece is not proportionate to the content. In a piece of music, it is common that there are multiple notes sounding together at one time, rather than only one single note. If all those notes resonate (in a physical sense), they sound pleasant and harmonious, while separate notes not resonating make lousy sounds. A harmonious mathematical problem must have a graceful way of wording, creating a number of meaningful results. Take Fermat’s Last Theorem as an example: Prove that the Diophantine equation x n  y n  z n has no integer solutions for n  2 and x , y , z  0. A problem is inharmonious when it has excessively complicated wording, and the solution uses too many unnecessary tricks.

2.3.3. Non-monotonicity Amateur “artists” can imitate famous works of art; for example, the Mona Lisa by Leonardo de Vinci has been recreated numerous times by various artists. However, no matter how similar they are, the copies are always inferior to the original in some way. A great piece of art ought to have something new, different from its predecessors. Even in the same piece of art, if a single motif, however interesting it might be, is repeated time and again, it can become monotonous. Therefore, it is necessary to change, to create an element of surprise, in order to generate interest among the audience. In Mathematics, applying a single method to a multitude of problems would be far more monotonous than using different methods for different problems.

2.3.4. Human-relatedness It is easier for people to grasp things that can be linked to information already existing in their heads. Meanwhile, strange and random things that have no connection to anything cannot stir up emotions within a person. That is the reason why many paintings and sculptures have the human body as their main theme, since it is the most familiar thing to people. A painting or a sculpture of a “Martian”, no matter how beautiful, could hardly garner interest, as a “Martian” is a foreign concept to humans. Mathematical problems as well as topics have to be suitable for the person solving it. If he has the ability to understand the results, his interest will be piqued, and he will want to put more effort into his study. On the other hand, if he is unfamiliar with the knowledge, it is easier for him to give up. According to Vygotsky, a person who solves mathematical problems is only interested in the knowledge that is in his Zone of Proximal Development. Problems that are too familiar are simple and uninteresting, while ones that are too unfamiliar are too complex, and therefore also uninteresting.

2.4. Categorizing mathematical beauty There are many ways to categorize mathematical beauty. It can be divided into inner and outer beauty, or it can be categorized by fields, such as mathematical beauty in Art, Computer Science, Physics or Music, etc. Or it can be divided into the beauty in method, in problem development, and in mathematical formulas.

2.4.1. Categorizing mathematical beauty according to method, problem development, and mathematical formulas Mathematical beauty in method has the following characteristics: - A proof that uses the additional assumptions or previous results. - A proof that is quite simple. - A new proof. - A proof based on original insights. - A proof can easily generalize to solve similar problems. - A proof that might be long, but results in new, interesting and insightful results. The following example illustrates the beauty in method. Our new proof for the Bouniakowsky inequality is as follows (published on Romanian Mathematical Magazine):

Problem 1 (The CBS – inequality) Given x1 , x2 , .., xn ; y1 , y2 , ..., yn  . Prove that

x

2 1

 x22  ...  xn2  y12  y22  ...  yn2    x1 y1  x2 y2  ...  xn yn  . 2

The new solution is as follows Case 1 If x12  x22  ...  xn2  0 or y12  y22  ...  yn2  0 we have Q. E. D. Case 2 If x12  x22  ...  xn2  0 or y12  y22  ...  yn2  0 then we let Rx2  x12  x22  ...  xn2 ; Ry2  y12  y22  ...  yn2 (1)

We have  x1 x  2  x3 ...  xn

 Rx sin  1 sin  2 ...sin  n  2 sin  n 1  Rx sin  1 sin  2 ...sin  n  2 cos  n 1  Rx sin  1 sin  2 ...cos  n  2

 y1  y2  y3  ...  yn 

 Ry sin  1 sin  2 ...sin  n  2 sin  n 1

 Rx cos  1

and  Ry sin  1 sin  2 ...sin  n  2 cos  n 1  Ry sin  1 sin  2 ...cos  n  2

 Ry cos  1

We have n2

n2

k 1

x1 y1  Rx Ry  sin  k sin  k sin  n1 sin n1 ; x2 y2  Rx Ry  sin  k sin  k cos n1 cos n1 .

Thus, x1 y1  x2 y 2 |x1 y1  x2 y 2 |  Rx Ry

n2

 sin  k 1

sin  k . cos( n 1   n 1 )

n2

 Rx Ry .  sin  k sin  k . k 1

From this relation, we have: x1 y1  x2 y2  x3 y3 |x1 y1  x2 y2  ...  xn yn ||Rx Ry |(2). From (1) and (2), we have

x

2 1

 x22  ...  xn2  y12  y22  ...  yn2    x1 y1  x2 y2  ...  xn yn  . (Q. E. D) 2

x x1 x 2   ...  n . y1 y 2 yn The beauty in problem development is the beauty of creativity in Mathematics. Assimilating, specializing, and generalizing mathematical problems bring about a deep understanding about a subject and help a person to discover the hidden link between things. Through the results, the person will be able to realize the good and exciting things that are normally hard to see.

The equality happens if and only if

The following example demonstrates the beauty in mathematical problem development. Problem 2 ABCD is a rectangle. Let M be the midpoint of AB , let H be the foot of the perpendicular from C on BD , let N be the midpoint of DH . Prove that CNM  900 . The following are some solutions Solution 1 (The synthetic method)

From N , draw NG // DC . By the midline theorem, we have: 1 DC. 2 Thus NG // MB and NG  MB or NGBM is a parallelogram. We have MB  BC , so NG  BC. Thus, G is the orthocentre of the triangle NBC . Thus, NG // DC , NG 

BG  NC. It follows MN  NC , i.e., CNM  900. Solution 2 (The synthetic method)

Let P the midpoint of CD. We have PNB  PMB  PCB  1v. Thus, five points P , N , M , B, C lie on a circle with the diameter MC. Thus, we have CNM  900. Solution 3 (The vectorial method)

We have 1 1 1 ( AD  BH ) . (DC  HC )  ( AD  BH ) . ( HB  BC  DC ) 2 2 4 1    AD . HB . cos   AD2  BH . BC . cos   BH 2  BH . DC . sin   4 1 HD 1  (CH 2  BH . DC . )  (CH 2  BH . HD)  0. 4 DC 4

MN . NC 

Thus, CNM  900. Solution 4 (The trigonometric method)

In order to prove CNM  900 , we need to prove that MBCN is a concyclic quadrilateral. Indeed, we have BC HC 1 BC 1 HC CAB  BDC    .  . AB HD 2 BM 2 NH  tan BMC  tan BNC  BMC  BNC. Thus, MNCB is a concyclic quadrilateral, which is CNM  900. Solution 5 (The coordinate method)

Consider the system of Cartesian coordinates Dxy as the above figure. We have D(0 ; 0), C(b ; 0), A(0 ; d), M(

b x y  ; d), H( x1 ; y1 ), N  1 ; 1  . 2 2 2 

The equation of the line MN is x x1 b x 1  2  2 2  x  x1  x1  b y  y 1 . x1  b y y1 2 y1  2 d 2 y1  2 d y 1 d 2 2 y  2d y x y  2d y 1 x 1  1 . 1 . x1  b 2 2 x1  b The equation of the line NC is

x  b x1  2 b y1 y1  y xb. . y y1 x1  2 b x1  2 b

The necessary and sufficient condition for MN  NC is

y1  2 d y1 .   1  2 dy1  y12  x12  3bx1  2b 2 x1  b x1  2 b  2 dy1  x12  y12  3bx1  2b 2 . Consider the equality 2 dy1  x12  y12  3bx1  2b 2  2 dy 1  DH 2  3DH 2  2(DH 2  HC 2 )  2 dy1   2DH 2  2(DH 2  HC 2 )  dy1  HC 2  dy1  HD . HB y1 HB    cos ADB  cos HBC . HD BC

This is obvious. Thus, we have MN  NC , which is CNM  900. Solution 6 (The transformative method)

Considering the vectorial rotation 900 , we have DA DA '  x . DC HB

Since Thus

HC '  y . HC.

HB DA   x  y  k. HC DC

1 1 (DA  HB) NM '  k(DC  HC )  kNC. 2 2 0 Hence MN  NC , which is CNM  90 . Solution 7 (The complex method) NM 

Suppose that A( a), B(b), C(c ), D(d), M(m), N(n), H(h). We have 2m  a  b ; 2n  d  h. We need to prove m  n  i(c  n) dh )  2(m  n)  i(2c  d  h ). 2 We have 4(m  n)  2(2m  2n)  2( a  b  d  h). Thus, the thing which needs to be proved is equivalent to 2( a  b  d  h)  4ic  2i(d  h).

Or we need to prove m  n  i(c 

By the hypothesis, ABCD is a rectangle and CH  BD , so we have b  h  i(c  h )  b  h  ic  ih  h 

(b  ic )(1  i ) b  c  i(b  c )  1  i2 2

 2 h  b  c  i(b  c ). The thing which needs to be proved is equivalent to 2( a  b  d )  2 h  4ic  2id  2ih

 2( a  b  d )  4ic  2id  2 h(1  i )  2( a  b  d )  4ic  2id   b  c  i(b  c )  (1  i )  2 a  2b  2 d(i  1)  4ic  (b  c )(1  i )  (i  1)(b  c )  b  c  ib  ic  ib  ic  b  c Or we need to prove that a  d(i  1)  ic  0  a  d  i(c  d).

This is obvious. Thus, we have m  n  i(c  n) , which is MN  NC , or CNM  900. By drawing byroads, we obtain the similar problems of the problem 2. If we take the point K on the opposite ray of the ray CD such that C is the midpoint of CK , then CN is the midline of the triangle DHK (the figure).

Thus, NC // KH . By the proof 1 of the problem 2, we have BG  NC . From two these things, we have KH  BG. Thus, we have just proved the similar problem of the problem 2 as follow Problem 3 Given a triang1e BCD with C  900 ; the altitude CH . Let G be the midpoint of CH. Let K be the point symmetric to D with respect to the point C . Prove that KH  BG. Combining the problem 2 with the problem 3, we see that KH  BG. On the other hand BG // NM . Thus, KH  MN.

We obtain the following problem

Problem 4 ABCD is a rectangle. Let CH be the altitude of the triangle BCD. Let M be the midpoint of AB, N be the midpoint of DH. Let K be the point symmetric to D with respect to the point C . Prove that KH  MN. Using the parallel lines to AM or BN , we obtain problems which are similar to the problem 2. Connect AH. Let E be the midpoint of segment BC , F be the midpoint of segment AH (the figure).

We have CNFE being a parallelogram, so EF // CN. Because CN  BG , EF  BG. Thus, we have just proved the similar problem of the problem 2 as follow Problem 5 ABCD is a rectangle. Let H be the projection from C onto BD. Let G , E, F be the midpoints of segments CH , BC and AH , respectively. Prove that EF  BG. We now combine the problem 2 and the problem 4, then we see that NM // BG and BG  EF.

From this, we have the new following problem Problem 6 ABCD is a rectangle. Let H be the projection from C onto BD. Let M , N , E, F be the midpoints of AB, DH , CB, AH , respectively. Prove that MN  EF. From the problem 2, we generalize it to the problem in the space as follow Problem 7 SABC is a pyramid with ABC is isosceles at A . Let D be the midpoint of segment BC. Draw DE such that DE  AB( E AB ). Know that SE  ( ABC ). Let M be the midpoint of DE. Prove that AM  (SEC ). Indeed, we have SE  ( ABC ) , so SE  AM.

By the problem 2, AM  CE. AM  SE    AM  (SEC ). AM  CE A generalization of problem 2 is as follows Problem 8 ABCD is a parallelogram. Let H be the projection from C onto BD. Take the HN HK BM points M on AB , N on HD and K on HC such that   . Prove HD HC BA that MN // BK. The beauty in mathematical formulas is that mathematical results in different areas are connected, which is hard to realize at the very beginning. This connection is described as deep. The example for the previous statement is the following Euler’s identity: ei  1  0. Physicist Richard Fetnman has regarded this as “our jewel” and “the most remarkable formula in mathematics”.

From two results, we have

2.4.2. Categorizing mathematical beauty into inner and outer beauty Outer mathematical beauty is the visual feature that affects a person’s senses. A drawing, a formula, or a problem interests a person and makes him pay more attention. This is the outer mathematical beauty. In contrast to outer beauty, there is inner mathematical beauty. It is impossible to see this beauty at first glance. The person has to spend a large amount of time contemplating, thinking, and studying in order to discover the inner connection between things, as well as the outer connection. When he has discovered these results, he feels happy and satisfied. Both inner beauty and outer mathematical beauty are important. However, the inner beauty is harder to see, and a person has to have adequate ability to do so. In many cases, the discovery of the outer and inner beauty of a mathematical problem is synonymous to mathematical creativity. For example, Fermat’s Last Theorem: Prove that the Diophantine equation x n  y n  z n has no integer solutions for n  2 and x , y , z  0, the outer beauty is the simplicity of the equation, and the inner beauty is that it is an interesting and surprising theorem about the combination of integers in a formula. These integers are dancing harmoniously in the musical piece that is the formula, and this is the true beauty of Fermat’s Last Theorem, expressed by mathematical symbols.

2.4.3. Categorizing mathematical beauty into different fields

a) Mathematical beauty in Computer Science There is a close connection between Mathematics and Computer science. There are two applications of Mathematics in Computer Science. The first one is the mathematical theories models that are the basis for the development of Computer Science. The second one is using Mathematics to solve Computer Science problems and applications, finding mathematical theories and tools and putting them into use. Mathematics makes Computer Science more beautiful and profound. Most problems in Computer Science need the use of high to very high level modern Mathematics. An example of mathematical beauty in Computer Science is the following algorithm

Problem 8 Write code that sums according to the expression S  1  2  3  ...  (n  1)  n. The algorithm for this problem is: 1. S  0; i  0. 2. Input natural number n 3. While ( i  n ) 3.1. Increment i by 1 3.2. S  S  i. 4. Repeat from step 2 5. End algorithm However, for this problem, we can use Mathematics to produce a result much n(n  1) faster. We have 1  2  3  ...  (n  1)  n  . So the algorithm can be: 2 1. Input natural number n . n(n  1) 2. Output . 2 Above is only one example of mathematical beauty in Computer Science. Using Mathematics, one can simplify a great number of programming problems. This illustrates the close link between the two fields. Mathematics makes Computer Science more beautiful. b) Mathematical beauty in Physics mathematics and Physics are closely tied to each other. Without Mathematics, Physics wouldn’t have developed so rapidly. Many physicists have built their theories on mathematical background. A typical example is Albert Einstein, who built his General Theory of Relativity based on mathematical background and non-Euclidean geometry. There is an entire subject called Equations of Mathematical Physics for students studying Physics. Einstein once remarked that, “beautiful theories” are often accepted more readily, even if they have yet to be proven. An example is one of his own, most famous equation, E = mc2. In a lecture at Oxford University in 1933, Einstein said that mathematical beauty was what guided him as a theoretical physicist. In other words, finding the simplest, most mathematically correct relationships, and then applying theories about how they operate. According to Einstein, the pinnacle of science is beauty and simplicity. Newton’s laws can be expressed in the form of the following equation:

Beauty is eternal. So are beautiful equations. They are always true as they reflect what is inherent in nature, although previously hidden. Everything has its own law, which can be expressed in equation form and is comprehensible. One just

needs to spend time looking into it, like Einstein said “Look deep into nature, and then you will understand everything better”. (Cesti) c) Mathematical beauty in interior design and in everyday life Geometric beauty can be observed in many aspects of life. An example of this is ratios which are considered harmonious. A ratio in mathematics is a relationship between measurements of different things or different parts in one thing. For instance, the ratio between body measurements of someone who is 1.7m tall with a 90cm chest, 60cm waist and 90cm hips is 170:90:60:90, which is equal to 17:9:6:9. If one wants to make a 17cm tall figurine looking exactly like that person (or in mathematical terms, the figurine is geometrically similar to that person), the bust-waist-hips measurements of the figurine must be 9cm, 6cm and 9cm respectively, which are the real person’s measurements divided by 10. (Nguyen, T., D) Homothety, as well as the Thales’ theorem is directly related to ratio and similarity. Homothety preserves ratio and maps a straight line into a straight line parallel to it. A cinema projector actually uses homothety to project films onto a big screen. While mentioning ratio, it is crucial not to leave out the golden ratio since it appears in patterns in nature and plays an important role in human society.

Consider two segments, a is the length of the longer segment, b is the length of the shorter segment and a + b is the sum of a and b. When these quantities satisfy ab a a is said to be the golden ratio. Solving a quadratic  , the ratio a b b equation gives the value of the ratio, which is 1.61803398875 (approximately 1.62). The Greek letter phi (  ) is used to represent the golden ratio. Now, consider a golden rectangle (the ratio of the longer side to the shorter side is  ), there’s some kind of connection to the natural essence in it. It appears that compositions displayed in a golden rectangle can make people feel at ease. They are also regarded as being well-organized and pleasing to the eyes. Should the quantities a, b which satisfy the golden ratio be generally extended, one of them is the Fibonacci sequence. The Fibonacci sequence is defined by the recurrent relation Fn  Fn1  Fn2 with F1  F2  1, n  N * . This sequence is of great importance because it represents numerous laws of nature. Arranging rectangles based on the Fibonacci numbers in ascending order results in the image of a spiral depicting the sequence - the golden spiral. The golden spiral occurs a lot in nature.

In interior design, the use of the golden ratio mainly focusing on golden rectangle can create spatial harmony. This ratio helps to design furnishings by keeping their widths and lengths in proportion. Furthermore, it suggests which part of the room should be decorated, which should be used to store the furniture, etc... (Ahd)

d) Mathematical beauty in poetry The four lines of this poem is very known: A Book of Verses undernearth the Bough, A Jug of Wine, A Loaf of Bread – and Thou Beside me singing in the Wilderness – Oh, Wilderness were Paradise enow! The four-line stanza above is a poem written by Omar Khayyam in Persian in the XI-XII centuries and was translated into English by Edward Fitzgerald (18091883) in the IX century. Of the millions of people who know Khayyam’s poems, only a few know that he was a brilliant mathematician and astronomer in his time. In 1070, when he was only 22, Khayyam wrote a notable mathematical book named Treatise on Demonstrations of Problems of Algebra. In this book, “Pascal’s triangle” (a triangular array of Newton’s binomial coefficients) and a geometric solution to cubic equations – the intersection of a hyperbola with a circle - were found. Khayyam also contributed greatly to non-Euclidean geometry with a book titled Explanations of the Difficulties in the Postulates of Euclid. In the book, he proved some non-Euclidean properties of figures (though it is unknown whether or not non-Euclidean spaces really existed). In Persia, Omar Khayyam originally achieved fame in the role of an astronomer. He was the one who introduced detailed astronomical tables (or ephemeris, which gives the positions of naturally occurring astronomical objects) and

calculated the precise length of a solar year (365,24219858156 days). Based on these calculations, Khayyam proposed the Jalali calendar. The Jalali calendar is even more accurate than the present calendar. People who’ve always seen mathematicians as impassive, unemotional people might be surprised if they find these sayings of none other than the “dry” mathematicians themselves: “A mathematician who is not also something of a poet will never be a complete mathematician.” - Karl Weierstrass. “It is impossible to be a mathematician without being a poet in soul.” - Sofia Kovalevskaya. But why do mathematicians need to be “poets in soul”? It’s simply because Mathematics is in accordance with poetry. The ultimate aim of both Mathematics and poetry is creating high aesthetic values. Therefore, only beautiful poems can last for a long time. The same goes for Mathematics; only beautiful mathematical works with high value can withstand the power of time and become classics. As Godfrey H. Hardy (1877-1947) once said: “Beauty is the first test: there is no permanent place in the world for ugly mathematics”. Both Mathematics and poetry are symbols of creativity. To create, one must have inspiration. If a “muse” is a poet’s source of inspiration, a “maths’ muse” must be the inspiration of mathematicians. Although they might serve different subjects on different occasions, “muse” or “maths’ muse”, they are in fact the same. In Mathematics, not only can creativity result in new theorems, but also new areas of mathematics growing over time. It’s no different in poetry, various poetic styles have been created through the course of history as old styles are not necessarily used. Mathematics and poetry both require vivid imagination, perceptive creativity, language coherence, a thorough grasp of grammar and rules and so on. The language used in poetry is the normal language, while Mathematics has its own language with special concepts and symbols. However, they both use language to express ideas. There’s an especially significant quality which Mathematics and poetry share, that is succinctness. As British poet Robert Browning (1821 – 1889) once said: “All poetry is putting the infinite within the finite”. Voltaire (1694 – 1778), a renowned philosopher also said: “One merit of poetry few persons will deny: it says more and in fewer words than prose”. Mathematics, too, is succinct. The mathematical concepts and theorems can be very short, but comprehensive. It’s as if they contain a whole universe in such few words and because of this, it’s not always easy to understand Mathematics, or poetry. (Nguyen, T., D.) e) Mathematical beauty in other fields Mathematics has a tremendous impact on all life aspects nowadays, from natural environment to social life. For instance, thanks to simulation modeling, engineers can predict and solve many technical problems. Mathematics has undoubtedly become extremely important in the modern world.

6. Conclusion Mathematical beauty is a relatively abstract concept. There’s no one who can quantify or measure it. It is also highly subjective. Whether or not a mathematical problem is beautiful really depends on the perspective of the one who solves it. Some fundamental traits that mathematical beauty possesses are: repetition, symmetry, harmony, non-monotonicity and human-relatedness. There are various ideas of categorizing mathematical beauty. It can be categorized based on problem developing, problem solutions or mathematical formulae. Beauty can be on the inside or outside. But no matter how mathematical beauty is categorized, it’s undeniable that Mathematics is truly beautiful and there needs to be more in-depth researches on the beauty of it.

References Aharoni, R. (2014), Mathematics, Poetry and Beauty, World Scientific Publishing Co. Doan, Q., Van, N., C., Pham, K., B., Ta, M. (2017), Advanced geometry 11th, The Vietnamese Educational Publishing House. Doan, Q., Van, N., C., Pham, V., K., Bui, V., N. (2017), Advanced geometric exercises 10th, The Vietnamese Educational Publishing House. Dowson, M. (2015), Beginning C++ Through Game Programming, Cengage Learning PTR; 4 edition Hoang, C. (1997), The arithmetic – The Queen of mathematics, The Vietnamese Educational Publishing House. Hoang, C. (2000), Solving elementary problems on the computer, The Vietnamese Educational Publishing House. Hoang, C. (2000), What is the fractal geometry?, The Vietnamese Educational Publishing House. Hoang, Q. (1997), Mathematical Romance, The Vietnamese Educational Publishing House. Huntley, H., E. (1970), The divine proportion, A study in Mathematical Beauty, Dover Publications, Inc., New York. Nguyen, C., T. (2003), 74 stories on learning mathematics intelligently and creatively, Nghe An Publishing House. Nguyen, T., D. (2016), Maths and Arts, The Vietnamese Literature publishing. Nguyen, X., H. (2015), The creation in Algorithms proggramming (Volume 1), The Information and Media Publishing House. Nguyen, X., H. (2015), The creation in Algorithms proggramming (Volume 2), The Information and Media Publishing House. Nguyen, X., H. (2015), The creation in Algorithms proggramming (Volume 3), The Information and Media Publishing House. Polster, B. (2004), Q.E.D. Beauty in mathematical proof, Bloomsbury USA. Russell, B. (1919), The Study of Mathematics, Longman, p.60. Sinclair, N. (2006), Mathematics and beauty, Teachers College Press. Stewart, I. (2008), Why Beauty is Truth, First Trade Paper Edition. Tran, V., H., Nguyen, M., H., Nguyen, V., D., Tran, D., H. (2017), Basic geometry 10th, The Vietnam Educational Publishing House. Tran, V., H., Nguyen, M., H., Khu, Q., A., Nguyen, H., T., Phan, V., V. (2017), Basic geometry 11th, The Vietnamese Educational Publishing House. Van, N., C., Pham, K., B., Ta, M. (2017), Advanced geometric exercises 11th, The Vietnamese Educational Publishing House. Viktor, B. (2012), A definition of Mathematical Beauty and Its History, Journal of Humanistic Mathematics, Vol 2. Vu, Q., L. (2015), The hapiness of creation, The Vietnamese Educational Publishing House.

William, R. T, (2002), Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press; 5th Edition. The Vietnamese Childhood Mathematics magazine 2. The Vietnamese Maths and Youth magazine. Ahd. Retrieved from: http://www.ahd.com.vn/article/thiet-ke-noi-that/ty-le-vangung-dung-trong-thiet-ke-noi-that-kien-truc-va-kieu-dang-my-thuat/ Diendantoanhoc. Retrieved from: https://diendantoanhoc.net/topic/5729v%E1%BA%BB-d%E1%BA%B9p-c%E1%BB%A7a-toan-h%E1%BB%8Dc-la-gi/ Cesti. Retrieved from: http://www.cesti.gov.vn/muon-mau-cuoc-song/nhungphuong-trinh-d-p.html Danviet. Retrieved from: http://danviet.vn/tin-tuc/nhung-sieu-y-tuong-lamnen-cach-mang-lich-su-am-nhac-533895.html

The address: 1. Dr student Van-Tha Nguyen, Phung Hung high school, 14A, Street 1, Ward 16, Go Vap District, Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam Email: thamaths@gmail.com 2. Ngoc-Giang Nguyen Dr of Banking University Ho Chi Minh, 36 Ton That Dam, Nguyen Thai Binh Ward, District 1, Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam Email: nguyenngocgiang.net@gmail.com

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 31-41, May 2017

The Implication of Distance Learning in Competence-Based Maritime Education and Training Yanning JIANG Deputy Director, Ministry of Transport, No.11 Jiangguomennei Avenue, Beijing, China Quan LI Lecturer, Dalian Maritime University, 1st Linghai road, Dalian, China Abstract. According to Section B-I/6 of the Seafarersâ&#x20AC;&#x; Training, Certification and Watchkeeping Code (STCW Code), using distance learning and e-learning method to train the seafarers may be approval by the contracting parties considering the standards of training and assessment set out in section A-I/6 of the STCW Code (IMO, 2011).This paper will focus on the implication of distance education in competence-based Maritime Education and Training (MET). Firstly, this paper will briefly introduce the background of competence-based MET, which is connected to the real shipping practice and may be referred as standards or performance based. Then this paper give the background of distance learning, which the learners and instructors are in different places. It will also introduce the fast development of the emerging technologies in the distance learning area. Furthermore, this paper would discuss the implication of distance-learning in competence-based MET. Some suggestions would be made in order to enhance MET, including the revision of related regulations and domestic laws in order to recognize the implication of distance learning in competence-based MET. A thorough quality standards system that monitors the competence-based MET and the whole process of distance-learning should be implemented.

Keywords: STCW; Competence-based; Maritime Education and Training; Distance-learning; Quality standards system

Introduction

According to the statics of International Maritime Organization (IMO), human errors contribute to about 80% of the maritime accidents. The poor competence of seafarers is one of the main reasons that lead to the loss of life, large number of injuries and extensive financial loss (Ziarati, 2006). Therefore, it is important to have more reliable and effective MET system capable to overcome the problem of human errors and be able to keep face with shipping industry updates (Ahmed, 2016). The International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for seafarers (STCW Convention) try to give the international minimum standards for maritime education and training and the minimum requirements for the competences of seafarers. In 1995, the STCW Convention was totally amended to emphasis on the minimum competence of seafarers. In 2010, this the minimum competence of seafarers were clearly enhanced by newly Manila Amendments of STCW Convention. The use of distance learning and elearning in MET is encouraged by the new amendments once again (Ruan, 2013). Distance learning and e-learning for training of seafarers are suggested under approval in Section B-1/6 of STCW Code. In order to be well prepared for distance education in Maritime Training and Education (MET), it is quite essential to understand its implication. As the seafarers are on the first line to implement the conventions and regulations developed by the shipping industry, therefore, to improve the competence of seafarers by all means would help the shipping industry to enhance the safety of navigation and marine environment pollution prevention. This paper tries to explain the development of distance education in competence-based MET and the future challenges that MET institutions would face. Some advices were concluded for well preparing the distance education for MET institutions and the Maritime Safety Administration (MSA) to improve MET practices. 2.

Competence-based MET

2.1 Competence Competence has very border meaning and usually refer to the minimum requirements of a worker to do the job. Competence can also be defined as the worthy performance. That is to say, in order to fulfil or exceed the objectives for their personal work, team, even the organization, it is the competence that describes the basic skills, knowledge and attitudes that people have to obtain (Gilbert, 1978). Therefore, the competences integrated with knowledge, skills and attitudes in the learning process are the basis in education and training. Some countries, such as England, Scotland, Wales, Australia and New Zealand even integrated competence-based training into their national vocational qualification system. Currently, there are two main competence-based training model, the US model and the UK model. US model often put competences into a training program and take the priority for how to use the competences during the whole learning process. However, the UK model regard the competence as the units of assessment of workplace of activity. The International Maritime

Organization (IMO) adapted the UK standards model of competence-based training for STCW 95(Emad& Roth, 2008). 2.2 Competence-based MET The STCW Code Section A-1/6 Training and assessment item 3 on Qualifications of instructors, supervisors and assessors says: “Each party shall ensure that instructors, supervisors and assessors are appropriately qualified for the particular types and levels of training and assessment of competence of seafarers either on board or ashore, as required under the Convention…” In the Code, the numerous tables each have four columns: competence is in column 1, knowledge, understanding and proficiency (KUP) are in column 2, methods for demonstrating competence are described in column 3 and column 4 shows the criteria for evaluating competence. Competence-based MET is a kind of method to approach MET that focus on seafarer can do, in respect to meeting specific standards rather than a seafarer‟s achievement. In competence-based education, student progress through learning objectives as they demonstrate mastery of content, at their own pace. It allows them to show what they know as soon as they know it. It is focused on what seafarers can do rather than on the course they have learnt (Deibinger & Hellwing, 2011). The main difference between competence-based education and traditional education are stated as following. First, for the curriculum, it can be variable in class structure as stated in the STCW where the management level, operate level and support level are listed. However, traditional education has standardized structure regardless of prior knowledge. Besides, all the competence must be mastered in competence-based education. In tradition education, some concepts may not be mastered by the student 3.

Distance education

3.1 Definition Distance education is an educational process and system in which all or a significant proportion of the teaching is carried out by someone or something removed in space and time from the learner (UNESCO, 2016). Therefore, distance education is a broad approach characterized by a high degree of variation of space and time. There are a considerable number of researcher‟s analyses that the concept of distance learning as additional mode of acquiring/transferring knowledge and skills in maritime education (Ng et al., 2009; Bauk et al., 2012; Buzadija, 2011; Flatcher and Dodds, 2003; Hanzu-Pazaraet al., 2010; Kadioglu, 2008). With the rapidly developing of information technology, the new electronic teaching methods particularly through the internet, and different types of media and platforms narrow the distinctions between generations.

3.2 Reasons for integrated distance education in MET Distance education has its own advantages and disadvantages like any kind other educational program. Before the distance education program start to enrol students, carefully consideration should undertook by both students and teachers in order to make sure that the distance education program meets the minimum requirements illustrated in STCW. (1)

Distance education advantages

As the traditional classroom training program require the seafarers to fix time and location, however, distance education program in MET can give a flexible alternative on time and location. Distance education can also relatively reduce the training fees and allow the students to learn without entering school. Besides, with the highly change of maritime technology and legal requirement, many refresher courses can also be delivered through distance education. (2)

Distance education disadvantages

However, there exist some disadvantages for the distance education in MET. Lack of social interaction is one of the main disadvantages. Although the student can have some interaction through email, chat rooms and other on-line platform, however, it is quite different than traditional classroom education. Besides, not all course can be offered online. Some courses directly with practical skills are hard to deliver by distance education. 4.

Distance education in competence-based MET

4.1 Development distance education program in competence-based MET According to STCW Code Section B-1/6 Guidance regarding training and assessment, each party has the responsibility to supervise the objectives and outcomes of distance and e-learning programs meeting the minimum requirements on the competences. Besides, unambiguous and direct instructions should be made to the distance education program to help the trainees understand the subject well. At last, professional and timely support through web, email, telephone and all other possible means should be provided by the teachers to help the seafarers systematically and effectively learning in the program. One of the challenges that the distance learning may pose to competence-based MET is meeting the requirements of STCW in addition to the issue on quality assurance (C.Swapp, 2001). Therefore, on the basis of guidance from STCW, this paper develop the Figure 1 that shows the process of how to develop a distance education program in competence-based MET.

Develop assessment procedures

Prepare others for CBMET program

Start

Identify/obtain competency standards

Determine the features of DE for CBMET

Design your CBMET program

Ensure registration as a training provider and accreditation of your course

Develop management procedures

Develop learning activities

Get materials and resources

Organize the facilities

Learner(s) enter(s) your DE for CBMET system

Continually monitor your DE for CBMET planning and development

Fig 1: Development distance education program for competence-based MET

The crafting of distance education program in competence-based MET needs much careful planning and designing and continuous quality monitoring during the whole development process. The first step is to identify the competences required in STCW Convention. As the STCW convention divided the seafarers into 3 categories, which is management level, operational level and support level. Each level would have their own competences required in the STCW Convention, thus it is the first step to identify and check the competences of the distance training program. Secondly, it is also important to illustrate the course delivery tools to the seafarers as different training providers may have different ways to delivery their own subjects. Then, the learning environment through distance education must be stated and materials and resources should be provided for the learners. The program should also give the detail information on how to assess and the minimum requirement for passing the assessment. At last, the management of distance education program and all the procedures should be covered by a quality standard system.

4.2 Learning in distance education program In distance education program of competence-based MET, the learner has more responsibility in the learning process, however, the teachers must be qualified to guide the learner as well as assessment procedures. Figure 2 shows the whole process of learning in distance education program of competence-based MET (Harris,1995).

Learner(s) enter(s)your DE for CBMET system

Learner(s) follow(s) instructions and procedures

In the competence(s) achieved

Learner identifies a competence(s) to work on Learner attempt the competence preferably in the workplace Learner engages in various learning activities in DE

Are all required competences completed

Trainer assess learner performance against criteria

Learner self-assess performance against criteria

Learner exists with a recognized credential or statement of attainment

Continually monitor your DE for CBMET system

Fig 2: Learning in distance education program for competence-based MET

Although the distance education program provides a self-paced mode of learning and flexible delivery of competences under STCW, however, it does not mean that learning is totally unstructured. Firstly, it is very essential to identify which competences the learner wants to achieve. This includes analysis how many competences already gained and which still need to learn. Secondly, the learner undertakes the learning activity engages in various competences based performance is measured according to specific criteria stated in STCW. At last, assessment will be conducted to confirm whether all required competence have been achieved. If some competences are already achieved, the learner can step back to enroll this program again unless all the competences listed in STCW are gained and relatively statement or recognized certificate will be issued. 4.3 Example MET programs through distance education 4.3.1 Current MET programs through distance education Singapore Maritime Academy (SMA) is deemed as the pioneer using distance education in MET. Around 2000, SMA developed an e-learning program based on CD-ROM to provide a training course regarding launching lifeboat. Nowadays, more and more MET institutions and shipping companies have involved in developing distance education programs in MET. For Example, California Maritime Academy offers on-line training course for maritime security awareness from 2006(Webster, 2006). Plymouth University in

UK have made a lot efforts in distance education and provide some course delivered by distance education. Some Non-government organizations, Classification Society and maritime training centre also provide some training courses by distance education. 4.3.2 Establish a competence based training program through distance education Since the International Ship and Port Facility Code (ISPS) was agreed at the International Maritime Organization in December 2002, the issue of security amongst shipping and port industries has become of paramount importance, not least due to the rise of piracy in several areas of the world (for example, the Somalia Coast, the Gulf of Aden and the west coast of Africa). The STCW 2010 Manila Amendments came into force on 1 January 2012. Ship security training is becoming mandatory requirements for all seafarers. We have developed a range of courses to meet the requirements of the STCW Convention and ISPS Code.  Module 1: Proficiency in Security Awareness(2 days) Under the STCW 2010 Manila Amendments, this course shall be undertaken by all seafarers employed or engaged in any capacity on ships which are required to comply with ISPS Code (Table A-VI/6-1, STCW Code). 1. Contribute to the enhancement of maritime security through heightened awareness 2. Recognition of security threats 3. Understanding of the need for and methods of maintaining security awareness and vigilance  Module 2: Proficiency in Designated Security Duties (3 days) Every seafarer who is designated to perform security duties, including antipiracy and robbery-related activities, shall be required to demonstrate competence to undertake the tasks, duties and responsibilities listed following (Table A-VI/6-2, STCW Code): 1. Maintain the conditions set out in a ship security plan 2. Recognition of security risks and threats 3. Undertake regular security inspections of the ship 4. Proper usage of security equipment and systems, if any  Module 3: Proficiency as Ship Security Officer (7 days) Every candidate for a certificate of proficiency as a ship security officer shall be required to demonstrate competence to undertake the tasks, duties and responsibilities listed following (Table A-VI/5, STCW Code): 1. Maintain and supervise the implementation of a ship security plan 2. Assess security risk, threat and vulnerability 3. Undertake regular inspections of the ship to ensure that appropriate security measures are implemented and maintained 4. Ensure that security equipment and systems, if any, are properly operated, tested and calibrated 5. Encourage security awareness and vigilance.

Challenges and suggestions

5.1 Challenges As current practice in MET, distance learning is not applicable and popularized for mandatory certification of seafarers due to the lack of approved training facilities, approved examination and assessment systems and quality standards system to control the MET activities. (1) Technical challenges Distance education tools and technology were agreed to be effective supplements for the traditional learning styles (Suresh& Anne, 2014). In recent times, advanced software programs, associated hardware and simulation tools have enable multi-mode distance learning options (Lokuketagoda, Ranmuthugala and Jayasinghe, 2015). However, in some countries, it might be very difficult to access the Internet. The limitation of computer and IT technology to some extent may hamper the using of distance education. In such a circumstance, the above provisions in the amendment constitute important technical support, and more and more distance learning and e-learning activities may come up then. (2) Assessment in distance education Assessment in distance education is also one of the key issues. Summative and formative assessment are the two main categories of assessment based on the function each serves and the timing of its application (William & Black, 1996; Harlen & James, 1997). In traditional classroom education and training, assessment can be through assignments, exams, and tests. It is important to design valid and reliable competence-based assessment that resemble situations that starting professionals or trainees can confronted with in real working life. Competency-based assessment is a collection of evidence to demonstrate that the seafarer can perform or behave according to the minimum competences in STCW Convention (Sharon, 2012). (3) Quality assurance Regulation I/8 emphasizes that all training, assessment of competence, certification, including medical certification, endorsement and revalidation activities are continuously monitored through a quality standards system (STCW, 2011). Monitoring of all the processes of distance education program to improve the accreditation standards, guidelines and procedures for quality assurance regarding learning, faculty, students, scale and access should be fully implemented. (4) Competence standards The core feature of a competence-based MET program is the minimum standards of the competence. Therefore, it is quite essential to identify the training needs under STCW. However, for a cadet pursuing his/her certificate may not have all the mandatory courses available through distance education as it is not suitable for all competences. For example, some practical skills cannot learn and perform through distance education.

5.2 Suggestions (1) Improve the legal framework It is suggested that related administration to amend or improve the current law and regulations under the requirements of STCW Convention to promote the distance education as a recognized method for MET. Distance education for seafarers has to be recognised as an authorised form of education (Jerzy & Pawel, 2014). IMO and the administration are responsible to arrange a proper transition process to distance education(Gholamreza & Wolff, 2008).For example, it is very important to develop a legal framework that allows certification and examination system under distance education in MET. (2) Promote international cooperation between MET institutions Nowadays, the number of maritime institutions providing distance education program is small after all. For the most of MET institutions, challenges will be encountered during the implementation of distance education program in respect of maintaining qualified maritime expertise, installation of training simulators and equipment, etc. The theme of 17th Annual General Assembly of International Association of Maritime Universities was working together: the key way to enhance the quality of maritime education, training and research. Therefore, co-operations and networking between MET institutions, thus, is recommended in such a case. Likewise, the recognition of credits between two different MET institutions may also be an issue to consider. (3) Establish lifelong distance education platform With the rapid development of maritime conventions and application of modern maritime technologies, sustainable refresher learning would occur among the whole shipping industry. Distance education may be the most flexible method to provide this kind training. Therefore, it is suggested to establish lifelong distance education platform with various and quality courses. 6.

Conclusion

The STCW 78/10 Convention requires levels of knowledge, understanding and skill for all seafarers on each level, and distance education is one of the methods recommended to achieve this outcome. This paper firstly give the definitions of competence-based MET as well as distance education. Some advantages and disadvantages for integrating competence-based MET through distance education were illustrated. Secondly, this paper also provides the developing process and learning process in distance education of competence-based MET. At last, some challenges in technical, assessment, quality assurance and competences standards are detailed analyses and some related suggestions are given for improving. While distance education is growing, it may be â&#x20AC;&#x17E;not as goodâ&#x20AC;&#x; as the traditional training programmes to some extent. This paper would welcome all maritime academy to collaborate in coming up with solutions for seafarers training by distance education in competence-based MET.

References Adolf K.Y. Ng,A. K. Y., Koo, A. C. and Ho, J. W. C., (2009), The motivations and added values of embarking on postgraduate professional education: Evidences from the maritime industry. Transport Policy, 16(5), pp. 251-258. Ahmed Kassar (2016). Towards Dynamic Maritime Education and Training Systems. Proceedings of the 17th Annual General Assembly of the International Association of Maritime universities, 26-29 October, Vietnam Maritime University, pp. 19-25. Bauk S., Dlabač T. and Pekić Ž. (2012), Implementing E-learning Modes to the Students and Seafarers Education, Faculty of Maritime Studies in Kotor Case Study. Proc. 4th International Maritime Science Conference - IMSC, Solin, Croatia, June 16- 17, Faculty of Maritime Studies in Split, pp. 247-255. Buzađija, N., (2011), The Way of Students‟ Efficiency Improvement in Knowledge Acquisition and Transfer Knowledge Model in Clarolina CMS, JITA – Journal of Information Technology and Applications, 1(2), pp. 127-135. C.Swapp, E. O. (2001). Approaches to Distance Learning: An Evaluation of Current Methodologies, Technologies and Operational Costs as an Alternative Means of Course Delivery for Developing Country Academies (Doctoral dissertation, World Maritime University, 2001) [Abstract].ISBN 3-937235-49-3 Deibinger, T., & Hellwing, S. (2011). Structures and functions of Competency-based Education and Training (CBET): A comparative perspective. Mannheim, Germany. Emad, G., & Roth, W. M. (2008). Contradictions in the practices of training for and assessment of competency. Education Training, 50(3), 260-272. doi:10.1108/00400910810874026 Fletcher S., Dodds W., (2003), The use of a virtual learning environment to enhance ICM capacity building, Marine Policy, 27(3), pp. 241-24., http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0308-597X(03)00003-4 Gholamreza, E. & Wolff, M.r. (2008). Contradictions in the practices of training for and assessment of competency. Education& Training, 50, 260-272 Gilbert, T. F. (1978). Human competence: Engineering worthy performance. New York: McGraw-Hill. Hanzu-Pazara R., Arsenie P. and Hanzu-Pazara L., (2010), Higher Performance in Maritime Education Through Better Trained Lecturers, TransNav – International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transport, 4(1), pp. 87-93. Harlen, W., & James, M. (1997). Assessment and learning differences and relationships between formative and summative assessment, Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy& Practice, 4(3), 365-379 Harris, R. M. (1995). Competency-based education and training: Between a rock and a whirlpool. South Melbourne: Macmillan Education Australia. IAMU. (2016). Annual General Assembly 17 of International Association of Maritime Universities. Vietnam Maritime University, 26-29 October 2016 IMO. (2011). STCW including 2010 Manila amendments: STCW Convention and STCW Code. London: International Maritime Organization. Retrieved from Jerzy Hajduk,& Pawel Krause. Distance learning courses for seafarers. Retrieved from http://iamuedu.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/28-Distance-Learning-Courses-for-Seafarers.pdf Kadioglu M., (2008), Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Training Application for MET Institutions, TransNav – International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transport, 2(1), pp. 111-116. Lokuketagoda, G and Ranmuthugala, D and Jayasinghe, S(2015), Distance delivery of IMO STCW competency courses: Making the concept a reality through modern technologies and learning tools, Proceedings of the 16th Annual General Assembly of the International Association of Maritime universities, 7-10 October, Opatija, Croatia, pp. 209-215. ISBN 978-953-165-116-5 Ruan Wei (2013). Views from maritime education and training on the full implementation of 2010 STCW amendments. Jouranal of shipping and ocean engineering 3(2013)40-46 Sharon Tan(2012). Develop Competency-based assessment plans Version1.1.Singapore workforce development agency-quality assurance division (14 October 2012) Suresh Bhardwaj,& Anne Pazaver(2014). Establishing the underpinning theories of maritime education and training for on-board competencies. AMET Maritime Joural Jan-June 2014

41 UNESCO. (n.d.). Definitions. Retrieved May 2, 2016, from http://www.unesco.org/education/lwf/doc/portfolio/definitions.html Webster, D. (2006, November 7). CALIFORNIA MARITIME ACADEMY OFFERS ON-LINE TRAINING COURSE FOR MARITIME SECURITY AWARENESS. Retrieved May 6, 2016, from https://www.csum.edu/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=791038cc-71bd-4873-af62adf108b648ee&groupId=61902 William, D., & Black, P. (1996). Meaning and consequences: a basis for distinguishing formative and summative functions and assessment, British Educational Research Journal, 22(5), 537-549 Ziarati, R. (2006). Safety At Sea- Applying Pareto Analysis. Proceedings of World Maritime Technology Conference (WMTC 06), Queen Elizabeth Conference Center, 2006.

Authors Biographies Yanning JIANG is the deputy director of the department of personal and education department of the Ministry of Transport of China. She got her Master‟s degree at the World Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden where she is specializing in Maritime Safety and Environment Administration. Quan LI is a lecturer at the Navigation College, Dalian Maritime University, where he has been employed since 2012. He is a certified navigational officer and got his Master‟s degree at World Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden where he is specializing in Maritime Education and Training.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 42-52, May 2017

Education in Iran: Limitations Imposed by Theocracy David V. Powell and Simin Cwick Southeast Missouri State University Cape Girardeau, Missouri, USA

Abstract. Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the shift to a fully theocratic state radically changed society, including the structure, culture, and intellectual focus of education. Under clerical “guardianship of the jurisprudent,” curriculum at all levels became a tool for political and ideological propaganda, with as much as 25% of the day devoted to Shi‟ite religious instruction. Systematic changes completely reversed any hint of modernization from pre-revolutionary days, institutionalizing a significant discriminatory bias throughout society. Religious minorities are sanctioned and systematically harassed with impunity. The Islamization of education included forced conformity of all courses of study and textbooks to Shi‟ite rules and values, suppression of any non-Shi‟ite beliefs or historical context, the institution of religious loyalty tests for teachers and students, and mandatory segregation of schools by gender. Despite almost equal attainment at every educational level, massive educational inequities persist for women, who are officially excluded from many high-paying technical fields. Rigid theocratic control ultimately limits attempts to modernize or democratize education and any associated opportunities. Keywords: Iran; democratization; education; gender; discrimination.

The Rise of the Theocratic State In modern society, it is rare to find a country that has gone from a constitutional monarchy to a complete theocracy. Just decades ago, Iran was considered the Europe of the Middle East, a model of modern western social and cultural identity, but in less than four decades this has completely changed. This paper presents a brief analysis of the effects of these changes on access to education and democratic opportunities for women and minorities in Iran. Although Iran is a modern republican state with a popularly elected parliament and president, Muslim traditions and practices of Sharia supersede modern standards of secular law and civil rights. The Assembly of Experts, a group of clerics elected by popular ballot, appoints the Supreme Leader, who serves as Commander-in-Chief, appoints judges, and has the final say in selection of key government ministers. However, all candidates for the Assembly and positions of national leadership must be vetted by the Guardian Council (Cole, 2015), twelve experts in Islamic law, chosen directly or indirectly by the Supreme

Leader. Hence, any action by the President or Parliament “depends by law largely on the willingness of the Supreme Leader to permit it” (Kagan, 2012, para. 4). In 1979, following the overthrow of Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, the Grand Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became Supreme Leader. Khomeini decried secular nationalism as “a tool of the devil,” (Cole, 2015), exhorting, “We will break all the poison pens of those who speak of nationalism, democracy, and such things.” (Alexander & Hoenig, 2008, p. 26). Khomeini‟s is popularly associated with the 12th Imam, a messianic figure in Shi‟ite theology (Cook, 2011). Although he never explicitly identified himself as the 12th Imam, he styled himself as “guardian of Muslims” in the “first government of God on earth” (Ahdiyyih, 2008, para. 3), invoking the principle of velayt-e faqih, or “guardianship of the jurisprudent.” At the same time, the Shi‟ite clergy undertook draconian measures to limit the power and influence of Iranian intellectuals, many of whom had developed close associations with Western ideas and values. Many students and academics who were previously allies of the radical clergy began to challenge Khomeini, calling for democracy and nationalism. By 1980, universities re-emerged as centers of resistance. Khomeini declared Daneshgahi Jahadeh, Universities Holy War, “to ensure the prevalence of Islamic faith in every aspect of university life” (Tamer, 2010, p 65). All schools and universities were closed, including primary and secondary schools as well as all foreign-run schools. Thousands of teachers were expelled or forced to retire. Textbooks and instructional materials were completely revised to purify them from un-Islamic influence. Many courses in the humanities were eliminated and religion courses added instead. Behavior and dress were regulated and in many cases, students and faculty were required to affirm belief in Islam and the authority of velayt-e faqih. In 1983, Iranian public universities began to reopen, but many teachers and intellectuals had already fled Iran to escape persecution, which weakened the quality of education, further undermining any chance of reversion to a democratic culture (Afshar, 1985; Tamer, 2010). Following the death of Khomeini in 1989, the Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, who had served as President since 1981, was elected Supreme Leader. Khamenei further consolidated the unity of theological and secular rule, involving the office of Supreme Leader more intimately in daily political affairs (Nasr, 2007). In the late 1990s, President Mohammad Khatami briefly challenged the supremacy of Khamenei‟s clerical rule in favor of popular sovereignty, personal liberty, and freedom of speech (Cole, 2015. However, this challenge was quickly sidelined, as Khamenei reasserted personal control (Nasr, 2007). Islamic conservatives regained the presidency in 2005, with the election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, a populist hardliner and leader of a faction advocating an Islamic government “free from democratic pretenses and devoid of modern concepts of human rights and the equality of the sexes” (Adhiyyih, 2008, para. 17). In 2009, Ahmadinejad‟s re-election to a second term was briefly opposed by the relative liberals of the Green Movement, who accused the government of stealing the election. However, Khamenei affirmed the results and announced that he would not tolerate the Green Movement or its agenda (Milani, 2015). For

the next six months, the Greens staged protests and demonstrations in favor of popular rule, but the Khamenei regime soon reasserted control, suppressing opposition (Cole, 2015). With the election of Hassan Rouhani as president in 2013, there once again appeared to be a chance for reform but, without support from the ruling ayatollahs, changes have been largely superficial (Nader, 2015). Rouhani‟s re-election as president on May 20, 2017, has been widely acclaimed in Iran as a populist victory legitimizing a mandate for reform, defeating hardline cleric Ebrahim Raisi with a 57% plurality (Erebrink, 2017). Reformists and moderates won all 21 seats in the Tehran City Council, and major gains in several other cities, including Mashad, Raisi‟s home town. However, as Erebrink noted, hard-liners have their own centers of power and “Iranian activists are already bracing for a possible wave of arrests, as happened after Mr. Rouhani was elected in 2013” (para. 24).

Modernization of education in Iran Traditional Iranian education was completely under the control of the clergy, existing solely to teach the Quran and Islamic law (Curtis & Hoogland, 2008). In 1907, Reza Pahlavi Shah established a Ministry of Education with a mandate to promote nationalism through education, patriotism, civic responsibility, and rule of secular law (Tamer, 2010). The mandate of this Ministry was threefold, to modernize, secularize, and Westernize education as a public institution of the state, free of clerical control. Additional measures such as the abolition of veiling and opening of the labor market to women enlisted still more support from the growing class of urban educated elites for modern, secular reforms. Each faction of Iranian society viewed the importance of education reform differently. The Shah viewed education reform as a tool for nation-building, to blunt the influence of Islam, and “establish a monopoly of power” (Khaki & Baht, 2015, p. 47). Intellectuals and educators regarded reform as a goal worthy in itself, which would ultimately democratize society. Urban families regarded education as a tool for upward mobility, reserving the highest levels of education for themselves. Rural families were torn between the potential of education to secure their children‟s futures and fear of moral corruption from modern secularized schools. The merchant class regarded education as a drain on productivity, creating idle parasites, while the clergy, most of whom came from the merchant class, opposed nearly all educational reform as an effort to undermine the authority of religious rule (Tamer, 2010). From the beginning, the Shi‟ite clergy were powerful vocal opponents of attempts to democratize and modernize education. Secular Western values were condemned as corrupt and un-Islamic and, in the end, public education failed to equalize opportunity in any significant way. Children from the provinces and lower classes could not compete with richer urban rivals for highly contested university seats. Urban elites and the clergy resented reforms that might jeopardize their political and economic power, while rural dwellers and the merchant class were afraid of losing their traditional status (Tamer, 2010). In January 1963, in response to political unrest and economic destabilization, the Shah announced a national reform billed as the “White Revolution,” which included the establishment of a Literacy Corps of young men working as village

literacy teachers in lieu of military service. This radically increased the teaching force, especially in remote rural areas (Metz, 1987). These teachers were not rigorously trained and the education they offered was of inconsistent quality (Tamer, 2010), but they had significant effects on literacy. In 1976, three years before the Islamic Revolution, the literacy rate for adult females was 24.42%, half that of adult males (48.18%). However literacy rates for the youngest adults, aged 15-24, were much higher, 42.33% for females and 70.90% for males, and the disparity between genders had closed by 10% (Index Mundi, 2012).

Structure of Education in Iran Basic education is compulsory, with free public schooling up to the eighth grade. Students take exit examinations at the end of the fifth and eighth grades. Those who fail the eighth grade examination are required to repeat the entire academic year and if they fail a second time, must enroll in basic vocational training or seek employment (World Education Services [WES] Staff, 2017). Upper secondary public education is also free, but not compulsory, and lasts three years. Students are tracked into an academic, technical, or vocational program, depending on the results of the eighth grade exit examination. The academic track is further specialized into humanities and literature; mathematics and physics; experimental sciences; or Islamic theology. The technical track includes technical/industry, business and service industry, or agriculture specializations. Qualifying graduates of the academic or technical track can go on to a preuniversity year of schooling or seek employment with an upper secondary diploma. Some students can also opt for a five-year integrated Associate Diploma (WES Staff, 2017). University admission is based on a very competitive national entrance examination, with only as few as 12% of applicants awarded admission to a public university (WES Staff, 2017). In recent years almost 60% of those accepted have been women. Tuition at public universities is minimal (a few dollars) or free in exchange for a commitment to work two years in government service. All private universities except Islamic Azad University also use the national entrance examination, but there is much less competition for admittance at private institutions than at public universities. Excluded from the highly competitive public higher education system, the vast majority of Iran‟s 4.5 million university students enroll as fee-paying students (WES Staff, 2013). According to Article 30 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, “The government must provide all citizens with free education up to secondary school, and must expand free higher education to the extent required by the country for attaining self sufficiency” (1989). An introductory section, “Woman in the Constitution,” promises an augmentation of rights in contrast to the previous regime, asserting, “Not only does woman recover thereby her momentous and precious function of motherhood, rearing of ideologically committed human beings, she also assumes a pioneering social role and becomes the fellow struggler of man in all vital areas of life.” This rhetoric implies, but does not actually meet the standard of equality; instead, it underscores the traditional role of motherhood and steward of future “ideologically committed” generations.

In 2000, the United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) launched the Education for All initiative to generate worldwide commitments to six core goals for “basic learning needs,”as outlined in the Dakar Framework for Action. In particular, Goal 1 pledged a commitment to “[e]nsuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete free and compulsory primary educaton of good quality” (p.15). Goal 5 advocated “[e]liminating gender disparities in primary and secondary educaton by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015” (p. 16). According to the Islamic Republic of Iran Ministry of Education report on progress toward these goals (2015), by 2013 pre-primary and primary enrollments were equal by gender. However, by junior high and high school, the gender parity index ratings declined to 0.91 and 0.94 respectively. The Ministry of Education report identified several challenges to reaching the Education for All goals of full equality, including (a) dropout rate of girls, especially in transition from one level to another, (b) cultural resistance to girls pursuing a secondary education, (c) lack of access to higher education, especially in rural areas, (d) limited recruitment of female teachers as role models, (e) early marriage for girls, especially in rural areas, (f) “incompatibility of educational programs with the needs and features of students including girls,” (g) cultural resistance to girls and women in the workforce, and (h) lack of alternative educational delivery methods for girls, such as remote and media education. By The 2016 the World Economic Forum‟s Global Gender Gap Report indicated full parity for both primary and secondary enrollment (female to male ratio of 1.01 for both levels); although tertiary enrollment remained at 0.93. The 2017 Global Competitiveness Index ranked the quantity of education in the Islamic Republic of Iran 6.1 out of 7.0, resulting in a global rank of 38 out of 138 countries. However, the quality of education was ranked much lower, (3.3 out of 7.0), ranking 97 out of 138. The pervasive focus on Shi‟ite ideology represents a significant discriminatory pressure inherent at all levels of Iranian education. Gender discrimination is evident in school structure and organization as well as the curriculum. By law, both primary and secondary schools are segregated by gender (Mouri, 2014), with daily schedules staggered so boys and girls never intermingle. In 2011, this policy was extended to preschools as well (Iran to Extend Gender Segregation, 2011). In 2012, the Ministry of Education also announced the publication of separate textbooks for male and female students (Bazhan, 2012). Even at the university level, male and female students in the same classroom are segregated into separate rows (Shahrokni & Dokouhaki, 2012). The government-mandated Iranian curriculum is very clear in its support of Shi‟ite doctrines regarding inequality and enforced separation of the sexes. Men are defined as superior and women as secondary to men with each sex assigned to gender-specific roles in all contexts of life (Paivandi, 2012).

Religious Discrimination in Iranian Education and Public life Since the 1979 Revolution, the hegemony of the Islamist state and supremacy of Shi‟ism has permeated all major institutions, including the educational system. Systematic changes in education law, curriculum, school organization, and teacher training completely reversed any hint of modernization or desecularization lingering from the pre-Revolutionary era, as educational institutions became “a place of political and ideological propaganda” (Paivandi, 2012, p. 2). Dissident teachers were dismissed, restrictions were imposed on female students (including mandatory veiling), and religious practices such as mandatory prayers were incorporated into daily school activities. The office of Educational Affairs was created to instill Islamic culture in all students, with designated political officers in every school to oversee and enforce compliance by teachers and students. As the Cultural Revolutionary Council mandated a systematic revision of school curricula to create “a virtuous believer, conscientious, and engaged in the service of the Islamic society” (Paivandi, 2012, p. 3), the proportion of the school day devoted to overt religious studies doubled, from 6.4% in 1975 to 12.7% by 1994. However, the Islamization of textbooks was not limited to religious studies. All textbooks in all subject areas were re-written, “adapting academic knowledge to the „rules‟ and „values‟ of Shi‟ite beliefs, and to the political vision of the Islamic state” (Paivandi, 2012, p. 4). As a consequence, 25% of the average school day is devoted to the indoctrination of Shi‟ite beliefs. Members of officially recognized religious minorities are allowed to open their own schools and receive religious instruction designed by members of their own community in non-Persian languages. However, the directors of such schools must be Muslim and the Ministry of Education must approve all textbooks, including religious texts (United States Department of State, 2012). Nonreligious texts must be those mandated by the state-approved curriculum, with full integration of Shi‟a doctrines and perspectives, which radically oppose the traditions and beliefs of religious minority groups (Paivandi, 2012). Even the 10% of Iranians who are Sunni are cut off from their own historical and theological heritage. Textbooks represent Islam exclusively from the Shi‟ite viewpoint and avoid the presentation of any examples of the significance of Sunni history or culture (Paivandi, 2012). Iran‟s 300,000 Baha‟is are particularly targeted for suppression and persecution, expelled by government order from public universities. The same order specified that Baha‟i children “should be enrolled in schools which have a strong and imposing [Shi‟a Islamic] religious ideology” (United States Department of State, 2014, p. 5) and only if they do not identify themselves as Baha‟i. Since denial of one‟s faith would violate a major tenet of Baha‟ism, this effectively excludes adherents from the educational system in Iran (United States Department of State, 2014). As of February, 2017, at least 90 Baha‟i were held in prison solely for their religious beliefs and dozens more had been arrested in the past year (U. S. Commission on International Freedom {USICRF], 2017). In December 2016, President Rouhani released a non-binding Charter on Citizens‟ Rights with provisions to respect freedom of thought and religious

belief for all citizens. However, this had little effect, as even members of constitutionally protected minority non-Muslim religions and dissident Muslim clerics continue to be subjected to official discrimination and persecution

(USICRF, 2017). As of December, 2016, at least 90 Christians were under arrest and detained, awaiting trial. Antisemitic messages remain pervasive in mosques and the state-run media, and even Zoroastrians have experienced an increase in repression and discrimination. Fellow Muslims are not exempt. At least 120 Sunni Muslims are currently in prison on charges solely related to religious beliefs and activitiesand in August, 2016, 22 were executed for “enmity against God.” Education of Women in Iran: Extreme Patriarchy in a Modern World Following the Islamic Revolution, the role of women changed dramatically, not just in Iran, but in the Muslim world at large. Women were required to wear veils, forbidden to serve as judges, and segregated or excluded in many public venues, including universities. Yet, the proliferation of new provincial schools in Iran resulted in significant advances in literacy for both sexes, especially for females (Cole, 2015). By 2012, overall adult literacy rates had risen to 79.23% for females and 89.36% for males; literacy for the youngest adults was nearly equal by gender, with 97.7% for females and 98.34% for males. (Index Mundi, 2012). The increasing literacy of the youngest segment of the population continues to raise overall literacy: as of 2017, literacy had increased to 91.2% for adult males, 82.5% for females, and 86.8 % overall (Central Intelligence Agency, 2017). Twice as many women are unemployed than men, yet women constitute onethird of doctors, 60% of civil servants, and 80% of teachers (International Campaign for Human Rights in Iran, 2015). According to the World Economic Forum (2017), Iran ranks 137 out of 138 coiuntries in female participation in the labor force. Both clerical leadership and government officials consider female education a threat to Islamic values, due to postponement of marriage for women and competition for education with potential husbands (International Campaign for Human Rights in Iran, 2015). In 2009, Iran‟s Science Minister announced segregation of the sexes in Iranian universities, and exclusion from gender-specific fields in accordance with the Islamic worldview (Iranian Minister Backs Gender Segregation, 2009). In August 2012, 77 academic subjects were closed to female applicants, including high-paying fields such as engineering and applied sciences. Not all universities followed suit, but in some provinces, the exclusion of female applicants meant that women who wanted to pursue these careers had to move to other regions of the country, where they were less competitive (Samadbeygi, 2012).

Conclusion The search for credible and highly valued university credentials exerts increasing stress on an already-strained higher education system in Iran, fueling a boom in international enrollment. Between 2008 and 2010, the number of Iranian students studying abroad increased 42.5%, from 26,927 to more than 38,380 (WES Staff, 2013). By 2016, this number had increased to 50,053

(UNESCO, 2016). Overseas study has become a means to meet the needs of the highly skilled modern workplace, as well as provide an important link to the outside world, despite sanctions and world-wide isolation of the ruling regime. However, this option has become more expensive in the past decade, due to falling oil revenues and discontinuation of government subsidies for currency exchange (WES Staff, 2013). Iranian education “imposes a belief system on students that they do not have the freedom or right to criticize” (Paivandi, 2012, p. 8), which ultimately limits any attempt to modernize education or the society which that education supports. Shi‟ite Islam is predicated on fundamental concepts of inequality under the universal government of Shi‟a as the standard bearer of worldwide Islam. This affects not only women, but all religious and ethnic minorities. In 2014, the United States Department of State reported, “All non-Shia religious minorities suffered varying degrees of officially sanctioned discrimination, especially in employment, education, and housing” (p. 6). Persecution and harassment of religious minorities occurs with impunity (United States Department of State, 2012). Official support for intolerance and discrimination, with reverence for martyrdom and jihad, create a rhetoric of violence and isolation that infiltrates every aspect of Iranian society, including education (Paivandi, 2012). Policies that exclude women from educational advancement, political positions and full employment are indicative of anti-democratic gender discrimination on a much larger scale that predates the Islamic Revolution. Despite almost equal educational attainment by gender at every level of education, massive inequities persist. Iran ranks 140 out of 144 in overall economic participation and opportunity and 136 out of 144 in political empowerment (World Economic Forum, 2016). As of 2015, at least 50 women‟s rights activists were in prison as a result of their advocacy, so public criticism is often guarded (Alidarami, 2015). Nevertheless, many Iranians privately acknowledge a growing pressure for modernization and reform through peaceful resistance, if not overt activism (Vick, 2015). According to news commentator Leila Alikarami, “Iranian women are too educated, talented, and ambitious to remain held back by an archaic set of rules” (2015, para. 13). References Afshar, H. (1985). Iran, a revolution in turmoil. New York: Springer. Ahdiyyih, M. (2008). Ahmidinajad and the Mahdi. Middle East Forum. (Reprinted from The Middle East Quarterly, 15(4), pp. 27-36). Retrieved June 2, 2016, from http://www.meforum.org/1985/ahmadinejad-and-the-mahdi Alexander, Y., & Hoenig, M. M. (2008). The New Iranian Leadership: Ahmadinejad, Terrorism, Nuclear Ambition, and the Middle East. Portsmouth, NH: Greenwood. Alikarami, L. (2015, October 8). Now is the time to push Iran on women‟s rights. Rewire. Retrieved June 10, 2016, from https://rewire.news/article/2015/10/08/nowtime-push-iran-womens-rights/ Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). (2017). The World Fact Book. Retrieved May 28, 2017, from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/ir.html

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 53-71, May 2017

Enhancing Interactivity in Online Classes: A Framework for Enhancing Instructor-Student, Student-Student, and Student-Content Engagement Carl Kalani Beyer Ashford University San Diego, California Stephen Brownson and Suzanne Evans National University San Diego, California

Abstract. In the 21st century, the main issue facing education is preparing students to be competitive in the global marketplace. For online higher education, this research demonstrates that the solution to this issue is to provide a deeper level of interactivity to increase student satisfaction and retention by applying best practices in online instructional strategies, and research related to 21st century skills and technology. The purpose of this article is to provide research-based practical strategies related to online instruction, 21st century skills, and technology to updating Interactivity in online classes. Keywords: E-learning, interactivity, 21st century skills, student satisfaction, retention

Introduction In the 21st century, the main goal of k-12 education is preparing students to be competitive in the global marketplace. It is our contention that this goal should also apply to higher education as well. For online higher education, this research demonstrates that the solution to this issue is to provide deeper level of interactivity to increase student satisfaction and improve the retention of students in online programs. Applying best practices in online instructional strategies along with research related to 21st century skills that are being used to achieve being competitive in the global marketplace for k-12 students is the means to resolve this issue (Anderson, 2003; Bandura, 2001; Brianthaupt, Fisher, Gardner, Raffo, & Woodward, 2011; Croxton, 2014; Herbert 2006; How online education, n, d.; Preparing 21st century, n. d.; Virtual schooling, 2006). The overall purpose of this article is to provide research-based practical strategies related to developing 21st century skills and increase use of technology to update the framework for interactivity that was first proposed by Terry Anderson and

D. Randy Garrison (1998). The learning outcomes for this article are fourfold: Firstly, develop a philosophical framework that helps lead us towards meeting the needs of 21st century education. Secondly, review the literature for specific strategies related to online instruction, the 21st century skills (communication, creativity, collaboration, critical thinking), and use of technology; thirdly, apply these strategies to the three interaction modalities (instructor-student, studentstudent, and student-content); and lastly, provide recommendations linking strategies connected to best practices in online instruction, 21st century skills, and technologies to the framework for interactivity. In the 21st century, eLearning promises to provide a means to improve student satisfaction and retention by joining technology and online interactivity with the 21st century skills of critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and communication (How online education, n. d.; Preparing 21st century, n. d.; Robb, 2012; Virtual schooling, 2006). Online students require a deeper social connection with interactivity, increased levels of student satisfaction in the online curriculum, and higher student retention rates. Over the past two decades, interactivity has been the way online programs have determined how to improve student satisfaction, academic discourse, retention rates, and dialogue (Grant & Lee, 2014; Na Yi 2003). In utilizing the interactivity construct of student-student, student-instructor, and student-content created by Anderson and Garrison (1998) as the fulcrum of interactivity, curriculum designers have experimented with the means to improve each of the interactivity schema. However, the results have not been encouraging due to the continuing high rates of online students dropping out of their online programs. There are three sections to this article. The first section provides the philosophical framework for this study. The second section provides a review of the literature on the 21st century skills of communication, creativity, collaboration, and critical thinking; on the role of technology in changing student interactivity; and the changes in the framework of interactivity. The third and final section provides a summary for improving each of the three tiers of interactivity, including instructor-student interactivity, student-student interactivity, and student-content interactivity, in terms of the 21st century skills. We are in an era of engaging in self-reflection to improve the exchange with instructors, content, and classmates to meet the challenge posed by the desire to retain students (Grant & Lee, 2014; Na Yi 2003). Thus, taken all together these sections lead to the introduction of strategies that will lead to greater student satisfaction and higher retention rates.

Philosophical Framework When considering ways to improve online instruction, one must also develop a philosophical framework that helps lead us towards meeting the needs of 21st century education. It involves â&#x20AC;&#x2022;creating a model consisting of a climate of shared learning that collaboratively supports creative inquiry, brainstorming techniques, creating and demonstrating originality, and refining and evaluating ideasâ&#x20AC;&#x2013; (AACTE, 2010, p. 1). This model is a response to the arguments on core principles, a blueprint of what educators should do that appeared in the AACTE white paper, written by The American Association of

Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) and the Partnership for 21st Century Skills. According to these two organizations, ―new teacher candidates must be equipped with 21st century knowledge and skills and learn how to integrate them into their classroom practice for our nation to realize its goal of successfully meeting the challenges of this century‖ (AACTE, 2010, p. 2). This will involve including in course work the 4Cs of 21st century education, which are namely: communication, creativity, collaboration, and critical thinking (AACTE, 2010; Preparing 21st century students, n. d; Robb, 2012; Virtual schooling, 2006). Even though these resources pertain to k-12 teacher education, the intention of this article is for use by higher education online instructors in all disciplines and not just education. The authors of this article feel that what is being done in education to prepare teachers to teach in the 21st century is apropos for all online instructors in higher education as well. A further element of the philosophical framework necessary for this work of achieving 21st century skills is the need to create an education system linked dynamically to self-driven learning of the students themselves. According to Steve Denning (2011), Education must abandon accountability through the use of detailed plans, rules, processes and reports, which specify both the goal and the means of achieving that goal. Instead, what is needed is ―dynamic linking,‖ which means that (a) the work is done in short cycles; (b) the teacher sets the goals of learning for the cycle; (c) decisions about how the learning is to take place is the responsibility of the students; (d) progress is measured in terms of the questions the students are able to generate, not merely answers that they are able to regurgitate; (e) students must be able to measure their own progress—they aren’t dependent on the teacher’s tests. (p. 2) Furthering the philosophical framework also involves research about what best instructors do in their college classes. Based on a study done by Bain (2004) on what best college teachers do in face-to-face classes, Brianthaupt, Fisher, Gardner, Raffo, and Woodward (2011) confirmed Bain’s assertions with research from online instructors. These authors discovered that the following from Bain’s General Categories of What the Best Teachers Do were verified by their research on online instruction: ―Fostering student engagement‖  ―Create a community of learners‖  ―Foster student-to-faculty and student-to-student interaction‖  ―Judicious and strategic use of humor‖  ―Use of blogs to facilitate reflective thinking, collaborative learning, and knowledge construction‖ ―Stimulating intellectual development‖  ―Create natural critical learning environments‖  ―Generate provocative acts, inaccurate and incomplete preconceptions or mental models‖  ―Use technology to create engaging and authentic context‖ ―Building rapport with students‖  ―Understand one’s student population and determine the amount of help needed‖

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―Let the students get to know the teacher‖ ―Keep written records of communication that includes relevant student information‖  ―Provide individualized feedback on assignments and activities‖ (p. 7). These components of the philosophical framework work together in this study by producing the foundation for this study to develop an updated version of the Three-tiered Framework for Interaction based upon best practices in online instruction with the 21st century skills and the use of additional technology.

Literature Review of 21st Century Skills Communication. Communication is a process. It can create a shared understanding between people at ―linear, interactive, and transactional‖ levels (Analysis of communication, 2011, p. 1). In addition, ―communication is the process of sending and receiving messages through verbal or nonverbal means including speech or oral communication, writing or written communication, signs, signals, and behavior‖ (Nordquist, 2017, p. 1). This communication must be ―across the life cycle, be a model for communication that produces unity, and practice a culture of cooperation, respect, and civility‖ (Who is welcome here, n. d., p. 1). Organizations need to set as its goals the following that demonstrates this commitment to open communication: ―address the diverse needs of learners;‖ ―enhance student literacy;‖ ―foster a respectful learning environment;‖ and ―provide students with skills for the 21st century‖ (Fostering a respectful, 2010, p. 1). In online instruction, communication is a very important means to build rapport with students by helping students to get to know one another and the instructor. This can be done by using introductory videos or other self-disclosure resources and keeping records of communication that include relevant information (Brianthaupt, et al., 2011). Communication needs to be ―two-way,‖ which refers to situations where both parties share thoughts and respect each other’s opinions (Analysis of communication, 2011; Best practices, 2009). In online education, more so than in face-to-face instruction, there must be communication from instructor to student, student to student, and student to content. Too often schools and colleges are places where communication is ―one-way‖ or ―top-down‖ affair. Interaction between students and between instructor and students, and between the student and the content can encourage everyone to actively participate in ―two-way‖ communication. One of the factors that makes communication in online instruction possible is the use of technology. According to McGilvery (2016), ―[i]nteraction through the use of communication technologies is vital to a quality online education because it allows teachers to promote active online learners, and that engagement translates to better learning outcomes and greater satisfaction with online learning, both for student and educator‖ (p. 1). With the proliferation of technologies capable of being used in online education, instructors need to make their selection in ways that promote the learning of students, satisfy their interest in the course, and keep them in the program. However, communication in online courses is also promoted by the ways in which online courses are developed and structured. The following are ways in

which this can occur: discussion forums; presentation of material; structuring of assignments; assessment choices made available for students; feedback by instructor and by students of student work, including peer assessment and selfassessment; developing literacy skills; addressing diversity issues; and fostering a respectful environment (Analysis of communication, 2011; Best practices, 2009). Instructors also need to utilize communication strategies to provide an environment that fosters diversity. This would entail understanding ―the nature of the experiences that students bring to their online classes to make connections and provide support between learning within and outside the course‖ (Beyer, 2010, p. 116). Moreover, instructors ―must make their delivery systems responsive to how diverse students learn‖ (Beyer, 2010, p. 116). Finally, instructors need to use multicultural education methods. This would involve students making decisions about ―what is best for their given place, time, and circumstances with respect to cultural diversity‖ (Beyer, 2010, p.116); using multicultural infusion, which is adding a cultural diversity component to a usual activity or assessment; and helping students identify stereotypes and inaccuracies and reduce prejudice (Banks, 2001; Beyer, 1996-1997; Beyer, 2010; Zeichner, 1992). Creativity. Creativity necessitates researching best practices used by instructors in teaching for equity and social justice. It means teachers need to be prepared to utilize instructional strategies that lead to being the best in accomplished teaching and learning in order that all students have equal opportunity. Educators need to examine how they address issues of diversity and to develop innovative and creative strategies that will increase their effectiveness. As a result, there is a need for cultural and linguistic competence. Cultural competence is defined as ―a complex set of cognitive, affective, and behavioral skills and characteristics that support effective and appropriate interaction in a variety of cultural contexts especially with others who are linguistically and culturally different from oneself‖ (Fantini, 2006, p. 12). It is an ability to step beyond one’s own culture and function with other individuals from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds. First, with the increase in the ethnically, culturally, linguistically diverse populations, it is a necessary response to the changing immigrant patterns within the United States. Second, it is a tool to improve the success of schools offering equality of opportunity to students of diverse backgrounds. Cultural competency is a great strategy to level the playing field so that all students have a chance to be successful learners. Culture competency practices can provide educators with an instructional strategy in providing more success in working in a diverse school community (King, Sims, & Osher, 2013). While multiple perspectives as a concept is generally used to teach history in k-12 schools, it is also a principle central to strategies based upon creativity. Educators can expose students to their own perspectives and teach students how to accept other alternative perspectives. ―In recent decades, educators have begun to question the validity of singular (one-sided) narratives‖ (Multiperspectivity, n. d., p. 1). Instead of just focusing on dominant groups and communities, the idea is to recommend the drafting of multiple

perspectives. When this approach is applied to students from groups outside of the dominant culture, it provides them with validation of who they are and reveals that their groups are part of the curriculum (Multiperspectivity, n. d.). Collaboration. Americans have throughout its history prided themselves on being self- sufficient individuals. This has especially been true in the school setting. One of the important 21st century skills is collaboration. Employers demand that candidates for employment learn new tasks through working collaboratively with more experienced peers. Thus, educators must change the inclination of schools to promote individual activity while considering collaboration as ―cheating.‖ The net result of this tradition of individuality is that students are underprepared to work as part of a team when they graduate from high school. Teachers need to be taught how to develop collaborative peer interaction, which includes ―making decisions about group size, the use of rewards, or what kinds of tasks to assign‖ (Williams, 2009, p. 1). ―Not only do teachers or curriculum designers need to understand collaborative learning techniques and how to select one that is appropriate for their goals, they also need to coordinate activities in order to design effective learning environments‖ (Williams, 2009, p. 1). Collaboration is also a way to foster student engagement. This would begin with creating a community of learners within the classroom through student to student and instructor to student strategies. Another way to accomplish this is by using technology to facilitate collaborative learning and knowledge construction (Brianthaupt, et al., 2011). ―Collaboration involves synergy. When people work together toward a joint goal, they can accomplish something larger, greater, and with more impact than something done in isolation‖ (Synergy through collaboration, n. d., p. 1). Instructors need to work with their students to build a collaborative community. Educators may select projects that ―involve individual students, teams, or the whole class working with a partner, team, or class‖ (Synergy through collaboration, n. d., p. 1). Instructors need to consider whether they will just share or whether they will work towards a joint goal. ―In other words, a cooperative project would involve each partner sharing their findings or conclusions. However, a collaborative project requires interaction and creation of something larger than the sum of the individual pieces‖ (Synergy through collaboration, n. d., p. 1). Critical Thinking. According to Rick Medrick (2010), sustainability as a means to furthering student critical thinking is ―one of the critical issues in today’s world‖ (p. 1). As a result, it is one of the predominant themes facing education in the 21st Century. ―How we make viable choices, what values guide these choices, and how we can live in harmony with nature and with one another will determine our future survival as a species‖ (Medrick, 2010, p. 1). This requires that educators and students must ―develop new awareness, hone new personal and technical skills, and learn to function on a systems-wide basis to develop new options‖ (Medrick, 2010, p. 1). To practice interacting in a sustainable and transformative manner, we must create new learning environments based upon critical thinking. A culture based education model can produce a learning environment that enhances critical thinking. The authors of

this article have all experience this through our previous work at Pacific Oaks College. Culture Centered Education (2010) was a white paper based upon over 50 years of experience of educators at Pacific Oaks College in California in using a culture based education model. From the instructors work with developing the Culture Centered Education model, they discovered that once children feel respected for who they are and what they know, their own intrinsic motivation led them towards successfully merging their own knowledge with the knowledge required by the learning outcomes of their coursework. Through this transformational process, their students became bi-cultural and/or bi-lingual, their confidence grew, and they were even more eager to learn. In the transformative learning environment, the teacher and/or learner exhibited the following traits: ―exhibit self-actualization, self-efficacy, and risk-taking among learners;‖ ―teachers believe in the process of the learner as teacher and teachers as learner;‖ ―teachers utilize the learner’s vernacular language;‖ ―learners welcome the use of the dominant language;‖ ―teachers and learners grow on a developmental continuum that begins with awareness of their own cultural identity, cultural values and cultural assumptions, and their identity and value orientation affect their practice and relationships;‖ ―teachers and learners continue movement to congruent, culturally literate behaviors and attitudes;‖ ―teachers and learners require a commitment to individual personal growth by challenging one’s social conditioning and cultural incompetence;‖ ―teachers and learners learn to value and respect cultural differences, and attempt to find ways to celebrate, encourage, and respond to differences within and among themselves, while they pursue knowledge about social justice, privilege and power relations in our society;‖ ―teachers and learners learn about themselves and the world around them within the context of culture;‖ ―teachers and learners honor and respect each other for who they are and what they know;‖ ―teachers facilitate, mentor, guide, instruct, and advocate for learners; and learners transform themselves by becoming self-confident, self-directed, and proactive‖ (Culture centered education, 2012, pp. 3-4). Other research has also shown that critical thinking can best be achieved by promoting self-actualization, self-efficacy, and risk-taking among learners. In earlier discussions of these traits, often self-esteem was the catch phrase. John Shindler (n. d.) defines self-esteem in three ways: ―first, one’s locus of control; second, one’s sense of belonging and acceptance; and third, one’s sense of competence or self-efficacy‖ (p. 1). More recent studies use the idea of motivation and learning as the concept encompassing all these traits, especially the act of intrinsic motivation. ―An intrinsically motivated student works for himself/herself, and for the pleasure, opportunities and the feeling of success it gives‖ (Motivation and learning, 2010, p. 1). The article, Motivation and Learning, relates that the following are sources of intrinsic motivation: ―individual goals and intents;‖ ―biological and psychological motivation and needs;‖ ―self-description, self-confidence and self-esteem;‖ ―individual needs, expectations, and descriptions of success and failure; self-awareness, selfexperiences and self-efficacy;‖ ―personal factors like risk-taking, coping with anxiety, curiosity; and emotional state and level of consciousness‖ (p. 2). These student traits originate from the following environments: setting goals by instructors, student, and peers; identifying and respecting student learning

styles; use of rewards and punishment systems; providing educational stimulants that enables critical thinking; and instructors holding high expectations of the students (Battalio, 2009; Motivation and learning, 2010). The article, Motivation and Learning (2010), also suggests that instructors can do a number of things to prepare the learning environment to optimize these circumstances. They include the following:  ―Give students a reason behind instruction in order to motivate them for the instruction.‖  ―Ask interesting questions that provoke curiosity in the beginning of instruction.‖  ―Both teach concepts or principles effectively and provide attentiondrawing examples‖.  ―Use previously learned concepts in examples or applications‖.  ―Make sure that all students know how to do what and how to reach targets.‖ (p. 4)

Literature Review of Technology Technology being used by Americans has soared over the past two decades. This increases the potential of using technology in education as a means towards improving communication, creativity, collaboration, and critical thinking skills. Speak Up, a national initiative of Project Tomorrow, has made its goal to empower student voices in education using technology (Learning in the 21st century, 2007). It is the belief of this organization that ―technology would engage, enable, and empower students to a new level of learning, leading them to develop the requisite skills they need to compete in the 21st century global economy‖ (Learning in the 21st century, 2007, p. 1). Through this infusion of technology, there will be a chance to lead our nation to increase efficiencies and productivity, and become ―a catalyst for defining a totally new approach to teaching and learning that is more relevant to the lives of students in this new knowledge-based economy and world‖ (The new 3’E’s, 2011, p. 1). Based upon the research being done by Speak Up, it was discovered that ―students have a very distinct vision of the power of socially-based, un-tethered and digitally-rich learning to improve their academic performance and prepare them to participate and compete in the global knowledge economy‖ (The new 3’E’s, 2011, p. 1). Through the infusion of technology, we can look forward to a future when ―schools have access to a rich and varied set of digital tools and resources that provide gateways to new learning experiences not bound by their classroom walls‖ (p 1). Finally, the use of technology can bring into the classroom the personal experiences of students and collaboration between peers and experts (Friedman, 2015; Loly & Willington, 2002). The promise of technology raises a few questions for the authors of this article. How will technology serve to realize communication, creativity, collaboration, and critical thinking skills to help students take advantage of the opportunities that present themselves through globalization of the workplace? What are the most effective ways to integrate technology in online instruction to improve instructor to student, student to student, and student to content interactivity? (Edutopia, n. d.; Prensky, n. d.).

The answers to these questions require an in-depth inquiry into interactivity in online courses and the development of higher cognitive skills, especially with 21st century learners, and through the use of technology (Lynch, Debuse, Lawley, & Roy, 2009). There are many tools that can be used to enliven an online course with the overall goal to improve communication, creativity, collaboration, and critical thinking. Instructors and students can use Voki for animation; Eyejot for videocasts; Vocaroo for podcasts; Glogster for collages; Kahoot.it for games; Nearpod, Prezi, and Microsoft PowerPoint for presentations; Zoom, Blackboard Collaborate, GoToMeeting for online live presentations; and Facebook and Edmoto for social networks. Embedding social media increases the level of the three-tier interactions of instructor-student, student-student, and student-content in distance learning courses using social learning (Bandura, 2001) and collaboration (Slavin, 1988). Research has shown that students who were in the higher levels social media usage showed stronger abilities to complete the assignments intrinsically and ―85% of students overall remained on task during each lesson‖ (Callaghan, & Bower, 2012, p.15).

Literature Review Framework of Interactivity Over a decade ago, research on best practices in online instruction had offered ways to improve online courses. Bill Petz (2004) developed three principles on how to accomplish this task. Principle 1 suggested that the instructor should ―let the student do (most of) the work‖ (p. 33). This would involve students leading discussions for them to learn how to ask thoughtprovoking questions; students finding and discussing web resources that they share with their classmates; students helping each other as peer assistants; students grading their own assignments; and students creating their own case studies. By the standards of 21st century skills, this Principle would involve communication, collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking skills. Principle 2 suggests that ―interactivity is the heart and soul of effective asynchronous learning‖ (p. 37), which involves interaction between students, the student and instructor, and the student and content, ―with the entire class, in small groups or teams, or one-on-one with a partner‖ (Petz, 2004, p. 37). This would entail using collaboration of the 21st century skills. Principle 3 suggests that the instructor ―strive for presence‖ (p. 41). While this presence may involve offering feedback to assignments, the primary means for this occurs with the discussion forums. In sum, this involves promoting the collaboration skill. Presence in discussion responses includes social, cognitive, and teaching categories. Social presence occurs when an online class establishes a community of learning. The instructor and the students work together by expressing their emotions, feelings, and mood through interactivity, and a commitment to the group and the common goals and objectives. Formal techniques used to promote collegiality includes using an introductory discussion forum, providing discussions that involve interpersonal interaction not connected to the content of the course, and the use of an asynchronous chat room. Cognitive presence is ―the extent to which the professor and the students are able to construct and confirm meaning through sustained discourse (discussion)‖ (p. 42) that aids the communication skill. This presence is ―demonstrated by introducing factual, conceptual, and theoretical knowledge

into discussion‖ (Petz, 2004, p. 42). Teaching presence ―is the facilitation and direction of cognitive and social process for the realization of personally meaningful and educationally worthwhile learning outcomes‖ (p. 44). Petz (2004) includes two areas of activities undertaken to develop Teaching presence. The first area involves facilitating the discussion by ―identifying areas of agreement and disagreement,‖ ―seeking to reach consensus/understanding,‖ ―encouraging, acknowledging and reinforcing student contributions,‖ ―setting a climate for learning,‖ ―drawing in participants/prompting discussion,‖ and ―assessing the efficacy of the process.‖ The second area involves using direct instruction by ―presenting content and questions,‖ ―focusing the discussion,‖ ―summarizing the discussion,‖ ―confirming understanding,‖ ―diagnosing misperceptions,‖ ―injecting knowledge from diverse sources,‖ and ―responding to technical concerns‖ (p. 44). While online courses have weekly written assignments, the central instructional strategy is the discussion forum (Craig, 2015). According to Mastering Online Discussion Based Facilitation: Resource Guide (2009), using primarily discussion threads ―can lead to a minimalist approach by students, potentially have lower levels of interactivity, and problems with retention and student satisfaction‖ (p. 1). According to Cheryl Hayek (2012), instructors should facilitate a discussion forum as if they are the hosts at a party. This would include the following actions: welcome everyone, be present in the forum, keep volume of participation consistent, make sure every person feels comfortable in the new environment, and invite them back. However, if discussions are asynchronous very few instructors can follow through on these suggested actions (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer 2000; Friedman 2015). Another set of suggested strategies call for the use of positive reinforcement by instructors creating a teaching environment that involves the following: open communication, demonstrate ways to support ongoing discussions, establish guidelines for giving students credit (instructor provide, self-evaluation, and peer-evaluation), use of small group activities to help build community and establish peer communication and connection, encourage students to interact informally, and create discussion threads or areas for personal introductions and social interaction (Mastering online, 2009). A new concept in the success of the use of the discussion forum is the ―100 percent Response Model‖ (Ryan-Rojas & Ryan, 2013). Applying this model involves the instructor responding to every student when they provide their initial response. It can even prove more fruitful if the instructor in his/her response ends with a question. This opens a conversation between the student and the instructor that continues when the student responds to the instructor’s question. In practice, the exchange of discussions between classmates is also usually more robust as the student-instructor exchange provides a model for the students to follow in their own conversations. The most important result of this dynamic conversation is that an online community is forged. Research has shown that traditional online classrooms tend to not engage student interest. When online courses encourage the use of social media, interaction in the course increases and students exhibit higher levels of creativity (Bernard, Abrams, Borokhorski, Wade, Tarmin, & Bethel, 2009).

Summary of Improving Framework of Interactivity - Tier One: InstructorStudent Interactivity Presentation of this final section is based upon the literature review as well as the authors’teaching experiences. Thus, there are no citations to material in this final section since they were already covered in the previous sections or represent our own ideas but verified by the literature review. Communication. In the effort to improve instructor-student interactivity communication, there are several strategies to which instructors can use. Frist, instructors should adhere to a ―100 Per Cent‖ Discussion Board response. This means that the instructor responds to every student when they respond to the prompt(s) of the discussion forum and any other time to which the student addresses the instructor. Second, coupled with this practice, instructors should require that students respond to more than the usual two classmates and they should be encouraged to at least read the responses of most classmates to discover what others are saying. Third, the instructor should respond to the students’ initial response that connects to what the student stated and end with a question. The student should respond to the instructor’s question as part of the requirement to obtain full credit for the discussion activity. Fourth, the instructor should provide timely feedback, which in classes with high student satisfaction and retention rates means within the first 24 hours of the student response. Fifth, instructors should help identify areas of agreement and disagreement to reach consensus/understanding between student and instructor. This can be accomplished by instructors reading the responses between the students but not responding. Instructors also should use direct instruction by presenting content and additional resources, sharing his/her experiences, asking questions, focusing the discussion, summarizing the discussion, clarifying misperceptions, and responding to technical concerns. Sixth, communication between the instructor and students’ needs to include addressing diversity issues. This can be accomplished, by including in the introduction discussion, prompts about the students’ diversity background and attitudes towards prejudice and stereotyping. Creativity. Instructor-student interactivity can be improved by instructors using creativity strategies. First, instructors can pave the way for students to learn and demonstrate cultural and linguistic competence. This can be accomplished through the discussion forums, especially through what the students are required to include in their introductory discussions. Second, the instructor could encourage use of technology to develop conversations between students and instructors such as offering an option to use a presentation software to do the introduction discussion or as part of one or more of the discussions. Third, it is important that the instructor fosters student thinking in terms of issues related to equity and social justice by tapping into their own experiences with these concepts. Fourth, instructors should embed within the discussions a means to use social media in discussions between students and the instructor. Fifth, instructors should address issues of diversity and to develop innovative and creative strategies that will increase their effectiveness. Finally, the instructor should encourage multiple perspectives through prodding within

discussion responses to studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; initial responses and in questions to which the instructor poses to students. Collaboration. Instructor-student interactivity can be improved by creating a collaborative community of the members of the class. First, instructors could respond to introductory discussions of all students in promoting a community of the classroom. Through this means, students see the importance of getting to know each other and the instructor. Second, the instructor works with students to encourage the sharing of emotions, feelings, and mood by being a role model. This will require that the instructor shares his/her experiences whenever possible so that the students become comfortable with taking the risk to share their own experiences. Third, the instructor should develop collaborative peer interaction by mentioning in response to one student what other students have said as means to encourage students to read other students responses and respond to more classmates. Fourth, the instructor should foster collaboration that requires interaction and creation of something larger than the sum of the individual pieces. This can be accomplished by developing cooperative group activities and using direct instruction that was mentioned in the Communication section above. Fifth, the instructor should help students to see the value of accepting the diversity of the class. Finally, the instructor should encourage students to share their commonality. While accepting differences is important to form a community, it is also very important that with all the differences there is many things to which the students have in common. Critical Thinking. Instructor-student interactivity can be improved by fostering a critical thinking environment. First, instructors can foster critical thinking by getting students to think in terms of multiple perspectives. Instructors may need to illustrate the concept of multiple perspectives and whenever possible to identify its occurrence in discussions and student work. Second, instructors should encourage interactive social conversations and dialogues using technology. This can be accomplished by using digital software to host synchronous conversations. Third, instructors should make viable choices available and promote an environment that values choices. Fourth, instructors should promote transformation of the students by modeling his/her own transformation and encouraging students to identify how they are being transformed by the course. Fifth, instructors should foster an environment where the student performs as teacher and the instructor perform as a learner. Finally, instructors should promote self-actualization, self-efficacy, and risktaking among learners.

Summary of Improving Framework of Interactivity - Tier Two: StudentStudent Interactivity Communication. In the effort to improving student-student communication interactivity, there are several strategies to which instructors can use. First, instructors can create a means for students to lead discussions with their classmates. Obviously, instructors must build into the course design the flexibility for students to develop the prompts for discussions. This may work best in using synchronous meetings either involving video conferencing

technology or just an open chat forum. Second, instructors could make it possible for a continuous conversation between students to take place. In part this can be achieved by instructors offering part of the grade for discussions to make this happen. Third, instructors can encourage students to provide feedback to classmates in both their discussions and assignments. Both the continuous conversations and offering feedback could also be accomplished by using cooperative learning groups to have continuous dialogue between group members. Fourth, instructors need to provide opportunities for students to share their diversity with their classmates. Multicultural infusion activities that add a diversity element to the usual content would be a means to achieve this goal. Fifth, students should be encouraged by instructors to share the technology they use when they meet the literacy requirement. Students can do this by using social media as well as when they post their work. Sixth, students need to be encouraged to offer peer- or self-assessment of their work and the work of their classmates. Finally, instructors need to foster a respectful learning environment that identifies areas of agreement and disagreement and promotes seeking to reach consensus among students. Creativity. Student-student interactivity can be improved by instructors using creativity strategies. First, instructors should provide the means for students to help each other as peer assistants. This could include making it possible for students to partner with a peer or a group of peers, aiding when needed. Second, instructors should engage students in sharing cultural and linguistic competence with each other. This should begin with the introductory discussion but can continue to occur during the discussion forums, and when students are working on the assignments. Third, instructors should encourage the use of technology to develop conversations among students. This can be accomplished by providing access to social media. Fourth, instructors should involve students in conversations about equity and social justice. Just as students may have opportunities to share cultural diversity through multicultural infusion activities, students should be able to share their experiences with equity and social justice. Collaboration. Student-student interactivity can be improved by creating a collaborative community of the members of the class. First, students should be encouraged to respond to the introductory discussion to more than the minimum required of classmates and read introductions of all classmates. Second, through the access to social media or synchronous or asynchronous chats, students should be encouraged to express their emotions, feelings, and mood to build empathy and trust. Third, instructors should help students develop collaborative peer interaction through the discussion forums. Fourth, the instructors should allow students to collaborate through interaction that builds upon the creation of something larger than the sum of the individual pieces. In other words, students can be assigned a part of an assignment and work together to produce a group version of the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s assigned part. Fifth, students should be encouraged to share their multiple perspectives. This can occur when the directions in the Guided Response for discussions ask students to respond to students that have a different perspective. Finally, students are

encouraged to share and inquire as to each other’s culture. This can also be accomplished by using the same method used to share multiple perspectives. Critical Thinking. Student-student interactivity can be improved by fostering a critical thinking environment. First, instructors should provide opportunities to help students identify each other’s multiple perspectives. Second, instructors should engage classmates in social conversation and dialogue using technology. Third, instructors should promote an environment of students making choices in how they do discussions and assignments by encouraging student to share how they made their choices and access to the alternative choices they made. Fourth, instructors should create an environment where students can practice interacting in a sustainable and transformative manner. This can best be done by following the Culture Centered Education model, which calls for students honoring each other’s self-efficacy and triggers their innate curiosity and intelligence. Fifth, instructors should provide a means for students to perform as teacher and learner. This can best occur when students are teaching and learning from each other. Finally, instructors should create an environment where students can share efforts to promote selfactualization, self-efficacy, and risk-taking. This works best in an environment that have its members respect each other.

Summary of Improving Framework of Interactivity - Tier Three: Student-Content Interactivity Communication. In the effort to improving student-content communication interactivity, there are several strategies to which instructors can use. First, build into the course a means for students to provide feedback on their classmates’ work. One practice that can make this possible is to use technology like open chats either synchronous or asynchronous to provide feedback by students of their classmate’s work. Second, introduce a mixture of multiple intelligences within the content to open communication based upon the learners’ learning styles. Third, when students respond to the question the instructor asks in response to the student’s initial response, include their response as part of the grade of the discussion. Fourth, instructors should build assessment opportunities based on the student using a variety of technologies such as websites, blogs, and presentations or using social media. Fifth, instructors should offer students opportunity to critique the content and selfassess their work and assess the work of peers. Sixth, instructors should employ instruction based upon students’ having choices. While offering a technology option in terms of completing the assignment is one way, the choice could be a different set of prompts to cover the learning outcomes. Finally, instructors could either host a synchronous meeting or create video vignettes for each week of the course that further prepares student for the content and assessments. Creativity. Student-content interactivity can be improved by instructors using creativity strategies. First, develop curriculum that involve students researching best practices used to obtain equity and social justice. Using an open forum through social media or chats synchronous or asynchronous, and assessing through a required journal might be an option. Second, instructors

should address issues of diversity and develop innovative and creative strategies that will increase student effectiveness in working in a diverse global marketplace. Third, activities should be provided by instructors that encourages students to create some of the resources for the course such as finding and sharing websites, videos, or research studies. Fourth, content should encourage students to exhibit cultural and linguistic competence. This can be accomplished through discussion forums or embedded in the prompts for journals and essays. Finally, instructors should build technology into teaching content and assess learning. This practice can be connected to offering choices of technology options as well as the course embedding video vignette lectures, audio-visualkinesthetic activities, and synchronous lectures using a delivery systems like Zoom, Blackboard Collaborate, and GoToMeeting. Collaboration. Student-content interactivity can be improved by creating a collaborative community of the members of the class. First, provide discussions that involve interpersonal interaction between students that is not connected to the content of the course. This could be accomplished by offering social media sharing, opening a synchronous delivery system like Zoom, Blackboard Collaborate, or GoToMeeting to give students a chance to exchange ideas as a required part of the curriculum. Second, provide asynchronous chat room as means to encourage students to get to know each other. Third, an opportunity should be given peers to replace individual work with collaborative work. Students could select projects that replace individual student work with teams, or the whole class working with a partner, team, or class cooperative projects. Finally, instructors could create content that encourages cultural sharing and inquiry, investigating equity and social justice, and culture centered activities. Critical Thinking. Student-content interactivity can be improved by fostering a critical thinking environment. First, provide students with the opportunity to use choice to trigger their own intrinsic motivation by allowing them to determine their own assessments. This can be done by making meeting a course outcome as the assignment and leaving the means to meet the outcome up to the student. This would make a great final project and earlier assessments could be built to scaffold towards creating the final project. Second, instructors should build multiple perspectives and multicultural infusion activities into the course work. Third, create assessments that involve social conversation and dialogue using technology such as blogging or social conversation. Fourth, instructors could provide content that uses scaffolding leading to a transformative experience for students. Fifth, instructors could create content designed to encourage students to perform as teacher and learner. Finally, instructors could provide content that include ways to promote selfactualization, self-efficacy, and risk-taking among learners.

Conclusion Through the search of the literature on best practices in online instruction and strategies connected to the 21st century skills of communication, creativity, collaboration, and critical thinking along with new technologies, this article

provides ways to increase student satisfaction and retention by improving the framework for interactivity. Earlier research (Anderson & Garrison, 1998) had provided the framework for interactivity to structure successful online courses. Over time, other research on online instruction (Grant & Lee, 2014; Robb, 2012, modified and added to the framework for interactivity. Some changes have taken place through the years but online education continues to have low student satisfaction and retention rates. Since the goal of American education has been to better prepare its students to be competitive in the global marketplace, it made sense to borrow the 21st century skills from k-12 education and apply it to higher education online instruction. At a future date when the recommendations made in this study have had a chance to be implemented, research will still need to be done to see what if any improvements there are in the student satisfaction and retention rates. Both the institutions with which the authors are associated are already implementing many of the recommendations presented in this study. We look forward to updating this study with a future report of the outcomes related to student satisfaction and retention rates when using the framework for interactivity from strategies based upon best practices in online instruction and 21st century skills of communication, creativity, collaboration, and critical thinking.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 72-89, May 2017

How a Hands-on BIONICS Lesson May Intervene with Science Motivation and Technology Interest Marth Michaela and Franz X. Bogner ZMNU (Centre of Math & Science Education), Department of Biology Education, University of Bayreuth

Abstract. Science is supposed to raise and support young children‟s interest as early as possible, at the latest at the beginning of secondary school. Our empirical study monitored individual motivation levels towards science of 6th graders by applying established measures to 324 students (age M=12.2 years, 189 girls, 135 boys). The first empirical measure consisted of the Science Motivation Questionnaire (SMQ), the second of the Technology Questionnaire (TQ). Our lesson consisted of a student-centered outreach module about bionics within a zoological garden in combination with related exhibition. Measurement was conducted two weeks before (T0), directly after (T1) and six weeks (T2) after program participation. The factor structure of the SMQ-II we obtained showed a major difference to the published structure: our young sample couldn‟t differentiate between intrinsic motivation (IM) and self-efficacy (SE). Moreover, the expected two subscales merged into one which we labelled self-confidence (SC). The other subscale “grade motivation” followed the expected factor structure of the original scale. While this latter subscale was unaffected by our intervention, the subscale SC peaked directly after program participation, but unfortunately did not sustain this shift over a six week time period. There were no gender differences at any testing point. Science motivation correlated at a low level with technology interest but failed to correlate with social implications of technology. Keywords science motivation; factor technology interest; bionics module

structure;

gender

issues;

Introduction Science and technology are omnipresent in daily life (Ardies, De Maeyer, Gijbels, & van Keulen, 2015). Therefore, a scientific understanding is needed, young people need to familiarize themselves with the increasing penetration of science and technology in our lives (DeBoer, 2000). The scientific literacy paradigm seems an appropriate framework with its potential to support individual needs, as any level of scientific literacy may affect decisions related to science (Miller,

1983). Understanding dependencies is of importance for both the societal and the individual levels (Laugksch, 2000). Scientifically literate individuals tend to feel more competent regarding technology and science in everyday life, although the social, moral and intellectual attainments may need separate attention (Laugksch, 2000). School curricula should prepare children appropriately and sufficiently (ISB, 2004). In consequence, the aim of science education must be to support scientific literacy: DeBoer (2000) declared teaching science and building scientific literacy as the most important goal to prepare best for working life as well as for most other circumstances including becoming a critical consumer of information. It also may help to better understand public discussions about science as well as potential relationships between science and technology. It is alarming that interest, attitudes and motivation of students in the scientific fields seem to drop consistently during school attendance (Osborne, Simon, & Collins, 2003). Motivation is a well-researched issue with over 100 different definitions even 35 years ago (Kleinginna & Kleinginna, 1981). Today there is general agreement on three major issues: (i) many internal aspects contribute to motivation (psychological and phenomenological), (ii) other aspects deal with functional processes, and (iii) the comprehensive nature of motivation. Motivation in the literature is also understood as dependent on self-efficacy, on beliefs in control as well as on the capability to perform a duty, and self-responsibility building upon individual achievement potential (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990). Self-efficacy is assumed to effect academic accomplishment in various ways (Pajares, 2002). While self-regulated learning is supposed to influence motivation (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2008), its integration into teaching approaches is regarded an essential need. Although „motivation to learn science` is defined as „an internal state that arouses, directs, and sustains science-learning behavior‟, its impetus often seems to be lost during school time (Glynn, Brickman, Armstrong, & Taasoobshirazi, 2011, S.1160). Therefore, educators need to support motivation and to bring interest into classrooms again. For designing educational programs, knowledge about presumed levels of motivation may support learning and understanding science. A brief and valid assessment is welcome in any classroom. Glynn, Taasoobshirazi, & Brickman (2009) developed a 30-item Science Motivation Questionnaire (SMQ) (originally for students in college courses; Glynn, Shawn &Koballa, 2006), providing the possibility to measure science motivation of university students. A later reduction to 25-items yielded a modified SMQ-II covering five subscales: intrinsic motivation (IM), self-efficacy (SE), selfdetermination (SD), career motivation (CM) and grade motivation (GM) by following a well-defined theory of human learning (Albert Bandura, 1986). Schumm & Bogner (2016) first applied this SMQ-II to high school age groups. Similarly, Schmid & Bogner (2017) used three sub-scales of the SMQ-II for older secondary class students who followed an inquiry approach in an interdisciplinary lesson-unit. Technology is another trigger in science education as it is present nearly everywhere in our daily life (Ardies et al., 2015). Young people in particular grow up in a society pervaded by social media and communication technology (O‟Keeffe & Clarke-Pearson, 2011). Thus, the education sector needs to care of using that tools appropriately (Ardies, De Maeyer, & Gijbels, 2013). It is

important, too, that younger students be interested in technology and science. To measure interest in technology and its social aspects, we used the revised short Technology Questionnaire of Marth & Bogner (2017a). We know from the literature that school students with positive experiences at young ages are more successful later in the technology sector (Akpınar, Yıldız, Tatar, & Ergin, 2009). Especially the transition phase from primary to secondary school is regarded as important for science and technology education as this time is one of the most crucial in the lives of children (George, 2006). Motivation for science and technology needs specific promotion to counteract its tendency to decrease during adolescence (Vedder-Weiss & Fortus, 2011). Elementary school children are often not free in their choice of science or even science related activities, as the classroom teacher often decides the content (Simpkins, Davis-Kean, & Eccles, 2006). In high school, students are able to choose science courses as well as outof-school activities, interacting with free time options like hanging out with friends, working or doing other more interesting things (Larson & Verma, 1999). There is also a distinction between cultures and economies: Asian children tend to attend after-school activities in addition to school commitments leading to better achievement effects (Larson & Verma, 1999). This transition passage, including adolescence, is one of the most crucial periods of supporting interest in science. Larson, Wilson, Brown, Furstenberg, Jr., & Verma (2002) described that transition passage as socially versatile where the most prejudices originate regarding science and learning science. It is worth spending time on science courses and science out-of-school activities to improve the general thoughts and beliefs of young students. Teachers have to be more motivated as well, and need to make experiences more meaningful for school students (Mc Robbie, 2000). It is therefore important to bring school students into contact with technology in science with a variety of programs and educational efforts. There are in general gender differences in science motivation (Akpınar et al., 2009). Marth & Bogner (2017a) for example showed for boys in low secondary school higher technology interest scores and more social implications of technology. This trend has also been observed with freshmen and adult teachers. Only the social implications of technology seem similar within the teacher cohorts. As science traditionally is still a male-dominated field, women in academic fields like math, science or technology may feel discriminated from the beginning until their graduation, compared to a female-dominated area like art, education or social sciences (Steele, James, & Barnett, 2002). Thus, the likelihood of choosing science careers drops as further constraints like the flexibility of jobs and the traditional role combining family and career aspirations also impact (Frome, Alfeld, Eccles, & Barber, 2006). Moreover, women choosing a science career and participating in a doctoral program may show a lower career aspiration and also a lower academic self-concept (Ülkü-Steiner, Kurtz-Costes, & Kinlaw, 2000). This trend is well-known in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math) (Blickenstaff, 2005). Despite many available jobs in this sector the number of employed women remains low (Dasgupta & Stout, 2014). A good possibility to overcome the above shown risk might strictly connect science with technology. Bionics is a substantial research area combining the biology, technology and related sciences to find suitable solutions for the improvement of technology problems, therefore nature can act as a model for

technical advantages (Nachtigall & Wisser, 2013). Bionics might be a possibility as it combines science and technology in an innovative way. More and more inventions can be expected. The lotus-effect, for example, is one of the most famous examples with its self-cleaning mechanism due to a wax-coated surface (Neinhuis & Barthlott, 1997). A further example is the shark skin with its optimized longitudinal body axis where small parallel riblets reduce drag Oeffner & Lauder (2012), which reduces wind flow in aircraft (Bechert, Bruse, Hage, Van Der Hoeven, & Hoppe, 1997). Existing technologies may be improved or invented through the inspiration of nature. Bringing these interesting and exciting new areas of science and technology into classrooms may create interest in and motivation to learn science. Given this background, we derived four research questions: 1) Is the SMQ-II Questionnaire suitable for younger age students? 2) Does a one-day intervention influence science motivation? 3) Are there gender differences? 4) Do motivation towards science and interest for technology interact?

Methods

Intervention bionics in the zoo Our bionics module took five complete school lessons in a zoo (see table 1). Firstly, an instruction booklet containing the relevant material and instructions for the day ensured a similar pre-knowledge. A lesson day started with a teacher-guided unit where the general aims of the day were discussed, and an introduction to the bionics given. Familiarity with the basics of bionics and of biology and technology were assumed for all participants. Each student wrote relevant information into that book and so had a portable guide, as the rest of the day in the zoo was student-centered and teachers only gave answers if needed. Students were organized into small groups of three or four. The following student-centered module was divided into two hands-on sub modules, the Aquarium Module (=AM) and the Seminar Room Module (=SM). Both sub-modules consisted of four workstations. Table 1: Module phases and description

phase of teaching

description

students activity

Time (Minutes)

pre-group phase

introduction to bionics

teacher-guided learning

Seminar room module

seminar room activity

hands-on

Aquarium module

concentrating on the hands-on living animal directly in the zoo

post-group phase

exhibition „BIONICUM“

Repetition

In the post-group phase, the exhibition `BIONICUM` provided the option to rearrange newly acquired knowledge from the pre-group and group phases by building new cognitive structures with examples from the interactive exhibition: experiments, videos, hands-on and computer-guided learning. For instance, the rodent self-sharpening teeth effect was shown in a video as well as its technical application in self-sharpening knifes. Finally, a dancing and singing robot presented bionics directly as “human model”. All interventions were guided by the same teacher and tutor in order to ensure equality of the module application for all classes. Sample and study design 324 6th graders (age M=12.2 years, 189 girls, 135 boys) participated in a handson guided learning module. The students completed the Science Motivation Questionnaire-II (intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, grade motivation) three times (see figure 1). The first measurement point was two weeks before our intervention, the second directly after participation and the third six weeks after participation. At T0 additionally the shortened Technology Questionnaire (TQ) consisting of the two subscales “interest in technology” and “social implications of technology” was completed (Marth & Bogner, 2017b).

Figure 1: Schedule of questionnaire implementation

Statistical analysis Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS Version 23. Using the central limit theorem we used parametric testing methods. First, we applied an explanatory factor analysis to the SMQ-II item set for visually inspect the similarity to the original scale following a principal factor analysis with oblim and varimax rotation. The suitability of our sample for factor analysis was tested using the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test (KMO) (Kaiser, 1970) and Bartlett‟s test of sphericity. The Kaiser-Guttman (Kaiser, 1960), was employed to determine the number of factors to extract. For the analysis of the different testing points of the SMQ-II, we used for each subscale (SC = self-confidence, GM = grade motivation) a repeated measurement ANOVA based on mean scores. For pairwise comparison at the different testing points, we applied post-hoc testing with the Bonferroni correction. For the measurement of significant differences between the genders, at each testing point for each subscale we used also the repeated measurement ANOVA above. For the test-rest group we also used an ANOVA for each subscale of the SMQ II.

The Pearson Correlation coefficient was used to quantify the relationship of the SMQ II and the TQ subscale (IN = Interest, SO = social implications) mean scores.

Results

Exploratory factor analysis We subjected the 15 items of SMQ-II (T0) to principal axis factor analysis (PAF). In contrast to the original three sub-scales IM, SE and GM, our analysis extracted two, merging the first two into a factor we labeled “self-confidence (SC)”. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measurement of .923 is high (Hutcheson & Sofroniou, 1999), as is Bartlett`s test of sphericity (chi-square= 2436.649; p=<.001) (Field, 2013). By using the Kaiser-Guttman criterion, 51.52 % of the total variance were explained. Oblique and orthogonal rotations yielded essentially the same solution. The varimax factor loadings are shown in Table 2, loadings below .35 are not shown. The percent of variance explained by “self-confidence” (SC) was 42,286%, and 9,243 % for “grade motivation” (GM).The reliability scores were reasonable for all sub-scales at all testing points, ranging from .80 to .89 (SC: T0 (αT0= .897), T1 (αT1=.868); T2 (αT2=.907); GM T0 (αT0=.844), T1 (αT1=.897), T2 (αT2=.895)). Table 2: Factor loadings from the PAF of the pre-test values of the SMQ II (T0) (Scores under .35 are suppressed)

N= 325

Factor 1: Self-confidence 1 Learning science is interesting

.727

2 I am curious about discoveries in science

.734

3 The science I learn is relevant to my life

.391

4 Learning Science makes my life more meaningful

.448

5 I enjoy learning science

.677

6 I believe I can earn a grade of “A” in science

.673

7 I am confident I will do well on science tests

.708

8 I believe I can master science knowledge and skills

.815

9 I am sure I can understand science

.752

10 I am confident I will do well on science labs and .762 projects Factor 2: Grade Motivation 11 Scoring high on science test and labs matters to me

.581

12 It is important that I get an “A” in science

.803

13 I think about the grade I will get in science

.791

14 Getting a good science grade is important to me

.904

15 I like to do better than other students on science tests

.461

The mean knowledge scores (M) and standard deviation (SD) differ significantly between the 3 different testing points for the sub-scales from the SMQ II (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Mean knowledge scores of the 2 different sub-scales SC and GM to testing points T0, T1 and T2; Bars are 95% confidence intervals

The sub-scale SC showed significant differences in the repeated measurement ANOVA (F(1.969,513.930)=6.188, p=.002, omega=.90). For the chi-square of the sub-scale SC (2)=7.157 Mauchly`s test showed violation of the assumption of sphericity, therefore degrees of freedom were corrected by using Huynh-Feldt estimates of sphericity (epsilon=.985). The knowledge mean scores increased from T0 (M=2.36 ; SD=.751) to T1 (M=2.45 ; SD=.692) and dropped at testing point T2 (M= 2.32; SD= .772) (Figure 2). The post-hoc pair-wise comparison with the Bonferroni correction showed similar results. SC increased short-term (TO to T1; p=.029 and dropped again at testing point T2 (T1 to T2; p=.034). Testing point T0 and T2 showed no significant differences (T0 to T2; p=1.00). The sub-scale SC was also analyzed for differences between the female and male participants (see Figure 3). There was no significant effect of gender (F(1.969,513.930)=.263, p=.766, omega=.83), indicating that the mean scores from male and female students were similar (male: T0 (M=2.43; SD=.806), T1 (M=2.55;

SD=.701); T2 (M= 2.42; SD= .765); female: T0 (M=2.28; SD=.686) to T1 (M=2.35; SD=.670), T2 (M= 2.24; SD= .772)). For the sub-scale GM, the repeated measurement ANOVA yielded no significant differences (F(1.950,571.275)=.035, p=.963, omega=.90). For the chi-square of the sub-scale GM (2)=10.699 Mauchly`s test showed violation of the assumption of sphericity, therefore, degrees of freedom were corrected by using Huynh-Feldt estimates of sphericity (epsilon=.975). Knowledge mean scores stay constant from T0 (M=2.57; SD=.915) to T1 (M=2.56 ; SD=.823 ) and also to T2 (M=2.56 ; SD= .906) (Figure 2). The post-hoc pair-wise comparison with the Bonferroni correction showed similar results. GM stay constant short-term (TO to T1; p=1.00) and also to testing point T2 (T0 to T2; p=1.00; T1 to T2; p=1.00). The sub-scale GM showed no difference between female and male participants (see Figure 3): (F (1.950,571.275)=.692, p=.497; omega=.80), indicating similar mean scores for male and female students (male: T0 (M=2.63; SD=.922), T1 (M=2.66; SD=.812); T2 (M= 2.60; SD= .888); female: T0 (M=2.50; SD=.905) to T1 (M=2.46; SD=.825), T2 (M= 2.52; SD= .924)).

Figure 3: Mean knowledge scores of the 2 different sub-scales SC and GM to testing points T0, T1 and T2 split by gender; Bars are 95% confidence intervals

A non-participant test-retest group yielded in a repeated measurement ANOVA no difference at the different testing points in each sub-scale (SC: (F(1.883,92.250)=.223; p= .787 omega=.90; GM: (F(1.901,285.210)=.711; p= .711 omega=.90).

The correlation matrix of the SMQ-II sub-scales between each other and with the modified TQ is displayed below. The linear slope shows the interrelation among the single correlation factors.

Figure 4: Pearson correlations matrix between the sub-scales SC and GM and subscales interest and social of the TQ: plot showing the distribution of the correlations and the positive interrelations

In addition to Figure 4 above the other testing points T1, T2 and T3 were analyzed. The intercorrelation of the SMQ II sub-scales (SC-GM) showed significant effects for all correlations (T0: r=.573 ***, p=<0.001; T1: r=.644 ***, p=<0.001; T0: r=.664 ***, p=<0.001). The bivariate correlation of the SMQII sub-scales SC and GM with the modified TQ showed no significant differences. The sub-scale “interest” showed only a very low correlation with the sub-scale SC at testing point T0 (p=.024; r=.124; r2=

.015). The sub-scale GM shows no significant correlation either for interest or for social.

Discussion Science motivation of 6th graders seems to originate in different concepts compared to adolescent or adult subjects: Career-motivation and selfdetermination still seem far away from reality for 6th graders compared to older samples (Schumm & Bogner, 2016). The “umbrella” term may not need three sub-scales to explain its meaning (intrinsic-motivation, self-efficacy and grade motivation), since younger subjects seem to combine two to form single one: the “umbrella” factor structure for the 10 item-set (intrinsic motivation and selfefficacy) in our younger age-group differed from the earlier reported older structure (freshmen, 10th graders). Apparently the young do not discriminate between intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy. This was an unexpected result as no previous studies have suggested this pattern (Glynn et al., 2011). Even Ryan & Deci (2000) had built upon self-determination and explained this with the importance of humans‟ development of personality. The original factor analysis was obtained from university students and not for younger participants as in our study. This difference may present the largest effect in the disparity with Glynn et al. (2011). This dependency might be the cause of the merging of intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy. Pintrich & De Groot (1990) have reported self-efficacy and intrinsic values as positively supporting cognitive performance. Also Zimmerman & Kitsantas (1999) reported a high correlation between selfefficacy and school students‟ intrinsic interest. We labeled this “umbrella” of intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy as “self-confidence” (SC). “Confidence in one‟s abilities generally enhances motivation, making it a valuable asset for individuals with imperfect willpower” (Benabou & Tirole, 2002 p.871). Philosophers, educators and psychologists see self-concept as the main root of motivation, emotion and social influence; and self-confidence in skills and efficacy may help to increase motivation for different ventures (Benabou & Tirole, 2002). Kleitman & Stankov (2007) reported self-confidence to be a solid predictor of performance accurateness. It‟s the key to good performance and the power of endurance in different circumstances to work hard and believe in one‟s skills, to win a medal, for example, or perform on stage, be accepted by college, write a great book, do innovative research, set up a company, reduce weight, find a mate, and so forth (Benabou & Tirole, 2002). For us, self-confidence may trigger the ability to reach goals in science and increase self-efficacy beliefs and intrinsic motivation. The connection between selfconfidence and motivation is described by Ryan & Deci (2000) who postulated intrinsic motivation and well-being as needs different psychological requirements namely competence, autonomy and relatedness. These components are the key to motivation and achieving goals. Bandura (1977) pointed to the importance of self-efficacy for reaching a goal and how long motivation needs to last in order to achieve a target. School students may not have belief in self-efficacy in the context of science, as science is not included in primary school syllabi. As self-efficacy is defined as “people's beliefs about their capabilities to produce effects” (Bandura, 1994 p.71), it is largely the perception of the impact of someone‟s action that seems affected. Self-efficacy is

one of the most important predictors of motivation and success in learning science: as Zimmerman (2000) saw it as basis for achievement resources depending of what the self-efficacy beliefs should measure. In our case, the measurement focus is science motivation, but school students couldn‟t express self-efficacy belief for motivation for school careers without knowledge of science. Bandura (1997) pointed out that students with high self-efficacy beliefs show more efforts in challenging a task and work consistently, harder and with greater persistence. The self-determination theory of Deci & Ryan (1985) differentiated types of motivation, distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: intrinsic motivation is doing something with an inherent will, and extrinsic motivation has to do with goal oriented actions driven by external circumstances. The first may exist in every human, but not every person is intrinsically motivated towards similar tasks or fields (Ryan & Deci, 2000). However, intrinsic and extrinsic motivations belong together: Lin, McKeachie, & Kimm (2001) described intrinsic motivation as linked with better grades as highly extrinsic motivated students do. Therefore, educators should regard not only knowledge as the main educational goal, but also see lifelong learning as an enhancing variable supporting perception and motivational sites to better learn science (VedderWeiss & Fortus, 2011). Sturm & Bogner (2008) for example used the “Intrinsic Motivation Inventory” (IMI) to demonstrate that a student-centered approach is more internally motivating than a traditional school setting. Gerstner & Bogner (2010) on the contrary found no link between motivational aspects and a traditional or student-centered approach. Another study of hands-on learning as opposed to learning in normal school settings showed more well-being and more selfdetermination in the former (Schaal & Bogner, 2005). The sub-scale “interest and enjoyment” of the IMI showed positive relations to the attitudes towards a cooperative learning setting (Geier & Bogner, 2011). In an outreach laboratory unit, Goldschmidt & Bogner (2015) found higher achievements scores for shortand long-term knowledge for higher motivated participants. In a studentcentered learning study of the risks of smoking, Hedler & Bogner (2013) reported a creative learning environment as increasing autonomous motivation and decreasing controlled motivation. Therefore, the self-confidence towards science may provide the possibility to catch someone‟s interest again and focus the main features of science. In sum, the connection between self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation may offer a good chance for young secondary school students to build the self-confidence in science. For promotion of science motivation with a one day learning program, a learning intervention might improve the science motivation with respect to selfconfidence, as the significant increase after our intervention showed. This is quite in line with Brickman, Gormally, Armstrong, & Hallar (2009) where an increase in self-confidence after an inquiry lab course was reported. In our study in a zoological garden with living animals student-centered learning environments and hands-on material seem to supply an optimal way to increase knowledge (Mayer, 2004). Hands-on learning not only promotes knowledge, but it also effectively supported motivation and interest (Poudel et al., 2005). This conclusion is supported by a meta-analysis of 65 studies where cooperative

learning was shown to generate better cognitive achievement and attitudes (Kyndt et al., 2013). Nevertheless, the self-confidence shift we initially observed was not maintained six weeks after participation. Repeated interventions, or especially promoted science related courses and out-of-school activities might keep shifts consistent over time. Science activity participation for example has been shown to predict science perceptions in high school (Simpkins et al., 2006). Parental support provided also needs attention, as parents pass their own attitudes and feelings about science and math on to their children (Jacobs & Bleeker, 2004). The STEM field meets with low interest and motivation in the view of the general public. Especially during the secondary school it dropped enormously, one reason being teacher-student interactions (Kiemer, GrĂśschner, Pehmer, & Seidel, 2015). Grade motivation was irrelevant to our intervention as a program day in a zoo earns no grades. One point of such a program is to enjoy the intervention day in the zoo without the anxiety of grade or judgment from the classroom teachers. Terry, Mills, & Sollosy (2008), however, showed students to be more motivated when they do earning grades in such a context. Ryan & Deci (2000) described for extrinsic motivation as referring, making something just because of an expected result. Nevertheless, we generally need to mention that our low scores for selfconfidence and grade motivation might be explained by in the age of our participants: young students may show low self-confidence and grade motivation for science because their science education started only one year before the intervention. Schumm & Bogner (2016) worked with cohorts four years older than our sample) and reported much higher science motivation both intrinsically and extrinsically. Similarly, Glynn et al. (2011) reported much higher science motivation for university students. Taken together, selfconfidence could be influenced in the short-term and grade motivation unaffected by our intervention. The lack of gender differences finds support in other studies. Zeyer (2010) or Zeyer & Wolf (2010) reported similar results, concluding that motivation does not matter for learning science by gender. Conradty & Bogner (2008) for example showed for 8th grade girls higher intrinsic motivation scores in scientific topics while Schumm & Bogner (2016) and Obrentz (2012) reported lower self-efficacy scores for girls. Glynn et al. (2011) worked with university freshmen, Obrentz (2012) with college freshmen and Schumm & Bogner (2016) with 10th graders. Our 6th graders represent a transition between childhood and early adolescence with all the biological, physical and metacognitive changes in this stage of life. Differences in lack of self-confidence may suggest this. Similarly, Wigfield (1996) reported for primary school children equal confidence scores in math and science, while middle school children already showed a gender gap. In the literature, a gender difference with lower science motivation scores is expected (e.g., Obrentz 2012; Glynn et al. (2009)) where in first case girls show less selfefficacy and trust in science. As most studies worked with high school or university subjects, our reported lack of a gender gap may convince. Relationships between technology and science seem complex: Science motivation with its sub-scales self-confidence and grade motivation correlated significantly, in agreement with Glynn et al. (2011) when the different factor structure is not taken into account. Moreover, Glynn et al. (2011), Obrentz (2012)

and Goldschmidt & Bogner (2015) have reported a dependence of science motivation on achievement scores. Schumm & Bogner (2016) found small correlations between the motivation of self-determination and the sub-scales of the big-5 “consciousness” and “neuroticism”. Our small correlation between “self-confidence” and “interest in technology” supposes to connect both variables anyway as technology and science are related fields especially in the bionics field (Bannasch, 2009). Mistler-Jackson & Songer (2000) also reported a motivational influence in a technology-driven intervention. Similarly, scientists‟ and public thoughts may exert a big influence on the motivation of science and technology (Martín-Sempere, Garzon-Garcia, & Rey-Rocha, 2008). Also, Aikenhead & Ryan (1992) concluded that science included a technology site in our “Science-Technology-Society” as both are belonging together and approximate each other. Fields like bionics build up an appropriate interface as teaching science and technology should be not separated in school classes. Teachers and educators should try also to combine these fields to enhance students‟ beliefs and knowledge and to build new cognitive structures supporting scientific literacy and technological know-how.

Conclusion Knowledge about science motivation offers useful and consistent information in a classroom. Extrinsic motivation (including the motivation to earn good grades) seems to be one of the biggest predictors of school success, a factor which outreach interventions cannot exploit since they do not give grades. Nevertheless, outreach experience offers a chance to raise the general motivation for science. Intrinsic motivation as part of the self-confidence concept in combination with self-efficacy can be exploited with appropriate activities such as field-days, extracurricular programs or out-of-school courses. Innovative issues such as bionics may interact with the variables described (at least our study supported this). When students are interested in STEM in school they were able to take it home and persuade parents or friends of the need for science in modern society. Even if they only inspire themselves, school needs to incorporate STEM education in education of the young generation. Our study is another option to bring science into the school context especially in the students‟ minds, but it may represent another approach to supporting STEM.

Acknowledgements We are grateful to the „BIONICUM` for assistance as we are to all schools, teachers and students for participation. Similarly, we thank the Bavarian Ministry of Education for permitting the study within schools (X.7BO4106/453/9, 03.02.2015). Financial support was granted by the CREATIONS Project (European Union Grant Agreement, No. 665917), by the University of Bayreuth as well as by the LfU (Landesamt für Umwelt).

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