Vol 16 no 9 september 2017 by ijlter.org

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p-ISSN: 1694-2493 e-ISSN: 1694-2116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.16 No.9

PUBLISHER London Consulting Ltd District of Flacq Republic of Mauritius www.ijlter.org

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 16

NUMBER 9

September 2017

Table of Contents Technology to the Rescue: Appropriate Curriculum for Gifted Students ....................................................................... 1 Dr. Susan L. Zimlich Perceptions of ESL Program Management in Canadian Higher Education: A Qualitative Case Study .................. 13 Sarah Elaine Eaton Korean University Students‟ Perceptions of Teacher Motivational Strategies............................................................. 29 Michael Heinz and Chris Kobylinski Visualising the Doctoral Research Process: An Exploration into Empirical Research Processes of Emerging Researchers ............................................................................................................................................................................ 42 Kwong Nui Sim and Russell Butson Student Experiences of a Blended Learning Environment .............................................................................................. 60 Jase Moussa-Inaty “We Need to Give the Profession Something that No One Else Can”: Swedish Student Teachers‟ Perceptions and Experiences of their Preschool Teacher Training Programme ........................................................................................ 73 Birgitte Malm Teacher Conduct: A Survey on Professional Ethics among Chinese Kindergarten Teachers .................................... 98 Zhaolin Ji Nursing Students‟ Experiences of Using Adobe Connect in a First-year Professional Nursing Course ............... 114 Liz Ditzel (RN, PhD) and Anna Wheeler (RN)

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 9, pp. 1-12, September 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.9.1

Technology to the Rescue: Appropriate Curriculum for Gifted Students Dr. Susan L. Zimlich Southeastern Louisiana University Hammond, Louisiana

Abstract. An appropriate curriculum for students who are gifted will meet their learning needs and motivate them to stay engaged in the learning process. In an effort to provide an appropriate curriculum for gifted students, one possibility is to provide a behavior trap. Behavior traps are learning activities that entice students to engage due to interest in the content or activity itself. Behavior traps motivate because they are easy to do at first and then reinforce motivation later to encourage continued engagement (Albert & Heward, 1996). Technology can be both a tool to provide a behavior trap and also a behavior trap in and of itself. Students who are gifted benefit when curriculum provides practice with complex topics, critical thinking, self-reflection, creativity, and access to mentors for scaffolding. This is essential for helping students who are gifted to reach their potential. Technology and what can be done with technology in educational settings can provide complexity in differentiated or individualized learning. Students’ critical thinking skills and metacognition can be built through problem solving, projects, and simulations enhanced or provided by technology. Students can compare their work with peers in other locations or have access to mentors who might not otherwise be available. Specialized software and equipment can be used to help build academic skills and also develop creativity. Technology can help teachers meet the standards for gifted education programs, but only if teachers choose to implement technology in meaningful ways that meet the needs of students who are gifted. Keywords: Motivating gifted students; educational technology; gifted curriculum; thinking skills.

Introduction Technology has taken a firm hold in education. Technology can be taught as a stand-alone topic or embedded within a lesson (Henriksen, Mishra, & Fisser, 2016; International Society for Technology in Education, 2007). Schools have not only labs, but also computers or tablets in classrooms, interactive white boards, digital cameras, video cameras, computer projectors, and other digital equipment (Lanahan & Boysen, 2005). Additionally, applications run the gambit from gamestyle formats that use high- tech virtual interactions to teach children an assortment of subjects and thinking skills (Siegle, 2015; Tünzün, 2007; Williams,

Ma, Feist, Richard, & Prejean, 2007) to traditional word processing and presentation software. Teachers recognize that technology motivates many students to produce high quality work (Clausen, 2007), and students themselves report that it motivates them to engage with a variety of subject areas and topics of interest (Clausen, 2007; “Digital Imaging,” 2001; Johnsen, Witte, & Robins, 2006; Wighting, 2006). Teachers direct student use of technology in school and can use their decision making power to purposefully plan to use technology in ways that motivate students (Siegle, 2015). Motivation is shaped by both personal and situational influences (Clinkenbeard, 2012; Little, 2012). Particular attention to the preservation and development of motivation should inform programming for gifted students (Gottfried, Gottfried, Cook, & Morris, 2005). Teachers should create a setting that encourages students to achieve their full potential. Two key factors in developing potential are motivation and challenge in the learning environment (Little, 2012; National Association for Gifted Children, 2010). Gifted students are motivated by a curriculum that matches their interests and levels of cognitive development (Colangelo & Davis, 2003; VanTassel-Baska, 2015). When students’ goals match their learning environment, they are more likely to stay engaged in schooldirected learning tasks (Kilian, Hofer, & Kahnle, 2013; Little, 2012). Thus, access to an appropriate curriculum for students who are gifted could have lifelong ramifications. One possible way to increase students’ motivation is through the use of behavior traps. In education, a behavior trap is a learning activity for students that a teacher has created to entice students to be engaged in learning. The behavior trap: 1. is irresistibly attractive to the students, 2. has an easy entry point that is already mastered, 3. reinforces and motivates the students, and 4. uses an activity that sustains the students’ interest over time (Albert & Heward, 1996). Technology can act as a behavior trap for students who are gifted. It could be that the use of the technology is the behavior trap, or that the technology is a tool for access to content or products that are behavior traps. Today’s students have grown up with technology. They experience it in all areas of their lives. The students expect technology to be everywhere, including school. Technology fits the requirements for creating a behavior trap because: 1. it provides access to any topic that might be of interest to students, 2. fluency and expertise with technology are either already mastered or easily mastered by students, 3. access to quick feedback and audiences with similar interests reinforces and motivates students, and 4. access to Web 2.0 capabilities and almost limitless materials about topics can sustain students’ interest over time.

Appropriate Curriculum Curriculum plays a large role in determining the context in which teaching and learning occur. All teachers, whether in resource rooms or in general education classrooms, need to provide an appropriate curriculum to meet individual student needs (Kaplan, 2016; Sak, 2004; Smith & Wietz, 2003; Zentall, Moon, Hall & Grskovich, 2001). Although in every class there exist differences in the ability, interest, and motivation of students, the flexibility and motivating nature of technology can help create life-giving learning environments (Baule, 2007) by providing students with the opportunity for differentiated instruction or tasks. Differentiation to meet academic needs may come readily to mind; however, it is also important to provide differentiation in terms of creativity. There are many definitions of creativity, but in general students who are creatively gifted are characterized by original thinking that comes from examining a variety of perspectives, using divergent thinking, and thinking in nonlinear ways (Colangelo & Davis, 2003; Sak, 2004). Some of the most creative students struggle to function within the framework of specialized classes for gifted students where their needs inform instructional planning for the class. How much more do they struggle in the setting of the general education classroom where their needs are often ignored (Sak, 2004)? Teachers who differentiate instruction honor and recognize student strengths, interests, and abilities by providing choices that offer different levels of support for learning. Differentiation of instruction may provide the only opportunities that some gifted students receive to meet their particular learning needs (Bain, Bliss, Choate, & Brown, 2007; Kaplan, 2016). Technology can direct and organize student learning (Rosenfeld, 2008). Technology can be used to differentiate lessons when students, rather than teachers, are the ones using it (Garcia & Rose, 2007; Ysseldyke & Bolt, 2007). Projects that require technology can engage collaborative groups (Donovan, Hartley, & Strudler, 2007; Garcia & Rose, 2007; Wolsey & Grisham, 2007; Yang, Chang, Cheng, & Chan, 2016). While some students are working more closely with the teacher, other students can work independently, researching different topics and using a variety of tools to produce distinct products (Smith & Wietz, 2003). Differentiation of subject matter, topic complexity, and products are all possible natural side effects of assigning projects that use technology. The role of the teacher is to compact the required curriculum to provide time for a curriculum that better matches students’ academic and creative abilities and growth. Technology helps teachers to provide an appropriate curriculum in terms of complexity, higher order thinking skills, and specialized resources, including the use of special software and access to mentors. Complexity Differentiating the levels or types of complexity benefits gifted students, who are more engaged in learning when they encounter tasks that emphasize challenge (Betts, Tardrew, & Ysseldyke, 2004; Harrison, 2004; Kimball, 2001), complexity (“Digital Imaging,” 2001; Harrison, 2004), and high levels of learning (Kimball, 2001; Wighting, 2006). Technology can offer access to materials at all levels of complexity, so students can find information at the level they prefer. Gifted

students move relatively quickly from concrete ideas to more abstract ideas compared to other students (Harrison, 2004; Smith & Wietz, 2003). Advanced software can allow students to process all kinds of information and transform it to suit their purposes. Gifted students not only seek out complex ideas, but also want to express their own complex ideas in unique and elaborate ways. Gifted students rapidly master basic information in a discipline and quickly move to abstract thinking across levels. Technology facilitates making connections among ideas that originate in a variety of materials (Sak, 2004). These new connections give students who are gifted ideas about what to research or how to treat theories (Harrison, 2004). Students build greater complexity in their products as they gain skill in using technology. The more they appear competent and the more sophisticated the technology they use it, the more exposure to technology they have (Dove & Zitkovich, 2003). Teachers can model the use of advanced software in lessons that introduce it at basic skill levels. As students acquire skills with the software, teachers can assign projects that require greater complexity (“Digital Imaging,” 2001). Teachers can scaffold students’ skills in gathering data, editing written work, and publishing products. Because gifted students seek out complexity not just in the way their ideas are expressed, but also in the process of developing the products that demonstrate what they have learned, teachers can encourage student collaboration in initial stages of projects and then gradually let students work on their own. Critical Thinking Skills Thinking skills are another focus of differentiated curriculum for gifted students. All students benefit from developing higher order thinking skills, and good teachers include as many higher order thinking tasks as possible in the regular curriculum (International Society for Technology in Education, 2007; Siegle, 2004). For gifted students, however, higher order thinking skills are the sine qua non of education (Colangelo & Davis, 2003; Kimball, 2001). Successful use of technology can increase students’ confidence and skill levels in critical thinking (Reid & Roberts, 2006). Furthermore, the stimulation of higher order thinking skills may keep gifted students engaged in school tasks. Among the most common approaches to the development of critical thinking skills instructions are problem-based learning and project creation, both of which benefit from the infusion of technology. Students who spend more time online show greater skill levels in evaluation and writing (Ba, Tally, & Tsikalas, 2002). Some software applications are designed to use problem-based learning to teach students specific critical thinking skills (Tünzün, 2007; Williams et al., 2007). Teachers encourage critical thinking by promoting inquiry, by asking questions to help students troubleshoot technology problems, and by limiting the number of questions they answer directly (Ba et al., 2002; “Digital Imaging,” 2001; Clausen, 2007; Wong, Quek, Divaharan, Liu, Peer, & Williams, 2006; Smith & Weitz, 2003). Reviewing Internet content for reliability is an essential technology skill that also promotes critical thinking (Abelman, 2007). Evaluating the technology with which

they are interacting (Abelman, 2007; Siegle, 2004), determining the most suitable piece of equipment, program, or tool (“Digital Imaging,” 2001), and learning how to balance schoolwork and recreation time on the computer all call for higher order thinking (Ba et al., 2002; Tünzün, 2007). Technology can change the ways students think about and organize information (Zentall et al., 2001). The development of concepts and connections within and between diverse subject areas, to which Internet access greatly contributes, depends on higher order thinking (Boon, Fore, & Rasheed, 2007). In the course of working on almost any complex project, students will organize computer files into folders, which helps them understand both how concepts are connected within subject areas and the structure of particular branches of knowledge (Ba et al., 2002; Boon et al., 2007). Technology’s ability to have multiple program windows open at the same time eases side-by-side comparisons, facilitating analysis and synthesis of ideas (Sak, 2004). Some problem-based virtual learning environments develop analogical thinking using side-by-side analogies (Tünzün, 2007; Williams et al., 2007). Technology can also create a context for problem solving particularly suited to creatively gifted students. These students typically examine concepts from a variety of perspectives (Sak, 2004) and often think about them in unusual ways (Fleith, 2000; Russo, 2004). Computer simulations designed to help students practice perspective-taking often present problems from a variety of viewpoints (Tünzün, 2007). Hyperlinks or multi-nodal simulations stimulate nonlinear thinking, which in turn fosters sensitivity toward and appreciation of unusual, creative, and divergent approaches to problem solving by academically and creatively gifted students, who use more cognitive strategies while problem solving than average students (Hong & Aqui, 2004). Gifted students are not necessarily highly able in all subject areas (Colangelo, & Davis, 2003; Swiatek & Lupkowski-Shoplik, 2000). Although, many of them read above grade level, not all do (Smith & Weitz, 2003). Most report that they are bored by standard classroom reading activities, regardless of their actual reading ability (Hettinger & Knapp, 2001), since the vast majority of such tasks focus on lower-order thinking skills (Moon, Callahan, & Tomlinson, 2003). Many find it more motivating to access material that would otherwise be unavailable (Olszewski-Kubilius & Lee, 2004), or to collaborate on a common project with students geographically distant from their school (Wong et al., 2006, Yang et al., 2016) on topics that interest them (Zentall et al., 2001). Reading advanced, highly interesting material online may benefit gifted students, even those who have learning disabilities in reading, more than reading yet another story from a basal reader (Zentall et al., 2001). Collaborating with an online group gives students access to others far distant from their localities who share their interests. Some may have greater ability or more expertise and thus able to scaffold learning of knowledge or skills (Yang et al., 2016). Furthermore, the possibility of collaboration online gives students a choice about working independently or in a group (Wong et al., 2006).

Technology may also aid in the development of metacognition, as it can be a resource for reflection and feedback as well as for investigation (Harrison, 2004). Training in metacognition is an important part of gifted curriculum, as it stimulates creativity, problem solving fluency, and self-regulation (Colangelo & Davis, 2003). Metacognition and self-reflection are enhanced when students are made aware of available strategies, and then are given open-ended meaningful tasks in which to use the strategies (Kinnebrew, Segedy, & Biswas, 2014; Paris & Paris, 2001). Web 2.0 technologies allow students plentiful options for tasks that can be shared beyond the classroom walls, such as publishing a blog, collaborating on research, and exploring opportunities for service learning. Additionally, technology can allow for independence and choice in learning tasks, characteristics that enhance the development of self-regulation in students (Paris & Paris, 2001). Overestimation or underestimation of skills are improved through feedback on work (Callender, Franco-Watkins, & Roberts, 2015). Technology can provide immediate feedback to students, as well as give students access to feedback sources beyond their classroom teacher. Students who are gifted have a better sense of their own skills when they can compare their work to peers or experts. Mentors Mentoring is an aspect of gifted education (Colangelo & Davis, 2003) that is greatly enhanced through technology. Gifted students seek out mentors (Colangelo & Davis, 2003). Technology allows a student access to a mentor no matter what the subject area, level of expertise, or geographical constraint. Expert mentors are available from all over the world via the Internet (Housand & Housand, 2012; Mammadov & Topcu, 2014; Olthouse & Miller, 2012). Email, webcams, blogs, wikis, and instant messaging make communication fast and easy. Through such technologies, students can function as research aides alongside scientists, historical writers, or mathematicians. Such opportunities help them develop an understanding of what experts do in the field. Creatively gifted students’ ratings of creativity have high correlation with those of experts, but as novices, they need mentoring to learn how to provide and receive feedback about how to improve their products. Mentors teach them ways to express why one product is more creative than another (Dove & Zitkovich, 2003; Mammadov & Topcu, 2014). Communication with mentors can help students develop understandings of their own creativity by modeling and providing meaningful creative feedback (Kaufman, Gentile, & Baer, 2005). Mentors are a good resource for acceleration, guiding work when students’ zones of proximal development are beyond the classroom teachers’ competence. Mentors can help academically able learners advance to higher levels of skill through discussions of hands-on learning and independent projects (Dove & Zitkovich, 2003; Wong et al., 2006). Specialized Software and Equipment The curriculum for gifted students should include opportunities to learn about and use specialized software or equipment to reflect their thinking patterns. Instruction can have technology skill as an end in itself, but it can also be a tool for motivating students to engage in high levels of academic work (“Digital

Imaging,” 2001; Johnsen et al., 2006; Wighting, 2006). The multimedia aspects of software can help students express ideas using sounds, pictures, diagrams, text, and combinations of those media. The motivation can come from using software features (Boon et al., 2007) or from using specialized equipment (Dove & Zitkovich, 2003). The ways in which technology is used can reflect the areas of giftedness, whether academic or creative (Zentall et al., 2001). Students who are more academically gifted typically produce fewer original materials than creatively gifted students, but they demonstrate a greater aptitude for managing information and academic achievement (Sak, 2004). They often use software in ways that reflect linear thinking. In some software, part of the design structure of the program is to scaffold student learning (Williams et al., 2007). Learning is enhanced when software facilitates study and/or provides course-related materials (Betts et al., 2004; Boon et al., 2007; Olszewski-Kubilius & Lee, 2004; Siegle & Foster, 2001). Software has even been written with the aim of increasing levels of metacognition by students (Kinnebrew et al., 2014). Creative students display originality, curiosity (Fleith, 2000; Harrison, 2004; Sak, 2004), and nonconformity, both in their classroom interactions and in their thinking patterns. Such students easily take on other viewpoints (Zentall et al., 2001), a skill which can be encouraged using technology. Hyperlinks and multiple windows reflect their nonlinear thinking. For example, gifted student writers make extensive use of software functions that find synonyms to experiment with how particular words change the meaning of a sentence (Sak, 2004). Games may be tied to standards and sometimes may directly teach or reinforce skills when students answer questions and get immediate feedback (Siegle 2015). Interactive games are a form of specialized game software that can offer virtual learning environments with content that appeals to academically gifted students. They often have an overarching, linear storyline, but feature game play that is multi-nodal in nature, attracting creatively gifted students. The self-selected quests and the multiple ways to explore the gaming environment promote the kinds of higher order thinking privileged by gifted and talented curriculum (Tünzün, 2007; Williams et al., 2007). Software can also individualize the educational experience. Programs paired with paper and pencil assignments, such as those created by Accelerated Math, track student progress and offer learning activities for specific levels of performance (Betts et al., 2004; Ysseldyke & Bolt, 2007). In immersive educational computer games, student choice produces avatars and results in individualized experiences of tasks and levels of game play (Tünzün, 2007; Williams et al., 2007). Computer simulations are an especially helpful kind of software. They are immersive virtual learning environments that mimic real life, feature real-time interactions, and provide immediate feedback (Mohide, Matthey-Maich, & Cross, 2006; Tünzün, 2007; Williams et al., 2007). They facilitate problem-based learning by helping students collaborate to solve the problems encountered in the

simulation. They provide a contextualization of the problems presented within the content-laden storyline of the game (Mohide et al., 2006; Tünzün, 2007). For example, they can help students explore the technologies, occupations, governments, or lifestyles of different historical periods. Finally, they stimulate students’ imaginations and show the depth of detailed knowledge needed to plan an invention or create a fictional country. In addition to specialized software, there are numerous pieces of specialized equipment that use computer processing. Using Global Positioning Systems or other equipment that adults use can excite and motivate students (Dove & Zitkovich, 2003). In summary, the full development of gifted students’ potential requires an appropriate curriculum. Technology can help teachers offer a curriculum differentiated by complexity, a focus on thinking skills, and opportunities to learn about and use specialized software and equipment or access to mentors.

Conclusion It is fitting that teachers of the gifted use technology in delivery of content for their students (National Association for Gifted Children, 2013). Technology can help teachers foster the motivation of high-end learners. Both digital literacy and gifted education emphasize creativity, innovation, collaboration, critical thinking, problem solving, and decision making. This overlap allows teachers to help students develop in both areas simultaneously through strategic use of technology in the classroom (Henriksen et al., 2016; International Society for Technology in Education, 2007; Siegle, 2004). Differentiating lessons by complexity, critical thinking, and challenge (Kaplan, 2016) will highly motivate gifted students to better meet their needs and help them to achieve to their full potential (Little, 2012). In particular, using technology to structure the learning environment in ways that ensure an appropriate curriculum can act as a behavior trap (Albert & Heward, 1996) to motivate high-end learners. The ways that technology can aid students in accessing materials within their zone of proximal development and in allowing students to create increasingly complex products means that technology facilitates the behavior trap requirement of an easily mastered entry point. Additionally, teaching strategies such as problem-based learning, inquiry methods, and development of students’ conceptual skills in organization and metacognition, require critical thinking and are supported by technology. Critical thinking provides challenge that is irresistibly attractive for gifted students, another requirement of a behavior trap. Mentors, who are readily accessible using technology, can help meet the behavior trap requirement of providing reinforcement and motivation for gifted students. In addition to easy access to volumes of materials online, the specialized equipment and specialized software that allow students to demonstrate varying levels of expertise, display creativity, or experience alternate realities meets the final behavior trap requirement of sustaining student interest over time. Teachers can use technology as a tool to help meet the needs of students who are gifted.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 9, pp. 13-28, September 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.9.2

Perceptions of ESL Program Management in Canadian Higher Education: A Qualitative Case Study Sarah Elaine Eaton University of Calgary Calgary, Canada

Abstract. ESL programs at post-secondary institutions must often generate revenue in addition to teaching students English. Institutions often impose explicit expectations on these programs to generate profit, creating unique challenges for those who administer them. This qualitative case study investigated challenges faced by ESL program directors at one university in Canada. Semistructured interviews were used to collect data from program directors (N = 3) on topics relating to administration, marketing, the mandate to generate revenue, and the complexities of ESL program legitimacy and marginalization in higher education contexts. Five key themes emerged from the data: (a) the necessity for directors to be highly qualified and multilingual, as well as have international experience; (b) a general lack of training, support, and resources for program directors; (c) institutional barriers such as working with marketers and recruiters with little knowledge of ESL contexts; (d) program fragmentation and marginalization on campus; and (e) reluctance to share information and program protectionism. Findings point to the need for increased training and support for ESL program directors, along with the need for institutions to elevate the profile of these programs so they are not viewed as having less value than other academic programs on campus. Keywords: TESOL; language program management; administration; profit; revenue

Introduction Directors of English as a Second Language (ESL) programs in higher education face different professional challenges than those of their administrative colleagues from other disciplines. ESL programs differ from other disciplines in fundamental ways (Rowe, 2012). First, students take ESL either as a form of skills training or to bridge into degree programs. They do not graduate with a major or minor specialization in ESL (Panferov, 2012; Staczek & Carkin, 1984; Stoller & Christison, 1994), and they often study English full-time and exclusively (Szasz, 2009/2010). In addition, ESL programs in post-secondary

institutions exist, at least in part, to generate revenue (Eskey, 1997; Panferov, 2012; Pennington & Hoejke, 2014; Staczek & Carkin, 1984). As such, they often have separate tuition structures, admissions policies, and budgets (Pennington & Hoekje, 2014), meaning that administrative approaches to ESL programs differ from others on a post-secondary campus. This creates a situation in which ESL programs are obliged to generate revenue for the very institutions in which they struggle to be regarded as legitimate contributors to the academic community. This qualitative case study investigates the experiences of three ESL program directors working in a Canadian higher education context, using semistructured interviews to gather data. Findings point to the need for further training for program directors, as well as increased institutional support, to ensure ESL programs are viewed as legitimate contributors to the campus community.

Literature Review The challenges faced by ESL administrators are linked to the unique nature of their roles. The literature points to specific traits and training that an ESL program director is likely to have. In addition to the characteristics ESL program directors possess as individuals, two additional key topics emerged about the nature of ESL programs in higher education: the aspect of having to generate revenue while simultaneously being marginalized on campus. Each of these key topics inform a collective understanding of how ESL programs in higher education exist and are managed. Characteristics of an ESL Program Manager A typical ESL program manager has professional expertise in language learning and global education, and likely has international work experience (Rawley, 1997). Three separate survey studies, each surveying over 100 participants, found that over 90% of ESL program administrators held advanced degrees (Matthies, 1984; Panferov, 2012; Reasor, 1986). Reasor (1986) also found that ESL program managers are more likely to be â&#x20AC;&#x2022;cautious, careful, conservative and orderlyâ&#x20AC;&#x2013; (p. 341). A typical ESL program director has a combination of international experience, advanced degrees, and a conscientious and intentional approach to professional practice. ESL directors are less likely to be tenured, less likely to hold a tenure-track professorship, and less likely to have time available for teaching or research when compared to academic administrators of other departments (Pennington & Xiao, 1990). ESL directors may also have high levels of compassion, with a deep desire to help others (Rowe-Henry, 1997; Soppelsa, 1997). Despite professional expertise, academic qualifications, and altruistic intentions, the typical ESL director is likely to be regarded as less authoritative or influential than colleagues of similar academic rank in comparable roles. To compound the issue further, ESL program directors are often ill-prepared to take on management roles and lack training in administration and business (Murdock, 1997; Nolan, 2001; Panferov, 2012; Pennington & Xiao, 1990; Reasor, 1986; Rowe, 2012). Hussein (1995) found that over three-quarters of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) program graduates had received no training in management during their degrees. The result is that ESL program administrators often start out their careers as language teachers, thus

having a strong knowledge of language acquisition and language teaching methodologies, leaving them only common sense and good intentions to guide them when they take on management roles (Stoller & Christison, 1994). Only through practice and experience do most ESL program directors develop managerial competence (Hussein, 1995); therefore, their career development is neither systematic, nor extensive. The result is that ESL program directors often learn how to do their jobs by trial and error, fueled by a combination of common sense, good will, and grit. ESL Programs as Revenue Generators The notion of ESL programs as money-makers has a history reaching back almost half a century, when ―a great many new [ESL programs] were established in the 1970s‖ (Eskey, 1997, p. 25), leading to the ―widespread perception, probably accurate at the time, that such programs were sure-fire money makers‖ (Eskey, 1997, p. 25). The 1970s proved to be a pivotal point in the history of ESL at the post-secondary level, marking the first time international students began to populate ESL programs (Staczek & Carkin, 1984). Eskey (1997) noted, ―In any given year, larger numbers come from certain parts of the world (the Middle East in the 1970s, the Far East in the 1990s), mainly as a consequence of economic and political factors‖ (p. 22). By the 1990s, ESL enrollments were booming, and simultaneously institutions began withdrawing centralized support from these programs, making institutional support conditional on enrollment and revenue generation (Staczek, 1997). Starting in the 1990s, financial solvency became a precondition for the existence of ESL programs in higher education. That precondition continues to be a reality well into the 21st century (Rowe, 2012). But solvency was merely the beginning. The commodification of English language programs has become the norm in higher education (Pennington & Hoejke, 2014), as they continue to be perceived as a ―cash cow‖ for universities (Bista, 2011, p. 10; Eskey, 1997, p. 25; Kaplan, 1997, p. 7) and there is little indication that the situation of ESL programs as institutional revenue generators is going to change any time soon. ESL Program Marginalization and Struggle for Legitimacy ESL program directors struggle for legitimacy as professionals in an academic context (Breshears, 2004; Jenks, 1997; Jenks & Kennell, 2012; MacDonald, 2016; MacPherson et al., 2005; McGee, Haworth, & MacIntyre, 2014). Not only do program directors struggle for recognition as individuals, ESL programs as a whole remain marginalized and under-resourced (Eaton, 2013; Dvorack, 1986; MacDonald, 2016; Norris, 2016; Rowe-Henry, 1997; Soppelsa, 1997). Although ESL programs can bring significant value to an institution in terms of income generated, they continue to be regarded as ―second-class‖ (Pennington & Hoekje, 2014, p. 167) or ―questionable‖ (Stoller & Christison, 1994, p. 17). Unlike other academic administrators on campus, the work of the ESL program director includes helping the program achieve legitimacy (Jenks, 1997; Jenks & Kennell, 2012). To summarize, the literature presents a picture of the ESL director who is a highly qualified language teacher, has likely earned an advanced degree, has

international experience, and has demonstrated diligence, intentionality, and conscientiousness. These individuals often lack management training but are given the task, by their institutions, of leading ESL programs that have evolved to be de facto cash cows. Concurrent to the responsibility of continually generating revenue, ESL program directors must also advocate to have their programs recognized as legitimate contributors to the academic communities they serve. Thus, it would not be an exaggeration to declare that the role of the ESL program director is both complex and formidable. Present Study The available literature on the administration of ESL programs has identified a number of concerns with program mandates, institutional support, and director capacity and skills. There is an identifiable gap in the research involving the collection of primary data in the area of ESL program administration, particularly in the last 25 years. Much of the literature is based on authors’ personal experiences, scholarly observations of the field, and literature reviews. This study aimed to examine the issue from the perspective of ESL directors within a Canadian context. The following research question was investigated: (1) What do ESL program directors perceive to be the challenges and benefits of leading a revenue-generating program in a university? Two additional questions included: (2) What barriers do ESL program directors face in their roles?; and (2) What qualities or experience are necessary for an ESL program director to lead a revenue-generating ESL program in higher education?

Theoretical framework There is a general lack of leadership literature within the TESOL field (Curtis, 2013; McGee et al., 2014). Greenier and Whitehead (2016) proposed a leadership model for English language teaching, which covered the notion of authentic leadership in the ESL classroom for teachers, but their work did not examine the role of administrators. Pennington and Hoekje (2010) presented a leadership model of language programs as an organizational ecology, noting the dependencies of various interconnected components and how they are affected by the larger context in which they exist (p. 214). Prior to that, only two edited volumes touched upon the topic of leadership in language program administration (Christison & Murray, 2009; Coombe, McCloskey, Stephenson, & Anderson, 2008). The current study is framed within the context of Heifetz’s notion of adaptive leadership (Heifetz, 1994, 2006, 2010; Heifetz, Grashow, & Linsky, 2009; Heifetz & Laurie, 1997; Heifetz & Linsky, 2004). Adaptive leadership is relevant to the current study as it speaks to ―work [that] is required when our deeply held beliefs are challenged, when the values that made us successful become less relevant, and when legitimate yet competing perspectives emerge‖ (Heifetz & Laurie, 1997, p. 124). For ESL program administrators, the need to generate revenue as a necessary element of program management may deeply challenge their belief that the motives for education should be altruistic. The values, experiences, and expertise relating to second language teaching and language acquisition that made them successful as classroom teachers become significantly less relevant when they take on leadership roles.

Heifetz et al. (2009) have contended that adaptive leadership needs to address current realities in which ―urgency, high stakes, and uncertainty will continue as the norm‖ (p. 62). They specifically discussed the notion of leading adaptively in a situation of ―permanent crisis‖ (Heifetz et al., 2009, p. 62). Although their study applies to leadership in a business context, it is equally relevant to ESL programs in higher education, because as Rowe (2012) pointed out, many ESL programs operate through ―perpetual crisis management‖ (p. 109). The wording may differ slightly, but the notion of leading in conditions of unceasing crisis is a common denominator between them. What is compelling about this theory is that although it emerged from a business context, it applies equally well to ESL program managers, who are mandated to think and act as though they are running a business. Crises in ESL can arise for a variety of reasons, including but not limited to those involving a single student, a program-wide issue, and factors internal and external to the program (Rowe, 2012). Hence, Heifetz et al.’s (2009) notion of leading in a permanent crisis was particularly relevant for the current study, as participants consistently indicated the need to adapt to a variety of uncertainties (e.g., institutional demands, market conditions, program enrollments) for their programs to survive.

Research Method This study examines the professional reality of three ESL program directors whose experience parallels what the literature shows. Research Design Qualitative case study (Merriam, 1988; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) provided the overarching research design to address the research problem. Chapelle and Duff (2003) pointed out that a university or a program is among the kinds of cases typically studied in the TESOL field. The bounded case was a higher education institution in a large urban Canadian city, with a combined enrollment of over 30,000 full- and part-time degree students. The institution was of particular interest as it housed three distinct ESL programs operating on one campus, all of which were administratively independent of one another. Two programs were housed within the same faculty, but their directors reported to different senior administrators. The third was housed in an entirely different unit on campus. All three programs were mandated to generate revenue. None of the three program directors were required to interact with one another as part of their daily job functions. It is worth adding that the number of students registered in these ESL programs was neither disclosed nor publicly available through institutional documents. As I have pointed out elsewhere (Eaton, 2009), ESL programs in higher education institutions are often not required to release enrolment data. Thus, the total enrollment of ESL students in the various programs studied remained unknown throughout the research. Participant selection Directors of each of these revenue-generating ESL programs on campus gave their written consent to participate, with the option of withdrawing at any time

during the process (N = 3). Participants are referred to by their chosen pseudonyms (Lynn, Uma, and Ornelle). I used nonrandom purposive sampling (Blackstone, 2017; Merriam, 1998) to recruit participants because gaining access to individuals who were deeply informed about the various programs was key to collecting appropriate data (Saunders, 2012). Procedures This study, and related components including data collection instruments, participant recruitment plan, and consent form, were approved by the institutional ethics review board. Data were gathered through 60- to 90-minute semistructured interviews (Fylan, 2005; Harrell & Bradley, 2009; Luo & Wildemuth, 2009). I transcribed the audio recordings, and the participants then member checked the transcriptions for accuracy. Data were analyzed manually, following a systematic codifying and categorizing of the data into themes (Saldaña, 2009). In addition, I wrote analytic memos (Saldaña, 2009) to document my reflections about coding choices and emergent patterns resulting from the analysis.

Findings and Discussion Five key themes emerged from the data codification process: (a) the need for directors to be highly qualified and multilingual, with international experience; (b) the general lack of training, support, and resources for program directors; (c) institutional barriers; (d) program fragmentation and marginalization; and (e) program protectionism. Each of these key findings is discussed in detail. Theme 1: Highly Qualified, Multilingual Professionals with International Experience All three participants agreed that having a minimum of a master’s degree gave them credibility among their peers, both internal and external to the university. This finding aligned with previous studies that showed over 90% of ESL program directors in the United States held either a master’s or a doctorate degree (Matthies, 1984; Panferov, 2012; Reasor, 1986). All participants spoke at least one additional language and had lived and worked in other countries. Table 1 offers a high-level overview of participants’ qualifications and experience.

Table 1: Profile of ESL Program Directors as Study Participants

Variable Gender

Participant Ornelle Male

Length of time in 16 years the profession

Uma Female

Lynn Female

9 years (including graduate school)

33 years

Higher education

MEd, TESL, some PhD business courses

Master’s degree, TESOL

International experience

Japan

U.S.

UK, Spain, Italy, Saudi Arabia, China, Oman

Other languages Fluent in Japanese spoken

Fluent in Bengali; functional skills in Hindi; knowledge of French and Spanish

Fluent in Spanish; knowledge of French and Italian

Job classification

Academic (tenure-track)

Administrative

Theme 2: General Lack of Training, Support, and Resources Ornelle had taken business courses during his master’s degree, noting that his decision to do so was purposeful: The tools that I needed to serve my students, I felt, would be better served by improving operations, by improving my understanding of what it was that my students needed as customers, what was the best way of reaching the students, the best way of ensuring the deliverables. So those courses I took were . . . very valuable. Ornelle further reflected that his customized combination of graduate-level training in both TESL and business prepared him well for his role, but he noted that his experience was not the norm: ―I think the combination of the two was very beneficial. . . . I haven’t really heard of other ESL program directors or managers who . . . have formal training in marketing or who have a specific interest in following a marketing directive.‖ Ornelle’s language reflected his

training in business. During the one-hour interview, he referred to students as ―customers‖ 26 times. Lynn also referred to students as ―customers,‖ though she noted her training in business was ―little to none‖. She remarked, ―You’re expected to do an awful lot without any professional knowledge, which is quite extraordinary, really, when you think about it. It does not happen in the business world.‖ Lynn expressed frustration about institutional expectations for high performance as a manager, coupled with a lack of training and support: I think there’s a certain expectation that because of your knowledge or intelligence base, you will somehow pick it up like osmosis, you know? You are expected to know or learn how to do these things and in fact, you don’t and can’t without training. And if you don’t, you are in a . . . situation whereby you’re made to feel that . . . [you shouldn’t] talk about it. . . . Go off and do it on your own. Lynn later observed that being more educated about management would have not only increased her confidence, but also connected her with others who had an interest in same subject. Both Lynn and Ornelle held jobs with administrative job classifications, rather than faculty positions, and hence their jobs were dependent on student enrollment. This finding aligned with the literature, which showed that staffing for ESL programs often depends on program enrolments (Mickelson, 1997; Staczek, 1997). Uma, on the other hand, held both a doctoral degree and a tenure-track faculty position. With regards to her training in business, she was emphatic about her lack of training: ―Absolutely nothing. . . . Zero. Zilch. If it could be a negative integer, that’s what it would be,‖ noting that she was ―trained to be an academic.‖ Both Lynn and Uma stated that they would have benefitted from business training. They observed that they had to learn necessary skills on the job, making mistakes as they went. Uma explained, ―Because this is an academic program, you really need someone who understands all of the . . . key components to running this program [including] marketing, which is the one place I have a complete deficit in knowledge.‖ As Uma continued to reflect on her experience, she noted that she had developed expertise through practice and experience: ―[I have] grown. Maybe I’m not at zero any more. And I’ve learned quite a bit on the fly.‖ All participants agreed that training in business would be an asset for language program directors. These comments echo what was found in the work of Kaplan (1997), Nolan (2001), and Pennington and Xiao (1990), all of whom noted that ESL administrators are generally poorly prepared to undertake essential management functions. Moreover, unless they make a point to seek out courses independently, they have few professional development opportunities. Lynn noted a cause-and-effect relationship between her lack of training and making mistakes: ―There’s not a lot of that kind of professional development support that I have seen or that has been offered. So of course, you make mistakes. You make some very big mistakes.‖ Lynn seemed to be indicating that a lack of training led to negative consequences in terms how well she has performed her job.

Theme 3: Institutional Barriers The participants encountered other barriers as a result of working in a large organization. These included a requirement to work with internal marketing teams who did not understand the ESL market. Ornelle explained that ―working in international education is far more complicated because . . . you’re working at an international level.‖ He went on to explain that his own international work experience contributed to his understanding of some of the complexities of marketing to global audiences. Lynn spoke about the time she lost working with colleagues from other units on campus to develop brochures for her program. Similarly, Uma noted that printed marketing materials produced by the institution sometimes lacked an understanding of what might appeal to international audiences. She remarked: I think people in the unit know what the needs of the unit are, and I think it’s really not good when the marketing is done externally by another unit . . . that has no understanding of how the language unit functions, what their demographics are. I think usually someone will come in and ask for stats and say, ―How many students do you have? What languages do they speak?‖ And then they’re off making marketing materials. But they don’t ask the right questions, as to who’s your audience, who’s making the decisions? Parents? Is it the students? What socioeconomic background are your students? ’Cause that is huge. In addition to barriers related to marketing, one additional challenge noted by both Uma and Lynn was that their programs had undergone extensive changes in the previous few years, and even as recently as a few months prior. This included changes to the program name, curriculum, structure, and staffing. Uma talked about ―a total revision and restructuring, not only of faculty and staff, but in curriculum‖ and then, two years later, the program ―went through another revision and a massive overhaul to curriculum.‖ Uma noted that in her program’s nine-year existence, it had undergone three name changes, finally settling on ―English for Academic Purposes.‖ Lynn had also faced the task of redesigning and reconceptualizing her programs, under the direction of her superiors. She, too, noted that her program had undergone three name changes over a five-year period, each time requiring a complete overhaul of the marketing materials to match the name changes. She was happy with the transformations her program had undergone, noting: ―We’re now a centre. We’re in a position to create a brochure for the centre, which represents everything we do.‖ Both Lynn and Uma observed that these administrative and operational changes were, to a large extent, imposed on them by their institutional superiors. These monumental changes were largely beyond their control, even though they were the directors of their respective programs. Theme 4: Program Fragmentation and Marginalization Although Lynn and Uma both commented on the changes their programs had undergone in the previous few years, they also expressed a desire to differentiate their programs from other English language programs on campus. Lynn commented that the target market of her program in its early days ―was immigrant professionals, as well as international professionals, all of whom are

[learning] English as an additional language. And that . . . distinguished us from ESL.‖ She further noted, ―We have been avoiding any undergraduate student work because that’s very much covered by other programs in the university.‖ Both Lynn and Uma noted that the changes to their programs (including the name changes) were partially intended to differentiate their programs from others on campus and to prevent confusion among prospective students. Ornelle commented on how his program was marginalized even within the larger unit in which he worked. He commented that others perceived his program as follows: ESL is special. ESL always wants something. ESL always has needs that seem to go . . . beyond what anybody else requires, and its expectations are too high or they’re too low or this, that, or the other. . . . English instruction is always seen as second class, or maybe fifth or sixth class. This perception may be due to the fact that although the ESL program ―exists within the culture of the university at large, [its] culture contrasts sharply with the institution of higher education, and as a university entity it is often misunderstood‖ (Rowe-Henry, 1997, p. 77). Perhaps because they differ from other academic courses, ESL programs are marginalized within the institution, isolated from other disciplines, and often viewed as being remedial (Carkin, 1997; Stoller, 1997). Stoller (1997) suggested that the physical placement of a program on campus is indicative of the importance the administration places upon it. If it is relegated to some distant space that is not easily accessible, then it is likely that the program struggles to claim a legitimate place in the academy. Stoller (1997) observed, ―That language programs are viewed as marginal—physically and educationally—by our home institutions represents a major hindrance‖ (p. 40). One cause of job dissatisfaction among ESL teachers is poor facilities (Jenks & Kennell, 2012; Pennington, 1991). In this study, all programs were situated in locations that were awkward to access or away from centralized administrative support. One program was housed in the basement of a building with no exterior windows. A second was located on the 14th floor of a building with convoluted access, as the elevator reached only the 13th floor. After that, people were required to exit the elevator and take stairs to the next floor up. The third program was housed in a small and cramped office, away from central administrative support. Jenks and Kennell (2012) suggested that advocating for enhanced facilities is one of the many job tasks of the ESL program administrator in higher education. They noted that if ESL learners in higher education are viewed as degree-seeking students, often ―universities decide to improve or update . . . facilities and rethink poor policies regarding classroom space arrangements‖ (Jenks & Kennell, 2012, p. 183). Theme 5: Program Competition and Protectionism It is noteworthy that none of the program directors interviewed indicated any desire to cooperate with other ESL programs on campus. Lynn observed that ―everyone’s working in silos and there’s no . . . team approach.‖ Each program director undertook his or her own marketing and recruitment efforts, with no

discernible collaboration. This lack of cooperation may have been a function of each program being housed within a larger administrative unit. Although some distinctions existed as to what type of students were eligible for each program, there was also some overlap, creating a situation in which programs might compete for the same prospective students. There was little evidence to suggest that there was a strategic institutional approach to delineating and differentiating these programs. Program directors commented on how they tried not to duplicate one another’s programs, but this was more of an ad hoc approach rather than a result of an institutional strategy. For Lynn, revamping the program’s website was the impetus for doing market research and, in particular, surveying what other ESL providers (who were also potential competitors) were doing. She said that the process of redesigning the website: forced us to look out and see what everyone was doing, so that we didn’t duplicate the services of the other programs on campus particularly, and we didn’t duplicate what was being done really well elsewhere, outside of campus by other groups in the city. Participants in this study offered comments that indicated a sense of protectionism over their own programs and a reluctance to share information deemed to be proprietary. The result was a notable lack of communication between the three program directors, with a veritable sense of competition among them. Impey and Underhill (1994) explained that ―for all language programs, there is the constant threat that our competitors will get an edge over us, will find out how to exploit that lead successfully, and will take business away from us‖ (p. 8). In the case of this study, competition came not only from outside the institution, but also from within it. Directions for Future Research The reasons why a university would fail to develop a unified institutional strategy for ESL remain unanswered, which may be a topic for future investigation. In addition, this study points to the need for further investigation of how higher education ESL programs are managed, particularly in revenuegenerating contexts. There is a need to advocate for better support from institutional administration in terms of working conditions, resources, and support for program directors. Finally, there is a need to further understand the needs, perceptions, and experiences of TESOL administrators in order to develop better training programs for graduate students who may well serve in a leadership capacity at some point in their career, and also to develop better professional development opportunities for those currently in leadership roles.

Conclusion This study has presented a unique and complex case of multiple revenuegenerating ESL programs existing within a single post-secondary institution. Its significance lies in the new insights it offers into the realities of ESL language program directors working in within the context of this bounded case study. Generative Modest Extrapolations Although case studies are often deemed to lack generalizability, Merriam and Tisdell (2016) have argued that the concept of generalizability applied to

quantitative studies can be misplaced in qualitative research contexts, and instead researchers can point towards a ―working hypothesis‖ or ―modest extrapolation‖ (p. 255) generated as a theoretical outcome of a qualitative investigation. Given that the body of literature that exists on ESL program management corroborated the findings of this small-scale study, it would not be an overestimation to offer a generative working hypothesis that ESL programs in higher education require a specific kind of director or manager. Furthermore, the job the ESL program director differs from their counterparts in other academic disciplines. ESL program directors must not only have subject matter expertise in TESOL, possess a graduate degree, speak at least one additional language, and have international work experience to carry credibility in the field, but in addition understand educational administration and possess the business acumen necessary to generate the robust revenue needed to sustain their programs. This is an exacting combination cultivated through the trajectory of a career, not merely a set of skills a junior TESOL professional would likely have. In other words, TESOL skills alone are insufficient to run an ESL program in higher education. Similarly, transplanting a manager from a different discipline or business background would be unsuccessful, given that a professional TESOL background is needed for the manager to be viewed as credible by colleagues and partners. Panferov (2012) pointed out that language program administration as a profession, distinct from that of an ESL teacher, is beginning to emerge. It is worth acknowledging that those who lead ESL programs post-secondary contexts are highly competent professionals who have developed substantial leadership skills and business acumen through on-the-job experience. Those who hold these leadership roles today could play a part in training and coaching those who may follow in their footsteps in the future. Recommendations A primary recommendation emerging from this study is that TESOL graduate programs must include a leadership component to provide more training and support for those in the profession. Management skills have not typically been included in the types of degree programs taken by TESL professionals, such as an MA or MEd (Hussein, 1995; Reasor, 1986). Hussein (1995) suggested that TESOL and applied linguistics programs should either include administrative training or require students take such courses through a complementary department, such as educational administration. Not only do current ESL program administrators, as a body of professionals with deep expertise and experience, have the opportunity to train the next generation of ESL program administrators, we must provide professional development opportunities for those currently serving in administrative roles (McGee et al., 2014). Hussein (1995) suggested that professional associations can facilitate further development those in administrative roles through workshops and presentations at their annual conferences. Leaders rely on their own first-hand experience as well as on their interactions with professional peers with whom they work in similar contexts (McGee et al., 2014; Sergiovanni, 1991). By incorporating components of leadership and

educational administration into graduate-level TESOL programs and complementing that with professional development for those who already serve in leadership roles, current TESOL professionals would cultivate the next generation of program directors who could lead programs with skills and confidence, while also having a network of peers with similar administrative training upon whom they could rely for consultation and advice. In addition, there is a need for a candid dialogue about the value ESL programs bring to higher education not merely for their monetary contributions, but for the much-needed support and services they provide to international students. Institutions themselves carry substantial responsibility when it comes to elevating the profile and prestige of ESL programs on campus. Only when these programs receive considerable institutional support will they be legitimized as authentic contributors to the academic community. Acknowledging the emergence of language program administration as a profession distinct from that of teaching is a valuable first step in elevating and empowering ESL program directors, who serve the dual, if often competing, purpose of producing revenue for their institutions while simultaneously preparing English language learners for academic and professional success.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 9, pp. 29-41, September 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.9.3

Korean University Students‟ Perceptions of Teacher Motivational Strategies Michael Heinz Hankuk University of Foreign Studies Seoul, Republic of Korea Chris Kobylinski Hankuk University of Foreign Studies Seoul, Republic of Korea

Abstract. ELT (English Language Teaching) is a significant component of the Korean Education system from elementary school to university. The ELT industry is comprised of two distinct types of teachers: Native English speakers and Native Korean speakers. While both groups share similar educational goals, there is often very little interaction between the two groups. Both groups spend considerable time with students and have considerable influence on students studying English in South Korea. The goal of this research was to see what students thought of the motivational strategies employed by each group, in hopes of being able to see how both groups could learn from each other. Motivation is one of the most important elements of language learning and this research hoped to find how each group of teachers motivated students. The focal point of this research was a survey focusing on a set of motivational strategies identified by Dornyei. This survey adapted Dornyei‟s survey to focus on how the students perceived the strategies, rather than how teachers assessed their own motivational strategies. The survey was given to two groups, students in an undergraduate level Practical English course and to students in a graduate level interpretation and translation department to see how the students perceived the motivational strategies of each group. The survey revealed a few clear cut differences among each group. The surveys showed that Native English teachers provided instinct motivation through various tasks and by creating a positive classroom environment. Native Korean speakers excelled in creating extrinsic motivation, by providing realistic goals and by stressing the importance of English in the working world. Keywords: ELT, South Korea, motivation, EFL, motivational strategies, Donryei

Introduction Given the complexity inherent in learning a foreign language, it is not surprising that motivating students has been identified as being one of the most difficult aspects of teaching ELT; outranking even the selection of teaching methodology, subject matter proficiency, and textbook and curriculum guide usage (Veenman, 1984). Indeed, a lack of motivation is often a recurrent problem in EFL classrooms (Dornyei & Kubanyiova, 2014; Ushioda, 2013). Given its importance, this paper seeks to further research on motivational strategies and chose the South Korean context as its focal point. The South Korean ELT industry is massive in scale with ELT-based institutions dotting the landscape in every conceivable direction. While the industry is comprised primarily of domestic, ethnically Korean English teachers for whom English is a second language, a considerable number of native English speakers from the United States, Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom also teach in the ELT industry at all levels and age ranges. These two groups: Native Korean speaking English teachers (hereafter referred to as NKS teachers) and Native English speaking English teachers (hereafter referred to as NES teachers) have limited interactions with one another despite the common goals they pursue within the same educational environment. The researchers themselves being NES teachers who have worked in the Korean ELT industry for over a decade became accustomed to Korean students remarking with great frequency on the differences between NKS and NES teachers. As such these anecdotal comments made by Korean students about the differences between NKS and NES teachers led the researchers to ponder a number of research questions:

1. How do the motivational strategies of NKS and NES teachers differ? 2. How do students feel about the differences between these motivational strategies?

Literature Review There are a great many articles written about student motivation and language learning with no small number of models having been created in an attempt to understand the subject (eg., Clement, 1980; and MacIntrye, Clement & Noels, 1998). Within the field two figures stand out as being relative authorities on motivation and second language acquisition: Robert C. Gardner and Zoltan Dornyei. Gardner established his „Socio-educational model‟ as a model for understanding motivation the 1960‟s and has been actively refining it ever since (Gardner & Lambert, 1959; Gardner, 1985; Gardner & Lalonde, 1985). His model is broadly divided into two types of motivation: instrumental and integrative motivation. Instrumental motivation relates to things such as test scores, college admissions, and job acquisition. Alternatively, integrative motivation concerns a learner‟s desire to embrace the target language‟s culture and community, which

Gardner singles out as being a more significant determiner of motivation for students. Additionally Gardner (2007) emphasizes the unique nature of motivation as regards the acquisition of a second language. Whereas for most scholastic subjects the educational context is a given in terms of understanding the roots of motivation, second language acquisition requires examination of the cultural context related to the second language. Common scholastic subjects are taught almost entirely within the student‟s native culture while language study requires the taking on of cultural traits such as pronunciation or vocabulary to successfully acquire the new language. Thus educationally relevant variables are as significant as culturally relevant variables. On the other hand, Dornyei‟s model, the L2 Motivational Self System, consists of three components: the Ideal L2 self, the Ought-to L2 self, and the L2 learning experience (2009). Dornyei defines those components in the following manner: the Ideal L2 self is “the L2 specific facet of one‟s ideal self;” Ought-to L2 is “he attributes that one believes one ought to possess in order to avoid possible negative outcomes;” and the L2 experience is “situation-specific motives related to the immediate learning environment and experience (2009).” Motivation in various models is seen as a quality predictor of student achievements. Dornyei asserts that, “Motivation is one of the main determinants of second/foreign language achievement (Dornyei 1994, p. 273). Gardner and Bernaus (2008) found that motivation is a significant positive predictor of language learning achievements. While that finding has a ring of intuitiveness, other studies have found that the motivational strategies adopted by language teachers influence student motivation (Dornyei, 1994; Dornyei, 1998; Dornyei, 2001a; Dornyei, 2001b; Bravo, Intriago, Holguin, Garzon & Arcia, 2017). Within the South Korean context, Guillautaux and Dornyei (2008) explored the connection between the language learning motivation of students and the motivational teaching practices of teachers. The motivation orientation of language teaching (MOLT), a classroom observation instrument was created to augment self-report questionnaires for the study of 40 classroom that included 27 teachers and more than 1,300 students. In the end, the study demonstrated a clear relationship between the use of teacher‟s motivational strategies and the language learning motivation of the students. Papi and Abdollahzadeh (2012) replicated the study carried out by Guillautaux and Dornyei and reached similar conclusions but added a need to focus more studies on motivation in tertiary settings due to the unique context of those settings. However, it is important to note that some discrepancy can exist between the self-reporting of the motivational strategies implemented by teachers and the perspectives of students. For example, Jacques (2001) examined the motivation and preferences for teaching activities of both teachers and students. Relationships were found related to motivational characteristics and perceptions of strategy use within both the teacher and the student sample. Yet, the study found that teachers had a tendency to rate activities more highly than the students did.

More significantly, a study by Bernaus and Gardner (2008) examined more acutely the possible discrepancy between teachers‟ reported use of motivational strategies and students‟ perceived use of motivational strategies. Within the Catalan Autonomous Community of Spain, 31 English teachers and nearly 700 of their students were selected for the study. The study adapted Gardner and MacIntyre‟s mini-AMTB (Attitude/Motivation Test Battery) (1993) to explore the attitudes of all the participants in addition to a 26 question survey about motivational strategy use. The study concluded that motivational strategies are solid predictors of language achievement but only when reported by students, not when reported by teachers (2008). It was the above findings that led us to examine student perceptions of motivational strategies as employed by teachers in South Korea. The present study felt that it was more significant to determine how students perceived their instructors to provide more valuable feedback than instructor self-reflection.

Subjects Graduate School Subjects There were 49 participants from a graduate school of interpretation and translation with highly selective admissions standards. Students admitted to that program must pass two admissions tests. The first test judges the students‟ writing and translation ability with an eye towards their bilingual competency. The second round of the test is an oral interview in which students are asked to perform without preparation or notes generalized interpretative processes from Korean to English and from English to Korean. The program does not rely upon any forms of standardized testing to determine who is accepted into the program. It is common for these students to have spent many years both in Korea and other western nations such as the United States. For some of these students, English is their dominant language though it is rarely their precise mother tongue as the overwhelming majority of students are of Korean ethnic descent.

Undergraduate Subjects The undergraduate students were Korean university students from four Communicative English classes; standard credit-bearing classes for first year students. Communicative English classes are multi-skill classes designed to prepare students to study in an English speaking classroom. The students are level tested before the start of the semester and all students were placed in the highest level. Each class size ranged from 28 students to 30 students and a total of 102 participated in the survey. The level of the students ranged from fluent to upper intermediate. Most students had a good grasp of English and of academic language in their native language. The ages of the students ranged from 18 to 22.

Methodology For the present study undergraduate and graduate school students from the same Korean university were selected to answer a survey about the motivational strategies of NKS and NES English teachers. The undergraduate students were comprised of mostly freshman students of intermediate English

proficiency enrolled in a required English competency course whereas the graduate school students were interpretation and translation majors possessing high level bi-lingual competency. The differences between the students‟ backgrounds were thought to be significant enough to produce varying attitudes between the groups and provide two different perspectives particularly in terms of exposure to NES teachers, since the graduate school were more likely to have spent more time with NES teachers both abroad and domestically based on anecdotal feedback from the student populations. The survey was drawn up based on a survey device used by Dornyei and Cheng (2007) in a study of 387 Taiwanese English teachers that included a multitude of questions about motivational strategies and the frequency of their usage. In the end 47 items about motivational strategies were drawn up and students were asked to rate the frequency of their usage by both NKS and NES English teachers in addition to student background questions to determine what, if any, significant differences exist between both groups (appendix). A Likert scale of 1 to 6 was utilized to avoid the possibility of neutral answers due to the large number of questions on the survey. In total there were 151 participants in the study.

Findings The first part of the survey that contained questions about previous learning experiences provided insight into the English language learning experiences of the students. Surprisingly, there answers were quite uniform across all questions. Both groups of students had studied English for a long period of time. The graduate school students had studied for 16.5 years on average and the undergraduate school students for 10.4 years. The graduate school students reported that they spent 6.5 years studying with NES and 9.1 years with NKS. The undergraduate students reported studying 5.1 years with NES and 7.5 years with NKS. These numbers are very consistent given the fact that the average age of the students was estimated to differ by roughly 6 years. These numbers show a fairly constant approach to English language learning in South Korea and highlighted the perceived importance of English in the Korean educational system. In terms of years spent studying English abroad, the graduate school students spent an average of 5.4 years abroad and the undergraduate school students spent an average of 1.7 years studying English abroad. This difference wasn‟t unexpected, given the age difference between the students and the importance of English in their majors. The test scores that were optionally provided also showed that both groups were successful English language learners. The graduate school students reported an average TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) score (scores range from 10-990) of 977 and the undergraduate students reported an average of 915. These scores were supported by the TOEFL (Test of English as

a Foreign Language) scores (scores range from 0-120). The graduate school students averaged 110 and the undergraduate school students averaged 106. The slight difference between these two scores was unexpected but since responses were optional it is possible that a full accounting would reveal broader gaps between the groups. The results of the surveys were analyzed and some obvious patterns and preferences emerged. One of the first and most notable trends was that the graduate school group scored both the NKS and NES teachers lower than the undergraduate students in nearly all categories with only a few exceptions where the average scoring for a couple items was almost identical. On average they scored everything 0.6 lower. Although speculations could be made to explain this difference, the quantitative and qualitative data from the survey didn‟t explain this difference. Another clear pattern was that NES scored higher on average than NKS. The NES average score was 4.1 compared to an average score of 3.5 for the NKS. These numbers are not an indicator of preference or educational quality, rather they highlight some key differences in the motivational styles of NKS and NES. The purpose of this study wasn't to show which type of teacher was preferred, rather it was to find motivational strategies and techniques that worked. The numbers as a whole show little more than an interesting pattern, however, when examined more closely, they also reveal that there are some things that NES may be able to learn from the motivational strategies of NKS and vice versa. One of the clear differences that came out was that the students reported that NES used various activities and projects to facilitate a communicative and cooperative environment. On the statement, “Create opportunities so that students can mix and get to know each other better,” NES scored 2.2 higher than NKS. This was the biggest reported difference. This is supported by another statement “Encourage student participation by assigning group activities that require involvement from each participant.” NES scored 1.6 higher than NKS on this statement. In terms of classroom environment, statements 1, 15, 30, and 43 again showed a higher average score for NES. NES scored 2 full points higher on statement 1, “Bring in and encourage humor and laughter frequently in your class.” NES scored 1.3 higher on statement 15, “Make sure that grades reflect not only the students‟ achievement but also the effort they have put into the task;” 1.4 higher on statement 30, “Create a supportive and pleasant classroom climate where students are free from embarrassment and ridicule;” and 1.5 higher on statement 43, “Encourage students to share personal experiences and thoughts as a part of the learning tasks.” The survey also showed a higher average score for NES in terms of lesson content and format. Students felt that NES were better able to delve into the cultural aspects of English. For the statements which said, “…familiarize the learners with the cultural background of the English language,” NES scored 1.8 higher. Statement 12, “…introduce in their lessons various types of interesting content and topics which students are likely to find interesting,” NES scored 1.3 higher.

Another important difference was that the students felt that NES did a better job of communicating the importance of communicative competence, while NKS were more focused on grammar. For the statement that said, “Make it clear to students that the important thing in learning a foreign language is to communicate effectively rather than worrying about grammar mistakes,” NES scored 1.8. While this may seem like an obvious advantage, the qualitative feedback showed that a strong focus on grammar was also valued by the students, as they felt it better prepared them for standardized testing. One area where NKS scored better was in terms of practical motivation. While NES scored better on statements that related to integrative motivation, NKS scored higher on statements related to instrumental motivation. NKS‟s emphasis on stressing the importance of English for their lives and career was reflected in statement 9, “Regularly remind students that the successful mastery of English is beneficial to their future.” NKS scored .9 higher on this statement. In addition to scoring higher on items concerned with instrumental motivation, NKS also scored higher on items related to promoting realistic goals for students. NKS scored .5 higher on statement 10, “Encourage students to select specific, realistic and short term learning goals for themselves.” In addition to helping students select short term goals, this also shows an emphasis on giving the students responsibility, as the goals were selected by the students themselves and not prescribed by the teacher. Overall, the quantitative data revealed many patterns. NES scored better on segments that related to integrative motivation. Students felt like the classroom environment, cultural aspects, content, and the format of the classes showed stronger signs of effective motivational strategies for NES. On the other hand, NKS scored better on statements related to instrumental motivation and practical goal setting.

Analysis and Conclusions After the survey results had been collected and partially analyzed, a group of students from both the undergraduate group and the graduate school group were interviewed to aid in the interpretation of the data. The students were asked to describe the differences between NKS and NES English teachers in terms of motivational strategy and assess the strengths of both groups. The undergraduate students viewed NES as more likely to utilize group work and various types of content such as video clips and language content that is practical in nature. Additionally they indicated that they feel that NES maintain a more relaxed atmosphere in the classroom than their NKS counterparts. While they were positive about the atmosphere created by NES, they felt that the atmosphere created by NKS was more structured and utilized clearer forms of assessment. The graduate school students expressed similar opinions about the contrasting motivational strategies of both groups. Overall the graduate school students felt that NES were more engaging, encouraging, accepting of mistakes, and enthusiastic. Students felt that NES stressed positive feedback, flexibility, and a desire to move towards acclimation within an English speaking

environment. Students stressed that in Korea, most NES did not have to follow a set curriculum and utilized discussions and essay writing more than NKS. The graduate school students had seemingly negative things to say about NKS but were convinced of the results of such methods. NKS were characterized as being patient but not providing verbal encouragement; being less flexible; not being passionate; not using English often in the classroom; and relying on “threats” to motivate students, a strategy they said was common across all subjects in Korean schools. While these attributes have a ring of negativity to them, the graduate school students felt that they were necessary to ensure high test scores on standardized tests, to keep a fast pace within the classroom, and to accommodate students that are shy or reticent about discussing topics in a classroom environment.

Limitations One of the limitations of this study was its lack of specificity. Students were asked to generalize quite broadly about years of experience with a variety of teachers which amounts to a considerable amount of over-generalization. Still the research questions were created based in part on student tendencies to make such generalizations in their remarks about classroom environments. Being able to examine a group with more homogenous backgrounds could produce interesting results. Another limitation of this study was its implementation by native English speakers to Korean students. As a result of their knowledge that we would be reviewing the data it may have skewed opinions even at a subtle level to try to appease the researchers in some fashion. Utilizing a third party in future studies may be a reasonable remedy for this situation. Perhaps more significantly, the lack of random sampling to create the data means the results are only valid for this group of students. In future studies random sampling should be utilized to generate results with greater validity. In terms of internal validity items 3 and 34 were selected to measure internal consistency and the coefficient generated was 0.599 which suggests a modest correlation between two similar items. It should be noted that those items are not identical as item 3 is about creating opportunities for students to interact through group work whereas item 34 is about “requiring” students to work in groups to improve cooperation. However these were the two items with the closest relationship to one another. One of the conclusions of this survey is that different goals drive the usage of differing motivational strategies but it would be interesting to see how teacher training for both groups generally differs. Also it would be interesting to look at how the goals for NES and NKS are formulated or promulgated. Do NES tend to concern themselves less with standardized tests because they are given specific directives by administrators or does their perspective arise from their cultural values? Further studies could explore the reasons for the use of different strategies and whether or not these strategies are effective for their respective goals as suggested by some students. Does a highly instrumental motivational

strategy result in higher scores on standardized tests? If so, many such strategies could be of use to NES tasked with teaching Korean students and could account for possible issues of low student satisfaction with English courses conducted by NES.

References Bernaus, M., and Gardner, R.C. (2008) Teacher motivation strategies, student perceptions, student motivation, and English achievement. The Modern Language Journal, 92, 387-402. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00753.x Bravo, Jorge Cevallos, Eder A. Intriago, Jhonny Villafuerte Holguin, Gustavo Molina Garzon, Luis Ortega Arcia (2017). Motivation and Autonomy in Learning English as Foreign Language: A Case Study of Ecuadorian College Students. English Language Teaching, Vol. 10, No. 2, 100-113. doi: https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v10n2p100 Cheng,H. F., & Dörnyei, Z. (2007). The use of motivational strategies in language instruction: The case of EFL teaching in Taiwan, Innovation in language learning and teaching, 1, 153-174. doi: https://doi.org/10.2167/illt048.0 Clément, R. (1980). “Ethnicity, contact and communicative competence in a second language”. In H. Giles, W. P. Robinson & P. M. Smith (Eds.) Language: Social psychological perspectives: Selected papers from the First International Conference on Social Psychology and Language held at the University of Bristol, England, July 1979. Oxford: Pergamon. Dornyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 78, iii, 273-284. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1994.tb02042.x Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language Teaching, 31(3), 117-135. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S026144480001315X Dörnyei, Z. (2001a). Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511667343 Dörnyei, Z. (2001b). Teaching and Researching Motivation. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/3588444 Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In Z. Dörnyei, & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9-42). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Dornyei, Z., & Kubanyiova, m. (2014). Motivating learners, motivating teachers: Building vision in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi: https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2013.3.3.7 Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1959). Motivational variables in second-language acquisition. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 13(4), 266-272. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0083787 Gardner, R. C., & Lalonde, R. N. (1985). Second language acquisition: A social psychological perspective. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American psychological association, California. Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social Psychology and Second Language learning: The Role of Attitudes and Motivation. London: Edward Arnold. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0272263100007634

Gardner, R. C. & MacIntyre, P. D. (1993). “On the measurement of affective variables in second language learning”. Language Learning, 43: 157-194. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1992.tb00714.x Gardner, R. C. (2007). “Motivation and second language acquisition”. Porta Linguarum, 8: 920. Guillauteaux, M. J. & Dörnyei, Z. (2008). “Motivating Language Learners: A Classroom Oriented Investigation of the Effects of Motivational Strategies on Student Motivation”. Tesol Quarterly, 42, (1): 55-77. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1545-7249.2008.tb00207.x Jacques, S. R. (2001). “Preferences for instructional activities and motivation: A comparison of student and teacher perspectives”. In Z. Dörnyei & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/3588443 MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R. & Noels, K. (1998). “Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation”. The Modern Language Journal, 82: 545-562. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1998.tb05543.x Papi, m., & Abdollahzadeh, E. (2012). L2 teacher motivational practice, student motivation and possible L2 selves: An examination in the Iranian EFL context. Language Learning, 62(2), 571–594. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2011.00632.x Ushioda, E. (2013). Motivation and ELT: Global issues and local concerns. In E. Ushioda, (Ed.), International perspectives on motivation: Language learning and professional challenges (pp. 1–17). London: Palgrave Macmillan. doi: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137000873_1 Veenman, Simon (1984) “Perceived Problems of Beginning Teachers.” Review of Educational Research Vol. 54, No. 2 (Summer), 143-178. doi: https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543054002143

Appendix 1 For the following questions please rate domestic Korean English teachers (referred to as Korean English Teachers and Native English speaking English Teachers (referred to as Native English Teachers) based on their use of motivational strategies using the following scale: 1 = Hardly Ever 6=Very Often Use your general impression as a guide as opposed to thinking just about one teacher for either category. 1. Bring in and encourage humor and laughter frequently in your class. 2. Show students that they respect, accept and care about each of them. 3. Create opportunities so that students can mix and get to know each other better (e.g. group work, game-like competition). 4. Familiarize the learners with the cultural background of the English language. 5. Explain the importance of the „class rules‟ that you regard as important (e.g. let‟s not make fun of each other‟s mistakes) and how these rules enhance learning, and then ask for the students‟ agreement.

6. Give clear instructions about how to carry out a task by modelling every step that students will need to do. 7. Invite senior students who are enthusiastic about learning English to talk to your class about their positive English learning experiences/successes. 8. Monitor students‟ accomplishments, and take time to celebrate any success or victory. 9. Regularly remind students that the successful mastery of English is beneficial to their future (e.g. getting a better job or pursuing further studies abroad). 10. Encourage students to select specific, realistic and short-term learning goals for themselves (e.g. learning 5 words every day). 11. Design tasks that are within the learners‟ ability so that they get to experience success regularly. 12. Introduce in your lessons various forms of interesting content and topics which students are likely to find interesting (e.g. about TV programmes, pop stars or travelling). 13. Make tasks challenging by including some activities that require students to solve problems or discover something (e.g. puzzles). 14. Teach the students self-motivating strategies (e.g. self-encouragement) so as to keep them motivated when they encounter distractions. 15. Make sure grades reflect not only the students‟ achievement but also the effort they have put into in the task. 16. Ask learners to think of any classroom rules that they would like to recommend because they think those will be useful for their learning. 17. Show your enthusiasm for teaching English by being committed and motivating yourself. 18. Break the routine of the lessons by varying presentation format (e.g. a grammar task can be followed by one focusing on pronunciation; a whole-class lecture can be followed by group work). 19. Invite some English-speaking foreigners as guest speakers to the class. 20. Help the students develop realistic beliefs about their learning (e.g. explain to them realistically the amount of time needed for making real progress in English). 21. Use short and interesting opening activities to start each class (e.g. fun games). 22. Involve students as much as possible in designing and running the language course (e.g. provide them with opportunities to select the textbooks; make real choices about the activities and topics they are going to cover; decide whom they would like to work with). 23. Establish a good relationship with your students. 24. Encourage student participation by assigning activities that require active involvement from each participant (e.g. group presentation or peer teaching).

25. Give good reasons to students as to why a particular activity is meaningful or important. 26. Try and find out about your students‟ needs, goals and interests, and then build these into your curriculum as much as possible. 27. Allow students to create products that they can display or perform (e.g. a poster, an information brochure or a radio program). 28. Encourage learners to try harder by making it clear that you believe that they can do the tasks. 29. Give students choices in deciding how and when they will be assessed/evaluated. 30. Create a supportive and pleasant classroom climate where students are free from embarrassment and ridicule. 31. Bring various authentic cultural products (e.g. magazines, newspapers or song lyrics) to class as supplementary materials. 32. Make clear to students that the important thing in learning a foreign language is to communicate meaning effectively rather than worrying about grammar mistakes. 33. Notice students‟ contributions and progress, and provide them with positive feedback. 34. Include activities that require students to work in groups towards the same goal (e.g. plan a drama performance) in order to promote cooperation. 35. Teach students various learning techniques that will make their learning easier and more effective. 36. Adopt the role of a „facilitator‟ (i.e. their role would be to help and lead students to think and learn in their own way, instead of solely giving knowledge to them). 37. Highlight the usefulness of English and encourage your students to use their English outside the classroom (e.g. internet chat room or English speaking pen-friends). 38. Motivate your students by increasing the amount of English they use in class. 39. Share with students that they value English learning as a meaningful experience that produces satisfaction and which enriches your life. 40. Avoid „social comparison‟ amongst your students (i.e. comparing them to each other for example when listing their grades in public). 41. Encourage learners to see that the main reason for most failure is that they did not make sufficient effort rather than their poor abilities. 42. Make tasks attractive by including novel or fantasy elements so as to raise the learners‟ curiosity. 43. Encourage students to share personal experiences and thoughts as a part of the learning tasks.

44. Enrich the channel of communication by presenting various auditory and visual aids such as pictures, tapes and films. 45. Show students that their effort and achievement are being recognized by the teacher. 46. The teacher tries to be herself/himself in front of students without putting on an artificial â&#x20AC;&#x17E;maskâ&#x20AC;&#x;, and shares with them his/her hobbies, likes and dislikes. 47. Give students opportunities to assess themselves (e.g. give themselves marks according to their overall performance).

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 9, pp. 42-59, September 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.9.4

Visualising the Doctoral Research Process: An Exploration into Empirical Research Processes of Emerging Researchers Kwong Nui Sim Victoria University of Wellington Wellington, New Zealand Russell Butson University of Otago Dunedin, New Zealand Abstract. The completion of a doctoral programme requires a fundamental knowledge of the research process. It is assumed and expected by academic staff that PhD students are aware of the research process prior to undertaking doctoral research. This study addresses the degree to which these assumptions are valid, by investigating doctoral students‟ understanding and practices of doctoral research. Nine doctoral students, at various phases of their dissertation and from different discipline backgrounds, were asked to illustrate, through diagrams, the processes involved in their doctoral research. They were invited to discuss their illustrated ideas and explain in more detail the processes and practices they employed, including the role of technology. The findings revealed a variety of processes characterised as: a) Linear vs. Non-linear; b) Traditional vs. Non-traditional; c) Simple vs. Complicated. In addition, the students exhibited diverse styles of presenting the research process through: 1) the way they started their research; 2) the language they used to describe the process; and 3) the linearity and complexity of their doctoral research. The paper concludes with a number of important insights with regard to the student‟s perceptions and practices of undertaking doctoral research. Confusion in these areas is a matter that directly affects the outcome of the dissertation as well as the PhD student‟s future research practices. Keywords: Best practice; doctoral research; participative drawing method; PhD student; supervision.

Background/Context I was lucky; I had an idea of what I wanted to research. Don’t get me wrong; I knew I had a lot to learn about my topic and

the process of doctoral research. Nevertheless, I recall being very enthusiastic and excited about the thought of all this learning before me. However, when I eventually started it was much harder than I thought. It seemed I was spending hours reading and yet making very little progress. There were good times and bad times, times when I felt scholarly and in control and times where I was ready to give up. My supervisor sessions were similarly good and bad. It seemed the doctoral research process came down to the repetitive act of rewriting sections. Moreover, it appeared the rationale for many of these edits correlated to her mood. On one occasion, she had me edit a section that she actually wrote! I didn’t say anything - just changed it. By the time I was in the final phases of my PhD, I was sick of the study. I just wanted it finished. When I had completed and was waiting to receive my PhD, I was so happy, so pleased with myself, it’s as if the delayed gratification created a sense of euphoria beyond expectation. It’s a part of me now. Would I do it again? – no. Any regrets? Also no, but without it I would not be who I am today. It would be fair to say that the act of undertaking doctoral research is somewhat daunting. It is also worth noting that doctoral research exists within a complex mix of aspirations and expectations. Doctoral students operate not on their own, but against the backdrop of pressures and agendas from family, supervisors, peers, and institutions. For this reason, insights into the research processes that doctoral students employ and their experiences of how they plan and achieve the various phases of work, would be beneficial to our understanding of what is required and how to prepare students to leverage the benefits of doctoral study. The purpose of this paper is not to debate whether there is a „right‟ or „wrong‟ way of undertaking doctoral research. Rather, the paper reports on the various approaches PhD students employ in their doctoral research. It is worth mentioning that this paper is derived from the first author‟s PhD study on “An investigation into the way PhD students utilise Information Communication and Technology (ICT) to support their doctoral research process” but the ICT aspect was eliminated from the data analysis for the purpose of this paper. Insights from this study will serve to inform as well as enhance, our understanding of the conceptions and practices of doctoral students in order to provide an opportunity for academics, especially supervisors of postgraduate research students, to provide better support for PhD students through their doctoral research process.

Literature Review There is a general acceptance that doctoral research is a crucial process in the exercise of scholarship (Åkerlind, 2008; Brew, 2001; Council of Graduate Schools (CGS), 2005; Kiley & Mullins, 2005; Meyer, Shanahan, & Laugksch, 2005), that is so important in the development of an academic career (Hoskins & Goldberg, 2005; Leonard, Becker, & Coate, 2005). It is a process not only focused on

developing the practice of research, but also the development of an identity within a particular field (Golde, 1998). While some PhD students see doctoral research as a means to become an academic (Åkerlind, 2008), many regard the PhD as an essential qualification for a variety of career opportunities outside the university (Leonard et al., 2005). A study by Stubb, Pyhältö, and Lonka (2011) found 30% of their doctoral student sample stated the purpose for gaining a PhD qualification was to improve their status and salary rather than a particular occupation. Wood (2006) also found PhD students frequently cited „changing as a person‟ as a significant element of doctoral research. A study by Wellington (2012) found a variety of possible reasons why student undertook doctoral study, ranging from a future role in academia to personal development and achievement. While the purposes for undertaking doctoral research may vary, the procedures associated with empirical research typically follow four core phases according to Gardner (2008): Preparation, Fieldwork, Analysis and Writing. 1. Preparation: when a doctoral student creates a research project proposal, reads relevant literature and constructs a research framework. 2. Fieldwork: when the doctoral student collects data as planned according to his or her research framework. 3. Analysis: when the doctoral student engages with the collected data, in alignment with the designed research framework and the existing literature. 4. Writing: when the doctoral student writes the thesis as a fulfilment of the degree requirements. It appears that this structure is not, however, well known by PhD students. A study by Meyer, Shanahan, and Laugksch (2005) found that many PhD students conceptualise what „research‟ is and how it should or should not be done, very differently to each other and their supervisors. For instance, they showed PhD students focused more on concrete activities such as information-gathering, discovering facts and uncovering gaps in the research rather than following the procedural framework of preparation, fieldwork, analysis and writing. It is likely that instead of following core phases, doctoral students conceptualise their doctoral research process on the immediate scholarly environment in which they are situated (Gardner, 2007; Pyhältö, Stubb, & Lonka, 2009; Stubb et al., 2011). In this way, students will look for and adopt views and practices they perceive to be useful (Sweitzer, 2009). In some cases, the dominant influence will be supervisors, but in others it is just as likely to be peers, either from within their department/discipline or outside of it (Kaplan & Maehr, 1999; Seifert, 2004). Given that different disciplines reflect different conceptions of knowledge and learning (Golde, 2010), it seems reasonable to accept that doctoral students will believe that appropriate research practice in one discipline may well be inappropriate in another.

In summary, doctoral research embodies processes and practices alien to most students and yet it is a process that demands a high level of student autonomy. At the same time, while there is increasing demand on supervisor accountability and performance, it is clear that the supervisor role must go beyond disciplinespecific models in teaching and defining the processes and procedures that underpin doctoral research. Against this and the backdrop of departmental expectations, doctoral students are responsible for forging clear ontological and epistemological views, coherent practices and conforming to expectations of research efficiency and productivity. Doctoral students‟ conceptions of doctoral research are likely to influence the quality of the work and the development of research process and practice (Pearson & Brew, 2002). For these reasons, investigating the ways students plan and achieve the various phases of research work in their doctoral process is particularly germane in growing competitive landscape of academic research. Such investigations can help guide the development of frameworks aimed at enhancing the teaching and learning practices in the doctoral research process.

Study Design and Methods In order to highlight doctoral student‟s practice and experience, the study adopted a case-based, biographical approach (Guba & Lincoln, 1989) aimed at generating rich descriptions of the student‟s conceptions of doctoral research, the structural elements associated with processes and logistics and how these conceptions and practices are interlinked. A general interpretive approach was used to analyse the data. This provided a recognised framework and epistemological basis for exploring the meanings and purposes associated with each participant and their practice (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, p. 106). Discussions with the participants encouraged us to „see‟ through the lens of the participants, situating ourselves in their space, rather than placing ourselves apart or outside their experience. Employing a co-constructed, systemic, iterative approach served as a way to explore the topic while minimising the risk of incorporating unidentified bias through our assumptions. It was our hope that weaving together aspirations, conceptions and practices would have a transformative effect on both the student and the researcher (Nelson, 1994) through the awareness of different doctoral research processes and practices that exist. Two data sources were generated: 1) Diagrams of Practice: study participants created drawings, in their own time, of their conceptions of doctoral research process; and 2) Discussions of Practice. Study participants discussed their illustrations, explaining them in detail. These sessions elicited data that enhanced the illustrations. The result was that the initial drawings become more detailed with the addition of terms, shapes, colours and connecting lines. These additions, in some cases, initiated considerable dialogue that at times, ventured beyond the research process and incorporated a variety of doctoral-related incidents. The „explicitness‟ of the drawings, and each participant‟s „point of view‟ (explanation) allowed us a view beyond what conventional approaches such as surveys or interviews are unable to offer (Spencer, 2011).

Participants: Three questions were used for recruiting participants for this study. The questions were: 1. My discipline background is a. Sciences b. Health Sciences c. Humanities d. Commerce 2. a. b. c. d.

What is your current research phase? Circle as many as it suits. Preparation Phase Fieldwork Phase Analysis Phase Writing Phase

3. Please indicate the ratio (within 10) of how much your workload is, according to the research phase that you have chosen in question two. For example, write 5:5 if you have a balanced workload between Analysis Phase and Write-up Phase. Preparation Phase ( ) Fieldwork Phase ( ) Analysis Phase ( ) Writing Phase ( ) 4. a. b. c. d.

How do you rate your ability to use ICT? Expert and skilful Fairly skilful Not at all skilled Not applicable

Twenty full-time doctoral students volunteered for the study. From this group nine were selected based on their study type being „empirical‟ (i.e., with fieldwork involved), a mix of 1st, 2nd and 3rd year experience and their selfreported level of computer literacy as „high‟. The year of study was converted to study „phases‟ defined as Early (approximately 1 year), Middle (approximately 2 years) and Final (approximately 3 years). „Early‟ refers to a student who could be broadly described as in the preparation phase, while „Final‟ refers to a student who is the final write-up phase in preparation for submission. „Middle‟ refers to anyone who isn‟t „Early‟ or „Final‟. As previously mentioned, Question 4 on the doctoral students‟ use of ICT was excluded in the data analysis for this paper. Table 1 presents a summary of the distribution for the participants‟ discipline areas and their PhD phases as defined by this schema.

Table 1: The PhD phases and the discipline backgrounds of the student participants PhD Phase Participant No. Discipline Early 2 Health Science 5 Science 6 Commerce Mid 1 Science 7 Commerce 8 Commerce Final 3 Humanities 4 Humanities 9 Health Science

Data Participants were invited to create a drawing of the research process. They were allowed to use any form they wished: sketch, shapes, mind-maps, cartoon etc. The participants carried out the task in their own time, unsupervised by the researchers over a period of 5-7 days. Participants were free to include text, either on the drawing or as an accompaniment. Once completed, participants met one of the researchers to discuss what they had generated. This allowed an opportunity for the participants to articulate what the diagrams represented, particularly:   

their perspectives about their doctoral research process; the drawing style used to illustrate their research practice; their emphasis on certain aspects of doctoral research.

During these meetings, participants were encouraged to talk freely and to make additions to the diagrams. These sessions played a key role in forming meaning from the drawings.

Analysis and Discussion A general inductive approach (Guba & Lincoln, 1989) was employed to guide the process of coding and analysing the audio recordings of the discussion sessions. Qualitative analysis software (NVivo) was employed to facilitate a systematic, iterative method of coding. The process of the analysis for participative drawing phase 1 is summarised in Figure 1.

Figure 1: The analysis process for participative drawing Phase 1.

To gain an overall sense of the data, the analysis involved repeated reviews of the audio- recorded discussion sessions, researcher notes and the texts and markings on the participants‟ drawings, as shown in the example in Figure 2 below. This iterative process led to the identification of an initial code list based on each of the participants‟ personal explanations of their doctoral research process. As emphasised earlier, the ICT aspect as presented in all the following drawings would not be analysed and discussed in this paper.

Figure 2: Participant drawings showing further markings in ‘dark blue’ & ‘black’ that were added during a discussion session.

As shown in Figure 2, the doctoral research process started by securing a supervisor before engaging in experimental processes by referring to theoretical studies and developing analysis in order to produce a thesis (note the words in red circles). The initial coding based on the individual participants‟ drawings (highlighter, thick lines, circles, numberings, etc. on each drawing) was examined repeatedly through discussion sessions until the students had no more to add. This process helped both parties gain clarity and enhance the trustworthiness and authenticity of the data. It also exemplifies how the research process can encourage participants to take on a “researcher-like” role and experience the invested outcome of the study (Green, Rafaeli, Bolger, Shrout, & Reis, 2006). This process of gaining clarity by discussing and adding additional notes was undertaken in an informal relaxed manner. The diagrams offered an ideal platform for stimulating focused, meaningful discussion. Categories were developed through the process of breaking down, separating, sorting, examining, comparing, and conceptualising the coded data. Every segment of the data was coded through the use of descriptive labelling. Relationships between these descriptive codes were then developed into categories through iterative processes of reworking and refinement. These processes gradually became more detailed and sophisticated with the involvement of both the researcher and the participants. The Process: We found that the participants constructed their perceptions of the doctoral research process in three distinct ways: a) Linear vs. Non-Linear; b) Traditional vs. Non-Traditional; c) Simple vs. Complicated. a) Linear vs. Non-Linear

Figure 3: Participant drawings illustrating linear (on the left) and non-linear (on the right) representations of doctoral research process.

Figure 3 shows two examples which serve to illustrate differences in the way these two students perceived the process. The image on the left illustrates doctoral research as a „three step‟ sequential process, from generating the research topic to running analysis followed by making conclusions. The emphasis on the linear process is displayed by the student use of green directed arrows between the steps. Six participants represented their understanding of doctoral research in a similar linear way. The drawing on the right depicts a non-linear form. One of the three proponents of this non-linear approach explained doctoral research as never straightforward but a mix of moving forward, backward and sideways. In all three non-linear cases, these depictions showed a higher degree of „messiness‟. The two participants in their early PhD phase and the mid-PhD phase mentioned how perplexing (messy) the doctoral research process was. This was repeatedly stated by these students in discussions and presented in their diagrams. It was, however, surprising to discover „messiness‟ in the diagrams of participants in the final phase. The assumption was that these more experienced students would be in a position to articulate, retrospectively, the process in a clear methodical manner. b) Traditional vs. Non-Traditional

Figure 4: Participant drawings illustrating traditional (on the top) and non-traditional (at the bottom) representations of the doctoral research process.

Figure 4 shows two further depictions of the doctoral process, this time illustrating traditional and non-traditional approaches to doctoral research. The first image (on the top) shows a representation of the process illustrated in a „traditional‟ format: from literature review to data collection and analysis followed by a write-up. The emphasis on the traditional process is displayed by the focus on finding a „gap‟ in the literature that leads to the „research idea‟ and „data collection and analyses‟. Six participants represented their doctoral research in this manner. The other three participants opted for a more nontraditional form which they felt showed „innovation‟ in developing a personal approach to research practice. While we expected that students in the early and mid-PhD phases would be conventional in their illustrations of process, two were not. In these cases, there was clearly an interest in doing something different. c) Simple vs. Complicated

Figure 5: Participant drawings illustrating simple (on the top) and complicated (at the bottom) representations of the doctoral research process.

Similar to the illustration on Figure 5 (on the top), seven students represented their doctoral research in a simple layout that captured their idea of the project to proposal preparation, followed by collecting evidence, developing framework and generating validation ended by write-up. The emphasis on the simplicity is displayed by the focus on the „lay terms‟ used in the drawing. Others, however, chose to present their doctoral research in a „network‟ layout with linkages among the „tasks-to-do‟. In this way the diagram reveals linkages showing how particular stages affected important decisions relevant to other stages. It was interesting that the author of the diagram in Figure 5 (at the bottom) spoke of doctoral research as a rather „tortuous‟ process where it was easy to get confused and lost. Students in the early phase of their doctoral research tended to represent their processes in more complex ways, while those in the final phase of doctoral research presented in more „simplistic‟ forms. We had expected the reverse. We thought it was likely that at start-up, PhD students would have a linear, textbook style view of the process that lacked insight into the complexities and those at the end of the process would be much more conscious of the complexities involved. Finding-2 The Starting Point: All students talked a great deal about the „starting point‟ of their doctoral research. Findings from the analysis of the drawings as well as the discussions showed that the participants began their doctoral research in three different ways: a) With an idea; b) „Fishing‟ for an idea; c) Finding a supervisor as presented in Figure 6 below.

Figure 6: Participant drawing illustrating core elements perceived as important starting points of their doctoral research process.

All indicated a preference for, and dependence on, a way to begin their doctoral research. Three believed that one has to have a research idea in order to start the doctoral research process. A further three preferred to begin their doctoral research by finding a â&#x20AC;&#x17E;gapâ&#x20AC;&#x; in the literature in order to generate a research idea. The remaining three identified the need to secure a supervisor as the first and most important task.

Finding-3 The Language Used: Findings from the analysis of the drawings as well as the discussion sessions showed that the participants were very dependent on language to mediate process and meaning within their diagrams. Typically, language was used in three different ways: a) General terms; b) Specific terms; c) Structural terms as presented in Figure 7 below.

Figure 7: Participant drawings illustrating different languages used to describe the doctoral research process.

Four students used general terms to describe the processes in the light of completing a thesis, such as “Analysis”, “Literature”, “Research Proposal” and “Initialising” to describe the steps in their doctoral research. Others chose specific terms or phrases to illustrate each step in regards to the content of their thesis, such as “Use GIS to identify patterns in the recorded features for discussion in the body of the thesis” and “Establish the spatio-temporal models for different renewable resources” respectively. Three of the participants adopted structural terms to highlight their practices, such as “Validation”, “Submission” and “Publication” in order to explain the process of their doctoral research.

Finding-4 Participative Drawing vs. Questionnaire: This finding focuses on the methods used by the researchers to gather the data. Findings from the analysis of the questionnaire and the drawings showed the limitation of using questionnaire-only data.

Participant-6’s Drawing

Participant-6’s Questionnaire

Participant-7’s Drawing

Participant-7’s Questionnaire

Participant-8’s Drawing

Participant-8’s Questionnaire

Participant-9’s Drawing

Participant-9’s Questionnaire

Figure 8: A comparison between drawing and questionnaire.

Findings from both the participants‟ questionnaire as well as drawings analysis indicated the problem of using only questionnaire data to express the student understanding of the process of carrying out doctoral research. As shown in Figure 8, the questionnaire data was not as rich or personal as the data presented in the drawings. Even with the discussion data, the individual student‟s process of undertaking doctoral research was less comprehensive and thorough. During the informal discussions, PhD students needed no prompting or persuasion to talk to their drawing; in fact, they were eager and engaged and spoke of the drawing task positively. In contrast, the questionnaire was not mentioned. It neither prompted discussion nor offered anything interesting or tangible to discuss. The drawings, on the other hand, offered cues and allowed students space to express a variety of aspects without the restrictions of the conventions of the written form or the researcher‟s presuppositions and therefore captured a higher degree of authorship and ownership – we felt it offered a more accurate reflection of the student‟s response to our inquiry. In the discussion sessions, participants for the most part, focused on the outcome – gaining the PhD (product) rather than on how to gain the PhD (process).They explained that the outcome was more important than the process. In fact, it seemed that some had manipulated the process in order to speed up the completion time-frame. Many spoke about life post-PhD. For example, one participant pointed out that, “Basically you can‟t really get a job in Chemistry without a PhD”. Another stated, “I need a PhD because I am a very academic person and I would like to stay in academia for the rest of my life”. In summary, for those just starting the doctoral research process, we had expected to see a degree of messy thinking and diagrams loaded with naïve complexity, but instead these participants tended to draw simple linear drawings. They possessed less knowledge than we were expecting and struggled with describing many of the phases and terms that define the various

elements and interlocking relationships involved in the process. For those nearing completion we expected clarity in their thinking that would be represented in well-defined (symbolic) structured illustrations depicting their successful management of the „chaos‟ or complexity of doctoral study. But instead we witnessed drawings that were extremely complex, confusing and illstructured. On reflection, it is not surprising that these students remained cognisant of the complexities, with a lack of iterative processes that are assumed and expected from our experiences at completion, in order to ensure sound alignment. The importance placed on the „starting‟ phase by participants was also unexpected. This appeared to be a point of concern for a number of participants. We were expecting students to recapitulate the research strategies and approaches developed during their Master Degrees. Instead, we found most of the students were very uncertain and naïve concerning their abilities to start research. The discussion sessions revealed that the students in the early phase knew very little about the processes to follow. Any anxiety during this early phase was not the result of navigating the chaos of tasks, but more about not knowing what tasks were relevant and what to do next. On a more positive note, we were pleased that we included diagramming as a data capture technique. The students found the process useful and enjoyable. They created a level of infirmity that allowed for open and honest dialogue. At these sessions, students willingly added meaning and extended the accounts beyond what could be interpreted from the diagrams alone. It was also fascinating to see how language was used within the diagrams and orally to mediate meaning through a variety of forms and styles.

Conclusion The purpose of this study was to investigate the ways PhD students conceptualised and practised doctoral research. The focus was on a group of PhD students‟ conceptions as well as their practices in different stages of doctoral research processes and thus, the study did not examine the broader domain of individuals or groups associated with the PhD process, such as the supervisors or peers. While on the surface, the small cohort appears to imply limitations to the research, it is important to note the research aimed to explore deep data of individual experiences as opposed to a broader more general approach. The findings of this study have relevance for the broader tertiary population to engender awareness of different ways to understand research into student research practices. We hope it will provide an opportunity for academics, especially supervisors of postgraduate research students, to understand PhD students‟ research processes as well as practices and/or to what degree support might be required to support PhD students. It is hoped that these findings will help promote a deeper conversation about the ways PhD students understand the process and practice of doctoral research. Additionally, visual and situated behavioural data could be employed in higher education research as such data

may offer new insights not found in data gathered through questionnaires and surveys. Perhaps research on larger and more diverse groups of students could be considered to obtain more representative data of the student population, as this study is focussed on a small group of students at one university. The process and outcomes of this study have convinced us of the benefits of visual methodologies within higher education research. We hope this work acts as a catalyst for those looking for new ways of undertaking research, particular those involved in the field of doctoral research.

Acknowledgement The study presented in the paper is derived from one aspect of KwongNui‟s PhD thesis on “An investigation into the way PhD students utilise ICT to support their doctoral research process”, which was completed at the University of Otago, New Zealand in 2015 under the supervision of Sarah Stein, Russell Butson and Jacques van der Meer. Retrieved from https://ourarchive.otago.ac.nz/handle/10523/6263

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Kiley, M., & Mullins, G. (2005). Supervisors‟ conceptions of research: What are they? Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 49(3), 245-262. Leonard, D., Becker, R., & Coate, K. (2005). To prove myself at the highest level: The benefits of doctoral study. Higher Education Research & Development, 24(2), 135149. Meyer, J. H. F., Shanahan, M. P., & Laugksch, R. C. (2005). Students‟ conceptions of research I: A qualitative and quantitative analysis. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 49, 225-244. doi:10.1080/00313830500109535 Nelson, A. (1994). Researching adult transformation as autobiography. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 13(5), 389-403 Pearson, M., & Brew, A. (2002). Research training and supervision development. Studies in Higher Education, 27(2), 135-150 Pyhältö, K., Stubb, J., & Lonka, K. (2009). Developing scholarly communities as learning environments for doctoral students. International Journal for Academic Development, 14(3), 221-232. Seifert, T. (2004). Understanding student motivation. Educational Research 46(2), 137-149. Spencer, S. (2011). Visual Research Methods in the Social Sciences (First ed.). London and New York: Routledge. Stubb, J., Pyhältö, K., & Lonka, K. (2011). Balancing between inspiration and exhaustion: PhD students‟ experienced socio-psychological well-being. Studies in Continuing Education, 33(1), 33-50. Sweitzer, V. (2009). Towards a theory of doctoral student professional identity development: A developmental networks approach. The Journal of Higher Education, 80(1), 1-34. Wellington, J. (2012). Searching for 'doctorateness'. Studies in Higher Education, 38(10), 1490-1503. Wood, K. (2006). Changing as a person: the experience of learning to research in the social sciences. Higher Education Research and Development, 25(1), 53-66.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 9, pp. 60-72, September 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.9.5

Student Experiences of a Blended Learning Environment Jase Moussa-Inaty Zayed University Abu Dhabi, The United Arab Emirates

Abstract. Higher education institutions are showing increased interest in innovative teaching and learning approaches. One such approach is related to blended learning which is a combination of both face-to-face and online delivery. This study aims to determine studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; feelings towards a blended learning class. The study utilized a qualitative method by employing text analysis of studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reflective journals. Three categories emerged, namely; F2F Preference, Blended Preference, and Converted Preference. The results showed that majority of the students preferred F2F classes instead of the blended classes. A significant finding of this study was that despite a high percentage of students who preferred a F2F learning experience almost all the students mentioned that they enjoyed the blended learning experience and would either take another blended course or recommend the same course to a friend. Educational implications and future research direction are also discussed. Keywords: blended learning; face-2-face; online learning; learning environment; learning preferences.

Introduction Providing students with a variety of learning approaches offers a competitive edge for any higher education institute. When instructors provide lecture type or face-to-face (F2F) experiences, there is risk of students experiencing cognitive overload especially if presented materials are crowded with information that is redundant (Moussa-Inaty & Atallah, 2012; Moussa-Inaty, Ayres, & Sweller, 2012). Blended learning may offer a positive contribution and may reduce the risk of cognitive overload hence provide an opportunity for students to engage in a variety of delivery modes of instruction where F2F is not the only form of learning. In a blended class, students engage in various targeted tasks through a range of technological tools. Indeed, information and communication technologies have become a fundamental part of the educational system and learning in countries worldwide (Matukhin & Evseeva, 2014).

In defining blended learning, Graham (2013) speaks of blended learning systems, while drawing on a systems theory perspective. According to Graham (2013) blended learning involves a combination of both face-to-face and online instruction. Others have identified various models of blended learning while also stressing that blended involves online delivery of content and instruction in addition to face-to-face delivery (Stalker & Horn, 2012). It has been argued that blended learning can help in dealing with possible ineffective uses of learning time through more virtual and interactive lectures and activities (Bonk & Graham, 2012; Thorne, 2003). Research has demonstrated a positive perception of the influence of blended learning on student engagement (Atallah & Moussa-Inaty, 2012; Holley & Oliver, 2010). A blended learning class may provide students a certain amount of freedom allowing students to learn at their own pace (Singh, 2003). Blended learning also offers a variety of learning experiences that may match individual learning preferences. This, in turn, may positively impact students’ academic achievement. It is important, however, to note that for successful blended learning, students must be effectively engaged (Gradel & Edson, 2011). Hege (2011) argues for the need to have an engaged community that takes into consideration elements such as course design, social presence, tailored assignments, learner expectations, in addition to a continued interaction between course materials, learners and the instructor for a successful blended delivery of instruction to occur. Blended learning is capable of offering solutions when it comes to issues related to accessibility and cost. As stressed by Dziuban, Hartman and Molskal (2004), blended learning in higher education is an evolving phenomenon that addresses issues such as access, cost, efficiency and timely degree completion. Singh (2003) further asserts that combining different delivery modes, such as F2F and online, can optimize the deployment of cost and time in addition to enhancing the development of learning programs. Accordingly, more and more higher education institutions are showing increased interest in such innovative teaching and learning approaches (Lim, Morris & Kupritz, 2014). Recent studies have highlighted the importance of student’s previous learning experiences when looking at student satisfaction on blended learning (e.g. Zhu, 2017). As universities witness the emergence of new technologies that offer unconventional approaches to teaching and learning, there is a need to offer classes that are unconventional in nature as well. In the context of the UAE, recent research has investigated student readiness to engage in e-learning, results showing that students expressed willingness to enroll in elearning courses (Atallah & Moussa-Inaty, 2013). In fact, students indicated that they would prefer a blended learning approach because it involved both online and F2F learning experiences (Atallah & Moussa-Inaty, 2013). Though one can conclude that students had positive attitudes towards e-learning, one cannot assume that similar attitudes or feelings will be similar when enrolled in a blended learning class and no research in the UAE has been conducted to examine how students feel about blended classes they are enrolled in. The research presented in this paper, therefore, aims to present students’ experiences of a blended learning course offered at a federal institution in the UAE. Specifically, the research attempts to analyze students’ reflective journals of their own blended learning experience. This research is necessary as it allows for

more informed decisions related to the adoption of e-learning, specifically blended learning, as an alternative mode of instruction. This study also provides an opportunity for students to voice their opinion regarding a blended learning experience. Furthermore, this type of analysis can help in identifying the developing feelings of students enrolled in blended classes that can in turn be an important finding as far as future enrolment in blended classes is concerned. The following two research questions are addressed in this paper: (1) How did students feel about their blended learning experience? (2) What difficulties/challenges did students experience during their blended learning experience?

Blended Learning in the United Arab Emirates Some have argued that blended learning is ill-defined and inconsistently used (Olivier & Trigwell, 2005), still there is enough evidence to support the benefits of blended learning (Bower, Kennedy, Dalgarno, Lee, & Kenney, 2015; Buran & Evseeva, 2015; El Alfy, 2017; Nazarenko, 2015) which explains why there is a push towards e-learning and blended learning in the Gulf region (Biju, 2010). Despite this, barriers towards e-learning and technology exist. For example, Schoepp (2005) investigated what UAE faculty members perceived as barriers as they attempted to integrate technology into their teaching - results indicating strongest barriers were faculty being unsure as to how to integrate technology effectively. Other barriers included lack of sufficient training, technical support and time constraints. Several other e-learning barriers in the UAE have been identified in the literature such as preference to talk to the teacher and preference of e-learning in oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own language, to name a few (Vrazalic, MacGregor, Behl, & Fitzgerald, 2009). More recently, in a small-scale preliminary study exploring graduate students learning experiences of a blended learning class at a federal institute in the UAE, students commented that they had concerns about technical failures and a lack of F2F communication, which in their opinion, allowed for a smoother communication process between the professor and students (Moussa-Inaty, 2012). Moussa-Inaty (2012) stressed that while most students preferred a conventional F2F mode of instruction, some were willing to engage in blended learning provided that classes start with F2F sessions followed by online sessions and that there was on-going supervision and mentoring during both F2F and online sessions. Similar results were demonstrated in the Al-Mekhlafi (2004) study showing that many UAE colleges prefer merging two modes of instruction-online teaching and onsite (F2F) teaching. In a study by Tubaishat and Lansari (2011), UAE learners also showed to prefer F2F learning. The UAE studies presented in the literature are mainly preliminary in nature and do not report on blended learning experiences. It is evident that there is a need to seek studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and faculty attitudes toward e-learning. A closer look at current and first time blended learning experiences by students is also crucial. In doing so, information can be gained especially when it comes to developing, evaluating, and running current and future blended learning classes.

Methodology The study adopted a qualitative method employing text analysis of student’s online reflective journals to investigate student feelings towards a blended learning experience. Journal writing as a method which involves analyzing, criticizing, evaluating, and identifying challenges has gained significant prominence in the literature (Daniel, 1992). Journal writing involves the stimulation of thoughts - allowing one to look into oneself, one’s feelings, and one’s actions (Wood, 2012). In addition to providing a platform from which instructional designers can work from when designing and running blended learning classes, it was anticipated that by looking at student’s reflective journals, students were provided a voice to express themselves and a way of conversing with themselves as they attempted to make sense of their blended learning experience.

Participants The study was conducted at a federal university in the UAE with seventy-two undergraduate female Emirati students who were enrolled in an education class on human growth and development. There were no male students in this class because of the structure of the university (an all-female campus), hence the participants were only females. The education class was not only open to education students and so for most the students, this class was an elective. As such, the participants were from the mixed majors offered at the university; namely, Arts and Creative Enterprises, Business, Communication and Media Sciences, Education, Sustainability Sciences and Humanities, and Technological Innovation. Though the language of instruction was in English, the participants’ native language was Arabic, but they all were able to read, write, and speak in English. The participants were familiar with some e-learning tools such as Blackboard and this was their first blended learning experience. The mean age for the participants was 20.5 years. Ages ranged from 19 to 22.

Procedure Technical skills and familiarity with the communication platform is crucial prior to the start of the blended learning experience and warrants consideration (White, Ramirez, Smith, & Plonowski, 2010). Accordingly, all students enrolled in the blended learning class received various supporting and guiding tools at the start of classes, which were F2F in order to help support their novel learning experience. For example, a detailed course guide that included screenshots and various images was provided to show how students could navigate and effectively use Blackboard for (a) content related materials, and (b) assessment related materials. Blackboard was used as the basic platform for the various online and virtual activities such as discussion board. By also using Blackboard as a platform for journal entry, the students were encouraged to write reflective journals and although they were encouraged to contribute to their journal at least once a month, they were allowed to add entries whenever they felt they had something to write or share. Students were reminded that the journal was about them, that is their feelings, thoughts, views, and reactions towards their blended learning experience.

Instrument and Data Analysis In order to address the two research questions, students enrolled in a blended class were asked to keep a reflective journal about their blended learning experience from the start until the end of the semester. Therefore, the data used for this study was drawn from the students’ journal entries on Blackboard. The participant’s reflective journals were analysed using constant comparative analysis or the grounded theory approach (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Based on the grounded theory approach, the researcher does not impose categories; rather, these categories for theorizing the data emerge from respondents’ answers in the written reflective journals in the case of the current study. Categories were generated by frequently comparing new statements with previously reviewed statement. This process of categorical coding allowed the researcher to establish credibility of the findings.

Results and Discussion This section will present a summary of the results of the qualitative data. Results are organized by research questions and are displayed by categories. It is important to note that the majority of the students uploaded an average of three journal entries throughout the semester. Research question 1: How did students feel about their blended learning experience?

The outcome of the data analysis revealed the emergence of three major categories in relation to how students felt towards their blended learning experience. The first theme was F2F Preference and this referred to individuals who preferred F2F class sessions throughout the blended learning experience. The second category that emerged was Blended Preference which referred to individuals who had positive feelings towards the blended learning experience preferring a mix of both F2F and online sessions. The last category to have emerged was Converted Preference and this category referred to individuals who preferred one specific learning approach at the beginning of the semester, and then had a different or converted learning approach preference towards the end of the semester. The results demonstrated that after a blended learning experience, a large number of students stated that they preferred a F2F learning experience (43.5%) and this was followed by a group of students who stressed that they enjoyed the blended learning experience (37%) more than a conventional F2F learning experience. A number of students (19.5%) had converted feelings. Sample student journal extracts can be seen in Table 1 below. Table 1: Students responses on blended learning experience Category F2F Preference

Item refers to F2F preference throughout the blended learning

Sample journal extracts One student highlighted in one of her earlier journal entries that she preferred F2F and also later added, “I think that I still prefer if the course was faceto-face, but I agree that I’ve benefited a lot from this course”.

Category

Item

Sample Responses

Technical Issues

This category refers to difficulties/challenges related to technical issues.

One student wrote, “downloading the power points took a really long time…another challenge was to be able to hear clearly the sounds of the girls that were recorded.” A student mentioned, “it’s fast, easy to apply and reach the teacher, but sometimes the connection is down and you cannot submit your work on time.”

Novelty of the Learning Experience

Added Responsibilities

Learning Style

This category refers to difficulties/challenges related to the novelty of the experience.

A student stated, “I don’t have full knowledge how should I work in the best way of learning this subject.”

This category refers to difficulties/challenges related to student’s added responsibilities when enrolled in a blended learning class.

One student mentioned that, “we faced many difficulties as getting the main idea…deciding what to focus on.”

This category refers to difficulties/challenges related to individual preferences for learning.

One student specified that, “honestly speaking I can’t depend on myself … I would rather have someone explain it to me and I would listen.”

Another student stressed, “everything is new to me and that make me very anxious.”

Another student wrote, “when I read the slides, there were some difficult parts that I could not understand, but I immediately opened the book and read more about that topic.”

One other student also said, “I prefer listening and writing notes while the instructor is explaining which makes it easier for me to focus, understand, and memorize.”

An interesting observation was that the many students who had positive feelings towards their blended learning experience also expressed that the experience made them more independent and responsible. This finding supports the work of Broadbent (2017) and Wang (2003) who showed that technologies not only promote greater student involvement but also generate more individual control and responsibility in the learning process. Still some viewed the added responsibility as a challenge and difficulty as demonstrated in Table 2 above. Even though almost all students discussed difficulties whether they were F2F or blended learning related difficulties, one student stated that she, “did not see any difficulties at all…I just find it very easy and flexible course that I would recommend to all my friends”. In general, this study showed that the participants had mixed feelings about their blended learning experience with the majority preferring F2F learning, although they did not mind some online class sessions because it was a new

experience, encouraged independency and allowed for flexibility. As the course came to an end, students stressed that the class was the best class they had ever taken and that they would either take another blended learning class and/or recommend this class to their friends and others. As further established in the results, the content of the class showed to impact studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s feelings towards the blended learning. The topics discussed in this class (e.g. birth, motherhood, parenting, aging, love and intimacy, etc.) were very relevant to the female students and they openly expressed that they thoroughly enjoyed learning about these topics. Many even wrote about how they were applying what they had learnt from the course (whether through online or F2F means) into their daily lives with their own families and friends. A significant finding of this study is the fact that despite the number of students who preferred a F2F learning experiences and despite the several identified difficulties/challenges, almost all the students mentioned that they enjoyed the blended learning experience and would either recommend the same blended learning class and/or take another blended learning class.

Limitations, Implications, and Future Research The two research questions explored in this study led to findings that are suggestive of the need for further investigation. The major contributions of this study is that it is the first attempt to investigate UAE students feelings towards a blended learning class that students were enrolled in, still it is not without limitations. It is worth noting that when students enrolled in the class, they were not aware that it would be a blended class. It would be interesting to see if students would have still enrolled in the class as an elective had they known it was not going to be a typical university F2F class prior to enrolment. The study is gender unbalanced with only female participants. The study is also restricted to one institution and one blended class and therefore results cannot be generalized. The study should be replicated in different learning environments for further investigation. Similar studies could be carried out with other courses and varying concentrations. One could argue that some courses that are heavy in content may lend themselves better to a blended learning approach. Still it would be interesting to continue investigating students blended learning experiences, so long as there are blended learning opportunities. This can provide valuable information for course designers as they consider current students feedback toward blended learning and make necessary changes that will in turn aim to enhance blended learning experiences. Implications for pedagogical practice, which could lead to more positive feelings towards blended learning may include providing more opportunities for students to experience blended learning, strengthening practical knowledge related to blended learning and designing and offering courses that have relevant, interesting and applicable content. Informing students of the benefits of the actual blended learning experience and providing all sorts of support (technical, student learning, etc.) throughout the blended learning experience

may further lead to more positive feeling towards blended learning. As it stands, F2F continues to have a strong impact on student learning.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 9, pp. 73-87, September 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.9.6

“We Need to Give the Profession Something that No One Else Can”: Swedish Student Teachers‟ Perceptions and Experiences of their Preschool Teacher Training Programme

Birgitte Malm MID Sweden University

Abstract. Current research points towards preschool and qualitative pedagogical relationships as being determined and formed by a close link between care and teaching. An Early Childhood Education should lead not only towards the acquisition of knowledge within specific areas but should also enhance the personal development of student teachers. New and creative competences need to be developed to cope with increasingly complex, changing and diversified learning environments. The crucial questions are: How well does contemporary Teacher Education prepare student teachers for their future role? Do students feel that their teacher-training programme has sufficiently prepared them for their profession? This study comprises Swedish student teachers‟ perceptions and experiences of their Early Childhood Education. Data is based on 181 written evaluations by final year student teachers. Results are discussed using a theoretical framework based on the sociological concept of an “educational contract” comprising three different levels of negotiation: students‟ education and their current workforce; students and their teacher training programme; students, teachers and learning in any given educational situation. Keywords: early childhood education, preschool, student teachers, personal and professional development, teacher training.

Introduction All formal teacher education is concerned with restructuring the everyday concepts and initial beliefs of the students. It is important to shed light on the crucial role that teacher education has in order to develop awareness and reflection among the students about their own initial beliefs and expectations, since these are the structures towards which the new knowledge and experiences will be understood (von Wright, 1997, p. 259). General goals for Teacher Education in Sweden include developing capacities for independent and critical assessments, being able to discern, formulate and

solve problems, and preparation for meeting changes in working life. In addition to basic knowledge and skills, students need to develop capacities for seeking and evaluating knowledge on a scientific level, keeping up to date with knowledge development and be able to exchange knowledge even with persons outside their special field of knowledge (Higher Education Act, 1992:1434, 8 §). According to a recent report (Swedish Research Council, 2015) preschool research is in need of urgent expansion due to the fact that “this field of research has not developed in relation to extensive changes related to high expectations of the preschool as an agency for pro-action and equality” (ibid., p. 26). As Sheridan, Williams, Sandberg and Vuorinen (2011, p. 435) contend: “Preschool competence is constituted in the intersection of values, knowledge and ideologies on different system levels. From a perspective of critical ecology, preschool teachers can thus be viewed as a community of learners and agents of change”. Further results from the report point towards preschool and qualitative pedagogical relationships as being determined and formed by a close link between care and teaching. This implies that “a new concept of teaching is needed, that moves from formal and adult-directed situations to situations where preschool staff engage the child‟s learning through dialogue, which even includes dialogue that is non-verbal” (ibid., p. 27). A recurring implication is the importance of preschool teachers‟ knowledge, competences and commitment in conjunction with all children‟s participation and inclusion. Furthermore, studies show that pedagogical relationships between preschool staff and children are of crucial importance for the enhancement of children‟s learning and socioemotional development (ibid.). Ways in which preschool teachers work towards providing suitable conditions for young children‟s learning and development is the focus of yet another recent report (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2015). Building on the assumption that capacities such as creativity, the will to co-operate, meticulousness and a sense of responsibility determine how individuals succeed with their education and working life, it is concluded that work done within preschools and during the early years in school in order to enhance these capacities, is of specific importance. Being able to enhance young children‟s capacities for learning and development is therefore a quality of crucial and particular importance to all prospective preschool teachers. For the award of a Degree of Bachelor of Arts in Early Years Education, Swedish student teachers are required to demonstrate knowledge in three main areas: (1) knowledge and understanding; (2) competence and skills; (3) judgement and approach. The latter is of special interest to this study as it is in this area that essential qualities of teaching are expressed, related to personal dispositions, competences and qualities and as such can be difficult to measure or assess. According to The Higher Education Ordinance (1993:100) students need to demonstrate the following knowledge within the area Judgement and approach: self-awareness and the capacity for empathy; the capacity to adopt a professional approach to children and their caregivers; the capacity to make assessments in educational processes on the basis of relevant scientific, social and ethical aspects with particular respect for human rights, especially children‟s rights according to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and sustainable devel-

opment; the capacity to identify the need for further knowledge and to develop his or her own skills in professional practice. Other specific concepts related to personal dispositions and self-development that are included in The Higher Education Ordinance can be found under the heading Knowledge and understanding: “demonstrate knowledge and understanding of social relationships, conflict management and leadership”; and Competence and skills: “display the capacity to benefit from, systematize and reflect critically and autonomously on personal experience, the experience of others and relevant research findings and thereby contribute to his or her own professional development and the formation of knowledge in the field of professional practice”. According to Olofsson (2013) the concept of an educational contract is of general relevance to studies of higher education; especially so in regard to academic professional training where students have expectations related to their studies and aspirations that are primarily connected to their future occupations. He describes important aspects on four different levels: the educational system and society as a whole; students‟ education related to the labour market; students and their education (programme, subject, institution, university); students, teachers and learning in any given educational situation. The last two are incorporated into what Olofsson calls a teaching contract. This is described as being a mutual, presupposed and relatively stable agreement between students and teachers on the aims and content of the teaching programme (in other words, a system of partly taken for granted and partly contradictory conceptions, expectations and norms for what characterizes a good education). Of interest is not primarily the situation as such but also the process whereby such reciprocity is established and emerges. In sum it is the interplay between expectations, approaches, negotiations and a fixed institutional form that are central to the concept. Olofsson‟s studies demonstrate that: students‟ expectations include being given help and support from teachers in order to succeed with their studies; demands make on them are reasonable and realistic; they are treated well, kept well-informed and taken care of; they will get a qualified education that will provide them with a job. At the same time however, all these expectations can come into conflict with the students‟ desire for a stimulating as well as stress-free education (ibid., p. 54). Cross and Hong (2009, p. 278) suggest that professional identity can be understood as “a framework established and maintained through interaction in social situations, and negotiation of roles within the particular context”. Caires et al (2012, p. 172) found that “teaching practice is perceived as a particularly stressful and demanding period, which involves considerable amounts of distress, changes in psycho-physiological patterns and an increasing sense of weariness and ‟vulnerability‟ (…) Despite these difficulties, data also reveal student teachers‟ positive perceptions regarding their growing knowledge and skilfulness, their increasing sense of efficacy, flexibility and spontaneity in their performance and interactions, as well as the awareness of having achieved reasonable levels of acceptance and recognition amongst the school community”. Accordingly, “it can be claimed that the warmth, acceptance and satisfactory conditions offered to these newcomers may determine not only their growing sense of „belonging‟ but also (partially) their self-fulfilment regarding the teaching profession or the reasonable sense of professional identity acknowledged by these

student teachers” (ibid.). Based on newly graduated teachers‟ evaluations of Teacher Education in Sweden, Åstrand (2012, p. 17) found that “the pattern of priorities in Swedish teacher education that emerges shows that it continues to follow a classic design with the traditional emphasis on and a concentration on preparation for teaching in classrooms and with less focus on the wider teacher work at schools, development work and outreach and collaboration”. He also notes that “Teacher education in Sweden has earlier been characterised by two different traditions, the tradition of seminars and the university-based academic tradition. It has been a reform ambition since the 1970s to integrate these two but this survey indicates they they still have a parallel existence” (ibid., p. 18). There are disturbing signs that Nordic Colleges and Universities are not succeeding when it comes to stimulating students‟ “self-cultivation” (Bohlin, 2013). Swedish interview studies with teachers and students have shown that the majority experience a general “upper secondary school attitude” in today‟s colleges, implying that, among other things, independence and the capacity for critical thinking are not sufficiently developed. At the same time, stress over grades and lack of time result in instrumental behaviour whereby students often choose not to attend seminars that are not essential for their grade - but that could have enriched their learning in other ways. The crucial and constantly recurring issue that teacher educators need to address is how they need to teach in order that higher education can truly become an arena for “self-cultivation”. In the Higher Education Act (1992:1434, 4a§) it is stipulated that Universities must work towards promoting students to take an active role in the further development of their own education. It is important that institutions of higher education “should give participating students, and students who have already completed a given course, the opportunity to express their experiences and opinions by means of a course evaluation coordinated by the institution” (Higher Education Ordinance, 1993, 1:14). At the Faculty of Education in this study the overall ambition (according to the student influence policy available on the University website) is that the students encounter and feel included in a coherent and transparent education. Recent research suggests that coherence is a key feature of strong teacher programmes (Klette & Hammerness, 2016). Student participation in the implementation, evaluation and development of the programme is “decisive to its quality”. Incorporating student influence in all its necessary forms is described as being both a significant and complex task. Influence that occurs on a daily basis and in direct communication between the student/educator/other members of staff in a respectful relationship is termed “informal influence”. One of the sections describes the specific responsibilities of the student and the educator: • Student influence implies the responsibility of each student to participate in a constructive development of their education. The student should therefore take active part in the possibilities of student influence offered during the programme. • Educators have a particular responsibility for finding good forms for dialogue and to see that each student be heard. The educator‟s attitude is therefore of great importance for a student to feel included or not towards teaching activi-

ties. Educators alone cannot enhance a positive development, but they should be able to - in concrete teaching situations - create the necessary prerequisites for it. Maintaining a meaningful balance between students‟ rights and obligations also implies students‟ active participation in programmes and course evaluations. This is important to ensure that the best conditions for learning and for the accomplishment of the goals of the programme or course are provided. Evaluations provide students with the opportunity of sharing their experiences and opinions of the course and should therefore be made accessible to all. Method The aim of the present study is to provide valuable insight into how individual approaches to lives and work affect student teachers‟ perceptions and expectations regarding the content and meaning of their pre-school teacher training programme. Overriding questions of significance are: How well does contemporary Teacher Education prepare student teachers for their future role? Do students feel that their teacher-training programme has sufficiently prepared them for their profession? Among the students who started their teacher training programme at this Department of Early Childhood (the same term as the present study was completed), 75 % were younger than 29 years old and an overwhelming majority were female. Almost half (44 %) combined full-time studies with part-time work. 41 % of the students had one or more children and 19 % did not have Swedish as their home language. 64 % had more than 2 year‟s previous work experience and 39 % had already studied at a college or University. 25 % were concerned that their studies would be difficult and half of the students expressed a desire to continue with their studies. In answer to the question of what they wished of their coming profession, this group of students answered that it be: Creative (77 %); Intellectually stimulating (62 %); Of relevance to society (48 %); Well paid (21 %); Able to offer opportunities for career advancement (19 %). Of interest is the fact that creativity and intellectual stimulation are ranked so highly and that a good salary and opportunities for career advancement are not their main priorities. Qualitative data analysis in this study is based on the written evaluations of 181 final year Early Childhood student teachers. Of these, 123 answers were collected from a voluntary and anonymous web questionnaire. Here data collection comprised only the students‟ answers to the last question, which was openended and where they were able to, in their own words, add anything they felt a special need to convey regarding their experiences of the teacher-training programme. In addition to the data collected via the web questionnaire, two separate groups (a total of 58 students) were asked to first discuss and then answer the following specific questions in writing: (1) In what ways has the teacher-training programme had an impact on your personal development? (2) What in your Teacher Education has influenced you the most? (3) Have you found anything to be lacking in the teacher-training programme? (4) What is your experience of the connection between theory and practice? (5) In what ways has your Teacher

Education prepared you for your future role? These students were part of my supervision group. They discussed the questions in smaller groups, documented their comments and handed in their notes to me. The written answers from the questionnaire as well as from the two groups were transcribed, categorized and analyzed in relation to the aims of the study and the five central questions. Complementary notes from a student council meeting (attended by two teachers and four students) as well as from a teacher educators‟ conference (attended by thirty-two lecturers and senior lecturers) were also transcribed, categorized and analysed as supplementary data. Results In answer to the question of in what ways the teacher-training programme had impacted on their personal development, one of the students wrote that she had become more profound as a person, her self-confidence had increased and she didn‟t have as many prejudices as she used to: “It‟s easier for me now to accept diversity”. Another student describes how she has acquired a deeper understanding for hat the profession implies and for how “we can help make others understand the way we feel about it”. In general, these students describe the ability to reflect and analyse as being a natural and integrated part of the way they work. Among these students, time spent in their practice schools has influenced them the most. As one student concludes: “Everything I‟ve read and interpreted and have been able to apply in practice!” Other positive influences include positive relationships with specific teachers, opportunities for learning to think critically, and discussions in their mentor groups. Most students feel that most of the courses have been relevant and interesting. One student writes: “We‟ve had many group presentations in front of the class. This has make me stronger as a person and given me the wonderful feeling of daring to try!” A negative factor described by one of the students, has been “stress related to our exams.” Many students feel that they lack examples of how to do certain practical things, eg. implementing parent meetings and practicing together on how to conduct performance appraisal meetings with parents. Other things described as lacking include cardiopulmonary rescue, sign-language and practical courses in maths and science. Many students would have liked to learn more about special needs education. Having more mentor group meetings and discussions about course literature was also something these students would have liked more of. Several mention the desire for a more effective schedule, where fewer lectures and more seminars could open up for opportunities for discussion with the teacher and one‟s classmates. A negative aspect mentioned by many students is related to the lack of communication between different group mentors. One student writes: “They say and do different things, resulting in misunderstandings and different pre-conditions for the students. This has disappointed me the most”. A majority of the students experience the connection between theory and practice as positive. One student writes: “I‟ve been able to identify connections and been able to apply my theoretical knowledge in practice”. For another it had felt worthwhile and important, “… but I would have wanted more! The time spent in practice school also gives a welcome break from school, which can be

nice at times. It makes it fun returning to one‟s studies and discussing one‟s experiences with the class. When asked in what ways their education has prepared them for their future role, there are only positive remarks. From having learnt to take responsibility for one‟s own learning and development, to being “ an almost full vessel today - which will continue to be filled as long as I continue working in preschool!” One student describes her process: “At the beginning I did things without really understanding why. But after awhile I was able to explain why I did certain things. It is important to be able to stand up for what I do and explain why. Most of all I think it‟s important as it can contribute towards raising the status of our profession based on the knowledge we possess”. Another student concludes: “This has been a wonderful journey in many ways. It‟s been fun, with lots of challenges and lots of laughs! After having completed the teacher-training programme, critique from earlier courses is still evident. This includes lack of communication between group mentors, ambiguity, ineffective schedules and too little practice. That which most of the students feel to be lacking is how to plan and implement parent meetings, how to handle performance appraisal meetings and how best to assist children with special needs. These students would also like more rhetorical elements earlier in the program and feel they need more training in being able to give individual presentations (in contrast to the many group presentations required during their training). In regard to personal development, many students feel that they have gained self-confidence, acquired a deeper understanding of the meaning of the profession as a whole as well as having developed capacities for reflection and analysis as a natural part of their work. Several mention the fact that specific teacher educators have made a difference. A majority of the students feel that theory and practice during their teacher training has gone hand in hand, and has been of great benefit to them. In many positive ways they feel that the programme has prepared them for their future role. It seems natural that what these students at this final stage feel to be lacking are often practical elements that they will need in their immediate future. At a Student Council meeting for Early Childhood Education at the same Department, student teachers from Terms 3 and 7 (the final term) shared experiences of their teacher education regarding content and learning environment. From the transcribed notes of their conversation it is evident that when these student teachers‟ start their education they have high expectations; they want and expect to make a contribution. This is especially evident during the first term. They consider practice time in preschool as conclusive to being able to connect with themselves and find their identity as teachers. There is soon a growing frustration over what they deem to be too many theoretical work tasks taking time from practical experience and thereby the possibility of selfconfirmation in their teacher role. By the third term there is a growing concern over increasing academic challenges; the students have difficulty finding meaning and consistency; there is self-doubt and absenteeism. Statistics from this University also show that it is at this point that many students discontinue their studies. After the fourth term, 89 % of the students express the need for more clarity and structure in their training programme and better communication between the teachers; 70 % want more and better connections between theory and prac-

tice. During the following terms the student‟s express dissatisfaction over inefficient schedule planning, low expectations, too much spare time and once again a lack of communication between teachers and students. During the final year, and in retrospect, the meaning and significance of their teacher education becomes much clearer. Students however want more rhetorical elements included in their different courses as they see this as a necessary and essential communicative competence in relation to working with children, parents, school leaders etc. in their future profession. Although most experience themselves as „students‟ during the programme, it is after they have been out in their practice schools for the second time that they start feeling more aware of having a specific professional role. These students also suggest that they be included more actively in different parts of the course; they feel that this may increase a sense of commitment and counteract absenteeism. They also express the wish of sharing the end product – their thesis – in public, to make it a more meaningful experience for them. At a teacher educators‟ conference 32 lecturers and senior lecturers at this Department shared their thoughts on the students‟ evaluations. Ways in which students are introduced to the Academy they feel is important, i.e. addressing the question of what it means to study at a University. Educators need to state their case clearly. What is expected of the students? There has to be clear distinctions between the students‟ and the educators‟ sense of responsibility. A dilemma arises based on the uncertainty of younger students: will their uncertainty disappear if they are given too much support too early, or will it instead create a pattern of dependency? The question was raised if it really is a “problem” that group mentors say “different” things, an often recurring criticism from students. Group mentors have different personalities and this should instead be accepted and considered as a resource - as long as examination criteria are adhered to. Students need to be able to distance themselves from upper secondary school; how should students be approached who want to be „controlled‟ (need constant confirmation and acknowledgement)? What is “fixed” (learning outcomes, course literature) and what is “open”? Students continually seem to fluctuate between wanting to be „cared‟ for, and the uncertainty of relying on themselves. A recurring predicament is how to get the students to feel motivated to engage in all aspects of the training programme, and not only choose to partake of activities that are not examinations. Students need to be encouraged at an early stage to motivate their opinions, in order to enhance critical thinking. The concluding challenge is: “Raise expectations! Students need to be proud of their education!” Analysis of the results Connecting theory with practice is one of the long-standing challenges of preparing new teachers (Klette and Hammerness (2016, p. 44). A constant and recurring theme throughout the teacher training programme has been the wish for more practice time. One student refers to the University as a “bubble” and practice schools as “reality”. Von Wright (1997, p. 263) believes

that the gap between theory and practice in teacher education “is created when theories about development stages or class differences remain distant from practice and do not become tools for the student teachers‟ personal theories.” She concludes that: Self-reflection and awareness of one‟s own beliefs, choices and strategies do not come by themselves, but they have to be acquired and practised. In order to have a fruitful encounter between teacher education and the students‟ development into professional teachers, it is important that the students themselves are confronted with their own initial beliefs and get opportunities to challenge and problematize them, to co-ordinate them and possibly alter them (ibid., p. 265). Prospective teachers‟ existing knowledge and beliefs have been found to play a crucial role in how they experience and/or envision their professional role (Bukor, 2015). As far back as 1975, Lortie emphasized the intuitive, imitative and personal aspects of teaching: “Students are undoubtedly impressed by some teachers‟ actions and not by others, but one would not expect them to view the difference in a pedagogical, explanatory way. What students learn about teaching then, is intuitive and imitative rather than explicit and analytical, it is based on individual personalities rather than pedagogical principles” (ibid., p. 62). As Saunders (2012, p. 306) contends: “Exploring individuals‟ emotions as constructs which are separate from the environment and their social relationships denies the complex and inherently social nature of teaching.” As noted by Caires et al (2012, p. 166): Assuming that teaching practice is a period of intense search and exploration of self, others and new scenarios, it is believed that it is most relevant to analyse the lived experiences of those who are learning to teach. This involves not only the scientific, procedural and pedagogical components of this process but also the individual as a whole. It is, thus, important to focus on the cognitions, emotions and meanings that emerge, to listen to the dilemmas, doubts and fears of the student teachers regarding their teaching practice, as well as their drives, beliefs and expectations about the profession In a study by Nilsson Lindström (2012) beginner student teachers were found to be very career oriented; that which attracted them most at the outset was the prospect of study and learning in practice schools. There was a predominant desire for helping children with special needs and teaching was to a large extent experienced as a social profession. The practical element (working in a practice school) was essential in order to be able “to identify myself as a teacher”. Becoming a teacher was described as an inner journey of discovery in order to find out whether or not the profession was the right choice. In this study too, the student‟s express frustration over the fact that the time spent in practice schools is too short. They feel that too much time is taken up by theoretical work at the expense of practical experience, limiting opportunities for self-affirmation that practicing their teacher role gives them. That which at the outset is experienced as the students‟ individual approach to their profession is later modified after their practice time - when they are able to appreciate the advantages of teamwork and the help and support this contributes to in their daily work.

In a study by Kuisma and Sandberg (2011) on how Swedish students and preschool teachers regard professionalism today, results show that for both categories “professionalism” is based on the possession of a shared knowledge base. The concept of professionalism was considered in two ways: as the ability for knowledge gained at a scientific level (teacher qualification) and as the ability for knowledge gained through practical activities with others (children, colleagues, parents, social services in the community). In Kuisma and Sandberg‟s survey, “the students were more aware than the preschool teachers of the comprehensive picture of the ethical attitude and the holistic pedagogical contents” (ibid., p. 62). Preschool teachers‟ views on children were often expressed and understood using psychological theory and developmental stages whereas the students viewed the child as a “construction”, using perspectives derived from postmodern theory. The authors ask themselves: “What happens when these two different views meet during common activities, where the students encounter the preschool teachers in their practical study periods? Will the preschool teachers‟ viewpoints act as a model for the students, or will the preschool teachers become influenced by the new theory presented by students, thus supporting their point of view and subsequent endeavours?” Kuisma and Sandberg presuppose a positive reaction where “synthesizing different ideas may lead to reflection. If the teacher has to reframe her/his existing thoughts, strength in new knowledge can be cultivated” (ibid.). Developing professionalism through thinking and reframing however requires necessary time for reflection. It also requires a meaningful synthesis between the theoretical and practical elements within Teacher Education. As concluded by Korthagen, Loughran and Russell (2006, p. 1038), “telling new teachers what research shows about good teaching and sending them off to practice has failed to change, in any major way, what happens in our schools and universities”. They suggest “reconstructing teacher education from within” (ibid., p. 1039). Teacher students however can have very different thoughts about what a profession implies. In the present study one student writes: “I hadn‟t given any thought to my future occupation in those terms”. Another has similar thoughts: “I had no previous knowledge about this and had never heard the term ‟professional theory‟ before the course started. It was a completely new way of thinking”. Another student argues: “My view of the concept of profession implies taking everyone‟s competences in the work team into consideration, regardless of occupational background. This diversity is what motivates development, regardless of whether you are a day-care attendant or a preschool teacher. Although one comes from similar or different backgrounds one can interpret the same situation in different ways; it‟s important to take advantage of the fact that we have different competences”. Her conclusion is: We who work in preschool need to feel proud of what we do and I believe that by calling our occupation for a profession we can feel more „special‟ and more proud of our work. This is especially important today when so many change careers; we need to give the profession something that no one else can. No one should be able to come from outside and be able to do our work as well or better without an education. Then something is wrong. The course is extremely rele-

vant in order to show that we can actually accomplish things within our ‟occupation‟ and are able to show what this is. Several of the conclusions presented in a recent survey (The National Union of Teachers in Sweden, 2016) coincide with the results of the present study. Regarding content and quality in teacher education as well as preparation for their professional role, the survey summarizes the student teachers‟ perceptions as follows (ibid., pp. 5):  General satisfaction with the quality of their education, despite some discontent. 

Good preparation for their future profession, despite flaws.



Too few teacher-led lessons.



The programme is not especially demanding.



Satisfaction with the teacher educators‟ pedagogical competences and relevant connections to research.



Satisfaction with their engagement in practice schools, although the majority complain of insufficient time.



A majority of the students feel that they have acquired too little knowledge in important areas (assessment, special needs, technology and teaching newly arrived students), as well as lacking sufficient knowledge of didactics, teaching and methodology.

In view of this and in addition to the issues raised in the present study, the findings should be able to provide a base for wider discussions on the nature of the challenges facing future teachers and the necessity for teacher training programmes to recognize, support and incorporate an education of the whole person. Concluding remarks This article has addressed issues within Teacher Education that have dealt with student teachers perceptions of their education in relation to their future profession, to the meaning and content of their teacher-training programme and to teachers and learning in specific educational contexts (see Olofsson 2013). Of general relevance has been student teachers‟ expectations and aspirations connected to their future profession. Of specific relevance has been student teachers‟ perceptions and thoughts on what Olofsson (ibid.) describes as being a mutual, presupposed and relatively stable agreement between students and teachers on the aims and content of the teaching programme. These situations and processes are determined by the constant interplay between expectations, approaches, negotiations and a fixed institutional form. Quoting Brennan (2008, p. 385), Kehm (2015) describes a further dimension as being “the increasing social embeddedness of higher education institutions within a multitude of communities that make their own particular demands” (ibid., p. 72). According to Kehm this “has led to new relationships between higher education institutions and their external communities at local, national and international levels that have sometimes been analysed as needing and leading to a new social contract between higher education institutions and society

(…) This is to some extent reminiscent of Gibbons (1998) demand for quality, relevance and internationalization in higher education if institutions are to survive in the modern globalized knowledge economies” (ibid.). As Sheridan, Williams, Sandberg and Vuorinen (2011, p. 435) contend: “… preschool teaching is a profession in change. Preschool competence is constituted in the intersection of values, knowledge and ideologies on different system levels”. If we are to aspire towards lifelong, transformative learning in educational settings, we need to acknowledge the significance that relationships, dialogues and personal dispositions have for the personal and professional development of prospective teachers. As Eyler (2009, p. 30) contends: “The crucial factor for achieving powerful learning outcomes from experiential-learning programmes is the inclusion of opportunities for feedback and reflection. Challenging, continuous, context-appropriate reflection turns work experience into learning experience”. The contents of teacher training programmes need to be developed so that they correspond more fully with the needs that newly-qualified teachers have. This mainly involves the skills that form part of social competence but also knowledge of the problems that children have and the ability to deal with them professionally. According to Kristjansson (2000, p. 12), “the sad fact is that most teacher-training programs fail to prepare teachers for work on moral and interpersonal issues; as a consequence of which teachers frequently express insecurity about how to address such issues in the classroom”. An Early Childhood Education should lead not only towards the acquisition of knowledge within specific areas but should also enhance the personal development of student teachers. As stipulated by Clark and Byrnes (2015, p. 393), “more time spent discussing expectations, beliefs, and attitudes can help teacher educators create more personal and meaningful learning experiences for students”. Of importance is also that “the questions and experiences that preservice teachers have should be the starting point for their own learning and engagement” (ibid., p. 381). If we are to construct a teacher education that contributes to developing students‟ capacities for critical thinking and which fosters a complex understanding of the world and its citizens while at the same time cultivating the students‟ capacity for empathy, we need to adopt a holistic perspective to personal and professional development (Malm, 2011). Hansen (2007, p. 3) proposes that teacher training should try to operate along two tracks: a professional and evidencebased track (what works?) and an existential and normative track (how teachers understand themselves in what they are saying and doing). The former is concerned with pragmatic and instrumental questions in a functional problemsolving and critical attitude. According to Hansen (ibid., p. 15), the challenge in teacher training lies in finding a balance between “the instrumental track of competence and the existential track of Bildung”. ”Bildung” is often referred to as a process of both personal and cultural maturation, i.e. ”self-cultivation” (see Bohlin, 2013). In a report from the Swedish National Agency for Education (2009:24 R) the main question raised is: What is the role of the concept of “bildning” in practice, i.e. in the planning and implementation of Higher Education? “Bildning” is here defined as “a perspective on knowledge where the awareness of the values from which knowledge emanates and its content go hand in hand” (ibid., pp. 24, my

translation). “What is implied is in-depth knowledge that is integrated in the learner and in the learner‟s value system. In order for education to be permeated by ‟bildning‟ it needs to be conveyed in a context that is characterized by critical thinking, reflection, ethics and communication. Developing the students‟ capacities for independent judgement within their area becomes central” (ibid., my translation). Fundamental to any attempt at initiating “bildning” (self-cultivation) in education is the teacher‟s knowledge and ability, i.e. the capacity to be able to reach the students and hold their attention while at the same time leaving them free to pursue their own way through the subject (ibid., p. 18). Various examples of how to achieve this, in regard to didactic approaches, are suggested: writing, discussions, teachers who are able to inspire knowledge for the subject, exercises where students are able to use their knowledge and apply their judgement in order to handle or solve problems of an unknown nature or with unknown consequences, interaction between the role-model (the teacher, the research topic, the knowledge base) and the one who learns, seminars, dialogue with others and collaboration with the local community. To a much greater extent than is the case today, Swedish teacher training programmes need to acknowledge as well as emphasize the cognitive as well as moral and emotional perspectives of learning to teach as essential and interrelated dimensions of career development (Malm, 2009). In striving towards educational sustainability, we need to engage in the complexities of continuous improvement consistent with deep values of human purpose (Fullan, 2005). Teacher education needs to focus more on the personal processes involved in becoming a professional teacher, by helping students develop deeper understandings of themselves as well as of the contexts of teaching. Although focus in this study has been limited to a group of 123 final year student teachers in Sweden, results have shown that they have been able to give voice to several longstanding challenges that still persist and need to be confronted in our teacher training programmes, on both national and international arenas. How the processes described in this study manifest themselves at any given time can in part be rendered visible through student evaluations, course reports, discussions between educators, etc. As these processes are in continuous flux due to new students, new teachers, revised course syllabi etc., so too are the ways in which the contracts premises are established, conveyed and shared between different parties. Through continual, integral and complex interplay, Teacher Education is characterized by its own unique dynamics where new challenges are constantly being formed and transformed over time. References Bohlin, H. (2013). Bildung and Intercultural Understanding. In Intercultural Education, 24(5), 391-400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2013.826019 Boyd, D., Grossman, P., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2009). Teacher Preparation and Student Achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 31(4), 416– 440. https://doi.org/10.3386/w14314 Brennan, J. (2008). Higher education and social change. Higher Education, 56, 381-393.

Bukor, E. (2015). Exploring teacher identity from a holistic perspective: reconstructing and reconnecting personal and professional selves. Teachers and teaching: Theory and Practice, 21(3), 305-327. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2014.953818 Caires, S., Almeida, L. & Vieira, D. (2012) Becoming a teacher: student teachers‟ experiences and perceptions about teaching practice. European Journal of Teacher Education, 35(2), 163-178. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2011.643395 Clark, S. & Byrnes, D. (2015). What Millennial Preservice Teachers want to learn in their Training. Journal of Early Childhood Education, 36(4), 379-395. https://doi.org/10.1080/10901027.2015.1100148 Cross, D. & Hong, J. (2009). Beliefs and professional identity: Critical constructs in examining the impact of reform on the emotional experiences of teachers. In Schutz, P. & Zembylas, M. (Eds.). Advances in teacher emotion research. New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0564-2_14 Darling-Hammond, L. (1999) (Ed). Studies of Excellence in Teacher Education: Preparation at the graduate level. New York, Washington, DC: National Commission on Teaching and America's Future and American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Powerful Teacher Education: Lessons from exemplary programs. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass. European Commission (2007). Improving the Quality of Teacher Education. Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament. http://eurlex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52007DC0392 Retrieved 201709-28. Eyler, J. (2009). The Power of Experiential Education. Liberal Education, 95(4). Association of American Colleges and Universities. Retrieved 2011-06-23. http://nirsa.net/nirsa/wpcontent/uploads/Eyler_PowerExperientialEducation.pdf Fullan, M. 2005. Leadership and sustainability: System thinkers in action. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513540510591048 Gibbons, M. (1998). Higher Education Relevance in the 21st Century. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/2782001099079877269/5476641099079956815/Higher_ed_relevance_in_21st_century_En98.pdf Grossman, P., Hammerness, K., McDonald, M., & Ronfeldt, M. (2008). Constructing Coherence: Structural predictors of perceptions of coherence in NYC Teacher Education Programs. Journal of Teacher Education, 59(4), 273-287. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487108322127 Hansen, F. T. (2007). Phronesis and Authenticity as Keywords for Philosophical Praxis in Teacher Training. Paideusis - Journal of Canadian Philosophy of Education, 16(3), 1532. Higher Education Act [Högskolelag], (1992:1434). Stockholm: Utbildningsdepartementet. Higher Education Ordinance [Högskoleförordningen], (1993:100). Stockholm: Riksdagen. Kehm, B. (2015). Higher Education as a Field of Study and Research in Europe. European Journal of Education, 50(1), 60-74. Klette, K. & Hammerness, K. (2016). Conceptual Framework for Analyzing Qualities in Teacher Education: Looking at Features of Teacher Education from an International Perspective. Acta Didactica Norge, 10(2), 26-52. https://doi.org/10.5617/adno.2646 Korthagen, F., Loughran, J., & Russell, T. (2006). Developing fundamental principles for teacher education programs and practices. Teaching and Teacher Education, 22, 1020-1041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2006.04.022

Korthagen, F., Kessels, J., Koster, B., Lagerwerf, B., & Wubbels, T. (2001). Linking practice and theory: The pedagogy of realistic teacher education. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410600523 Kristjansson, K. (2000). The Didactics of Emotion Education. Analytic Teaching, 21(1), 515. Kuisma, M. & Sandberg, A. (2011). Preschool teachers‟ and student preschool teachers‟ thoughts about professionalism in Sweden. In Dalli, C. & Urban, M. (eds) Professionalism in Early Childhood Education and Care London: Routledge, pp. 55-64. https://doi.org/10.1080/13502930802141618 Lortie, D. (1975). Schoolteacher: A sociological study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Malm, B. (2011). En helhetssyn på lärarkompetens [A Holistic Approach to Teacher Competence]. I A. Burman & P. Mehrens (Red.), Det goda lärandet: En antologi om liberal arts education [Good Learning: An Anthology of Liberal Arts Education], 129-141. Lund: Studentlitteratur. Malm, B. (2009). Towards a new professionalism. Enhancing personal and professional development in Teacher Education. Journal of Education for Teaching. International Research and Pedagogy, 35(1), 77-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607470802587160 Nilsson Lindström, M. (2012). Att bli lärare i ett nytt landskap: Identitet och utbildning [Becoming a teacher in a new landscape: Identity and Education], Lund: Arkiv förlag. Olofsson, G. (2013). Utbildningskontraktet [The Educational Contract]. In E. Fasth & G. Olofsson (red), Studenterna och deras utbildningar vid ett nytt universitet [Students and their Education at a new University]. Lund: Ariadne förlag. Saunders, R. (2012). The role of teacher emotions in change: Experiences, patterns and implications for professional development. Journal of Educational Change, 14(3), 303-333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-012-9195-0 Sheridan, S., Williams, P., Sandberg, A., & Vuorinen, T. (2011). Preschool teaching in Sweden – a profession in change. Educational Research, 53(4), 415-437. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2011.625153 Swedish National Agency for Education. (2009). Att fånga bildning [Encompassing Selfformation], (Rapport 2009:24 R). Stockholm: Högskoleverket. Swedish National Agency for Education. (2015). Att utmana och stimulera barns lärande och utveckling i förskolan [Challenging and stimulating children’s learning and development in Preschool]. Stockholm, Sweden: Skolverket. Swedish Research Council (2015). Forskning och skola i samverkan: Kartläggningar av forskningsresultat med relevans för praktiskt arbete i skolväsendet [Research and Schools in collaboration: A survey of research results of relevance for practical work in the school system]. Stockholm, Sweden: Vetenskapsrådet. The National Union of Teachers in Sweden [Lärarnas Riksförbund] (2016). Hur bra är den nya lärarutbildningen? Studenternas uppfattningar om 2011 års lärar- och förskollärarutbildninger [How good is the new Teacher Education? Students perceptions of teacher and preschool teacher education 2011]. https://www.lr.se/opinionpaverkan/undersokningar/arkiv/lararutbildningenbehoverstark as.5.18b9c7241583bbc395a472b1.html Retrieved 2017-09-28. von Wright, M. (1997). Student Teachers‟ Beliefs and a Changing Teacher Role. European Journal of Teacher Education, 20(3), 257-266. https://doi.org/10.1080/0261976970200305 Åstrand, B. (2012). Does Teacher Education Matter? Newly Graduated Teachers‟ Evaluations of Teacher Education in Sweden. Reflecting Education, 8(2), 6-22.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 9, pp. 98-113, September 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.9.8

Teacher Conduct: A Survey on Professional Ethics among Chinese Kindergarten Teachers Zhaolin Ji Nantong University, Jiangsu, China

Abstract. Teacher professional ethics have recently become a much debated issue in China, which is in the wake of China‟s new population policy that ends the „one-child‟ policy after 35 years of stringent enforcement. With increasingly more children enrolled in early childhood services, the quality of the teaching force is to stand a tougher test of public scrutiny. Professional ethics is an integral and pivotal component of teacher quality. Utilizing questionnaire as the data collection method, this study examines self-reported professional conduct of 437 in-service teachers from 50 kindergartens across three provinces of China. It is found that: (1) The majority of the kindergarten teachers report themselves as compliant with the professional ethics when facilitating all the daily routine activities and when working with colleagues and parents; (2) Several ethical issues exist with some kindergarten teachers such as differentiated approach to children from different backgrounds, unawareness of the importance of parents as stakeholders, and unhealthy relationship with colleagues. Keywords: Kindergarten, professional ethics, China.

The Chinese context Teacher professional ethics is an important and complex issue in early childhood education in China. The Ministry of Education of the People‟s Republic of China (2016) has recently promulgated Professional Standards for Kindergarten Teachers. The document provides that professional ethics for kindergarten teachers are the basis of meeting all professional standards required by the society, and represent kindergarten teachers‟ basic attitude toward education and care of children and their personal character. In China, the term „kindergarten‟ refers to all early childhood services that cater to children aged 3-6 years. In the contemporary Chinese society, while the image of the early childhood education community is overall positive, there is frequent media coverage of incidents of child abuse or child neglect which is

closely related to the lack of professional ethics among kindergarten teachers. Therefore, kindergarten teachers‟ professional ethics, as an integral part of kindergarten teacher quality, is an important and timely research topic in China.

Literature review and the aim of the study Teacher professional ethics has long been a focus of teacher education research (Freeman & Feeney, 2005; Ngang & Chan, 2015; Schneider & Kipp, 2015). Strike (1990) wrote extensively on curriculum that embeds education of professional ethics. While he admitted that teacher professional ethics could be trained or taught, he warned that it would be „simply naive to suppose that instruction in ethics in teacher education programs can significantly form or reform character‟ (p. 48). Boon (2011) explored professional ethical dilemmas encountered by pre-service and in-service teachers in a case study. According to Snook (2003), ethical issues are pivotal and provision of ethics education for future teachers is important. Bullough‟s (2011) study pays particular attention to the nature of the ethical conflicts confronting teachers and explores problems, dilemmas and conflicts that are of ethical nature. Campbell (2008) suggested that teaching of ethics was neglected in teacher education. Pointing to the fact that teacher education programs are the initial place for developing teacher candidates‟ ethical dimensions of their chosen profession, Campbell argued for more importance to be attached to ethical education. Further, Campbell (2008) emphasized that teacher professional ethics as part of teaching qualities was „intangible‟ and therefore warranted more attention. According to Campbell (2008), teacher professional ethics „may be perceived in the tone of voice a teacher uses to speak to a child, in the way a teacher justly adjudicates among competing needs and interests in the classroom, in the way a teacher selects resources with care, evaluates student work with‟ (p.357). Campbell (2008) believed that professional ethics and teaching were „inherently compatible and unavoidably intertwined‟ (p.358). Jeelani and Kumar (2015) made an attempt to develop a 55-item scale that could be used to measure professional ethics among secondary school teachers. Kumar‟s (2015) study on teacher professional ethics proposed what was called „an improved case analysis‟ as a suitable approach for education of professional ethics for future teachers. Maxwell and Schwimmer (2016a) provided an overview of the justifications for the inclusion of professional ethics as part of teacher education programmes. According to Maxwell and Schwimmer (2016a), researchers have a general consensus that initial teacher education should include the intentional and explicit imparting of professional ethics as an inherent component of teacher professionalism and teaching practice.

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Maxwell and Schwimmer (2016b) reported two studies that explored codes of ethics as indicators of professional ethics for teachers, with the first study applying content analysis to determine whether there is any consensus on teachers' professional responsibilities, and the second study deploying interpretive analysis to assess whether there emerge some dominant core values of professionalism in teaching. Maxwell and Schwimmer (2016b) found that there were specific limitations in using codes of ethics as the content of education of professional ethics. With 50 teacher participants in their study, Shapira-Lishchinsky (2011) explored ethical dilemmas in critical incidents in teaching and the responses elicited by the incidents. They found that teachers chose to suppress these incidences since the unpleasant feelings were evoked. Shapira-Lishchinsky (2011) revealed what they called „a multifaceted model‟ of ethical dilemmas which included for example clashing with the school rules, standards, or norms. Contextualizing in early childhood education and care settings, Taggart (2011) argued that early childhood education and care was a „caring profession‟ with legitimacy, similar to care in other professions such as nursing or social work which is defined by ethical purposes. Early childhood practitioners enact an ethic of care as part of the teaching professionalism. In summary, literature has provided sufficient evidences of the importance of teacher professional ethics, the need for education of teacher professional ethics and the tension and complexity involved in the subject of teacher professional ethics. However, there is little, if not none, research that focuses on teachers‟ perception of their own professional ethics. Given the particular importance of agency, reflectivity and reflexivity for the teaching profession (Ryan & Bourke, 2013), the lack of research in the area is concerning. This research gap becomes even more apparent when it comes to early childhood teaching in China. There is scant research in the English literature that focuses on professional ethics among Chinese early childhood teachers. To address such a research gap, this study is aimed to provide a sample or specimen of the real picture of how professional ethics are interpreted and implemented among Chinese kindergarten teachers, which is expected to prompt further international research on the same topic. Focusing on several dimensions of teacher professional ethics, the study addresses the research question: How well are professional ethics enacted by kindergarten teachers in China?

Methods The study design is questionnaire survey. comprised of 29 items which come under four professional ethics, that is, teachers‟ conduct during teachers‟ conduct concerning colleagues, teachers‟

The questionnaire is constructs of teacher daily routine activities, conduct in relation to

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parents, and teachers‟ beliefs about work ethics. The constructs were developed based on review of the key components of professional ethics in the scholarly articles and policy documents in the policy Chinese context. Participants were sampled from kindergartens in China‟s rural areas across four provinces (Jiangsu, Shanxi, Hainan, and Qinghai). Several national teacher professional training sessions were utilized to deliver questionnaires. From November 2014 to November 2015, a total of 500 questionnaires were delivered using both online and paper-based surveying methods, and 463 questionnaires were returned and 437 were valid questionnaires. The response rate is 92.6%, and the rate of valid questionnaires is 87.4%. Survey was administered both online and paper-based.

Data analysis and findings All raw data were entered into SPSS 20 for statistical analysis. This paper reports the descriptive results to present a general picture of the Chinese kindergarten teachers‟ attitude and behavior toward the four key constructs of professional ethics.

1. Kindergarten teachers’ conduct during daily routine activities In China, „kindergarten daily activities‟ refers to various teacher-led activities throughout the day at the kindergarten including morning welcome, free time, morning tea, group activity, play time, outdoor activity, toilet time, sleep time, noon rest, afternoon tea, and pick up time. Section 22 of Kindergarten Working Regulation (Ministry of Education of the People‟s Republic of China, 2015) provides that kindergarten daily activities should be organized according to the educational principles with a focus on the children‟s own activity and children‟s enjoyment and learning from their free activities. Morning welcome time is important opportunity for individual interactions to take place between the teachers and the children. As shown in Table 1, 64.07% of the teachers always welcomed the children and the parents at the gate of the building with a smiling face, 29.08% of the teachers welcomed in the classroom and supported those who had arrived, 4.57% of the teachers welcomed and prepared teaching material, 1.14% of the teachers were busy preparing for the day, and 1.14% of the teachers lamented that some children arrived too early or too late. Overall, during the morning welcome, the majority of teachers made effort to optimize the benefit of the morning welcome session for the children.

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Table 1 Teacher’s conduct during morning welcome

Morning welcome

Frequency

Welcome at the gate with smiling face Welcome in the classroom and support other children Welcome and prepare teaching material Busy preparing for the day Lament some children arrive too early or too late Total

280 127 20 5 5 437

Percent -age 64.07% 29.08% 4.57% 1.14% 1.14% 100%

Water drink and toilet use are important elements of the daily routine activities. Section 22 of Kindergarten Working Regulation (Ministry of Education of the People‟s Republic of China, 2015) provides that kindergartens should include toilet training in the daily routine, and there should be no restriction on the frequency and time of the use of toilet by the children. As Table 2 shows, 57% of the teachers reported that there was a general scheduled toilet use time but individual needs would be met, 21% of the teachers reported that there was no scheduled toilet use time and children could use the toilet at any time, 14% of the teachers reported that there was scheduled toilet time and children were assisted accordingly, and 8% of the teachers reported that children could use the toilet at any time except the group activity time. Table 2 Teacher’s conduct toward children’s water drinking and toilet using

Approach to water drinking and toilet using Regular scheduled time Anytime and no restriction Anytime except the group activity time Generally scheduled but individual needs met Total

Frequency 61 92 35 249 437

Percentage 14% 21% 8% 57% 100%

During the lunch time period, for children who do not want to eat lunch, 21.05% of the teachers reported that they would first spoon feed the children and then encourage them to eat on their own, 7.32% reported that they would spoon feed them, talk about the nutrition in the food, and keep on feeding for several days, 42.79% of the teachers reported that they would get to know about the child‟s routine at home and individualize their strategy, 28.84% of the teachers reported that they would give the child less food and encourage the child to eat on their own. Therefore, the majority of the teachers were able to provide individual support according to the needs of individual children and attach importance to development of the children‟s self-help ability (See Table 3).

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Table 3 Teacher’s conduct when children do not eat lunch

When children do not eat lunch

Frequency

Spoon feed for several days and talk about nutrition Spoon feed first then encourage the child to eat on their own Individualize the approach based on the child‟s home routine Give less food and encourage the child to eat on their own Total

32 92

Percent -age 7.32 21.05

187

42.79

126

28.84

437

100%

During the afternoon sleep time, 6.78% of the teachers reported that they would individualize their approach and allow the children to sleep at different times, 29.98% of the teachers reported that they would ask the children to sleep at the same time, 59.72% of the teachers reported that the majority of the children sleep at the scheduled time but exceptions would be allowed, and 4.12% of the teacher reported other approaches. Therefore, the majority of teachers were able to manage the afternoon sleep time reasonably but some teachers insisted on a rigid schedule (See Table 4). Table 4 Teacher’s conduct during the afternoon sleep time

Conduct during the afternoon sleep time

Frequency

Allow children to sleep at different times 27 All children sleep at a scheduled time 131 All children sleep at a scheduled time with 261 exceptions Other approaches 18 Total 437

Percent -age 6.78% 29.98% 59.72% 4.12% 100%

As Table 5 shows, during the preparation for daily activities, 64.53% of the teachers reported that they would have prepared all the material the day before, 21.74% of the teachers reported that they would have prepared all the material for group activities, 6.64% of the teachers reported that they would prepare when they start the day, 7.09% of the teachers reported that no preparation was needed. Therefore, the majority of the teachers were able to prepare teaching materials in advance and get fully prepared for the day.

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Table 5 Teacher’s conduct concerning preparedness for teaching

Conduct concerning preparedness

Frequency

Prepare the material the day before 282 Prepare the material for group activities the day 95 before Prepare at the beginning of the day 29 No much preparation needed 31 Total 437

Percent -age 64.53% 21.74% 6.64% 7.09% 100%

A further analysis of the data revealed age difference in the degree of preparedness. In particular, 83.50% of the teachers aged 17-25 reported that they would have all the teaching material prepared the day before compared to 61.90% of the teachers aged 46-55 and 58.47% of the teachers aged 26-45 (Table 6). Table 6 Age difference in teacher’s conduct concerning preparedness for teaching

Age

17-25 (N=103) 26-45 (N=313) 46-55 (N=21)

Prepare all material the day before 83.50% (86)

Prepare group activities the day before 13.59% (14)

Prepare at the beginning of the day 2.91% (3)

Not much preparation

58.47% (188)

24.28% (76)

7.35% (23)

9.90% (31)

61.90% (13)

38.10% (8)

0% (0)

As Table 7 shows, during the play period, 2.97% of the teachers reported that they would do their own things during play time, 18.76% of the teachers reported that they would observe children‟s learning and development and provide guidance during the play, 16.48% of the teachers reported that they would not step in unless there was safety concerns during the play time. Therefore, the majority of teachers were able to provide appropriate guidance while allowing the children space to explore on their own. Table 7 Teacher’s approach to children’s play

Teachers‟ approach to children‟s play Do their own things Observe for children‟s learning and development Provide guidance when needed Do not step in unless there is a safety concern Total

Frequency 13 82 270 72 437

Percentage 2.97% 18.76% 61.79% 16.48% 100%

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As shown in Table 8, when asked whether they had preferred and disliked children in the class, 75.91% of the teachers answered „yes‟, and 24.03% of the teachers answered „no‟ and reported that they treated all the children equally. The majority of teachers were unable to treat all the children equally and were influenced by their personal preference. Table 8 Teacher’s attitude toward children

Teachers‟ attitude toward children Have preferred children and disliked children Treat all the children equally Total

Frequency 332 105 437

Percentage 75.97% 24.03% 100%

2. Kindergarten teachers’ conduct concerning colleagues As shown in Table 9, when voting for “teacher of excellence”, 73.46% of the teachers made their choice objectively and fairly, 20.59% of the teachers would vote for those were their close friends, 2.52% of the teachers would vote for themselves, and 0.46% of the teachers would vote for someone who was the least likely to be elected. Therefore, when voting for “teacher of excellence”, although the majority of teachers adhered to fairness and justice, a significant number of teachers did not. Table 9 Teacher’s conduct when voting for “Teacher of Excellence”

Teacher‟s conduct when voting for “Teacher of Excellence” Vote fairly and honestly Vote for their close friends Do not vote seriously Vote for self Vote for the one least likely to win Total

Frequency

Percentage

321 90 13 11 2 437

73.46% 20.59% 2.97% 2.52% 0.46% 100%

In response to innovation in teaching initiated by their colleagues, 45.99% of the teachers supported colleagues‟ initiative and learned from them, 39.13% of the teachers generally acknowledged the initiative without any special feeling about it, 11.21% of the teachers held that innovation would be nothing but extra work and pressure for others, 3.67% of the teachers felt jealousy and would make negative comments (Table 10).

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Table 10 Teacher’s attitude toward teaching innovation

Teacher‟s attitude toward teaching innovation Support and see as role model Acknowledge without special feeling Deem it as extra work and pressure Feel jealous Total

Frequency 201 171 49 16 437

Percentage 45.99% 39.13% 11.21% 3.67% 100%

Further analysis of the data reveals age differences. As Table 11 shows, 47.57% of the novice teachers (aged 17-25) and 46.01% of the teachers with certain years of experience (aged 26-45) would support teaching innovation and learn from it, compared to 61.90% of the retiring teachers (aged 46-55) who would acknowledge innovation generally with no particular feeling about it. Table 11 Age difference in teacher’s attitude toward teaching innovation

Age 17-25 (N=103) 26-45 (N=313) 46-55 (N=21)

Support and see Acknowledg as role model e generally 47.57% (49) 33.98% (35)

See as work Jealousy and pressure 16.50% (17) 1.95% (2)

46.01% (144)

39.30% (123)

10.22% (32)

4.47% (14)

38.10% (8)

61.90 (13)

0% (0)

In response to the question on scolding children, 4.35% of the teachers held that it would be okay if the children were too naughty, 37.76% of the teachers held that it was not proper but understandable, 56.75% of the teachers held that it was not okay and must be stopped, and 1.14% of the teachers held that it was part of the teacher‟s routine duties (Table 12). Table 12 Teacher’s attitude toward scolding children

Teacher‟s attitude toward scolding children Scolding is okay if the child is too naughty Scolding is improper but understandable Scolding is not okay and must be stopped Scolding is part of the teacher‟s work Total

Frequency 19 165 248 5 437

Percentage 4.35% 37.76% 56.75% 1.14% 100%

3. Kindergarten teachers’ conduct in relation to parents According to Section 48 of the Chinese Kindergarten Operational Regulations (Ministry of Education of the People‟s Republic of China, 2016), kindergartens should work with parents and help parents to create nurturing

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and educational home environment and gain the knowledge of education and care of children. In response to the question on family-kindergarten partnership, 74.83% of the teachers held that parents were key stakeholder, 14.87% of the teachers held that family-kindergarten partnership depended more on those parents with better educational background, 2.52% of the teachers held that there was no way for parents and teachers to cooperate, 7.78% of the teachers held that family-kindergarten partnership was mainly about the kindergarten providing education to parents (Table 13). Table 13. Teacher’s belief about family-kindergarten partnership

Teacher‟s belief about family-kindergarten partnership Key stakeholder Depend on parents with better education There is no way for family-kindergarten collaboration Partnership is education of parents by the kindergarten Total

Frequency

Percentage

327 65 11

74.83% 14.87% 2.52%

7.78%

437

100%

Further analysis of the data reveals age difference. As Table 14 shows, the retiring teachers (aged 46-55) communicated with parents more effectively and were more likely to acknowledge that parents were an important partner of the kindergarten. Table 14. Age difference in teacher’s belief about family-kindergarten partnership

Age

Key stakeholder

No way to co-operate

79.62% (82)

Rely on better educated parents 9.71% (10)

0.97% (1)

Mainly education of parents 9.71% (10)

17-25 (N=103) 26-45 (N=313) 46-55 (N=21)

71.57% (224)

17.57% (55)

3.19% (10)

7.67% (24)

100% (21)

0% (0)

As Table 15 shows, in response to the question on receiving gifts from parents, 6.64% of the teachers held that gifts were parents‟ recognition of teacher‟s work and teachers should accept, 82.15% of the teachers held that educating and caring the children was teachers‟ duty and teachers should not accept gifts from parents, 9.61% of the teachers held that teachers should accept the non-monetary gifts but not monetary gifts, 1.60% of the teachers held that teachers could accept any gift that was less than 200 Chinese dollars

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in value. The data shows that over 80% of the teachers adhered to the boundary between gifts and bribes. Table 15. Teacher’s approach to the boundary between gifts and bribes

Boundary between gifts and bribes Frequency Teachers should accept gifts from parents 29 Teachers should not accept gifts from parents 359 Teachers should not accept monetary gifts 42 from parents Teachers can accept gifts worth below ¥200 7 Total 437

Percentage 6.64% 82.15% 9.61% 1.60 % 100%

4. Kindergarten teachers’ beliefs about work ethics In response to the question on work ethics, 27.00% of the teachers endorsed self-sacrificing devotion, 8.92% of the teachers endorsed working hard without complaining, 1.60% of the teachers endorsed carrying on work while sick, and 62.47% of the teachers endorsed working smartly (Table 16). Table 16. Teacher’s attitude toward work ethics

Teacher‟s attitude toward work ethics Self-sacrificing devotion Working hard without complaining Carrying on work while sick Working smartly Total

Frequency 118 39 7 273 437

Percentage 27.00% 8.92% 1.60% 62.47% 100%

Further analysis of the data identifies age difference in teachers‟ work ethics. As shown in Table 17, 42.86% of the retiring teachers (aged 46-55) were more likely to go for sacrificing devotion. Table 17. Age difference in teacher’s attitude toward work ethics

Age

Self-sacrificing devotion

Carrying on work while sick 0% (0)

Smart growth

35.92% (37)

Working without complaining 4.85% (5)

17-25 (N=103) 26-45 (N=313) 46-55 (N=21)

23.00% (72)

10.54% (33)

2.24% (7)

42.86% (9)

4.77% (1)

0% (0)

64.22% (201) 52.38% (11)

59.22% (61)

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Discussion Our survey shows that the majority of the Chinese kindergarten teachers are capable of adhering to professional ethics during daily activities. Professional ethics are embedded in all moments of the daily activities and are visible through verbal and non-verbal language of the teachers. During the different periods of daily activities, morning welcome, group activities and play time, teachers‟ professional ethics are very visible. Professional ethics are an important component of teachers‟ professional qualities. The survey confirms that the majority of the teachers conform to the professional ethics, for example, during the morning welcome, 64.07% of the teachers waited at the gate and welcomed the parents and the children, which is a significant contributor to the children‟s enjoyment of the day. For water drinking and toilet using, 57% of the teachers attended to the different needs of individual children. Over 90% of the teachers provided individual support and allowed the children‟s independent choice during the lunch time. It is clear that the teachers had strong awareness of the importance of respect for children and were meeting the needs of individual children. There were certainly issues with some teachers. For example, over two thirds of teachers admitted that they had preferred and disliked children and only less than one fourth of teachers truly treated the children equally. Research has shown that the children are sensitive to teachers‟ attitude toward them, the differentiation in teacher-child relationship is not only a barrier to children‟s growth but also goes against the principle of social justice and equity. It is easy for the kindergarten teachers to say that they would treat all children equally, nevertheless, it is not easy to enact the equity principle. Given the extreme importance of teamwork for early childhood education (Heikka, Waniganayake, & Hujala, 2013), professional relationship with colleagues becomes so crucial that it is not only an ordinary element of professional qualities but also important part of the ethics. For the benefit of children, kindergarten teachers must build up healthy and constructive relationship with their colleagues. This is one of the fundamental characteristics of the nature of early childhood teaching. The majority of the teachers were able to establish professional and mutually supportive relationship with each other, for example, embracing the teaching innovation initiated by colleagues and voting for the right person for “excellence of teacher”. It is notable that there were some teachers who adopted unprofessional standards and displayed negative sentiments when engaging in team activities, for example, detachment and jealousy which are in essence harmful for effective delivery of education and care of children. In early childhood, partnership with families and parental involvement are essential and more important than any of other stages of education (Fantuzzo, et al., 2013). Professional relationship between teachers and

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parents is the basis of such partnership. The majority of the teachers adhered to the professional and ethical principles, for example, not accepting parentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; monetary gifts and emphasizing the importance of parent-teacher cooperation. There were small proportion of teachers who were not able to understand the essence of parent-teacher partnership, that is, they viewed parents as the audience of teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x; talk rather than a stakeholder that would make more meaningful contribution to the education and care of children. The study discloses some sensitive and subtle issues which are seemingly apparent but in fact hard to address in practice. These issues include: scolding children, treating children differently, being unprepared for teaching. While these conducts are against the professional ethics, due to the macro environment and the teachers past life experiences, some teachers still are not able to overcome the outdated, teacher-centred teaching philosophy that was ingrained in the traditional Chinese notion of the authority of teacher (Ma & Tsui, 2015). Another reason for the existence of such issues could be related to the rural areas in particular. In China, although the gap between the rural and urban areas are being narrowed, in some rural and remote counties and villages, the traditional and old fashioned teaching philosophy still prevails, for example, the teachers are still seen figures who have the authority to discipline and control their students.

Implications for practice and policy The study has implications for both practice and policy. It is important that all kindergartens promote professional ethics and minimize the cases of violating professional ethics. Due to the importance of teaching practice and reflection on teacher professional development, kindergarten leaders can encourage teachers to constantly reflect on their practice, and the reflection may take both oral (e.g., conversation, team meeting, staff appraisal) and written forms (e.g., reflective journal, pedagogical documentation, teaching stories). Also, due to the importance of teacher-child relationship to the wellbeing and all-around development of the children, the teachers need to make conscious, intentional effort to build up and maintain nurturing, responsive and reciprocal relationship with each and every child. The kindergarten leadership as well as the teaching team need to heed the tendency of having preferred and disliked children. It is important to promote and practice the principle that all children are equal. Further, maintaining professional and mutually supportive relationship within the teaching team is also an area that kindergartens can work on. Constructive, healthy, professional relationship with the teaching team not only is the foundation of team approach to early childhood education, but also contributes to the wellbeing of the teachers themselves. Since effective establishment of professional relationship between team members largely

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depends on the culture and leadership of individual kindergartens, it is important that all kindergarten leaders include this area into their daily work agenda. At policy level, the government needs to allocate funding for the purpose of professional learning for kindergarten teachers. The current situation is that the teachers are fully occupied and have little time to attend professional learning activities. Government funding may be used to recruit relievers who can cover the jobs of those teachers who have to go off the floor and engage in professional learning. Also, government need to reinforce statutory, regulatory provisions on kindergarten teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x; professional ethics, for example, there need to be more regulations on the implementation of recently promulgated Professional Standards for Kindergarten Teachers (Ministry of Education of the Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Republic of China, 2016).

Limitations and future research direction Due to resource constraint, the study is limited to a small size of sample. Given the importance of the research topic, future research should include more kindergarten teachers in more geographically and socioeconomically diverse areas. Another limitation of the study relates to its lack of in-depth data that may explain the underlying reasons of some phenomena. Future research may include individual, in-depth interview as data collection method.

Conclusions In spite of the limitations, it can be concluded from the study: (1) The majority of the kindergarten teachers in China are aware of the importance of professional ethics and adhere to the ethical principles in the profession; (2) There are small percentage of kindergarten teachers who comprise on key professional ethical principles, which is due to complex social cultural context of the teaching profession in China; (3) For the benefits of all stakeholders, particularly the children, there is a need for kindergartens, society and government to work together to help kindergarten teachers improve on their knowledge, skills, and attitude, and professional ethics in particular.

References: Boon, H. (2011). Raising the bar: Ethics education for quality teachers. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 36(7), 76-93. doi: 10.14221/ajte.2011v36n7.2 Bullough, R. V. (2011). Ethical and moral matters in teaching and teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(1), 21-28. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2010.09.007 Campbell, E. (2008). The ethics of teaching as a moral profession. Curriculum Inquiry, 38(4), 357-385. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-873x.2008.00414.x Fantuzzo, J., Gadsden, V., Li, F., Sproul, F., McDermott, P., Hightower, D., & Minney,

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A. (2013). Multiple dimensions of family engagement in early childhood education: Evidence for a short form of the Family Involvement Questionnaire. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28(4), 734-742. doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.07.001 Freeman, N., & Feeney, S. (2005). Ethics and the early childhood educator: Using the NAEYC Code. National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1509 16th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036. Heikka, J., Waniganayake, M., & Hujala, E. (2013). Contextualizing distributed leadership within early childhood education: Current understandings, research

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teaching practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(3), 648-656. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2010.11.003 Snook, I. (2003). The ethical teacher. Palmerston, NZ: Dunmore Press. Strike, K.A. (1990). Teaching ethics to teachers: What the curriculum should be about. Teaching and Teacher Education, 6(1), 47-53. doi: 10.1016/0742-051x(90)90006-q Taggart, G. (2011). Donâ&#x20AC;&#x;t we care? The ethics and emotional labour of early years professionalism. Early Years, 31(1), 85-95. doi: 10.1080/09575146.2010.536948

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 9, pp. 114-124, September 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.9.9

Nursing Students‟ Experiences of Using Adobe Connect in a First-year Professional Nursing Course Liz Ditzel (RN, PhD) Principal Lecturer, School of Nursing, Otago Polytechnic, Dunedin, New Zealand Anna Wheeler (RN) Associate Director of Nursing and Midwifery, South Canterbury District Health Board Timaru, New Zealand Abstract. This paper reports the survey results of first-year Bachelor of Nursing students‟ (n=88) experiences using Adobe Connect in a Professional Nursing course. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and themes were coded from responses to open-ended survey questions. Quantitative data affirmed the learning and teaching benefits of using Adobe Connect and identified areas for improvement. Qualitative data indicated that accessing and using Adobe Connect from the comfort of home was greatly appreciated. Negative aspects related to feeling a lack of involvement, and poor digital audio and visual quality, mainly due to Internet delivery problems. These findings indicate that this technology suits the learning needs of first-year students. Used in combination with a limited number of face-to-face tutorials, students have the „best of both worlds‟ – home-based, selfpaced learning, access to recorded lectures, adequate peer/teacher contact time and successful course results. Keywords: Adobe Connect; nursing education; e-learning; distance teaching.

1. Introduction This study formed part of an annual evaluation of teaching methods for firstyear Bachelor of Nursing (BN) students. The specific aims were 1) to enhance our understanding of students‟ experiences and perceptions of learning using Adobe Connect in a foundational Professional Nursing course, and 2) to use the findings to improve our teaching practice using web-based video conferencing technology.

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1.1 Background The first year of the BN degree programme at Otago Polytechnic has six theory and two clinical practice courses. Theory courses (Bioscience, Pharmacology, Sociology, Psychology, Theory for Practice, Professional Nursing: Theory and Research 1) are taught using a blended learning approach. Teaching methods include traditional didactic lectures, small group tutorials and a range of directed and self-directed online learning activities. Clinical courses, (Medical and Surgical Nursing) are taught and nursing skills are practiced in laboratories and simulation suites before students are placed in (hospital wards, community centres and aged residential care facilities) to further develop their skills. This is done under the guidance of a Registered Nurse preceptor and a clinical lecturer. All nursing students are campus-based learners and course attendance is compulsory. 1.2 Teaching Professional Nursing The Professional Nursing: Theory and Research 1 (Professional Nursing 1) introduces students to the nursing‟s historical foundation, legal, ethical and governance frameworks, and principles of evidence-based research. To meet courselearning outcomes students have a weekly lecture and are provided with a range of online learning activities and video resources on „Moodle‟, the institution‟s elearning platform. Regular staff-student communication is facilitated through institutional email and the Moodle „News Forum‟ function. Three years ago, an academic lecturer with a young family living in a remote location and expertise in the subject offered to teach the Professional Nursing 1 course from home using web-conferring software technology. „Adobe Connect‟ was selected, enabling students to use their own devices (computer, laptop and smart phones) and to log into live-streamed broadcast lectures. This facilitates lecturer sharing PowerPoint and other teaching resources on-screen with students, closely resembling a face-to-face classroom environment. In the first year of using Adobe Connect (2015), students could join the lecture using their personal computer, or attend a live broadcast in a campus classroom with other students supported by an academic staff member. However, due to poor student attendance the classroom option was dropped (numbers fell to 10 in the third week). Small group tutorials (n=26-28) were later added in response to student‟s request for more face-to-face learning support. Tutorials were facilitated by the distance lecturer (who travelled to campus) and when required was assisted by other academic staff. In 2016, lectures were recorded and links posted on Moodle. Changes were made in response to students missing lectures due to illness, part-time work and family commitments. These decisions are supported by research finding that recordings increased the student‟s learning flexibility (O‟Neil, Singh & O‟Donoghue, 2004).

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1.3 E-learning and the use of Adobe Connect in nursing education The provision of online learning options including e-learning is used in nursing curricula in a number of countries including Australia, Canada, Greece, Ireland, New Zealand, UK and USA (Button, Harrington & Belan, 2014). Online education involves Internet delivered courses on which students can participate from any number of locations, usually their homes. Materials are delivered synchronously using web conferencing software such as „Skype‟, „Elluminate‟, or „Adobe Connect‟, or asynchronously using Learning Management Systems using „Blackboard‟, „Moodle‟, or a combination of both (Torun, 2013). Delivery requires varied teaching methodologies and levels of interaction between students, content and technology to meet learning preferences of the diverse groups of learners. In nursing education Adobe Connect is used for teaching distance students or online courses (Button et al., 2014). It is also generally preferred for teaching smaller and/or postgraduate groups where participants use personal headsets, microphones and „hand-raising‟ icons to speak to others, and can work collaboratively using the on-screen whiteboard function (Carter & Heale, 2010; Greenberg, 2004). There are many advantages for students associated with e-learning technologies, among which, the most often cited, is the increased flexibility offered by the online learning environment and the ability for students to be self-paced when studying (Button, et al., 2014; Farrell, Cubit, Bobrowski & Salmon, 2007; Hampton, Fachie & Moser, 2017). In one study, nursing students reported that learning in the online environment was deeper than in the classroom (Mitchell, Ryan, Carson & McCann, 2007). In a second study, connecting with peers and getting to know each other outside of the classroom were important features of the online learning environment (Kelly, Lyng, McGrath & Cannon, 2009). Elearning and online courses also provide equal access to and equivalent learning opportunities for those in remote areas (Carter & Heale, 2010; Wood, 2016). Negative aspects relate to increased levels of anxiety and include a lack of skill when using digital devices, insufficient technical support and time wasted when computer systems do not work properly (Creedy, Mitchell, Seton-Sykes, Cooke, Patterson, 2007; Levett-Jones, Kenny, Van der Riet, Hazelton & Kable, et al., 2009). Other technical problems, such as computer screens freezing, online connections dropping out and slow Internet broadband speed are other frustrating impediments to learning (Bond, 2009; Deltsidou, Voltyraki, Mastrogiannis & Noula, 2010). Educators thus generally favour using a blended learning approach including online and face-to-face teaching methods (Englehart, 2015). In todays‟ educational landscape, producing well-designed courses using a mix of traditional and online teaching technologies enrich student‟s learning experiences and generate re-usable and sustainable teaching resources.

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2. Methods 2.1 Research purpose This study formed part of an evaluation of first-year teaching because Adobe Connect was newly adopted as a teaching and learning technology. The research was based on end-of-year formal course evaluation feedback, indicating that while students were highly satisfied (M=4.84, on a scale of 1 = strongly disagree though to 6 = strongly agree) with Professional Nursing, they were somewhat dissatisfied with the technical aspects of using Adobe Connect. 2.1 Research questions This article addresses three research questions. 1. What is the student perspective of using Adobe Connect? 2. What impact does Adobe Connect have on student‟s learning experience? 3. What can academic staff do to improve their teaching practice when using Adobe Connect? 2.2 Study setting, participants, and ethical approval The study was conducted in a New Zealand School of Nursing. First-year students (N=117) enrolled in Professional Nursing 1 were invited to participate. The survey was approved by the Research Ethics Committee (OPREC 2016-693) and was advertised on the first-year Moodle site. Students were made aware that participating was voluntary, the survey was not related to course assessment and that their responses would remain confidential. Participants gave informed consent and no demographic or personal data were requested. Students accessed the online survey through a secured institutional course portal. 2.3 Research instrument The research instrument comprised 15 forced-choice and 5 open-ended questions. Questions and items were derived from formal student feedback and research on undergraduate‟s experiences of using online technology (Milne, Skinner & Baird, 2014). Different response indicators were used for the forcedchoice responses but for all statements, 1 = the lowest level, and 5 = the highest level of agreement or satisfaction. Open-ended questions explored students‟ experiences of using Adobe Connect. The survey was piloted before going live in the last week of November and closed two weeks later. 2.4 Study sample Research participants were first-year nursing students (N=88, 75.2%). Deidentified data were returned by the institution‟s research office as a computer generated summary report of simple descriptive statistics. Responses to the open-ended questions were manually coded to identify common themes. Data

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were analysed when all students had completed their 2016 academic assessments.

3. Results 3.1 Online survey quantitative results Nearly all respondents used a desktop (91%) or lap top computer (9%) when accessing the online classroom. Most connected from home (87%), the remainder logged on from the institution‟s library (12%) or student halls of residence (1%). The majority (75%) easily accessed the Adobe Connect classroom and few experienced Internet connectivity issues. Student comments indicated that the technology was “simple to use” and “the instruction on how to use it, very clear”. Less than half (43%) felt they should have had more technical support before the course started. Two thirds (66%) had problems hearing the lecture yet only 4% rated the audio quality as „terrible‟ or „poor‟. Web camera picture quality was highly rated (M=3.84) but most (79%) had experienced delay or Internet drag that interfered with the presentation quality of the lecture. The majority (81.5%) favoured a lecture time of at least 30 minutes and most (58%) felt it was easy to concentrate for the current 50-minute lecture time. Nearly all (94%) accessed the post-lecture recordings. Data relating to accessing and using the online classroom are presented in Table 1 and show that mean scores that ranged from 2.49-3.84. The higher the mean the more students agreed with the statement. Table 1: Descriptive statistics Item I feel confident in accessing the online classroom I have enough support to be able to use the technology I feel supported in my own learning needs I am able to engage with the learning process when using Adobe Connect I feel that I belong to a community of online learners I feel that I was able to develop a relationship with the lecturer delivering the content via Adobe Connect I was more likely to ask questions in the „chat box‟ than in a classroom setting

Mean 3.43 3.36 3.07 2.96 2.94 2.81 2.49

These data show that while students were confident in assessing and using the technology and online classroom, they did not feel strongly that they belonged to a community of online learners or that they had a relationship with the lecturer. Also evident was a low preference for using the „chat box‟ function to ask questions during the lecture.

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3.2 Online survey qualitative results The responses to the open-ended questions were manually coded. Table 2 shows the questions, number of responses and emergent themes. Results are presented under the relevant headings and are supported by direct quotations in italic script. Table 2: Open-ended question themes: advantage and disadvantages of Adobe Connect Question What is the best thing about learning using Adobe Connect software? (n=86)

    

What is the worst thing about learning using Adobe Connect software? (n= 43)

     

Emergent themes Convenience and flexibility; access, place and time (39) Revise, re watch, better supports our learning (21) Can learn from home, look things up, no distractions (16) Time to think, can pause, easier to take notes and focus (6) Easy to ask questions (4) Poor sound quality (11) Digital lag/visual breakup (9) Don‟t like/prefer face-to-face (6) Impersonal, hard to connect with the teacher (6) Lecturer misses a question (5) Lack of connection to group (3)

3.3. Advantages of using Adobe Connect The question „what was the best thing about learning using Adobe Connect?‟ yielded 86 comments. Thirty-nine respondents reported that the main advantage of using Adobe Connect related to its convenience and flexibility. Students perceived it as “a different way to learn rather than sitting in the classroom” and they appreciated “being able to watch and access the lecture anywhere, anytime”. Comments including “being in the comfort of my own home; learning from home; sitting at home with no distractions” suggest that home-based learning, rather than travelling to or being on campus, was highly valued. Having the recorded lectures “to watch later, and take notes without rushing” and “going back and checking information to support learning” was also greatly appreciated. 3. 4 Disadvantages Fewer disadvantages were reported; 42 responses yielded seven themes. The main problem related to technical delivery and reception, i.e., poor sound quality, digital lag and picture break-up. The following comment summed up these frustrations: “For some of the lectures, there was a blank screen. Audio has been a big problem. Sometimes the connection isn’t very good and we get audio cuts and miss information”.

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Many students (n=9) voiced a preference for face-to-face teaching and “more opportunity to connect with the lecturer”. Another comment that “sometimes the lecturer would miss a question in the chat box and not answer it” indicated that a lack of real-time connectivity and a missing response was a disadvantage of the virtual classroom. Table 3 shows responses to the remaining open-ended questions. Table 3: Open-ended question themes: Tutorials, learning support, recorded lectures Question Describe how you found the additional tutorials in this course (n=33).

  

Emergent themes Excellent, helped to tie the information together (23) Really helpful, this is where most of my learning came from (6) Helped to summarise (3)

Learning via Adobe Connect requires a high level of self-directed learning skills. What could be done to support your learning? (n=17)

  

More face-to-face time (9) A weekly tutorial (6) Provide a lecture room for students to watch it together (2)

Why did you access the recorded lectures? (n=50)

   

Revision, clarification (25) To check and go over things (10) Hadn‟t attended the live lecture (9) I worked, forgot or was sick (7)

3. 5 Tutorials and learning support Regarding tutorials, three very positive themes were identified from 33 responses. Students greatly valued tutorials with the distance lecturer, finding them “amazing; awesome, extremely beneficial” and “really helpful”. The question „what could be done to support self-directed learning?’ yielded three themes from 17 responses. Students wanted more face-to-face contact time, weekly tutorials and a room to watch the lecture together. 3.6 Recorded lectures Quantitative data showed that the majority (94%) had listened to the recorded lectures. The average number of times students accessed these recordings was five and the range, 1-10. As expected, these responses identified that students used recordings primarily for “revision and clarification” and “when a lecture had been missed” for a range of reasons such as illness.

4. Discussion From the student perspective, these results confirm the value of using Adobe Connect, especially as part of a blended teaching and e-learning approach. Predominantly „Generation Z‟ learners, i.e. those born in 1995 and aged 21 or

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younger (Hampton & Keys, 2017), these net savvy students had no difficulty using web-conferencing software or concentrating for the 50-minute lecture time. The benefits of e-learning for students are well known: providing greater time flexibility and the ability to be self-paced (Farrell, et al., 2007; Hampton, et al., 2017). For these respondents, the greatest perceived benefit of “accessing it anywhere and from the comfort of my own home” is critical. This aligned with Milne et al.‟s, (2014) findings that second-year student midwives‟ preferred using video conferencing because it was home-based learning. Furthermore, enjoying time flexibility for academic study and learning “from the comfort of my own home” bears testimony to the high number of students who have part-time work or family commitments and find travelling to campus expensive and/or inconvenient. It also enables learners more freedom to multi-task whilst at home i.e., to get food and drink, and to deal with problems and chores, as was found in Cappiccie and Desrosiers‟ (2011) study of social work students. Flexibility also helps those who miss attending a class because of illness or personal factors (Button, et al., 2014). Overall, the perceived advantages of using web-conferencing software were more numerous than the disadvantages. Students appreciate using videotaped lectures to help them understand difficult concepts and if they have missed a class. Having a recorded lecture is particularly valued for revision purposes since this feature is not usually available at the conclusion of traditional face-toface classes. Furthermore, contemporary research showing a positive correlation between viewing recorded lectures and student‟s final grades, and a greater reliance on recordings by females and older students (Heijstra & Sigurõardóttir, 2017) is significant for nursing students who are predominantly female. Negative aspects of e-learning relate to technical problems (Englehart, 2015), increased levels of anxiety when using computers (Deltsidou, et al., 2010), poor information communication technology user skills, inadequate technical support and the time wasted when computer applications do not work properly (Bond, 2009; Creedy, et al., 2007). This study found that while technical and digital transmission difficulties were commonly experienced they were not a major deterrent to learning, especially when backed-up by recorded lectures. Though anxiety related to using webbased technology was not reported, students felt a low level of belonging to a community of learners. The „chat box‟ function also did not provide the desired level of student teacher interaction. However, given the large number of online participants (usually 75% of the class logged in for the live-stream lecture) it is easy to understand why students felt this way. The campus face-to-face tutorials helped to fill this void and were greatly valued, one student regarding them as “the icing on the cake”, and another, a “privilege to attend”. It seemed that providing only end-of-module tutorials was a prudent educational decision, as it encourages greater self-directed learning, independence and enhances student engagement with online resources.

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5. Lessons for educators Many educators are sceptical that online education is as effective as conventional face-to-face teaching and some regard the digital technology as challenging and impersonal (Praechter & Maier, 2010). Nursing educators can be assured however, that students like learning using Adobe Connect, particularly the flexibility provided by live-streaming lectures and the convenience of using their own devices, mainly from home. Recorded sessions help students to revise and consolidate material, fostering deeper learning found) in comparable online learning environments (Mitchell, et al., 2007). To improve their teaching practice when using Adobe Connect, academic staff should be encouraged and enabled to attend appropriate training and continuing education sessions. Technical support is essential for all staff and it is vital to have a contact person or service for technology problems, so that students may be referred to institutional support services rather than the lecturer attempting to solve problems during limited class time. In the Professional Nursing 1 course students are required to engage with complex material and develop an understanding of abstract concepts, research principles and practice. Using Adobe Connect supported by end-of-module tutorials proved to be an effective and efficient way to teach and for students to learn as the course had a 98% pass rate. As an outcome of the successful implementation of Adobe Connect in Professional Nursing 1, it has been adopted for use in other first-year BN courses; typically to design and package learning resources into topic-based modules. In this study a distance lecturer used Adobe Connect to teach a large campusbased class, whereas this technology is most often used by a campus basedlecturer to teach distance students. How then to best support the distance lecturer? Wood (2016, p. 256) recently noted, “little has been written about faculty working at a distance” emphasising that the role required thoughtful and diligent preparation with extra attention being paid to equipment needs, support and strategies for ensuring continued engagement. The final issue relates to students themselves becoming „distance learners‟ as an outcome of the convenience of staying at home. Not regularly being on campus results in a lack of interaction with peers and missed opportunities to build communication and social skills. Social isolation of young people is concerning in the age of increased digital connectivity that sometimes leads to over-reliance and over-use of digital devices: a phenomenon recently referred to as the Generation Z mobile phone addiction (Ozkan & Solmaz, 2015). However, requests for more face-toface tutorials indicated that students were reluctant to fully adopt online learning.

6. Conclusion In a time of rising costs, with many nursing students working part-time to support their studies, web-based online learning makes sense. E-learning can transform the traditional paradigm of teaching and learning by providing

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flexibility and opportunities for educators to innovate and deliver courses to suit disparate groups of learners. However, to maximise e-learning‟s potential, educators (and distance teachers in particular) require training in course design and ongoing communication support. Similarly, students need instruction, support and adequate opportunities for social engagement with campus-based peers. First-year BN students liked using Adobe Connect and were confident in accessing and using this technology. Poor sound quality and digital lag were widely reported, yet successful learning was not impeded. Access to recorded lectures and a backed up by a limited number of face-to-face tutorials were most appreciated providing students with the „best of both worlds‟ in todays‟ challenging educational environment. Acknowledgements and disclosures No financial assistance was received for this research project.

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