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International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 1

NUMBER 1

January 2014

Table of Contents Tackling Assumptions and Expectations; Implementing Technology in Higher Education ........................................ 1 Teri Taylor The Virtual Management of Schools ................................................................................................................................. 14 Dr. Esteban Vázquez-Cano and Dr. Eloy López-Meneses Course Contents Analysis of Students’ Academic Performance in Basic Electronics.................................................. 25 Aina Jacob Kola and Akintunde, Zacchaeus Taiwo Modified Useful-Learning Approach: Effects on Students‘ Critical Thinking Skills and Attitude towards Chemistry .............................................................................................................................................................................. 35 Arlyne C. Marasigan, Allen A. Espinosa Effects of Music on the Spatial Reasoning Skills of Grade-One Pupils ......................................................................... 73 Desiree B. Castillo, Czarlene Kaye San Juan, Maria Robelle Tajanlangit, Irish Pauline Ereño, Maria Julia Serino, Catherine Tayo and Allen A. Espinosa Impact of Organizational Commitment and Employee Performance on the Employee Satisfaction ....................... 84 Naveed Ahmad, Nadeem Iqbal, Komal Javed and Naqvi Hamad A Multivariate Analysis (MANOVA) of where Adult Learners Are in Higher Education ........................................ 93 Gail D. Caruth Group Communication and Interaction in project-based Learning: The Use of Facebook in a Taiwanese EFL Context ................................................................................................................................................................................. 108 Wan-Jeng Chang

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 1-13, January 2014

Tackling Assumptions and Expectations; Implementing Technology in Higher Education Teri Taylor Northumbria University Newcastle upon Tyne, England

Abstract. This article explores the assumptions and expectations underpinning technological implementation within Higher Education (HE). From the author‟s experience, technology appears high on higher education agendas in response to a multitude of economic and competitive drivers. However, the assumptions upon which technological implementation are based, derive from early research undertaken regarding the expectations of “Net Generation” students. From this early research, a popularised view of today‟s student cohorts as consumers and extensive users of technology has arisen. In contrast, assumptions have been made about the limited skills and amenability towards technology of staff employed in higher education. Contemporary literature, however, questions these early assumptions and challenges the concept of the technologically literate student. This article draws parallels with industrially based literature in exploring the consequences of erroneous assumptions upon the expectations of both implementers and users of technology within an organisation. Through discussion of the current tensions within higher education, reasons for a mismatch in expectations between the organisation and the user are explored, and suggestions made regarding compromise between the needs of mass delivered education and recognition of individual learning need. Keywords: technology; net generation; expectations mismatch

Introduction In a climate of increasing austerity, both private and public sector businesses have had to respond to a need for efficiency and cost effectiveness of operations (Dos Santos & Sussman, 2000; Kouzmin & Korac-Kakabadse, 2000). These demands occur at a time when technological ingenuity has seen the adoption of many highly innovative and wide-reaching tools that profess to make life easier, quicker or more pleasurable (Goggin, 2012). With extensive marketing for technology in everything from billboard advertising to television commercials, it is perhaps not surprising that industry increasingly turns towards innovations in this area in order to improve upon delivery and production efficiency (Liang, You, & Liu, 2010; Wu et al., 2006). In Higher Education, in particular, there © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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seems to be a drive for widespread technological implementation that moves ahead at an alarming speed. Heralded as meeting the needs of students and improving flexible access to learning, technological initiatives are represented as a necessity in a competitive market. However, despite what appear to be admirable intentions, professional experience has demonstrated a plethora of hurdles that appear to limit both the implementation of and engagement with these tools. Recent research suggests that implementation drivers based upon student need/want are unsupported and may ignore the complexities of the human psyche; with some students cited as finding technological initiatives detrimental to their learning or contrary to their preferences (Jones, Ramanau, Cross, & Healing, 2009; Salaway, Caruso, & Nelson, 2007; Waycott, Bennett, Kennedy, Dalgarno, & Gray, 2010).

Net Generation Early work (Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005; Prensky, 2001a, 2001b) has proved popular with academic institutions, and has underpinned many assumptions made around the nature and requirements of “Net Generation” students entering higher education; those born in the 1980‟s and 90‟s (Howe & Strauss, 1991). Prensky‟s earlier work has proved seminal in guiding institutional development to consider these students cohorts as effortlessly engaging with technology throughout their lives. Prensky‟s work outlined the development of a generation of individuals growing up with the use of technology and computers within their learning and everyday lives. Future expectations of continuing symbiosis with technology were felt to necessitate integration of much higher levels of technological innovation within further and higher education (Prensky, 2001; Oblinger and Oblinger, 2005). However, contemporary research in this field would suggest that some earlier assumptions have been made erroneously or without clear investigation and that these assumption, are not a true reflection of the reality within current higher education cohorts.

Erroneous assumptions In considering the use of technology within a population as a whole, more recent literature generates metrics that challenge Prensky‟s assumptions that the “Net Generation” will seamlessly integrate technology into all aspects of living. Both Horrigan (2007) and Kennedy et al (2008) use large sample studies (n=4001 and n=2096respectively) to investigate the use of technologies amongst diverse populations. Whilst Horrigan explores a representative population of American citizens, Jones et al explore technological use amongst students attending differing Australian Universities. In both studies, findings have been used to categorize participants according to their level of use and engagement with mobile technologies, web 2.0 technologies and ICT as a whole. Despite the differences in geographical location and in representative sample populations, both studies find only a small proportion of their sample (23% and 14% respectively) to be representative of high technological users (loosely defined as those using a wide range of technologies significantly more than © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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other participants) within their lives. Other categories cite approximately 20% of the participant population to be representative of “middle of the road” users (defined loosely in both studies as those engaging with mobile technologies and with the internet but less likely to engage with other ICT outside of their social organisation), with a further 50-60% of the participant populations representative of less avid or disinterested users. Whilst individually, the results of these studies could be questioned on the grounds of age and population demographics, the correlation between two diverse participant populations suggests a trend that may indicate erroneous assumptions in Prensky‟s earlier work. If a population overall is demonstrating differing categories of technological users, it is perhaps unsurprising that recent research in higher education also finds differing requirements for technology amongst different students.

Application to higher education When focusing more specifically upon Higher Education, recent research concurs with the findings of Horrigan and Kennedy et al. Jones et al (2009) undertook a large scale (n = 596 students) study investigating student engagement with common technologies. Jones et al‟s findings demonstrated how students tended to engage extensively with common technologies such as mobile phones, computers and emails but were less predictable when considering activities such as Wikis or Blogs. The findings of the study conducted across five English universities found considerable variation in actual engagement and reasons for engagement with technologies, within the overall participant cohort. As such, Jones et al cite the need to consider more than just age and date of birth as a means of predicting student behaviour in response to institutional expectations for technological use. As a large scale investigation utilising students that could be considered to be of the “Net Generation”, the findings of this study support contradiction of Prensky‟s work. Furthermore, Waycott et al‟s study (2010) undertaken in Australian Universities, exploring individual use of learning and social technologies amongst students and staff, further challenges Prensky. Findings from the study demonstrated a preference amongst students for the use of technology to organise and communicate socially but a reduction in comfort in using these technologies in a “learning context”. Contrary to many assumptions, Waycott et al also found that not all students were adept at communications and that in these cases technology was ineffective at improving their abilities. Thus, this questions not only amenability towards technology but also the underpinning epistemological assumptions made about abilities of those entering higher education. This study occurred within Australian universities and, therefore, may have some limitations in application to UK higher education. In addition, Waycott‟s definition of what a “learning context” entails is unclear, however, the findings from the research echo the author‟s experiences with UK based student cohorts and concur with underpinning learning theory that supports context driven application of pedagogy (Knowles, 2002).

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With reference to learning theory, earlier work questions how homogeneity can be assumed of a “generation” of students with reference to application of technology skills to learning in higher education. Mortimore (1999) uses the concept of the “cognitive apprentice” to illustrate the importance of situation in skills development; demonstrating that transference to a different context is not always possible. Mortimore also recognises the role of relevance to the individual in motivating learning. Mortimore‟s work is primarily focused upon the development of school children and, therefore, may be limited in application to adult learning. However, the notion of contextualised learning and individuality appears reflected in many seminal educational texts, from Dunn and Dunn (1979) to Schon (1988) and Knowles, Halton and Swanson (2011). Whilst young people may be highly adept at the use of Facebook for social networking, translation to more formal use may not occur where relevance is unclear. Whilst children are taught to use computers as part of the national curriculum, this does not necessarily translate to competence with the tools in wider application. Thus, it is proposed that in considering technological use in higher education, care needs to be taken over using technology for technologies sake. It cannot be denied that the internet is now integral to learning in all fields. However, the media of the internet is felt to have merely replaced that of books and the library. With a method of interface that has become commonplace across a diverse spread of contexts and that is relevant to the majority of users, its prevalence is unsurprising. The ease of access to information has, therefore improved but the essence of learning has not. Wiki‟s, blogs, social networking etc… however, represent a change in lifestyle and approach to communications that may not have relevance in all educational contexts or to all individuals, thus, it is to be expected that the experience, amenability and engagement of individuals will vary. Research undertaken by the author (Taylor, 2012, 2014a, 2014b) investigating the use of video-based communications for the support of individual students, has demonstrated the complexity of introducing technology into an existing system and in gaining acceptance and engagement from not only students, but also staff. Parallels are drawn with research (Gerdsri, 2013; Verjans, 2003) that has explored the implementation of technology into blue collar industries and commercial organisations. All of these bodies of work, though markedly different in context, have explored the omission of the human factor in technological implementation planning. Whilst organisations appear to consider goals, objectives and context for a new technological initiative, there seems to be little reference to the wider psychological, behavioural and experiential factors that complicate technological engagement. In higher education, it is felt that the nature of a learning environment necessitates greater consideration of the human element central to practice. When wider factors are integrated, the process of introduction and engagement with technologies in higher education, can be seen to be considered to be working within a complex adaptive system

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(Beckner et al., 2009)This complexity is recognised in literature exploring personenvironment fit theory.

Expectation Mismatch Utilising the Person-Environment Fit theory (Edwards, Caplan and Van Harrison, 1998), organisational psychology suggests job satisfaction, stress levels and wellbeing of employees to be strongly influenced by a match between job/organisational characteristics and employee characteristics (Kristof-Brown and Guay, 2011). Overall, research in this area demonstrates how failure of an organisation to consider the match between employee characteristics and that of the role/organisation results in stress (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman and Johnson, 2005) . Person-Environment fit is not a new field of study and has been verified in varying employment contexts. However, the subject has developed over time, to recognise the complexity of measuring outcomes that are influenced by human behaviour. There are limitations of this field, in particular, with defining “fit”. In addition, critics of the theory (e.g. Edwards and Billsberry, 2010), discuss multidimensional aspect of research investigating people and the environment that they inhabit and consequently, are critical of a field of research in which constructs and predicted behaviours vary on such a scale. Through a survey approach recruiting 1875 participants from employees primarily within the United States, Edwards and Billsberry explore the ability of combined multiple dimensions of fit to predict overall perceived fit. Whilst limited in generalizability to different cultures and employment demographics, their study identifies how different factors influence different aspects of a person‟s fit within an organisation, and suggests that these factors may change over time and with circumstance. In the context of technological implementation in higher education, variation of individual response to the implementation of technology appears often to make assumptions about age or technological exposure, and hence, measurements of impact continue to rely upon quantitative measures of performance. Contemporary literature, however, suggests that attitudes and abilities, rather than age and experience, combine to be the most powerful predictors of technological use (Charness & Boot, 2009). From the employees perspective, the introduction of technologies into existing working practices may threaten their perceived fitness for practice or operating approach (Hagenson & Castle, 2003) and, therefore, their fit within their role.From a student perspective, technology offers both opportunities and challenges that may, or may not be a welcome inclusion within their learning environment (Waycott et al, 2010). Individuals vary in terms of acceptance of technology along a continuum from technophobes to tech-enthusiasts with a corresponding response to drives to integrate it further into practice or life (Coget, 2011). For those less comfortable with technology, the introduction of initiatives driven by the institution may present a challenge to their status quo.

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Coget suggests that technophobes will view technology more as an intrusion into their existing approach to life. This is in contrast to individuals with experience of the potential benefits of a particular technological tool, who are more likely to embrace new initiatives into a wider sphere of practice. The complexity of psychological theory associated with the way individuals respond to challenge is outwith the abilities of this article to explore. However, the impact of individuality upon engagement with technology can be explored as a match or mismatch of expectations. Person-environment fit theory is used to underpin suppositions, that with technological implementation, stress, anxiety and negative responses are a result of a mismatch in expectations between employer/organisation and employees or users of technology (Verjans, 2003). Supporting Gerdsri (2013), emphasis is placed upon the potentially problematic road mapping for implementation that arises as a result of the theoretical nature of many of the early stages of planning. Gerdsri recommendsacknowledgment of the impact of technology upon individuals and roles in order to illuminate potential sources of stress or conflict. Though Gerdsri focuses upon the nature of road mapping for the process of implementation, it is interesting to note the clear emphasis upon the needs of the individual and recognition of their expectations within the organisation, rather than singularly upon the organisational ambitions.

Staff experience From experience in higher education, the introduction of technology is often met with mistrust by many of the staff involved. Until recently, an assumption has been made that staff experience anxieties over new technologies whilst students do not(Waycott et al, 2010). As a result, much of the research into technological implementation within higher education has assumed an imbalance between perceptions of staff and students, representative of the digital divide between older staff and younger, technologically literate students (Underwood, 2007). Implementation planning has, therefore, focused upon education of staff in new technologies in order to meet the needs of the student (Tohidi, 2011). With reference to person-fit theory, these assumptions appear an oversimplification of a complex problem. Whilst older individuals may be reticent in adopting technology as a result of lack of experience, lack of knowledge and familiarity, it also has to be acknowledged that priorities, environment, purpose and life experience to name a few variables, are considerably different between older staff and younger students. Thus, even if Prenskyâ&#x20AC;&#x;s supposition of older reluctance to engage with technology is accepted, the reasons behind this are likely to be more complex than demographics. Recent research supports this, proposing that it is not unfamiliarity with technology or a lack of understanding amongst staff (Steel, 2006) that generates anxieties, but much wider aspects (Kennedy, Judd, Dalgarno, & Waycott, 2010; Tohidi, 2011; Waycott et al., 2010): From concerns over workload, the impact upon the learning experience, mistrust of the organisational agenda and ÂŠ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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anxieties over the lecturer role, for example, the multitude of possible influencing variables can be seen to potentially perpetuate a mismatch of expectations between organisation and employee (Verjans, 2003). Prediction of areas of anxiety and tension, and the impact of technology upon a workforce is further challenged by the nature of large organisations. The constantly changing nature of employee networks, the concept of individuality, and the changing dynamic components of learning and technology, prevent the establishment of a set of conditions to study (Holland, 2006). Therefore, assumptions made based upon data from other institutions, industries or from previous experience cannot be accurately applied to implementation in the host organisation. This complexity makes accurate study challenging and, therefore, recognition of the specifics of the environment into which a technology is proposed to be used becomes vital in anticipating sources of conflict. The expectation of both individuals and the organisation can be further compromised without realistic consideration of the initial stage of integration. Enabling users to effectively utilise new technologies often necessitate a steep learning curve and a commitment of time to learning the tool at the initial set up (Keengwe, Kidd, & Kyei-Blankson, 2009). McKenzie et al (2001) investigated the common practice of faculties encouraging the increased use of technology within learning and teaching, through the act of buying technology and making it available. Though this study is based within a US institution, the findings echo the experiences of the author. McKenzie et al suggest that institutional expectations that staff will engage with and utilise technologies within the classroom if they are provided, ignores the cultural element of motivation. Keengwe et al (2009) support McKenzie et alâ&#x20AC;&#x;s proposals in suggesting that support, time and leadership are central to the successful implementation of technologies, through a change in expectations of those involved. Though Keengwe et alâ&#x20AC;&#x;s small scale study perpetuates the assumption that staff are reluctant to engage with technology in teaching due to a lack of familiarity; their investigation again highlights the wider influencing factors surrounding the uptake of technological initiatives. In particular, Keengwe et al acknowledge the importance of providing the time to engage with and learn about a new technology, not just in terms of how to use it, but what it may be able to do. Without this recognition of the initial time commitment, expectations of improved efficiency, altered performance or innovative practice may not be immediate. In this case, a mismatch between expectations and initial output may be reflected in frustration and conflict between the instigating organisation and employees utilising the given tool.

Student experience Person-environment fit theory could just as easily be applied to the student experience as to that of employees. Failure of technological initiatives within higher education is often blamed upon student apathy or failure to engage. This cognitively dissonant (Festinger, 2010) response effectively vilifies the individual ÂŠ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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in order to continue supporting the organisational demands. In considering adult learning theory in particular, this emphasis upon organisationally driven agendas, at the expense of student need seems unlikely.Whilst the student voice becomes increasingly important to university evaluation and performance measures (Woodall, Hiller, & Resnick, 2012), it seems strange that individual perceptions regarding technologies do not appear to be investigated more fully when planning for widespread innovation. However, from professional experience, the intricacies of engaging with technology appear to be inadvertently ignored in favour of more global measures of satisfaction or engagement.

Integrative thinking The various contributing factors for mismatched expectations discussed above suggest separation between the organisation, the employee and the student. In the context of educational theory, this is perhaps not surprising with the perceived role of the educator in facilitating the learning of the individual and being managed by the institution. However, critics of mainstream educational theory and thinking suggest that the failure of initiatives such as technologies in a learning institution, is not so much due to a mismatch of expectations as to a lack of understanding of the interactions between organisations and individuals (Stacey, 2001). Professor Stacey‟s background is in organisational research and management with his more recent role as an academic in a higher education institution. As such, his perspective represents it is felt, both ends of the spectrum, from organisational expectations to those of the individual. Stacey (2001) argues that this perception of divide and separation of roles is predominant in mainstream thinking about education and learning within organisations. With reference to cognitive and even humanist models of education, Stacey contends the presumption that the student is the generator of knowledge, separated from the role of peers and the academic, and that the academic‟s role is one of facilitator or mentor/demonstrator. Stacey intimates that in mainstream thinking the organisation‟s role in a student‟s learning is merely as a home in which the activity takes place and a supporting infrastructure for the process, with the student becoming the commodity of learning output. His opinions regarding this isolation contrasts with more recent educational theory that illustrates the complex, collaborative nature of relationships between educator and student (Knowles et al., 2011; Mann, Gordon, & MacLeod, 2009). However, his inclusion of the organisation as part of the learning experience, suggests that in order to fully understand the impact of technological initiatives upon learning, there needs to be acceptance and exploration of the intricacies of interaction between all elements of the learning experience. Thus, any planning for implementation of technologies within higher education needs an awareness of the multi-factorial nature of influences upon expectations, and therefore, “person-environment fit”.

Tensions in higher education The ability of an organisation, employees and students to perform as an integrated unit in learning and teaching is further complicated by tensions © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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within the field of higher education. Drivers used to underpin rationalisation of higher education ironically promote a conflict between the needs of the institution within a competitive market and those of the consumer. Altback et al, in their series of books from 1999 (Altbach, Reisberg, & Rumbley, 2009) to the present day illustrates how core issues have progressed for example, from consideration of accountability and multiculturalism to the economics of competition. Rolfe (2012) discusses the “MacDonalisation” of higher education, citing a change in culture, and confusion over the role of learning institutions in the modern age. With increasing emphasis on costs and competition, higher education institutions are under pressure to provide education for “the masses”. In 1974, investigation into the role of higher education suggested that the 15% youth engagement with the process to be indicative of separation between the elite and mass education (Trow, 1973). However, at present, the UK engages closer to one third of the youth population in higher education, suggesting a move towards “education for the masses” with the resultant impact upon costs. In addition, the move away from the “elite” has the potential to significantly impact upon pedagogy, with changes in motivation, approach, life experience and learning methodology amongst students (Rossi, 2010). Contrary to Stacey‟s recommendations, organisational drivers, targets and competition within higher education inevitably quantifies knowledge and learning leading to objectives and measurement. This change in culture away from the original concept of universities as institutions for the pursuit of knowledge and enlightenment (Oakeshott, 1950: in Rolfe, 2002) has seen organisations move more towards accountability and measurability, which necessitates considering learning as a commodity. This is a generalisation and not a criticism of learning institutions‟ motivations. However, the influences of this direction of movement can be seen to polarise learning and teaching elements in higher education, creating what are felt to be the following illustrated tensions between: mass delivery of curriculum vs. individual learning need, quantity vs. quality and innovation vs. accountability. Figure 1 below, is aimed at representing, in simplified form, some of the key tensions that are felt to arise in this context. Figure 1: Simplified diagram representing polarised tensions in higher education and their impact upon the approach to technological implementation planning.

Quantity Mass delivery

Control

Internationalisation Technological focus

Accountability Performance expectations

Enhancement Innovation

Facilitation

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Review

Individual need

learning

Quality With emergence of a global market for higher education, many of the parameters by which institutions operate have altered: With diverse student groups from differing cultures and social backgrounds, an understanding of expectations becomes ever more challenging.This change in performance expectations has created additional difficulties for those managing institutions; difficulties which it is suggested, some senior management are ill equipped to deal with (Fahy, Hurley, Hooley, & DeLuca, 2009). As such, unrealistic or unfeasible expectations are felt to potentially further complicate expectation mismatch between organisational management and participants in technological initiatives. The constantly changing nature of higher education and the individuality of those engaging with it, represents a changing, dynamic set of components and, therefore, challenge the establishment of a set of conditions to study (Holland, 2006). Possibly, this underpins the reasoning for why much literature investigating the implementation of technological lacks exploration of wider influences. Although complex adaptive systems theory suggests the need for recognition of a diverse range of influencing factors, it is questioned whether this is feasible in reality. Thus, in an organisation requiring policy decisions and advanced future planning, the tension between organisational and individual need necessitates compromise. It can be seen how clear communication and realism in order to prevent mismatch of expectations, and on-going transparent evaluation in order to address arising issues (Dorrian & Wache, 2009; Hannon, 2009) may be necessary amongst all participants engaged with any new technological initiative.

Conclusion In the context of delivering widespread education to large cohorts of students, the need for compromise is recognised. As a consequence of various tensions within Higher Education, this article has highlighted the need for balance between the needs of the organisation and the individual. Whilst the underpinning pedagogical and organisational reasoning for technological implementation may appear sound, the involvement of the human element inevitably complicates an otherwise relatively simple concept. The requirements of the individual are a necessary consideration in response to adult education theory, principles of individual need and in recognising the financial impact of the student as a consumer. However, large scale, long term planning for a large organisation will, by its nature, limit the responsiveness of the system. Whilst Stacey (2001) advocates the integral nature of the organisation and the individual in learning, the use of league tables and resulting comparisons, necessitates measurement of learning in the form of performance indicators. As such, any initiative designed to improve the teaching or learning experience must be justified both in a measurable manner and in terms of cost effectiveness. ÂŠ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Thus, whilst this article advocates the importance of the individual and an understanding of differing expectations, as central to the process of technological implementation planning, the reality of applying this in a large scale institution is recognised. Therefore, a compromise is suggested in the form of respect, on a macro scale, for the breadth of influencing factors affecting student and staff amenability towards technologies. Acknowledgement of the integral nature of the organisation, staff, peer and student experiences, and of the intricate nature of human psychology, may facilitate more realistic expectations and, therefore, expectations match between organisation and users of technologies. Studying technological implementation is challenging due to the constantly changing nature of cohorts, technologies and context. However, through observation of engagement and response, and listening to anxieties perhaps some of the mismatches seen in Verjans (2003) earlier work can be avoided in contemporary application.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 14-24, January 2014

The Virtual Management of Schools Dr. Esteban Vázquez-Cano Department of Didactics, School Organization and Specific Didactics. Spanish National University of Distance Education. Madrid, Spain Dr. Eloy López-Meneses Department of Education and Social Psychology Area of School Organization and Didactics Pablo de Olavide University Seville, Spain Abstract. This paper presents a research conducted in fifty schools in the province of Toledo in Castilla-La Mancha (Spain) in which the potential of virtual tools and digital resources in the development of management functions and school organization was analyzed. Through a quantitative and qualitative methodology we check educational communities‟ opinions about main virtual tools and digital resources to improve communication, administrative tasks, academic activities and digital relationships in order to enhance the quality of educational institutions. We have reached remarkable results, such as: school organization, digital communication among all members of school communities, educational programming, along with teaching functions can be significantly improved with the use of institutional interactive networks that include communicative functions and school management in a virtualized way. Keywords: school organization; collaborative virtual environments; networking; e-management

Introduction This research aims to analyze the potential of virtual tools in the development of management tasks in a sample of secondary schools in the province of Toledo (Spain). The main objective is to check educational community opinions about how ICT can improve the organization and management of schools. The organization of schools is still in many cases under archaic operational structures that do not integrate digital tools into the routine organizational processes that affect mostly board of management's work (Preece, 2000; Halverson, & Smith, 2010). The management of schools may be substantially improved through collaborative work and the design of digital structures in order to monitor the information, downloading of bureaucracy and paperwork of the school (Fulk, & DeSanctis, 1995; Blanchard, & Markus, 2004; Minocha, © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2009). The main management tasks that can be improved with ICT strategies in schools are the following (Vázquez-Cano, & Sevillano-García, 2013; VázquezCano, 2013): coordinate academic activities and complementary guidance of teachers and students; develop academic schedules for students and teachers, coordinate the activities of heads of department, coordinate and direct the action of tutors, coordinate faculty development activities and organize teacher training activities, encourage the participation of different sectors of the school community, participate in the development of the proposed educational project and the annual programming, and romote coexistence in school. Among the tools and actions based on Web 2.0 to enhance the management functions, we can highlight: virtual tutoring, virtualized attention to diversity, cloud computing, virtualized control of curriculum development, digital and computerized management of the school activities, social networks and websites for the international exchange of students, sending digital messages to different members of the educational community, faculty and their families for the call of regular meetings and information, virtual secretary for virtualization of all information, management of discipline (information and administrative data through interactive database), control and management of teacher absences and their substitutions in a virtualized way (Blank, Berg, & Melaville, 2006; Bouras. Giannaka, & Tsiatsos, 2008; Bishop, et al., 2010). Virtual school organization School of XXI century is characterized for being into the Information and Knowledge Society (Chapman, Allen, & Harris, 2005; European Commission, 2010; Archambault, Wetzel, Foulger, & Williams, 2010). Organizational aspects so invariable and settled as the traditionally time-space, classrooms, buildings and organizational resources have significantly changed. At present, it is changing the school organization incorporating ICT and structures involved in the concept of virtuality (Clark, 2001; Baker, & Ward, 2002; Murray, 2008). A school that prepares students for the society in which they live and where ICT play an essential role which change all organizational dimensions (Jones, 2004; Wenger, White, Smith, & Rowe, 2005). A global and technological society that is changing the paradigm of school management, making it more universal and open from the principle of collaboration. The main objective is bringing innovation to organizational forms of learning organizations, so they can innovate, adapt and change (Warren, 2005; Zigurs, 2009). The society of the future will be, therefore, a society that must invest in intelligence, a society in which each individual could create their own educational paths; in other words, it will be a learning society. Modern societies are immersed in the dynamics of rapid change that generates demands into the educational system. The new technologies of information and communication, the processes of immigration and multicultural societies, new forms of relationships between people and cultural and social groups or socalled economic and cultural globalization, among other things, cause that the new realities and issues search for an answer in the educational system (Taylor, & Adelman, 2000; UNESCO, 2009). A summary of what will be the new society © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

from a very dynamic life of the people and the changes that happen quickly can be summarize, as follows (VĂĄzquez-Cano, 2013): the globalization of the economy, the appearance of new employment sectors, the promotion of change, industrial automation, interactivity, complexity, the immediacy of outputs and outcomes, and the efficiency and progress. This brings new forms of social organization, where the simultaneity appears as a constant. An age where modernity has already left passage to technological post-modernity, virtual reality and new ways of interacting in not only physical spaces but with a technological base (Martin-Kniep, 2007). We understand the need to share in a world increasingly open and ongoing participation of all citizens and social agents (Jaeger, & Bertot, 2010). For years, we have been hearing about major changes as a result of this knowledge society, to adapt to it and to learn from and with it. But the truth is that although ICT falls gradually in teaching materials (often from fashion and not from the conceptual and procedural pedagogical justification) the organizational structure of schools finds itself in a considerable delay with respect these new ways of apprehending reality (Hiatt-Michael, 2001). One of the problems that we believe the school has failed to assume is the gap and the speed at which information flows in an escalation of unprecedented technological innovation. And we talk about school in the sense of organization, not so much teaching. There are notable approximations to integrate ICT into the school curriculum, but the organization of the school does not respond with participatory and collaborative structures that support the structure of the school that opens to a technological world and a society increasingly interconnected (Henderson, & Mapp, 2002). Given the new challenges of the Information and Communication Society should be a priority of the current educational processes to integrate the media in the educational process to reflect on them, their languages, ways of reporting on the world in order to contribute to the organization of schools. These organizational strategies are based on the knowledge of organizations and on theoretical positions based on the resources and theories based on dynamic capabilities (Blanchard, & Markus, 2004). They generally distinguish between two levels of knowledge management: strategic management (creation of core competencies) and operational management (distribution of knowledge and information).) A changing society requires organizations to adapt and revise their consistency and forms of action in relation to the needs of the environment. The innovation was a purpose of leading creative organizations and becomes a widespread need and a problem that constantly arises at different levels and with different strategies. Management and technology innovation for the organization of the school enhance the teaching-learning processes as well as relationships among educational community members in different dimensions (VĂĄzquez-Cano, 2013): To help schools to develop institutional capacity enabling them to enhance self-review processes, planning and strategic action aimed at institutional improvement. Ensure the development of a collaborative culture among the agents of innovation, so that professional dialogue, sharing

experiences, ideas, values, learning with others, and so on., could be highly achieved. Facilitating the learning of skills and techniques that make possible the cultivation of self-review process, planning, development, evaluation and collaborative work from the viewpoint of improvement and professional development as permanent training framework on teacher. Increasing the professionalism of teachers in the field of collaborative institution that promotes self-direction without impairing the ability to respond to the needs of individual or social. To facilitate the institutionalization of change. Connect the pedagogical and organizational. In developing plans for technology, schools may want to: Consider how technology can help when making decisions about how to deliver excellent teaching, effective school management and improved accountability. Think about the scope of the knowledge and resources available to pupils beyond the bounds of the classroom and the textbook, to the very best online lessons, digital resources and tools. Consider the scope of professional tools in the hands of teachers, so they can carry out assessment, record and access data easily when they need to. Ensure teachers are equipped with the skills to integrate digital technologies and new approaches successfully into their teaching, and set a clear expectation that no teacher should ignore the importance of technology in learning. Deliver an ICT curriculum that engages pupils and equips them with the skills and knowledge needed for further study and the 21st century workplace. Manage technology infrastructure and services professionally, offering access to tools and resources anywhere, anytime and achieving best value when purchasing technology. Method The method used has been a multiple case study (Biddle, & Anderson, 1989). This method try to extrapolate theories by contrasting hypotheses learned in a context within different contexts. Our study aims to assess the appreciation of the educational community about the functionality of ICT tools in the development of director of studies' functions in the school. For data collection techniques have been used questionnaires, ethnographic interview, and participant observation on one side and on the other hand, monitoring the operation and content of the social network as an active participant. These techniques have an important complementary value, as the interview can understand and grasp what an informant thinks and believes, how he/she interprets his/her world and what meanings they use and manage. We analyze the next sample of schools in the province of Toledo (Spain): Table 1: Data

HighSchools City Rural Number Students

25 10 of 3845

PrivatePublic HighSchools 10 0 1301

Private Schools 5 0 301

Total 40 10 Total 50 Schools

Total: 5447 Students The comparison among the various schools in the province of Toledo aims to generate hypotheses confronting theories learned in different contexts. The range and types of institutions rather than representing a difficulty becomes a methodological enrichment that generates greater validity to the findings; providing a general explanation in multiple contexts. Furthermore, comparison of these schools is productive for the following characteristics: From a regulatory point of view include a full range of types of schools that currently exist in Spain. Replicating the same study, variability and balance (rural vs. urban and public vs. private). Because we present schools with a variable number of students and families, which gives sample variability. Thus, contrasting these schools and test our hypotheses and conclusions in multiple educational settings, we provide a method to generate substantive theories, with different levels of depth concerning the amount of information collected and the sample of people involved: students, teachers, families and school inspectors (Kemmis, & McTaggart, 1988). The phases in the research process were as follows: 1. Refined instruments are applied in the first phase of immersion in all schools in the province of Toledo, prior to this, it is performed a validation of the questionnaire and data collection instrument by the Education Inspection Services of Toledo. 2. Data is collected by education inspector's visit and the results are analyzed in different schools in the province to enrich theory and case study contrasting results. 3. Results are contrasted in the different educational areas and discarded the questionnaires or unreliable results. Our key informants in the sample were as follows: Teachers of the schools analyzed in the province of Toledo. All head of department of the analyzed schools. All guiding and orienting team in each school. All members of management teams (Principal and head-master) of the schools analyzed. A sample of fifty students. A sample of fifty parents. Triangulations The Triangulations developed are as follows: Triangulation of data analysis (families, students and teachers). Triangulation techniques in collecting data (Likert questionnaire and open questions). Triangulation longitudinal temporarily and permanently. For the analysis of these triangulations, we have adopted the principles of a holistic study focused on the relationship of systems or acting, referenced to personal, stay in the context expressing the feelings of the researcher and ethical commitments, reworking the instruments from the context and even in our final analysis will be modified to be applicable in the future on other broader contexts.

Techniques and tools The techniques and tools tried and collect as much information as possible about the objective of the research. The following techniques are related data collection projects in the three levels of depth and key informant: Level I. Interview by questionnaire and open questions to the management teams of the schools studied. Level II. Sample of teachers, using questionnaires and inspectors personally visited all the high-schools analyzed with a stay of between three and six days. During these visits they used the following instruments: Interviews (Individual semi-structured interviews to teachers. Opinion questionnaires to teachers. Inspector observation for checking the functioning of different virtual tools on the management of schools. Collection of information for further analysis). Level III. Sample of families and students through a questionnaire and individual and group interviews. In these interviews were passed the following instruments: Interviews and opinion questionnaires to different members of the school community. Results The quantitative results obtained were analyzed using the SPSS statistical package. We used descriptive analysis and contingency tables and were facilitated frequencies and percentages of the variables analyzed. Results are shown below organized according to the objectives of our research. First we will address the expectations of teachers (including management teams), and later analyze the students and parents expectations. Expectations of educational community about the ICT use in management of schools We have analyzed what were the expectations that educational community had about integration of ICT in management practice. The descriptive results are presented in the following tables: Table 2. Descriptive statistics: AREA 1: Monitoring and execution of management tasks with ICT support.

AREA 1: Monitoring and execution of management tasks with ICT support. 1. What action based on ICT means an improvement of management functions? Family Teacher Supervisor a) Virtual 65% 72% 90% b) Communication of Absences 97% 90% 100% c) Academic Information for Families 89% 79% 88% d) Virtual 65% 69% 87% e) Digital agenda 85% 77% 93% f) Electronic Assessment Information 91% 74% 99% 2. How do you rate the inclusion of ICT in management duties? ÂŠ 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

a) Excellent b) Very good c) Good d) Regular e) Poor

Family 81% 5% 4% 10% 0%

Teacher 75% 10% 5% 10% 0%

Supervisor 80% 9% 6% 5% 0%

Table 3. Descriptive statistics: Digital communication among all members of the educational community.

AREA 2: Digital communication among all members of the educational community. 1. What action based on ICT means improved communication among members of the educational community? Family Teacher Supervisor a) E-mail 75% 67% 78% b) Networking 95% 89% 100% c) Virtual Tutor 40% 54% 78% d) Virtual Agenda 67% 57% 69% e) Videoconferencing 15% 5% 34% 2. How do you rate the inclusion of ICT to improve communication among members of the educational community? Family Teacher Supervisor a) Excellent 71% 45% 75% b) Very good 9% 15% 9% c) Good 10% 10% 6% d) Regular 9% 12% 6% e) Poor 1% 18% 4% Table 4. Descriptive statistics: Advice, guidance, participation and information with ICT.

AREA 3a (Family): Advice, guidance, participation and information ICT. 1. Rate the use of virtualized tools in the 1 2 3 4 5 development of management functions. 0 2 26 21 49 % % % % % 2. Rate the use of virtualized tools in the 1 2 3 4 5 development of personal and professional 0 1 19 21 25 competences. % % % % % 3. Rate the use of virtualized management 1 2 3 4 5 systems in your expectations about the 0 3 23 25 38 school. % % % % %

with 6 2% 6 34 % 6 11 %

AREA 3b (Teachers): Advice, guidance, participation and information with ICT. 1. Rate the use of virtualized tools in the 1 2 3 4 5 6 development of management functions. 8 6 16 20 30 20 % % % % % % 2. Rate the use of virtualized tools in the 1 2 3 4 5 6 ÂŠ 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

development of personal and professional competences. 3. Rate the use of virtualized management systems in your expectations about the school.

6 % 1 0 %

10 % 2 3 %

19 % 3 23 %

21 % 4 25 %

25 % 5 38 %

34 % 6 11 %

Figure 1 shows main digital tools and resources considered useful by educational community members.

Figure 1. digital tools and resources considered useful by educational community members

Our research demonstrates that the educational communities analyzed very highly appreciate the fact that schools must integrate the principles of open government and e-leadership. Besides, the expectation that the principles of open government with the support from the ICT would substantially improve the performance of the schools was found to be common among all the members of the educational community. The open government at schools mediated by the ICT could create a learning environment as an aligned and synergistic system of systems that creates learning practices, human support, and physical environments that will support teaching, learning, tutoring, and counseling. Supports professional learning communities that enable leaders to collaborate, share the best practices, and integrate the ICT skills into school organization. Allows equitable access to data, technologies, and resources. Provides architectural and interior designs for group, team, and individual learning and supports expanded community and global involvement in the learning process.

Communications technologies provide pathways for the connections among students, parents, families, administrators, and teachers who are at the heart of all strong learning communities. School management information systems based on ICT support transparency, collaboration, and participation through connections that are essential for people to get involved in the education system. Furthermore, e-leadership and online management programs enable busy families to be in contact with the school anytime, anywhere, while fostering the exchange of ideas and best practice with all the members of the educational communities Virtual environments are transforming schools to increasingly use technology to manage the complex array of tasks for which they are responsible, including management of personnel, food and transportation services, supplies and instructional materials, security, and, of course, student information. Conclusions It seems clear, and this is consistent throughout the literature on school organization, that what defines a school organization is not only its conformation in a formal structure, but with greater determination on how to operate the school structure. In this structure it plays a crucial role the relationships and how to address the problems and processes of the schools. Social computing networks have opened an exciting new dimension to the schools. Virtualized Management of the school by teachers, members of the management team and family is a system that minimizes the time and integrates all members of the educational community. These 2.0 tools enhance the following dimensions: integrate effectively to all members and sectors of the educational community of a school, save time and energy in the development of school organization and academic management of schools, keep up to date parents on the status of tasks, exams, absences, tests and exercises of their children, allow to see information about the school or their children through the digital bulletin board service or email alerts, facilitate the expansion or reinforcement of academic activities at home and encourage the creation of an interactive network in order to (co) manage the school. Among the main features we highlight the following ones: make a direct management, user-friendly and updated daily, generate database exportable and recoverable per year for statistical and internal evaluations of the school, the discipline and truancy of students are two areas of school management that are substantially improved with this type of applications, communication among faculty, educational departments, tutors, parents and management team becomes more fluid, continuous and solvent, communication can be activated according to the profile of community member in order to optimize the communication channels and the quality of the information provided, encourage the active participation of all sectors in the educational process of students, and save time and improve the processes of school organization and academic management of schools. Online school interaction among all community members also incorporates more sophisticated forms than declarative and procedural information exchange (i.e., questions and answers), such as transactive learning (knowledge about who

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 25-34, January 2014

Course Contents Analysis of Students’ Academic Performance in Basic Electronics Aina Jacob Kola Physics Department College of Education (T) Lafiagi, Kwara State, Nigeria Akintunde, Zacchaeus Taiwo Physics Department Oyo State College of Agriculture, Igboora, Oyo State, Nigeria Abstract. Year 1 Physics students in a College of Education (Technical) were sampled to analyze students’ performance based on course content in basic electronics. End of semester examination marked scripts containing sixty multiple choice questions were used as a research instrument; frequency counts and percentage was used to analyze the data. Findings revealed that students’ overall performance was not good; students’ areas of weakness were fluorescent tube, vacuum tube amplifier, diode, energy band, p-n junction and transistor. However students’ performances were better in discharge tube, cathode ray, CRO, integrated circuit and resistor colour code. The paper concluded that students’ performance in basic electronic was determined by the course content and that students have difficulty in learning some aspects of basic electronics. Some recommendations were suggested based on the finding of the study; one of such recommendations was that Physics teachers should pay more attention to students’ areas of weakness. Keywords: Performance, Enrolment, Physics, Electronics

Introduction Basic electronics is a course offered by Physics students in their first year in colleges of education. Physics has been a course that always has low enrolment and poor students’ performance in all level of education (Aina, 2013). Physics is by nature mathematical and full of measurement this makes science educator like Omosewo (2009) regards it as a science of measurement. Performance of students in Physics has been very low as observed by many scholars (Aigbomian, 1994; Uguanyi, 1994; Aiyelabegan, 2003; Akanbi, 2003 and Kola, 2007). This poor performance is not limited to Nigeria alone as Wanbugu, Chiangeiywo and Ndirit 2013) observed that physics is a difficult subject among students in Kenya schools, not popular, avoided by students and with poor performances. Reasons for this poor performance vary as some think Physics is © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

abstract in nature Adeyemo (2010); others attributed it to teacher’s strategy of teaching (Oladejo, Olosunde, Ojebisi and Isola, 2011). Akanbi (2003) argued that poor performance in Physics is due to factors like shortage of science teachers in quality and quantity, inadequate laboratory equipment and facilities; poor teaching strategies and shortage of suitable Physics textbooks and other factors. Bamidele (2001) stressed that students themselves have lost interest in physics due to preconceived idea that Physics is a difficult subject, this has affected both enrolment and performance of students in physics. Apata (2007) submitted that students taught by qualified and experienced teachers may likely perform better than students taught by unqualified and inexperienced teachers. Apart from teacher’s qualifications, lack of good classroom management is also very important if students will learn well in physics class. Garba (2004) conducted a research on the relationship between classroom control and students’ performance; his findings revealed that teachers who are sufficiently equipped with strategies that assist in classroom control adequately will automatically enable the students have full concentration and lead to positive academic performance of the students. Physics is very important to national and economic development of nations; therefore no one should be comfortable if students are failing it. Sheriff, Maina & Umar (2011) said Physics is the most basic science, and its concepts and techniques support the progress of all other branches of science. National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) in Nigeria has been coordinating Physics programme in colleges of education. According to NCCE (2008), Physics in colleges has many branches which are mathematics for Physics, electromagnetism, mechanics & properties of matter, acoustics, and introduction to Physics practical, others include thermal Physics, optics, basic electronics, Physics methodology, Physics practical, workshop practice, environmental Physics, atomic and quantum Physics. Basic electronics is a course prescribed for Physics student in second semester in college of education. According to NCCE (2008), the course is made of passage of electricity in gases and in evacuated tubes, induced electricity and their uses, cathode rays, positive rays and their properties, simple electronic devices, diodes properties, Oscilloscope T.V. tubes, band theory of solids LC, energy level diagrams for conductors, semi-conductors and insulators, doping, types of semiconductors: P-types and N-types, P-N junctions, rectifying property of a p-n junction, forward and reverse biasing, simple transistors and oscillator circuits. Others include n-p-and p-n, basic structures and terminologies and their applications, colour coding, Integrated circuits (ICS). This study focused on basic electronics because is one of the branches of Physics that is not mathematical in nature at Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) level like other branches; yet students still performed very low. It is therefore a matter of concern to find out which aspect of this course did students find difficult to pass.

Research Design The study adopted descriptive survey method of research where studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; marked examination scripts in basic electronics are collected for analysis. The researcher collected all the marked examination scripts of all students of basic electronics from Physics department of College of Education (Tech.) Lafiagi after due permission from the course lecturer. Participants The population for this study were all Physics students from Colleges of Education (Technical) Lafiagi in Kwara State while the sampled population were all 50 NCE 1 Physics students who offered basic electronics. Instrumentation Research instrument for this study was End of Semester Basic Electronics Examination Marked Scripts (ESBEEMS); this examination mark scripts are in Multiple Choice format. The instrument had been giving to experts in Physics education to scrutinize for both face and content validity. The statistical analysis found suitable for this study was frequency counts and percentages. According to Daramola (2006), it is used for organizing and describing the characteristics of educational variables in concise and meaningful quantifiable terms.

Findings Table1: Vacuum Tube

s/n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 39 40 42 43 54 55 56

% of correct answers 52 62 66 40 42 28 68 34 62 28 46 30 16 26 40 32

From Table 1, 16 questions were asked from vacuum tube and students did well in only 5 questions.

Table 2: Semiconductor Physics

s/n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Question 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 33 34 35 47

% correct answers 82 56 48 24 38 18 18 40 42 40 48 78 58 76 62 28 44 84 18 22 88 30 46 10 20 46

Table 2 revealed that 26 questions were asked from semiconductor Physics and student performed well in only 8 questions. Table 3: Transistor

s/n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Question 32 36 37 38 39 41 42 44 46 48

% of correct answers 64 38 42 38 28 34 30 44 36 58

Out of 10 questions that were asked from transistor students did well in only two questions as shown in Table 3.

Table 4: Integrated Circuit

s/n 1 2 3 4 5

Question 45 49 50 59 20

% of correct answers 52 46 82 52 40

5 questions were asked from integrated circuit and students did well in 3 questions as indicated by table 4. Table 5: Resistor Colour Code

s/n

Question

% of correct answers

1 2 3 4 5

51 52 53 57 58

40 66 58 78 52

Table 5 shows that 5 questions were asked from resistor colour code and students scored less than 50% in only 1 question. The sixty objective questions were distributed as shown below: Table 6: summary of course contents distribution

s/n 1 2 3 4 5

Course content Vacuum tube Semiconductor physics Transistor Integrated circuit Resistor colour code

No of questions 14 26 10 5 5

Semiconductor Physics has the highest number of questions followed by vacuum tube and transistor; integrated circuit and resistor colour code have the same number of questions. Table 7: topical distribution of questions in vacuum tube

s/n 1 2 3 4 5

Topic Discharge tube Fluorescent tube Cathode ray Cathode ray oscilloscope Vacuum tube amplifier

No of questions 4 2 2 1 5

% of correct answers 55.5 34 51 62 32

From Table 7, 4 questions were asked from discharge tube and students did well in these questions; 2 and only 1 question were asked from cathode ray and CRO respectively with scores above 50% in both. 2 and 5 questions were asked from fluorescent tube and vacuum amplifier respectively with the scores of less than 40% in both. Table 8: topical distribution of questions in Semiconductor Physics

s/n

Topic

No of questions

1 2 3

Diode Energy band P-N junction

5 4 17

% of answers 49.5 36.5 44.2

correct

Table 8 reveals that 5 questions were asked from diode, 4 from energy band and 17 from p-n junction material with the scores of less than 50% in all the questions. Table 9: topical distribution of questions in transistor

s/n

Topic

No of questions

Transistor

% of answers 41.2

correct

Table 9 shows that the scores of all the 10 questions from transistor were less than 50%. Table 10: topical distribution of questions in integrated circuit

s/n

Topic

No of questions

Integrated circuit

% of answers 54.4

correct

From Table 10, integrated circuit had only 5 questions and the scores were 54.4%. Table 11: topical distribution of questions in Resistor colour code

s/n

Topic

No of questions

Resistor colour code

% of answers 58.8

correct

Resistor colour code had only 5 questions and 58.8% scores as shown in Table 11. Table 12: Summary of performance based on topics in electronics

s/n 1 2 3 4 5

Topic Discharge tube Fluorescent tube Cathode ray Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) Vacuum tube amplifier

% pass 55.5 34 51 62 32

6 7 8 9 10 11

Diode Energy band P-N junction Transistor Integrated circuit Resistor colour code

49.5 36.5 44.2 41.2 54.4 58.8

From the summary in Table 12, it shows that only 47.2 % of the questions were got correct by the students. This table also clearly indicates that highest strength of the students comes from CRO with 62% and very weak in Vacuum tube amplifier with 32%. Discussion Findings above revealed areas of students’ weakness and strength in basic electronics as highlighted below. Scores from fluorescent tube, vacuum tube amplifier, diode, energy band, p-n junction and transistor were less than 50%; this implies that students are weak in these areas of basic electronics. Reasons for this weakness may be due to the nature of the topics; some of these deal with numbers, for instance transistor deals with number such as calculation of transistor gain. It has been observed by Aina (2013) that mathematical nature of Physics leads to students’ poor performance in the subject. Another reason that is obvious here was that most of these areas of students’ weakness were very wide and therefore many questions were asked from there. Students showed some strength in discharge tube, cathode ray CRO, integrated circuit and resistor colour code because students’ scores here were above 50%. The reason for this might be that the scope of these topics in basic electronic was very small and that is why their questions were also few. Generally, students’ performance was not good as revealed that only 47.2% of the students’ scores were correct. Conclusion and recommendations The findings of this study have revealed that students’ performance in basic electronics was not good. The study observed that students’ academic ability in basic electronics was weak in fluorescent tube, vacuum tube amplifier, diode, energy band, p-n junction and transistor and strong in discharge tube, cathode ray, CRO, integrated circuit and resistor colour code. This study revealed that students’ academic performance in basic electronic was determined by the subject content. The study also indicated that students of basic electronics from College of Education had problem in learning fluorescent tube, vacuum tube amplifier, diode, energy band, p-n junction and transistor. The study concluded that weakness of student ability in those topics might be due to some of the topics that contain calculation and the large scope of some topics in basic electronics. This weakness might also be due to teacher’s strategy of teaching. Most teachers do not make use of community resources for their teaching and this affects student understanding and performances in basic © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

electronics. Aina & Philip (2013) fully analyzed the potential of community resources in teaching and learning of Physics in their two papers - Harnessing the Potential of Community Resources as an Antidote to Poor Academic Performance in Physics and Imperative of Environment in Science Learning. It was affirmed in these papers that Physics teachers who failed to make use of resources available in their environment for teaching Physics will have poor students’ academic performance in Physics. The following recommendations are hereby suggested in the light of the above conclusion:  Physics teachers should pay more attention to areas of students’ weakness. Government should assist the college by sending Physics teachers to in-service courses specializing in fluorescent tube, vacuum tube amplifier, diode, energy band, p-n junction and transistor.  Teachers should ensure the use of community resources for electronic teaching as there are many resources in Nigerian communities that can enhance students’ learning  Physics teachers should always attend seminars, workshops and conferences through which they could update their method of teaching. The idea of a Physics teacher being in classroom for more than a year without attending any conference or seminar for any reason should be discouraged.  Government should ensure all schools are internet compliance so that students and teachers could always have access to modern electronic materials through the internet. At this age of Information Communication and Technology [ICT] all Physics teachers should be mandated to possess laptop for teaching and learning purpose.  Electronics books should be written by indigenous authors because most of the textbooks written for electronics were written by foreign authors with language foreign to our students  Government should equip our schools with modern electronic equipment that could be used to teach Physics electronics practically. We are in the era of Information Communication and Technology [ICT] where there are soft-wares that could be used to teach and demonstrates complex activities in basic electronic for students’ better understanding.  Students should be motivated through bursary and scholarship awards to any brilliant student in Physics electronics.  Competent and qualified Physics teachers should always be employed to teach Physics; the idea of just leaving Physics teaching in the hand of any science teacher or engineer should stop.  Physics teachers should teach electronics within the content of NCE curriculum this is necessary because electronics are taught at different level of our education; there is electronics for engineering students and also for telecommunication students but electronics at NCE level is for prospective Physics teachers.  It will be very good to allow different teacher to teach different topic in Physics electronics through peer teaching. A teacher may not be very

good to teach transistor, let such teacher leave transistor to another teacher who could teach it better. 

Teacher should always give internet assignment and homework to students to encourage them seeks for information on their own. There are many simple uses of electronics devices like diodes, transistors etc on the net that can assist the student to learn.

Limitations The sampled population for this study was small due to general low enrolment of students in Physics class in schools in Nigeria. The findings of this study may not be generalized but could be applied in other Colleges in the country. Acknowledgements We appreciate the efforts of our colleagues in General studies department who helped us read through the work for corrections. We are also very grateful to the Head of Physics department who allowed us to make use of students’ scores in basic electronics. References Adeyemo, S. A. (2010). Teaching/ learning physics in Nigerian secondary school: The curriculum transformation, issues, problems and prospects. International Journal of Educational Research and Technology, 1(1), 99-111, Aigbomian, D.O.(1994). Student’s perception of technical words in the learning of physics. Studies in Education, 2(1), 86-92. Aina, J. K. (2013). Perceived causes of students’ low enrolment in science in secondary schools, Nigeria. International Journal of Secondary Education, 1(5), 18-22. doi: 10.11648/j.ijsedu.20130105.11. Aina, J. K. and Philip, Y. J. (2013). Imperative of Environment in Science Learning. Open Science Journal of Education, 1(1): 1-6. Aina, J. K. and Philip, Y. J. (2013). Harnessing the potential of community resources as an antidote to poor academic performance in Physics. IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSR-JRME, 3(5), 92-95. Aiyelabegan, A. T. (2003). Effect of physics practical on Students’ Academic performance in Senior School Certificate Physics Examination in kwara state. Lafiagi Journal of Science Education 5(1& 2), 84-89. Akanbi, A. O. (2003). An Investigation into Students’ Performance in Senior Secondary School Physics. Journal of Teacher education trends, 1(1), 58-64. Apata, S. F. (2007). Influence of Teachers ‘Academic Qualification and Experience on Students’ performance in senior secondary school physics in Kwara state. (Unpublished master thesis). University of Ilorin.

Bamidele, O. M. F. (2001). Promoting Science and Mathematics Education Amongst females in Nigeria. A paper presented at The NCCE/UNESCO 5-Day Train the Trainer Workshop for The revitalization of science Education in Nigeria. Daramola, S. O. (2006). Research and statistical methods in education. Students and Researchers in Tertiary Institutions. Ilorin, Nigeria; Bamitex. Garba, R .B. (2004). Teachers’ Classroom Control and Achievement(Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Ilorin.

Students’

Academic

Kola, A. J. (2007). Uses of Instructional Materials for Teaching and Learning Physics in Edu and Patigi Local Government Areas, Nigeria. International Journal of Research in Education, 4(1&2). 74-79. National Commission for Colleges of Education [NCCE] (2008). Minimum Standard. Abuja: Government press. Oladejo, M. A, Olosunde, G.R, Ojebisi,A.O and Isola,O.M.(2011). Instructional materials and students’ academic achievement in Physics: some policy implications. European Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(1), 2220-9425. Omosewo, E. O. (2009). Views of Physics teachers on the need to train and retrain Physics teachers in Nigeria. African Research Review, 3(1), 314-325. Sheriff, M. A. Maina, B. T. and Umar, Y. (2011). Physics in education and human resources development. Continental Journal of Education Research, 4(3), 23-36. Uguanyi, J. U. (1994). Aids: A threat to African survival. Discovering and Innovation 8(1), 30-34. Wanbugu, P. W, Changeiywo, J. M. and Ndirit. F. G (2013). Investigations of experimental cooperative Concept mapping instructional approach on secondary school girls’ achievement in physics in Nyeri county, Kenya. Journal of Education and Practice, 4(6), 120-130.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 35-72, January 2014

Modified Useful-Learning Approach: Effects on Students‘ Critical Thinking Skills and Attitude towards Chemistry Arlyne C. Marasigan, Allen A. Espinosa Faculty of Science, Technology and Mathematics, College of Teacher Development, Philippine Normal University, 1000 Manila, Philippines

Abstract. This study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the Modified Useful- Learning approach against the traditional teaching approach in improving students‘ critical thinking skills and attitude towards chemistry. Specifically, it sought to find out if the mean posttest score in the critical thinking appraisal and chemistry attitude scale is significantly higher for students exposed to the MUL approach than for the students exposed to the traditional teaching approach.Modified Useful-Learning (MUL) approach is a combination of Learning-for-Use model developed by Edelson (2001) and Hypothetico-Predictive Reasoning by Lavoie (1999). It is an innovative approach to teaching and designed using group learning, hands-on and laboratory activities, reflective thinking, discovery and inquiry learning and small group discussion to increase student‘s participation.This study used the quasiexperimental pretest-posttest control-group design. The sample of the study consisted of two intact sections of junior students at Diliman Preparatory School, Quezon City during the School Year 2005-2006. Thirty six (36) students were taught using the MUL approach, whereas thirty eight (38) were exposed to the traditional teaching approach. The instrument used in this study is the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal and the Chemistry Attitude Scale developed by the researchers. The instruments were content validated by group of experts and was pilot tested. The MUL group showed a significantly higher posttest mean score in the critical thinking test than the traditional counterpart. Moreover, the mean rating in the attitude scale of the MUL group was found to be significantly higher than that of the traditional group.Based on the results of the study, it is recommended among others, that the Modified Useful Learning (MUL) approach be used by science teachers in their teaching as it was shown in this study that the approach helps students improve their critical thinking skills and attitude towards chemistry. Keywords: Modified-Useful Learning Approach; Critical Thinking Skills; Attitude towards Chemistry

Background of the Study Educators believe that when students come to class they have ideas that are sometimes different from what is generally accepted by the scientific community. The different conceptions that students acquire have been called ―alternative conceptions‖, ―naïve theories‖, ―children‘s science‖, or ―misconceptions.‖ The new knowledge acquired by the students interferes with their misconception. It is difficult for the student to picture out the link among science concepts and principles, and to apply the principles meaningfully to daily life (Sungur, Semra, CerenTekkaya&ÖmerGeban, 2001). Gallagher (2000)enumerated four related facts why students are unable to understand and apply the new scientific concepts/information learned in class; 1) It is not clear to the students that the learned concept goes or should go beyond examinations and tests. 2) It is not clear to the students how to make sense of new information. 3) It is not clear to the students how to make connections between new and previous information in order to develop deeper understanding. 4) Little importance is given to the application of science knowledge in science classes and test (Gallagher, 2000, p. 311). Furthermore, most of our students do not take chemistry seriously as one of the major subjects in high school level due to several reasons. First, it is hard for them to see the significance of what is being taught in real-life situation. There is a wide discrepancy between school where they take the subject – chemistry and real-life (Clarke & Biddle, 1993). In real life, problems tend to be chaotic, illdefined, confusing and call for true problem solving. While inside the classroom they feel they have the pattern to memorize and to follow which is not evident in real-life (Clarke & Biddle, 1993). Thus, they have a hard time solving given problems and applying what they learned. Second, general chemistry concepts are taught and assessed in terms of facts; mathematical representation and procedural knowledge at the high school and university level are also taught without emphasizing conceptual understanding (Scalise, Claesgens, Krystyniak, Mebane, Wilson, & Stacy, 2003). Third, according to Johnstone (in Gabel, 2003), the main factor that prevents students from understanding chemistry concepts, is not due to the existence of the three levels of matter (macroscopic, microscopic and symbolic) but for the reason that chemistry instruction is presented on the most abstract level or symbolic level. Most of the students feel that the abstract nature of chemistry concepts is always confined to the four corners of the classroom. Thus, students think that it is not applicable outside the school (Stieff&Wislensky, 2002). Lastly, in traditional chemistry/science classroom settings, students rarely experience the source questions of inquiry, critical and logical reasoning, the challenges or the surprises in real-life (Clarke & Biddle, 1993). For these reasons, students are not engaged in deep, intense or deep critical thinking and concept understanding, thus enhancement of positive attitude towards chemistry does not occur. Educators are engaged in significant reform in science teaching. The reform focuses on four main goals: 1) Science for all; 2) teaching for understanding; 3) © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

application of science knowledge; and 4) application of science processes (Gallagher, 2000, p.310). According to Thomas (1999) the main goal of science education research and teaching science is enhancing student learning. On the other hand, educators before found it difficult because most of the students were said to lack―knowledge, awareness and control of their learning processes‖ (p.89). Thomas (1999) believed that the ―students need to understand the thinking and learning processes‖ (p.89). To support meaningful learning, misconceptions must be eliminated (Sungur, Tekkaya&Geban, 2001). Students‘ achievement in chemistry has been a challenge for many educators not only here in the Philippines but all over the world for the past few decades (Lavoie, 1999; Carale& Campo, 2003). Science educators are facing rapidly increasing demands. At the same time they are being asked to devote more time to having students engage in scientific practices (Edelson, 2001). There must be employment of interactive activities to elicit prior knowledge towards conceptual change and understanding (Carale& Campo, 2003). Chemistry should cater to real-life and the teaching-learning context should be a combination of process and content learning activities, which equip students with a content in which they can structure their own questions and problems to answer through proper investigations (Clarke & Biddle, 1993). In order for the students to learn the abstract concepts in chemistry they must know how to make models or analogies, aside from doing laboratory tasks. In this way, students will have the potential of enhancing of their understanding (Gabel, 2003). One of the important roles of learners in learning science is to explore. There must be an interaction with the real world and with the people around them to discover concepts and apply skills. To understand science conceptually, learners must know the ideas of science and the relationships among them. It includes the knowledge on how to explain the scientific ideas and predict natural phenomena and how to apply the knowledge to other events relevant to the science concepts (Dickinson &Reinkens, 1997). For many students the significance of learning experience can be measured by its applicability to their everyday lives (Songer&Mintzes, 1994; Dickinson &Reinkens, 1997). This study proposes a Modified Useful-Learning (MUL) approach which is a combination of Learning-for-Use (LfU) and Hypothetico-Predictive Reasoning Learning Cycle (HPD-LC) models that focus on integrating content and process learning supported by varied learning activities. Unlike the LfU model, computers are not needed in this learning activity. The highlight of MUL is the use of ―hands-on‖ and ―minds-on‖ activities. It was hoped that this approach would improve student‘s achievement in chemistry. The study sought to answer the following research questions: (1) Is the mean posttest score in the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal higher for students exposed to the MUL approach than for the students exposed to the traditional teaching approach?; and (2) Is the mean posttest score in the Chemistry Attitude Scale higher for students exposed to the MUL approach than for the students exposed to the traditional teaching approach?. © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Learning Science Learning science is one of the important learning experiences that students have to consider in the academic institution. Thomas (1999) believed that the main objective of science teaching and science education research is to enhance students‘ science learning. In learning science, it is not the content knowledge per se that is being developed in students but also the skills in order for them to become scientifically literate individuals (Christensen, 1995).Matthews (2004) and Gallagher (2000) explained that learners should have the physical experiences, concepts and models of science and be able to apply the acquired knowledge. In his studies, Sungur, et al. (2001) added that science skills are essential for understanding and applying scientific concepts. Furthermore, Suvillan (in Powell, 2004) said that it is important for the students to experience the world outside the four corners of the classroom. Similarly, Wilson (in Murphy, 1997) explained that environment also plays an important role in learning science because it promotes a more flexible idea of learning and helps learners to develop skills and construct understanding. Learning is enhanced by communication interaction and conversation with other students, where reorganization of knowledge, construction of new knowledge and additional understanding take place (Murphy, 1997).Furthermore, educators believed that to promote deeper understanding of science processes and content, instruction must be properly designed and organized (Crawford, 1997). Critical Thinking Many of the educators agree that developing general thinking skills, specifically critical thinking skills, is one of the major goals of education (Gelder, 2003). The core purpose of teaching critical thinking in science education is to develop the thinking skills of the students and to prepare them to succeed in the world (Schafersman, 1991). Critical thinking has been defined in different ways. Many educators and authors believe that critical thinking is more of reasoning. Halpern (in Van der Wal, 1999)defined critical thinking as ―use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome‖ (p. 2). Critical thinking is used to illustrate thinking skills that is purposeful, reasonable, and goal directed. Goal-directed thinking involves solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods and decision making. Hanford (in Murrell, 1999) proposed that, ―Critical Thinking is succeeding for two basic reasons. First, students whose education involves critical thinking—the ability to evaluate information and make judgments-- learn more effectively because they have opportunities to think about what they are being told. Second, the movement relies on infusion rather than demonstration‖ (p. 2). Critical thinking is also called ―reflective thinking‖, ―scientific thinking,‖ and ―critical inquiry‖ where learners investigate problems, ask questions, and discover new information (Schafersman, 1991; Cotton 2001a).Critical thinking ability is considered as higher-order cognitive synthesis ability that involves the © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

use of synthesis and analytical skills (Crow, 1989; McMurray, Beisenherz& Thompson, 1991). Marzano, et al. (1988) believe that critical thinking should not be considered a cognitive process unlike problem solving and decision making because critical thinking implies judgments about the quality of thinking that learners make. School plays an important role in helping students to think critically by enhancing their background knowledge and fostering their ability and commitment to quality thinking. Curriculum designers and educators recognize the importance of students‘ ability to think successfully through the challenges posed by the teachers and their experiences. These challenges encourage the students to show their ability to think critically, to make sound judgments and to let them think what to believe and how to act (Crow, 1989; Bailin, 1993). In addition, Bailin, et al. (1993) supported the idea that thinking critically is not a matter of setting or finding correct answers to questions or problems. Critical Thinking involves making reasoned judgments where attributes of good thinking reside. Reasoning is linking of thoughts actively to provide support from one thought to the other thought. Bailin (1993) divided critical thinking into three dimensions: 1) Critical challenges – the task or situation that provides situations for critical thinking. 2) Intellectual resources- array of knowledge, strategies and attitudes needed to have good thinking when responding to critical challenges. 3) Critically thoughtful responses – responses to critical challenges where appropriate use of relevant intellectual resources were being demonstrated. Bailin, et al. (1993) summarized the relationship among the dimensions as follows: ―to think critically is to respond thoughtfully to a particular challenge by making use of the appropriate intellectual resources‖ (p. 5).Educators and students in different universities also define critical thinking by presenting the list of sub-skills that are significant to the concept of thinking. Critical thinking comprises the ability to (Van der Wal, 1999, p.3):  solve practical and situational problems;  use logical reasoning skills; and  bring different ideas together and synthesize them into new ideas. Robert Ennis (in Crow, 1989) who is the coauthor of Connell Tests of Critical Thinking Ability defined critical thinking as ―reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do‖ (p. 9). Ennis also defined critical thinking as ―reflecting thinking‖, which needs reflective activity and is geared to understanding the nature of the problem and not just merely solving it (Crow, 1989). Moreover, Ennis (in Ornstein, 1995) identifies the 13 attributes of critical thinkers. Critical thinkers should: 1) be open-minded; 2) agree when evidence calls for it; © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

3) take the situation as a whole; 4) seek information; 5) seek precision about the information; 6) deal with an orderly manner; 7) look for options; 8) search for reasons; 9) look for clear statement of the issue; 10) focus to the original problem; 11) use credible sources; 12) remain relevant to the point and issue; and 13) be sensitive to the feelings and knowledge of others. (p.27). Critical thinking also includes inductive reasoning, formulation of hypotheses, deductive reasoning and a mixture of mental process skills like analogy, extrapolation, and synthesis (Schafersman, 1991; Ostlund, 1998). Student must be responsible for their own thinking; that is, they must understand how to think and act intellectually on their performance. Elder (2000) presented the model of critical thinking which emphasizes the following: 1) to think well, one must think clearly; 2) to think well, one must think accurately; 3) to think well, one must think precisely; 4) to think well, one must think relevantly; 5) to think well, one must think deeply; 6) to think well, one must think broad-mindedly; and 7) to think well, one must think logically. (p. 9). According to Paul (in Elder, 2000), reasoning uses eight structures. These include questions, purposes, information, interpretations, assumptions, concepts, points of view, and implications. These ―elements‖ are always embedded in our thinking for:  whenever we reason, we do it for a purpose;  our purpose requires to answer at least one question;  to answer our question, we need information;  to use the information, we must interpret the information;  to interpret it, we must apply some concepts;  to apply concepts, we must construct some assumptions;  to make assumptions, we must think within a perspective; and  however we think, our thinking has implications. (p.6). Learners must have basic critical thinking abilities to function well in the complex and fast changing world. Learners must possess intellectual skills to competently answer new questions and problems in workplace. Educators (in Stein, 2002) identified areas of critical thinking which are regarded as essential skills for students. Some skills identified are the ability to: 1) interpret numerical relationships in graphs. 2) identify evidence that might support or contradict on hypothesis. © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

3) identify new information that is needed to draw conclusions. 4) draw inferences between separate pieces of information and formulate conclusions. 5) recognize how new information might change the solution to a problem. 6) communicate effectively. Johnson (2000) proposed that critical thinking has to do with organizing, analyzing, evaluating, or describing. He also enumerated the eleven critical thinking skills needed by students: 1) inferring; 2) comparing; 3) comparing and contrasting; 4) analyzing 5) supporting a statement; 6) decision making; 7) ordering; 8) evaluating/critiquing ; 9) creating groups; 10) investigating; and 11) experiencing. (p.46) Another attempt to measure critical thinking skills has been done by the Basic Skills Council Created by the New Jersey Board of Higher Education (in Morco, 1994). These are some of the indicators of critical thinking identified by the board: 1) the ability to identify and formulate problems as well as the ability to prepare and evaluate ways to solve them; 2) the ability to draw reasonable conclusions for information found in various sources and to defend oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s conclusion rationally; and 3) the ability to comprehend, develop and use concepts and generalizations. (p.16). Another important work was that of Morco (1994), wherein she identified twenty (20) thinking abilities proposed as factors associated with the construct of critical thinking in Mathematics. Below are some of the factors associated with the construct of critical thinking: 1) Making valid inferences; 2) recognizing assumptions; 3) formulating generalizations 4) formulating hypotheses; 5) testing assertions; 6) making predictions; 7) identifying the problem; and 8) discerning relevance or irrelevance. Lastly, according to Schafersman (1991) there are two ways to teach critical thinking. He described one of these methods as the easiest, least time-consuming and least expensive. This kind is simply attained by modifying once teaching approach and testing method. He added that critical thinking is an active process, hands-on and laboratory activity and quantitative exercises obviously enhance critical thinking. Evidently, critical thinking skills play a significant role in the field of science education to solve practical and situational problems through reflective activities. Thus, the present study promotes hands-on activities which are reflective in nature to integrate content and process learning. Constructivism Constructivism is a theory about how people learn (Constructivism as a Paradigm, 2004). Learners construct their own understanding and knowledge through experiences and reflections (Rule &Lassila, 2005). Learners reconcile ÂŠ 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

their previous experiences to the present ideas and experiences (Capstone Projects, 2003; Constructivism as a Paradigm, 2004). The meaning of constructivism varies according to one‘s point of view. Miami Museum of Science (in Carale& Campo, 2003) proposed that learners have their own views and understandings based on prior knowledge even before direct experience. The epistemology of constructivism, according to University of Massachusetts Physics Education Group, has shown that learners actively construct knowledge and are not just receivers of constructed knowledge. The learners also achieve this knowledge as it is locally constructed by making their own mental representations or models. It can also be derived from prior knowledge that is symbolically constructed in the learning process (Carale& Campo, 2003). One of the important goals of constructivism is to improve students‘ reasoning strategies, which is vital to successful conceptual learning (Keys, 1997). Matthews (2004) further explained that the strategy attempts to connect human cognitive processes in science through collaborative learning. This is to recognize that knowledge acquisition is a social process where in a social group, communication and negotiation of ideas take place, meanings and concept constructions are formed (Carale& Campo, 2003). Matthews (cited in Dominguez, 2005) expressed that constructivism is a philosophy of learning that originates from the learners‘ experiences, and that learners construct their own ideas of the world. Constructivism transforms the students from passive to active participants in the learning process. Students learn to apply their existing knowledge on real-world experiences, to hypothesize and test their theories, and to draw conclusions from their findings (Constructivism as a Paradigm, 2004). Constructivism could be best expressed using its two basic principles, the psychological and the epistemological nature, which emphasizes that knowledge and knowing are one. The first principle highlights that when a learner engages in construction of meaning, what the learner already knows is the most important. The second principle emphasizes the main purpose of cognition which is adaptive and enables the learner to construct possible explanations based on experiences (Hinton, 2005). Shiland (1999) suggested that the ―essence ofconstructivism is that knowledge is constructed in the mind of the learner‖(p.107). The statement was expanded to the five postulates of constructivism, namely: 1) Learning requires mental activity. The process of knowledge construction requires mental effort; materials and concepts cannot simply be presented to the learner and learned in a meaningful way. 2) Naïve theories affect learning. New knowledge must be related to existing knowledge of the learners. The preconceptions and misconceptions may interfere with the ability of the learner to learn new material. The personal theories of the learners also affect what they observe. Personal theories of the learners must be made clear to facilitate comparisons. 3) Length occurs from dissatisfaction with present knowledge. To have meaningful learning, experiences must create dissatisfaction with © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

learner‘s present conceptions. If learner‘s present conceptions make accurate predictions about an experience, meaningful learning will not occur. 4) Learning has a social component. Knowledge construction is a social process. Meaning is constructed by communicating with others. Cognitive growth is achieved through social interaction. Learning is aided by communication that seeks and clarifies the ideas or knowledge of learners. 5) Learning needs application. Applications must be provided which demonstrate the utility of the new conception (Shiland, 1999, p. 107). Spencer‘s (1999) comparison of objectivism and constructivism is presented in Table 1. In addition, Shiland (1999) admonished that ―laboratory practice with respect toconstructivism is seen as being more than the acquisition of process skills; it is an essential ingredient in the understanding of science itself‖ (p.108). TABLE 1Comparison of Objectivism and Constructivism

Objectivism

Constructivism

Truths are independent of the Knowledge is constructed. context in which they are observed. Learners observe the order inherent in the world. Aim is to transmit knowledge experts have Group work promotes the acquired. negotiation and develops as mutually shared meaning of knowledge, individual learner is important. Exam questions have one correct The ability to answer with only answer. one answer does not demonstrate students‘ understanding. Source: Spencer James (1999) New Directions in Teaching Chemistry: A Philosophical and Pedagogical Basis. Journal of Chemical Education 76, 4, 566-569. Most of the approaches in teaching have grown from constructivism which suggest that learning is achieved best using hands-on. Learners learn through experimentation and not by plain lecture or discussion. They are encouraged to make inferences, discoveries and conclusions. Significantly, constructivism is all about how learners construct knowledge through experiences and reflections to develop students‘ reasoning strategies. In this study students become engaged in active learning. They apply their existing knowledge in real-world experiences, hypothesize, test their personal theories through experimentation and hands-on activities, draw conclusions from their data and apply the new constructed knowledge in real-life situation for the students to have sound conceptual understanding and critical thinking.

Constructivist Teaching and Learning According to Steffe and Gale (in Moussiaux& Norman, 1997) researches show that constructivist teaching is widely accepted in mathematics and science since the early 1980s. They further explained that cognitive psychology became their guiding principle for constructivist teaching. Piaget and Glaserfeld were the two early contributors of constructivist theories. The highlights of constructivist teaching are constructing, thinking, reasoning and applying knowledge, but it does not neglect the basic skills. The constructivist teaching and learning clearly aspire to assist and help the learners to construct meaning that lead to understanding of scientific concepts (Hinton, 2005). In addition, Tolman and Hardy (in Moussiaux& Norman, 1997) pointed out that constructivist teaching is guided by five vital elements: 1) activating prior knowledge, 2) acquiring knowledge, 3) understanding knowledge, 4) using knowledge, and 5) reflecting on knowledge. Moreover, Driver and Oldman (in Dominguez, 2005) enumerated the stages of constructivist-inspired teaching methods, which include: 1) orientation, where learners are given the opportunity to develop a sense of purpose. 2) elicitation, during which the learners make their current ideas on the topic of the lesson clear. This can be achieved by a variety of activities, such as group discussion, visual or written interpretation. 3) restructuring of ideas, which is the heart of the constructivist lesson sequence. It consists of a number of stages, including a. clarification and exchange of ideas; b. construction of new ideas; and c. evaluation of new ideas. 4) application of ideas, where pupils are given the opportunity to use their developed ideas in a variety of situations. 5) review, which is the final stage in which the students are invited to reflect back on how their ideas have changed by drawing comparisons between their thinking at the start of the lesson sequence, and their thinking at the end(p.18). Furthermore, Savery and Duffy derived some instructional principles from constructivism with the practice of instruction, namely:  learning should be significant.  instructional goals should be reasonable with the learners‘ goals.  students‘ ideas should be tested through collaborative learning groups.  encourage reflection. (in Murphy, 1997, ¶ 3) At the same time, constructivist view of learning can apply to different teaching practices inside the classroom. Constructivist learning means encouraging students to use active techniques such as experiments, real-world or real-life problem solving to create knowledge and reflect on it. Because when students reflect on the constructed knowledge based on their experiences,

students gain more complexity and power to integrate new information. The students learn HOW TO LEARN (Constructivism as a Paradigm, 2004). The student-focused active learning (SFAL) listed (as shown in the Table 2) the role of the students in constructing their own knowledge (Spencer, 1999). TABLE 2The Role of the Student in Constructing their own Knowledge.

Traditional learning

Student-focused learning (SFAL)

Students:

Students: Explain possible solutions or answers and Ask for the ―right‖ answer tries to offer the ―right‖ explanations. Try alternate explanations and draw Have little interaction with others. reasonable conclusions from evidence. Have a margin for related questions that Accept explanation without would encourage future investigations. justification. Have a lot of interaction and discuss alternatives with other companions. Check for understanding from peers. Are encouraged to ask questions such as Why did this happen? What do I already know about this? Are encouraged to explain other students‘ explanations. Test/predictions and hypotheses. Reproduce explanation given by Use previous information to ask questions, the teacher/book. propose solutions, make decisions, and design experiments. Source: Spencer James (1999) New Directions in Teaching Chemistry: A Philosophical and Pedagogical Basis. Journal of Chemical Education 76, 4, 566-569. In the same study, Spencer (1999) recommended that, first; students must be given an opportunity to be involved in the learning. Straight lecture is no good for the students. Second, students must learn to work together not only because that is the way of learning science but also because students learn better through social interaction. Third, students should make their own conclusions and construct their own knowledge and not just verify what is written in their textbook. Fourth, students must be active learners. These recommendations made by Spencer (1999) were supported by a number of classroom and cognitive studies. Hinton (2005) emphasized that based on the research there is a ―need for new instructional strategies based on a constructivist model of learning emphasizing conceptual growth, conceptual change and the conditions that support conceptual change‖ (p.1). That is why the present study purposely employed new teaching approach using constructivist teaching. According to Yore (2001) today, as described by the National Science Education Standard (NSES), developing a concise and clear image of constructivism and © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

associated classroom practices are receiving less attention. Hence,teacher must give more emphasis on the items in Table 3. TABLE 3Constructivism and Associated Classroom Practices

Less Emphasis on: More Emphasis on: Treating all students alike and Understanding and responding responding to the group as a whole. to individual student‘s interests, strengths, experiences, and needs. Rigidly following curriculum. Focusing on student acquisition of information. Presenting scientific knowledge through lecture, text, and demonstration. Asking for recitation of acquired knowledge. Testing students for factual information at the end of the unit or chapter. Maintaining responsibility and authority. Supporting competition. Working alone.

Selecting and adapting curriculum. Focusing on student understanding and use of scientific knowledge, ideas and inquiry processes. Guiding students in active and extended scientific inquiry. Providing opportunities for scientific discussion and debate among student. Continuously assessing student understanding. Sharing responsibility for learning with students. Supporting a classroom community with cooperation, shared responsibility, and respect. Working with other teachers to enhance the science program. Source: Yore, Larry D. (2001) What is Meant by Constructivist Science Teaching and Will the Science Education Community Stay the Course for Meaningful Reform? Electronic Journal of Science Education Vol. 5 No. 4.Retrieved last April 17, 2006. Teaching Strategies and Approaches for the Improvement of Students’ Achievement in Chemistry and Critical Thinking Skills Teaching for improvement of students‘ achievement in chemistry and critical thinking skills always demands for appropriate teaching strategies. According to Nakhleh (in Noh &Scharmann, 1997) most studies in chemistry education have focused on students‘ conceptions, but there have been relatively few studies which focus on instructional strategies, teaching and instructional strategies that aimed at sound understanding of chemistry concepts. Even though many researchers promoted different strategies which found to be effective in improving student conceptions than traditional instruction, still the success is far from perfect. Therefore, Noh and Scharmann (1997) concluded that there is a great need to provide instructional strategies to make meaningful connections between and among chemistry concepts and to improve students‘ conception. Moreover, it may serve as one of the key factors to improve student achievement.

This is why teachers look for the best approach that they can apply in order to achieve meaningful learning. This gives students time to identify and correct their preconception through proper investigation and to measure the soundness and utility of their own ideas. According to BouJaoude and Barakat (2003) new instructional approaches and methodologies should be used so that students would become meaningful learners of chemistry. According to Johnson et al., (in Rule &Lassila, 2006, ¶ 9) the highlight of new teaching paradigm ―is to help students construct their knowledge in an active way while working cooperatively with classmates so that students‘ talents and competencies are developed‖ (in Rule &Lassila, 2006, ¶ 9).Ramsden (in BouJaoude&Barakat, 2003) explained that ―an approach to learning represents what a learning task or set of tasks is for the student‖ (p.3). The approach must not be about learning facts and concepts. Instead, it must be learning unrelated facts and learning the relation of facts to the concepts. Evangelisto (2002) explained that constructivist teaching and learning knowledge is generated in the mind of the learner and the effectiveness of the teaching approaches is measured by means of ―active learning; learnergenerated inquiry; concrete, authentic experiences; collaborative investigations and discussions and reflection; and structuring learning around primary concepts‖ (Evangelisto, 2002, ¶ 3). Many of the teaching approaches that originated from constructivism explained that learning is best observed using hands-on approach. Through experimentation, learners acquire knowledge and they make their own inferences, discoveries and conclusions (Constructivism_learning theory, 2006). A variety of teaching strategies and approaches have been presented and used by many educators and authors on how critical thinking skills and achievement in chemistry can be improved among students. Most of the students wish for hands-on activities and small group discussion than other methods of teaching (Beale, 2003). In the study made by Jones, Buckler, Cooper, and Straushein(1997) it surfaced that studentsinvolved themselves in active learning by means of constructing and evaluating their own models and spending most of their times in hands-on activities and small group discussion rather than in lecture. Small Group Discussion In small group collaborations, exchange of ideas and questions occurs frequently and spontaneously among students, so they learn to work together. Roth and Bowen (in Van Zee, 2001) presented a study on how questions create interactions with one another and with the setting. As a result, there is a positive effect on the students and their environment - other learners and the teacher. Hogan, Nastasi and Presloy (in Van Zee, 2001) also documented the role of small group collaboration in promoting students‘ concept understanding and thinking skills even without the teacher interaction. Ornstein (1990) explained that exposing learners to small group discussion provide opportunities for them to become actively involved in the learning process. He added that critical thinking skills are also enhanced. Dividing © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

students into small group promote social interactions, social skills and cooperation with one another. Similarly, Allen (in Garcia, 2001) stated that the most effective methods for improving studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; skills is the use of small group discussion because detailed verbalization of thoughts takes place. In small group discussion learners easily identify their misconceptions and incorrect answers. Furthermore, Bianchini (in Garcia, 2001) also used small group discussion for investigating scientific knowledge. The main purpose of his study is to promote excellence and equity in science education among grade six students. Similarly, Alexpoulou (in Garcia, 2001) examined the performance of secondary school students on discussion through an open-ended, exploratory type of questions about physical phenomena. The discussion had positive impact on the students. Also the studies presented demonstrated the utility of small group discussion and the nature of the processes by which students developed their ideas about science as well as their reasoning which is an important feature of critical thinking. According to the students (in Moussiaux& Norman, 1997) the most frequent instructional experience they like was working in groups (mathematics students 85% and science students 93%). In addition, Alexopoulou (1996) stated that meaningful group discussions serve as a guide to balance the power in classrooms, so that it will provide security needed by the students for exploring their ideas. Finally, the survey conducted by Miller, Nakhleh, Nash, and Meyer (2004)indicated that all of the students appreciate working in group and it was supported by many positive comments in the interviews. Hands-on/Laboratory Activity Spencer (1999) pointed out that there is no direct transfer of knowledge from the instructor to the learners. Students must see the laboratory as the proper place to construct new knowledge and not a place where all the concepts in textbook/manual are verified. Presseisen (in Cotton, 2001b) insisted that student CAN learn to think better if they are taught HOW to do so. Most of the science programs regard the laboratory instruction as the cornerstone because it actively involves students in learning (Herrington &Nahkleh, 2003). Hence, laboratory activities are categorized under the student-centered instructional strategies. Students are interacting and discussing among each other and to understand certain efforts they measure, compare, classify and control variables (Dominguez, 2005). Further, most of the students appreciate experiment because they learned valuable skills. The valuable skills that students learned during experimentation were, resolving conflicting data and critical thinking. Laboratory activities are also called practical work. According to Clive and Sutton (in Dominguez, 2005) laboratory activity is an instructional strategy that is ideal to science lessons, because most of the time students are actively ÂŠ 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

engaged in bench work. The ideas shared by Clive and Sutton were supported by Armstrong when he said that students who took any science courses must be involved in bench and work hard there (Dominguez, 2005). It is stated (in Schafersman, 1991)that laboratory exercises in science are all excellent for teaching critical thinking. Students learn to apply scientific methods by putting them into action. Students agree that working in groups saves time, provides opportunity to discuss their ideas, and completes complicated task efficiently. The major purpose for including laboratory activity to curriculum is to develop among students the mental process associated with science. Clarke and Biddle (1993) pointed out that ―in order for the students to make sense of labs and to construct knowledge through an inductive process we have to help them to reflect on their own learning process‖ (p.238). It can be used to improve students‘ competency in scientific reasoning. Laboratory activities leave lasting impression on students (Chiapetta&Kobala, 1994). The study of Watt and Ebutt, (in Van Zee, 2001) showed that most of the students preferred laboratory activities because these give students opportunities to better understand the topics. This is supported by the research made by Rop (in Van Zee, 2001). He made an interview with high school chemistry students about the significance of laboratory activities. Students responded that success in learning is quite painless by ‗doing the work‘. This means, they better understand the concept if they have hands-on activities (Van Zee, 2001). The employment of interactive activities leads prior knowledge towards new ideas and concept understanding (Carale& Campo, 2003). According to Edelson (2001) ―With respect to process, they call at the same time for inquiry to play a much more prominent role in science learning to give students a firsthand experience of the dynamic process of questioning, evidence gathering and analysis that characterize authentic scientific practice‖ (p.355). Henry (in Chiapetta&Kobala, 1994) suggested that educators must give more emphasis on how to process data and make logical predictions about the topic rather than finding exact answer. Some educators encourage science teachers to conduct laboratory activities to de-emphasize memorization, illustration and demonstration (Chiapetta&Kobala, 1994). McKeachie (in Blosser, 1990) stress out that first-hand experience with manipulation of the materials is superior to any other methods of developing understanding. Some of the positive findings of laboratory activity on science teaching were presented by Blosser (1990) on her paper. A substantial amount of research reported that laboratory teaching increased students‘ problem solving, and considered a valuable instructional technique in chemistry to encourage cognitive development (in Blosser, 1990). Open-Ended Questions Questioning is one of the key strategies that could enhance critical thinking and conceptual understanding. Open-ended questions encourage students‘ © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

involvement in classroom interaction which requires students to respond. Such questions help students to have meaningful information processing. The use of divergent questions leads to new and creative insights (Crow, 1989). Questions or open-ended questions stimulate students‘ critical thinking and enable them to check their understanding during class discussion. Questions could be used to focus students‘ attention to important concepts and to construct knowledge meaningfully (Chiapetta&Kobala, 1994). Open-ended questions stimulate personal response and de-emphasize the notion of finding correct and incorrect answers. According to Freedman (in Garcia, 2001) answering an openended question is an expression of students‘ content knowledge and helps the student to clarify the concepts learned. He also explained, ―using open-ended questions for assessment allows students to express their own ideas honestly and with insight. Responses to open-ended questions will provide you with insight to your students‘ conception, strengths, and weaknesses‖ (p.20 ). Learning Cycle Farrell and his colleagues (in Dominguez, 2005) suggested that the ideas of constructivism and learning cycle principle in guided inquiry improve learning. Science processes used by scientists were highly advanced, so in order to cater to the needs and to advance teachers‘ and students‘ understanding, learning cycle was developed by educators and researchers as a way of translating processes. Learning cycle was patterned after the cognitive theories of Piaget. It was designed to address the limitations of traditional teaching approach in order to develop robust understanding (Edelson, 2001). The earliest learning cycle was suggested by Chester Lawson. He described scientific invention as ―Belief-Expectation-Test‖ but Robert Karplus proposed the first application of learning cycle to science teaching (Constructivist Models, 2005). Learning cycle (in Robertson, 1996 and in Carale&Ocampo, 2003) is the term used by developers of Science Curriculum Improvement System (SCIS) during 1960s. It consists of three stages: exploration, invention and discovery. Some educators used different names and versions and have different number of stages as presented in Table 4, but the main ideas are still the same. Most of the time educators and researchers use the three stages. The learning cycle model has been adapted in high school chemistry course (Gabel, 2003; Libby, 1995), wherein the first phase (exploration) provides students with the item that they can use to explore the given concept. After exploration it is followed by interactive teacher-centered phase (invention or concept introduction) to describe the significance of the concepts. Once they have understood the concept, students apply the concept to a new situation (application phase), (Gabel, 2003). The seven versions of the Learning Cycle enumerated show consistency with all the five basic elements of constructivism, as identified by Tolman and Hardy (in Carale& Campo, 2003; Constructivist Models, 2005): 1) recalling prior

knowledge; 2) acquiring knowledge; 3) explaining knowledge; 4) applying knowledge; and 5) reflecting on acquired knowledge. (p.14) In Constructivist Models (2005), Barman and the team of Lawson, Abraham and Renner introduced their own version of learning cycle model based on the work of Robert Karplus. They change the terminology into: exploration phase, concept introduction phase and application phase. These three phases serve as the foundation of learning science. First, exploration phase allows the learners to interact with the materials and with each other. It also allows the students to test and examine new ideas from their own ideas. Second, concept introduction phase allows the learner to name the important objects and events related to the lesson; students express their own ideas about the concepts. Third, concept application phase allows the learners to apply all the information acquired into a new and relevant situation. The learning cycle model has been adapted in high school chemistry course (Gabel, 2003; Libby, 1995), wherein the first phase (exploration) provides students with the item that they can use to explore the given concept. After exploration it is followed by interactive teacher-centered phase (invention or concept introduction) to describe the significance of the concepts. Once they have understood the concept, students apply the concept to a new situation (application phase), (Gabel, 2003). The use of learning cycle model creates content achievement, enhances thinking skills, and develops positive attitudes to science because it allows the students to: a) discover patterns in data; and b) formulate and test hypotheses (Libby, 1995). Furthermore, Claxton and Murell (in Ballone&Czerniak, 2001) described that learners must engage in concrete experience to yield reflective observations. Once the reflective observations were achieved, these would lead to abstract conceptualizations which yield to generalizations of principles. Generalizations of principles direct or engage students in active experimentation, wherein higher-order concrete experience is evident. Learning cycle is best when it is followed up with several hands-on activities (Robertson, 1996). A teaching that incorporates inquiry and hands-on activities was identified by the researchers as the learning cycle model (Dominguez, 2005). Likewise, learning cycle encourages the learners to construct declarative knowledge with the use of procedural knowledge, and engage learners in reasoning process and critical thinking skills (Bitner, 1991). It is best to have a number of hands-on experiences because they help the students understand the concepts and solidify the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; understanding (Robertson, 1996). According to Lavoie (1999) following learning-cycle instruction, students felt that: ď&#x201A;ˇ learning-cycle instruction was more interesting; ÂŠ 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

     

learning-cycle instruction helped them understand concepts better; learning-cycle instruction helped them to think and reason more; interpeer discussions were helpful; they tend to asked more questions than they did with traditional instruction; science was a process of discovery rather than a collection of facts; and they liked science more following the learning cycle lesson (p.1137).

Learning cycle approach may be more effective in the sense that it show the relevance of what learners learn but science educators continue to explore ways to improve student understanding of science and to help the learners to see the relevance of science in today‘s world (Gabel, 2003). That is why this study present a new teaching approach based on learning cycle model. Hypothetico-Predictive Reasoning or Prediction/Discussion-Based Learning Cycle (HPD-LC) The Hypothetico-Predictive Reasoning (prediction/discussion phase) by Lavoie (1999) and the Learning-for-Use (LfU) designed by Edelson (2001) were constructivist and learning cycle-inspired approaches. Lavoie (1999) designed the Hypothetico-Predictive Reasoning or the prediction/discussion-based learning cycle (HPD-LC). Hypothetico-Predictive Reasoning or the prediction/discussion phase is placed before the three-phases (exploration, term introduction and concept application) of learning cycle to improve students‘ process skills, logical-thinking skills, science concepts, and scientific attitudes. Hypothetico-Predictive Reasoning encouraged the students to debate, explore, and test their own predictions. In Lavoie‘s (1999) study, the HPD-LC group relatively has higher mean scores, which indicate that students under HPD-LC have a propensity to:  use more higher-level thinking skills;  use more science process skills;  interact more with their peers;  show more evidence of conceptual change and understanding;  interact more with the laboratory materials; and  acquire greater conceptual understanding. (p.1135). Lavoie (1999) explained that the significant change in students‘ process skills, logical-thinking skills, science concepts, and scientific attitudes were due to several factors. First, HPD-LC allows the students to construct and deconstruct their ideas because HPD-LC serves as knowledge development process. Second, students have active physical and mental engagement to verify whether their predictions are correct. Third, it allows the students to open and make clarification about their own beliefs based on newly encountered ideas or information. Fourth, it allows the students to have active interpeer discussion to promote and develop their logical thinking processes. These factors serve as active component for constructivist learning.

According to Doran (in Good & Lavoie, 1988) prediction is a science process skills in science education point of view. Good and Lavoie (1988) pointed out ―prediction can be valuable strategy for the teacher to use in an attempt to learn what conceptions (or perhaps misconceptions) students have of concepts about to be studied or concepts already studied. Their responses can provide valuable information on which to base decisions about instruction‖ (p.336). However, little research has been done and associated with prediction. Good and Lavoie (1988) suggested that prediction better incorporated into the science teaching and learning cycle. Unfortunately, in learning cycle, prediction is not always emphasized. Good and Lavoie (1988) enumerated the advantages of including prediction in learning cycle, the following are the advantages that learning cycle provides for the students and teachers: 1) encourage students to organize their existing knowledge; 2) make students aware of the diversity of belief held by classmates; 3) students will have greater commitment to follow up on their efforts; 4) students prediction can use by the teacher to aid their understanding; and 5) prediction may serve as pretest to judge student‘s initial understanding and later progress. (p. 337). Like Learning-for-Use (LfU), research made by Good and Lavoie on prediction in learning cycle used computer-simulation program which found to be effective. Furthermore, Good and Lavoie (1988) suggested ―effective ways of teaching and evaluating prediction need to be developed. This may involve testing various types of teaching strategies, learning sequences, and instructional materials designed to optimally organize and store both procedural and declarative knowledge in LTM‖ (p. 357). In this study prediction was added and given special emphasis. Learning-for-Use According to Edelson (2001) Learning-for-Use (LfU) and the Learning Cycle (LC) approaches have shared the same foundations and goals. The Learning-for-Use (LfU) and the Learning Cycle (LC) have many similarities. Both models are patterned to cognitive theories of learning, designed to integrate content and learning processes, and employed new knowledge structure (Edelson, 2001). The Learning-for-Use (LfU) model by Edelson (2001) is based on four principles: 1) Learning takes place through the construction and modification of knowledge structures. 2) Knowledge construction is a goal-directed process that is guided by a combination of conscious and unconscious understanding goals. 3) The circumstances in which knowledge is constructed and subsequently used determine its accessibility for future use. 4) Knowledge must be constructed in a form that supports use before it can be applied. (p.357).

The main goal of this model (LfU) is to overcome inert knowledge by showing how learning activities foster useful conceptual understanding that can be used when it is needed. Moreover, Learning-for-Use (LfU) offers opportunity to increase studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; deep content understandings and experiences through different and authentic activities. In the study made by Edelson (2001), the ideas of the learners are being explored by doing hands-on activities in the first stage. In the second stage, concept introduction is explained and connected to hands-on activity for the learners to fully understand what they are doing. Lastly, in the third stage, learners apply constructed knowledge with new hands-on activity. Table 8 shows the role of technology in supporting LfU. Highlighting the advantage of computing technologies, Edelson (2001) presented general guidelines that support content learning. To support this design process, LfU model has six different processes that serve as requirement for each step. There are different assumptions behind LfU model that are as yet untested. Edelson (2001) highlighted three assumptions. His first assumption is that learning activities will master science content and process objectives compared with traditional activities (separate content learning and process learning). With this LfU approach, deep understanding will fully develop. Second, it will serve as useful framework for educators to implement effective learning activities. Third, in this research, technology-supported inquiry will contribute to the development of curricula. TABLE 8The Role of Technology in Supporting Learning-for-Use.

Step Motivate

Learning-for-Use Design Strategy Create demand

Elicit Curiosity Construct knowledge Observe Communicate Reflect

Role for Technology Tools that allow students to design or construct artifacts can support meaningful application tasks that demand understanding.

Tools that allow students to express their beliefs or understanding enable them to articulate their conceptions and confront the limitations of their understanding. Tools that stimulate natural processes can serve as demonstrations of discrepant events. Investigation tools that offer students the opportunity to identify relationships through exploration of data. Stimulation tools can enable students to observe natural processes that may be impossible to observe in classroom settings.

Refine knowledge

Reference tools can provide students with access to information in a wide variety of media. Tools that enable students to maintain a record of their activities support reflection, with objects for reflection.

Refine Apply knowledge

Collaboration and presentation tools that enable students to engage in discussions with others can facilitate reflection. Tools that allow students to design or construct artifacts can support meaningful knowledge application tasks. Source: Daniel C. Edelson, Learning-for-Use: A Framework for the Design of Technology-Supported Inquiry Activities. (John Wiley & Sons, 2001.JRST 38; 3; pp 36).

Table 9 presents the steps and description of the processes in the Learning-forUse model made by Edelson (2001) which used technology-supported inquiry learning to explore and integrate content and process learning. TABLE 9Learning-for-Use with Descriptions of the Processes

Step

Process

Motivate

Experience demand

Construct

Experience curiosity Observe

Refine

Receive communicat ion Apply

Design Strategy Activities create a demand for knowledge when they require that learners apply that knowledge to complete them successfully.

Activities can elicit curiosity by revealing a problematic gap or limitation in a learnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s understanding. Activities that provide learners with direct experience of novel phenomena can enable them to observe relationships that they encode in new knowledge structures. Activities in which learners receive direct or indirect communication from others allow them to build new knowledge structures based on that communication. Activities that enable learners to apply their knowledge in meaningful ways help to reinforce and reorganize understanding so that it is useful.

Reflect

Activities that provide opportunities for learners

to retrospectively reflect upon their knowledge and experiences retrospectively provide the opportunity to reorganize and reindex their knowledge. Source: Daniel C. Edelson, Learning-for-Use: A Framework for the Design of Technology-Supported Inquiry Activities. (John Wiley & Sons, 2001.JRST 38; 3; pp 360). To sum it up, LfU model/approach could be one of the most effective approaches provided that the schools have enough facilities (laboratory equipment, computers and other database technology) to execute this approach. In our educational setting, there is a lack of sufficient digital technology; thus, MUL could be one effectual alternative to traditional teaching approach. Conceptual Framework To address students and teachers difficulty in chemistry achievement, different researchers proposed different teaching approaches/models. Edelson (2001) developed a model called Learning-for-Use (LfU). The LfU model is divided into three stages namely: (a) motivate; (b) construct; and (c) refine. This model has six learning processes, including: 1) experience demand; 2) experience curiosity; 3) observe; 4) receive communication; 5) refine; and 6) reflect. At the same time, the LfU model applies to technology-supported curriculum. On the other hand, Lavoie (1999) proposed the Predictive/discussion-based learning cycle (HPDLC), where there is an additional phase or stage before or at the beginning of a three-phase (exploration, term introduction and concept application) of learning cycle. Modified Useful Learning (MUL) approach is a combination of Learning-for-Use model developed by Edelson (2001) and Hypothetico-Predictive Reasoning by Lavoie (1999). The modification made by the researcher is divided into two primary points: First, the hypothetico-predictive reasoning is incorporated in the motivation stage. The purpose of including HPD-LC in motivation stage is to have a significant change in students‘ process skills, logical-thinking skills, science concepts, and scientific attitudes. Second, the MUL approach has three learning activities to achieve the three learning processes. The learning activities of MUL approach is designed with the use of real-life situation instead of technology-based activities while the Learning-for-Use approach has six learning activities (design strategy) to achieve the six learning processes. In this model having six learning activities is possible in presenting a single lesson because it is designed with the use of technology or computer with database with this, data and information are easily obtain unlike MUL approach which uses only real-life situation. In addition, the researcher sees to it that the number of learning activities (3) fitted to the facilities of the school. Rodrigo (2002) pointed out that, ―The Philippines is one of the many developing nations that had turned to information and Communication Technology (ICT) as a tool to improve teaching and learning‖ (Rodrigo, 2002, ¶ 1). . Unfortunately, the © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Philippine educational system experiences problems in technology. Most of the public schools and some of the private schools do not have enough computers. In addition, Edelson (2001) pointed out that ―However, the as-yet limited ability of a computer to understand the knowledge needs of a learner means that the computer as a judge of what information to present and when remains more promise than reality‖ (p.378). LfU approach could be one of the most effective approaches provided that the schools have enough facilities (laboratory equipment, computers and other database technology). Since our educational setting is lack of sufficient digital technology MUL approach may serve as alternative solution which can be utilized in the absence and shortage of classrooms, laboratory equipments and computers both in public and private schools. Moreover, some educators encourage science teachers to make use of practical applications to impart the concepts and process skills among learners. Thus, MUL could be one effectual alternative to traditional teaching methods. This study hypothesized that the Modified Useful-Learning approach has a positive effect on students‘ achievement, critical thinking skills and attitude compared to traditional teaching approach. Under MUL approach the students‘ achievement in chemistry, critical thinking and attitude towards chemistry are enhanced because students have direct experience and observation on the different activities. This is in contrast with the traditional teaching approach where the highlight is the teacher discussion and demonstration. Furthermore, using the Modified Useful-Learning approach students have direct interaction with one another and with the teacher, and are actively involved in the construction of knowledge to make it useful or meaningful for them.

Teaching Approach Critical Thinking Skills 1) Modified UsefulLearning (MUL) approach

2) Traditional Teaching approach

Attitude towards Chemistry

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework

Hypothesis The mean posttest score in the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal is significantly higher for students exposed to the MUL approach than for the students exposed to the traditional teaching approach.The mean posttest score in the Chemistry Attitude Scale is significantly higher for students exposed to the MUL approach than for the students exposed to the traditional teaching approach.

The Sample The sample included the third year students who were taking up chemistry at Diliman Preparatory School in Quezon City school year 2005-2006. The sections were known to be grouped heterogeneously, and two intact classes were chosen. These two sections were randomly assigned as MUL group and the other as traditional group. The III – Jose Abad Santos and III - Magbanua class schedules were 9:50 a.m. to 11:30 a.m. and 11:30 a.m. to 1:50 p.m., respectively. After random group selection, there were 36 students under treatment group (III- Jose Abad Santos), 33 of which were able to take the pretest and 34 took the posttest. The control group (III – Magbanua) was composed of 38 students, 36 of which were able to take the pretest and posttest. There were a total of 69 students who took the pretest and 70 took the posttest. The 65 students comprised the sample of the study. The researcher determined the MUL group and traditional group by tossing a coin. The Instrument Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (A Revised edition of Form Ym) This is a standardized and popular critical thinking test which is intended to measure student critical thinking skills, developed by Watson and Glaser in 1964. WGCTA is a paper-and-pencil test of critical thinking, consisting of 100items. The test is divided into five parts and each part has its own set of instructions and examples. The first part is called ―Inference‖, which is composed of items 1-20. The second part is called ―Recognition of Assumptions‖, which is composed of items 21-36. Third part is called ―Deduction‖, which is composed of items 37-61, and the fourth part is called ―Interpretation‖, which is composed of items 62-85. Lastly, the fifth part is called ―Evaluation of Arguments‖, which is composed of items 86-100. The test is of the multiple-choice type. Table 11 below shows the reliability coefficients for the separate subtests of the critical thinking appraisal. TABLE 11Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (WGCTA) split half reliability coefficient for the grade 10 normative groups.

Subtests

No. of Items

Inference Recognition of Assumption Deduction Interpretation Evaluation of Arguments

20 16 25 24 15

Form Ym r* .61 .74 .53 .67 .62

*Odd-even coefficient corrected by Spearman-Brown formula. Source: Watson, Goodwin and Edward Glaser (1964). Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking AppraisalForm Ym.

Chemistry Attitude Scale (CAS) The chemistry attitude scale (CAS) is a researcher-made test patterned after the attitude and perception scale developed and used by Abao (1997) and © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Panlilio(2000). This is a Likert-type scale which consists of 25 statements on how students think and feel towards chemistry. The CAS was also given to a group of experts to validate the instrument. After the comments and suggestions from the experts were incorporated, the scale was then pilot-tested. This Likert- type instrument was initially composed of twenty five (25) statements on how students feel about chemistry. Based on the results of pilot testing, the reliability of the CAS was evaluated using Cronbach Alpha. The reliability coefficient of CAS was .8999. The test for reliability was done to determine the twenty (20) statements that constituted the final revised form of the Chemistry Attitude Scale (CAS). This instrument was used to measure the student‘s attitude towards chemistry. To support the use of comparative statistics, an ordinal scale was used. The scale is as follow: Strongly Agree (SA) = 5, Agree (A) = 4, Undecided (U) = 3, Disagree (D) =2 and Strongly Disagree (SD) 1. To assess the mean scores of the two groups the attitude scale made by Belecina (2005) was used. 4.20 – 5.00 Very positive/Very favorable attitude 3.40 – 4.19 Positive/Favorable attitude 2.60 – 3.39 Undecided/ Neither positive nor negative attitude 1.80 – 2.59 Negative/ Unfavorable attitude 1.00 – 1.79 Very negative / Very Unfavorable attitude Teaching Approaches Traditional Approach The traditional teaching approach is the usual lecture-discussion and demonstration wherein students‘ participation on experiments and activities was minimal. In this study, some of the teaching activities were games, inquiry, and puzzle which served as motivation for students. Modified Useful Learning Approach Modified Useful Learning (MUL) approach is a combination of Learning-for-Use model developed by Edelson (2001) and Hypothetico-Predictive Reasoning by Lavoie (1999). MUL approach has three stages with three learning activities: motivate, construct, and apply. The three learning activities of MUL are designed with the use of real-life situation as an activity. For this study, the MUL approach was designed to use group learning, hands-on and laboratory activities, reflective thinking, discovery and inquiry learning and small group discussion to increase student‘s participation. The students were trained to express their ideas using open-ended and guide questions. Teacher served as facilitator. Since teacher was not able to measure the ideas of each student in a certain topic in a short span of time, then group activity and presentation served as teacher‘s guide to monitor the students‘ conceptions. The MUL approach includes the hypothetico-predictive reasoning at the motivation stage. At the start of the lesson, there is an activity that stimulates learner‘s attention and challenges students‘ conceptions. Students have the opportunity to give their personal theories, assumptions or conceptions based on © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

their prior knowledge as their initial response to the said activity/situation through group discussion and class presentation. Similarities and differences in their ideas emerge. Student attention (curiosity & interest) and demand for knowledge comes out. Students or teacher asks questions that require critical thinking. The given situation on the said activity serves as their motivation, where students predict and explore new materials and ideas with less expectation to their specific accomplishments. The second stage in MUL approach is the lesson proper or knowledge construction. The purpose of this activity is to direct students‘ thinking and conception through reflective observation and open communication. Group discussion and presentation takes place to discuss students‘ observation and reasons on the said activity. Learners reflect and concentrate on what the experience means through proper exchange of ideas. The second activity requires the students to construct ideas and meanings based on the hands-on activity. This activity attempts to change students‘ personal theories and to construct new knowledge structure based on new information that they gain during group activity and class discussion. Concrete or direct experience permits knowledge construction through reflective observation and communication. The third stage in MUL is the knowledge application wherein the constructed theory or knowledge by students through abstract conceptualization is applied, practiced, and scientific ideas connected (new knowledge structure) to real-life situation. To make their learning useful, students observe and reflect on previous activities (activity 1 and 2) and relate activity 3 to activities 1 and 2. The third activity focuses on the application of the constructed ideas based on previous activities (activity 1 and 2). Group discussion and class presentation take place. This activity gives the students the opportunity to strengthen their manner of constructing and connecting new knowledge structures through application in real-life situation, thus making it useful. As students move from one activity to another, their ideas appear in numerous contexts so they have the multiple understanding about the materials thus they are able to construct robust understanding of science concepts. Table 12 presents the two teaching approaches used in this study. TABLE 12Teaching Approaches

Teaching Strategy of Traditional Teaching Strategy Modified Useful (TRA) Teaching Approach Learning (MUL) Approach Motivation: Motivation:  Games, puzzles etc.  Hypothetico Predictive Reasoning  Brainstorming  Group presentation of students predictions  Hands-on Activity (1) Lesson Proper Construction):  Demonstration

(Knowledge Lesson Proper (Knowledge Construction):  Hands-on Activity (2)

    

Concept Presentation Class Discussion Presentation of Formula Problem Solving Solution Discussion

Application:  Discussion Application



Group presentation



Formulation of formula based on hands-on activity 2  Problem Solving  Group Discussion of Solution  Presentation Application: Concept  Hands-on Activity (3)  Group presentation (Students explain the significance of learned concepts in everyday living).

Small grouping promotes communication and participation using open-ended activities which require them to think critically. Students talk more and have greater opportunities to access materials as a result they learn a great deal (Bianchini, 1997). The product of students‘ brainstorming is presented by the member of the group (representative). Each student is given an opportunity and trained to express his/her personal theories, preconception, constructed knowledge and application of constructed knowledge. Hence, the student‘s concept and knowledge are not directly lifted from the books. This is to train the students to answer open-ended questions given in their activity sheets. Data Collection Procedure Two intact classes were involved in this study. One group was exposed to Modified Useful-Learning (MUL) approach and the other group to the traditional (TRA) approach. The researcher handled both groups to make sure that the same lessons, quizzes and assignments were carried out. The researcher requested another teacher to observe the classes. The observer used the classroom observation checklist in this study to ascertain that teacher bias is eliminated. Before the start of the treatment, pretests in Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal and Chemistry attitude Scale were administered to both groups. One group was taught using the Modified Useful-Learning (MUL) approach and the other group was taught using the traditional teaching approach. After the treatment, Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal and Chemistry attitude Scale were again administered. The posttest was given simultaneously to both groups to eliminate possible occurrence of threats to validity such as time and place.

Results and Discussion Initial Comparability Test

Table 13 presents the initial comparability of the MUL and traditional groups. The mean pretest scores of the two groups in the critical thinking (CT) test and chemistry attitude scale (CAS) of the students are given below. TABLE 13 Equivalence of the CT, and the CAS Pretest Scores

CAS

Group MUL TRA

N 31 34

MUL TRA

31 34

Df 63

Mean 56.65 53.53

SD 7.58 6.86

69.19 76.61

7.63 7.15

t-ratio

Sig.

1.182

0.242

4.012

0.000

Table 13 shows the critical thinking test results. It is noted that the mean pretest score of the MUL group is numerically higher compared to that of the traditional group. However, the computed t-ratio is not significant at 0.05 level. On the other hand, the chemistry attitude scale (CAS) mean pretest scores of the MUL group and traditional group are significantly different beyond 0.05 level. This shows that at the start of intervention, the MUL and TRA groups are comparable in terms of critical thinking skills but not in attitude towards chemistry. Students’ Critical Thinking Skills One of the research questions presented in this study was: Is the mean posttest score in the critical thinking skills test higher for students exposed to the MUL approach than for the students exposed to the traditional teaching approach? To analyze the results of the critical thinking test, posttest scores were obtained for both MUL and traditional group. To confirm if the mean posttest is higher in the MUL group compared with traditional group, an independent t-test was used. It is interesting to note that the mean posttest score of the MUL group is numerically higher than that of the traditional group as shown in Table 18. As indicated by the significance value, the difference in the mean posttest scores between the MUL and traditional groups is significant at 0.05 level. TABLE 18 The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (WGCTA) Posttest Scores Using Independent t-test.

Group

MUL

TRA

df 63

Mean

56.68

7.58

52.68

6.69

t-ratio

Sig.

2.247

0.028

Again, the use of MUL approach helps to improve student critical thinking skills. For the reason that MUL approach allows the students to activate their prior knowledge, correct personal theories based on constructed knowledge and apply the learned concepts (skills) through critical thinking. This support the statement of Gelder (2003), that the key to critical thinking is the word ―skill‖ because critical thinking is a higher-order cognitive skill. Students will improve their critical thinking skills if they engage in lots of practice. © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Students’ Attitude towards Chemistry It was hypothesized that students from the MUL group would show a significantly higher mean rating on CAS than those students in the traditional (TRA) group. The pretest rating in chemistry attitude scale (CAS) of MUL and traditional groups was presented in Table 13 (p.66) to observe for the initial comparability of MUL and traditional groups. Table 13 shows that a t-ratio of 4.012 suggests that the CAS pretest mean rating of the traditional group is significantly higher than that of the MUL group, thus it can be said that the two groups had different attitude toward chemistry before the implementation of the treatment. Table 19 shows the posttest rating in chemistry attitude scale of the MUL and traditional group. The mean rating in chemistry attitude scale of the MUL group is 77.20 and traditional group is 76.30 while the standard deviations were 8.18 and 8.10 in favor of traditional group. It shows that the MUL group had a numerically higher posttest mean rating in the chemistry attitude scale test compared to the traditional group whereas the pretest mean rating was numerically higher for the traditional group. TABLE 19 Means and Standard Deviations of CAS Posttest Ratings

Group MUL TRA

N 31 34

Mean 77.20 76.30

SD 8.18 8.10

To see if the mean posttest rating was indeed significantly higher, Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was done using the CAS pretest mean score as the covariate. The results of the ANCOVA are shown in Table 20. As shown in the table, the main effect of treatment after removing the effects of the covariate is significant, F (1, 61) = 8.792, ρ < .0005. The observed F ratio indicates that there is a significant difference on the CAS posttest between MUL and traditional group. This means that the attitude of the students under MUL group was significantly enhanced. TABLE 20 Results of the ANCOVA on the Posttest Chemistry Attitude Scale (CAS)

POSCAS PRECAS Main grouping Model Residual Total

Sum of Squares Covariate 1219.956 408.728 Effects 1243.898 2835.852 4079.750

df 1 1 2 61 63

Mean Square 1219.956 408.728 621.949 46.489 64.758

F-ratio

Sig.

26.242 8.792 13.378

0.000 0.004 0.000

Table 20 presents the MUL and traditional students‘ posttest mean rating in Chemistry Attitude Scale (CAS) per item. The analysis of the attitude rating per item of MUL and traditional groups revealed that the MUL group had a higher rating of positive response than the traditional group in most of the statements © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

even though the traditional group got higher mean rating on statements no. 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19. Furthermore, in Tables 21 the 20 statements are grouped qualitatively into three components based on the main thought of the statement. The first component pertains to innate interest of the student toward chemistry. The second component is concerned with how the students demonstrate proper skills and attitude towards laboratory work. Finally, the third component is about how students express the usefulness of chemistry in increasing critical thinking, selfesteem and social responsibility. Statements no. 16 to 20 were negatively stated and the ratings were also reversed for these items. Grouping of the statements was validated by experts. TABLE 21The Three Components of Chemistry Attitude Scale and the Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Posttest Mean Rating (Per Item) for the MUL and Traditional Group

Statement No. 1 2 3 6

9 10 14 16 18 19

11 12

Components of Chemistry Attitude Scale Student show innate interest toward chemistry. No matter how hard chemistry as a subject is, I try to understand the concepts. I am interested in chemistry-related topics. I always want to learn chemistry. Chemistry makes me more curious and motivated to learn more about scientific and chemical concepts. I find more time studying my lesson in chemistry than in any other subjects. I love to learn new ideas in chemistry from my teacher, classmates and friends. I always want to participate actively in group discussion related to chemistry. I am interested amazed and fascinated when I see chemical reactions. I am (not) confused in my chemistry class. I (do not) like chemistry as a subject. For me studying chemistry is (not) just a waste of time. Student demonstrates proper/attitude skills towards laboratory work. I enjoy preparing laboratory report and visual representation in chemistry. I do not mind the difficulty and repetition of experimentation just to find out the correct answer to the problem. Student expresses the usefulness of the chemistry in increasing Critical Thinking, Self-Esteem and Social Responsibility. I believe that my logical and critical thinking

Group MUL

TRA

4.35 3.84 3.74

4.29 3.50 3.50

4.00

3.94

3.26

3.00

3.90

3.91

3.65

3.85

4.23 2.77 3.74 4.13

4.23 3.12 3.85 4.26

3.61

3.53

3.84

3.62

4 5 7 13 15

will improve by studying chemistry. I believe in the importance of chemistry in our society/community. I feel contented every time I perform well in chemistry. I believe that chemistry is an important part of our curriculum. I believe that this subject helps me to reason out critically. I feel (donâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;t) hesitant participating in chemistry related activities especially if I am working with people who are knowledgeable in chemistry. I feel that all laboratory activities in chemistry are difficult/ (easy) to comprehend and are irrelevant/ (relevant).

4.19 4.26

3.91 4.26

4.32

4.20

4.29

4.12

4.06

4.12

3.06

3.15

4.23

3.85

Based on the presented data the mean posttest rating is significantly higher for the MUL group. It can be concluded that in the three components, MUL group displayed positive attitude towards chemistry. Table 21 shows that the MUL approach has contributed to the favorable change in attitude towards chemistry as shown by the following: 1) The innate interest of the students toward chemistry under MUL group is higher compared to traditional group, this may be because of the inclusion of HPD-LC in motivation stage, with these students prior knowledge about certain situation stimulated. 2) Student demonstrates proper/attitude skills towards laboratory work because three hands-on activities were included in each lesson in the MUL approach whereas; in traditional approach it is more of lecture-demonstration. Studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s manipulative skills were practiced/enhanced inside the classroom/laboratory. 3) Student expresses the usefulness of chemistry in increasing critical thinking, self-esteem and social responsibility with the use of MUL approach because most of the learning activities were practical applications of concepts to everyday life and to society; for this reason students clearly express the usefulness of chemistry in increasing critical thinking, self-esteem and social responsibility. TABLE 22The Posttest Mean Rating of the Three Components of Chemistry Attitude Scale

Components of Chemistry Attitude Scale

GROUP MUL 3.78

Student show innate interest toward chemistry. Student demonstrates proper/attitude skills towards laboratory work. 3.73 Student expresses the usefulness of the chemistry in increasing critical thinking, self-esteem and social responsibility. 4.06

TRA 3.77 3.58

3.94

Conclusion and Recommendations Students from the MUL group had significantly higher critical thinking skills test mean score than students from the traditional (TRA) group after the treatment. Further, the students‘ mean rating in the chemistry attitude scale was significantly higher for the MUL group than the traditional (TRA) group after the treatment.The study indicates that the MUL approach may be useful in the teaching-learning process of chemistry. In addition it may help teachers, future researchers, curriculum planners and administrators in the improvement of critical thinking skills and positive attitude towards chemistry. For science teachers, Modified Useful Learning (MUL) approach may be used in their teaching to help students improve critical thinking skills and enhance positive attitude towards chemistry. For science teachers and future researchers, in this study the effectiveness of MUL approach on the attitude towards chemistry and critical thinking skills were observed. However, the impact of MUL approach must be considered in problem solving, self efficacy and task value to really measure its effectiveness. For school administrators, introduction and utilization of activity-based teaching approach such as the Modified Useful-Learning approach should be given academic support to enhance students‘ critical thinking skills and attitudes and thus maximize student performance. References Bailin Sharon, et al. (1993).A Conception of Critical Thinking for Curriculum, Instruction and Assessment.British Columbia Ministry of Education. Clarke John & Arthur Biddle (1993).Teaching Critical Thinking-Reports from Across the Curriculum.Prentice. Carale, Lourdes &Pia Campo. (2003) Concept Development in Filipino Children, The Circulatory System. Philippines: UP-NISMED. Chiappetta, Eugene & Thomas Koballa Jr. (1994).Science Instruction Middle and Secondary School,(5th Ed.). McMillan. Crow, Linda (1989). Enhancing Critical Thinking in the Sciences.Society for College Science Teachers Washington, DC. Dela Cruz, Teresita C. (2001). Interactive Chemistry. Philippines: Instructional Coverage System. Dioniso, Miriam C., Proserpina Cerna (1996). Laboratory Activities (Text-Workbook) in Science and Technology III. Philippines: Innovative Educational Materials. Echija, Elena C., Cecilia V. Bayquen, Rafael L. Alfonso & Elmarita A. De Vera. (2002). Frontiers in Science and Technology III. Philippines: Diwa. Echija, Elena C., Cecilia V. Bayquen, Rafael L. Alfonso & Elmarita A. De Vera. (2003). Science and Technology for the Future. Philippines: Diwa. Ferguson, George A. & Yoshio Takane (1989).Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education.(6th Ed.).McGraw-Hill. Firestone, William, Roberta Schorr and Lora Frances Monfils. (2004). The Ambiguity of Teaching to the Test-Standards, Assessment and Educational Reform. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Fraenkel, Jack R. Norman Wallen (1993).How to Design and Evaluate Research.(2nd Ed.).McGraw-Hill. Gebelein, Charles G. (1997). Chemistry and Our World.Wm.C. Brown. Grolund Norman and Robert Linn (1990).Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching.6 th Ed. MacMillan. © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 73-83, January 2014

Effects of Music on the Spatial Reasoning Skills of Grade-One Pupils Desiree B. Castillo, Czarlene Kaye San Juan, Maria Robelle Tajanlangit, Irish Pauline Ereño, Maria Julia Serino and Catherine Tayo Psychology Area, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Colegio de San Juan de Letran, 1000 Manila, Philippines Allen A. Espinosa Faculty of Science, Technology and Mathematics, College of Teacher Development, Philippine Normal University, 1000 Manila, Philippines,

Abstract. The study determined the significant effect of different types of music on the spatial reasoning skills of children aging from 6-8 years old. Twenty-one (21) grade one students (13 males, 8 females) of Colegio de San Juan de Letran were selected to complete jigsaw puzzle to assess their spatial reasoning skills while exposed to two different conditions: Instrumental Music (Binaural Beats) and Nursery Rhymes (Old McDonald’s), respectively. The results were all calculated using Wilcoxon’s Matched-Pairs Signed Rank Test. Findings imply that nursery rhymes stimulate the brain’s processing of organizing images more effectively than that of instrumental music. Children ranging from 6-8 years old are more likely to perform better on a spatial reasoning task when they are listening to fast-beat nursery rhymes than that of instrumental music; thereby enhancing their spatial reasoning skills. Limitations and suggestions for further studies were discussed. Keywords: spatial reasoning, music; jigsaw puzzle; grade-one children

Introduction In Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development, it is said that the earliest stages of learning for young children are the most important. The fundamentals of learning are instilled into a child at a very young age and how much importance is placed on these fundamentals can have dramatic effects on the future of the child's learning (Olson, 1996). Specifically, during the industry versus inferiority stage, children ages 6–11 are now capable of performing increasingly complex tasks. As a result, they will now be striving to master new skills (McLeod, 2013). They are now at the stage where they will be learning to © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

read and write, solve mathematical equations, and make things on their own. Teachers will begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills, such as their spatial reasoning skills. Spatial reasoning develops naturally since childhood. It is regarded as one of the most basic reasoning abilities, along with verbal reasoning, logical reasoning and numerical reasoning. Being able to reason spatially means having the ability to visualize spatial patterns and mentally manipulating them. It also allows understanding and remembering spatial relations among objects (Hergenhann & Olson, 2007). Some studies suggest that music aids in enhancing one’s spatial reasoning (Kulp, 1999; Kurdek & sinclair, 2001; Mazzocco & Myer, 2003 as cited in Lachance, and Mazzocco, 2006). It is said that music can often be associated with pictures or words with the use of a mnemonic system (Chaplin, 1985). Therefore, this article seeks to find out if music has a direct and significant effect on one’s spatial reasoning. It is also interesting to uncover whether a certain genre of music, particularly instrumental music and nursery rhymes, can help enhance the spatial reasoning of grade one pupils. Context of current researches Music has been present in all cultures and throughout history. It is an intricate component in life that can influence an individual’s ability to perform a certain task, whether positively or negatively (Olson, 1996). Music, when applied in a constructive way, can have positive effects on a child's learning and help them in many ways. One of its main features is its ability to generate a spectrum of emotions in listeners (El Haj, Postal, & Allain, 2012; Hallam, 2008). It can also promote a more positive mood, giving the person a sense of motivation that can further help the individual solve a given task. Music has also been proven to increase the intelligence quotient of children when engaging in practical music making (Hallam, 2008; Jenkins, 2001; Kokotsaki & Hallam, 2011). Scientists have discovered that music can modify the brain at both functional and structural levels (Hallam, 2008; Schellenberg, 2004). Such neural changes can impact several domains, and that includes one’s creativity (Hallam, 2008; Kokotsaki & Hallam, 2011). It has the possibility to induce their creative juices flowing to perform tasks. To most artists, listening to music can help them achieve a certain creativity or ingenuity that they would not be able to do simply on their own (Kokotsaki & Hallam, 2011). With that, it can be said that music can really affect a person’s task performance. In fact, some studies have come to the conclusion that music, especially classical, aids in the storage and recall of information in our memory (Berz, 1995). This may be due to the fact that music can reduce stress, making it easier for people to study and remember information (El Haj, Postal, & Allain, 2012). It can change moods and give more motivation to the listener. A study by Jenkins (2001) found that subjects who listened to Mozart’s “Sonata for Two Pianos” showed better spatial reasoning skills than subjects who had not. Specifically, the subjects also showed a short-term improvement in their IQ scores by eight to nine points. This effect is known as the Mozart Effect, and the idea is that the

complex nature of Mozart's music stimulates an area of the brain that processes images and so helps it to process more accurately (Jenkins, 2001). An eight month study was conducted by Frances H. Rauscher of the University of California at Irvine, in which 19 preschoolers, ranging in age from three to five, received weekly keyboard and daily singing lessons while another 15 preschoolers received no musical training at all (Bower, 1994). At the start, middle and end of the study, the subjects were tested on five spatial reasoning tasks. Spatial tasks are those that require the brain to organize objects within a certain space, like puzzles (Hammond, 2013). After only 4 months, scores on the test to assemble a puzzle to form a picture improved dramatically for the group with the musical training, while the control group didn't, even though both groups started out with the same scores (Bower, 1994). It can be understood that this kind of improvement may not be substantial enough to alter the way people are fundamentally taught, but its results cannot be ignored. Implementing musical training to enhance the young child's learning could have great effects on their spatial reasoning skills. With its resulting improvements in spatial reasoning, music can also be a very helpful tool that can be implemented in their basic curriculum. On the contrary, some studies concerning the effectiveness of background music on task performance have yielded inconsistent findings. Music has been proven as a distracter on task performance at times (Alley and Greene, 2008; Furnham and Bradley, 1997; Pring and Walker, 1994). Because our senses are so immersed in the music, most if not all, focus on the music; thus, causing distraction to the task at hand. A study by Hjortsberg (2009) found that students performed better on a memory game without listening to any music rather than listening to classical music. Additionally, a study by (Fogelson (1973) as cited in Hallam et al, 2002, found that students who took a reading comprehension test while listening to music became distracted and therefore retained less detailed information. Meanwhile, Thompson, Schellenberg, and Letnic (2012) also found incongruence on the effectivity of music on task performance. Their study has proven the neural effect of music on reading comprehension. Scores yielded from this task cannot be accounted for by either slow or soft classical music. On the other hand, significant disturbances on reading comprehension has been noted when the music is fast and loud. Interference effects are dependent on the structural characteristics of the music. In 2010 a larger meta-analysis of a greater number of studies states that other kinds of music worked just as well as classical music (Pietschnig, Voracek, & Formann, 2010). One study found that listening to Schubert was just as good as Mozart, and so was hearing a passage read out aloud from a Stephen King novel (Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999). But only if it is for the purpose of enjoyment, rather than the exact notes being heard (Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999; Pernham & Vizard, 2011). It is found that highly familiar music may also be efficiently processed and less distracting than unpredictable music. Preferred music was rated as significantly ÂŠ 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

more pleasant than all the other sound conditions and quiet music was rated more significantly more pleasant than the steady-and changing-state speech sounds as well as the disliked music condition (Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999; Pernham & Vizard, 2011). But according to Alley and Greene (2008), familiarity with song lyrics had little effect on performance. Nursery rhyme is defined to be a short, rhymed poem or tale for children. It may also be considered to be one of the most important foundation of a childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s development. The rhymes stimulate the social, emotional, physical, intellectual and musical development of each different ways that they may not be able to realize. For the cognitive development, nursery rhymes aid in the development of a childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s skills to memorize, to sequence and to hear, speak move to, and answer patterns. Patterning is the foundation for reading and math skills. Rhymes, on the other hand, assist children to learn and memorize the alphabet and numbers (Kenney, 2005). Instrumental music is a kind of music that is played by a musical instrument or groups of instruments. A study conducted by Salame and Baddeley (1989) shows that speech is more disturbing than the instrumental music. An auditory phenomenon that has been suggested to modify the physiological and cognitive process together with vigilance and brainwave entertainment, known as binaural beats, is an example of an instrumental music (Goodin, et al., 2012). In this paper, Grade one pupils are used as the subjects. As stated, spatialreasoning, or puzzle-solving skill, is an important foundation of learning during the early years of development. It is therefore noteworthy to test the effectiveness of music on the spatial-reasoning of children so that it can be considered as part of teaching strategies in this educational level. Research Objective This study aims to determine the significant effect of instrumental music (binaural beat) and nursery rhyme ( Old McDonald ), on the spatial reasoning skills of grade one pupils, whose age ranges from 6-8 years old.

Hypothesis The following hypotheses were tested to achieve the research objective: Ho: Music has no significant effect on the spatial reasoning skills of grade one pupils Ha1: Instrumental music (Binaural Beats) significantly increases the spatial reasoning skills of grade 1 pupils better than nursery rhyme (old McDonald) Ha2: Nursery rhyme (Old McDonald) significantly increases the spatial reasoning skills of grade 1 pupils better than Instrumental music (Binaural Beats)

Research Simulacrum Independent Variables Instrumental Music A. (Binaural beats)

Nursery Rhyme B. (Old McDonald’s)

Intervening Variables    

Age Gender Tempo Familiarity with the music

Dependent Variable

Spatial Reasoning Skills

Methods A. Procedures The participants have been recruited through random sampling. Originally, IQ classification shall be used as a part of the research parameters. However, only few subjects were permitted by their parents to join. On the day of the experiment, the researchers first introduced themselves to the participants to ensure a good level of rapport. The two advisers of each section were there to help the researchers in guiding and supervising the participants. The researchers explained briefly to the participants all the necessary information they need to know about the experiment. After the instructions were given, the experiment proper began. The experiment was divided into two sessions. During the first session, participants were exposed to instrumental music; while on the second session, they were exposed to nursery rhymes. For both sessions, they were tasked to complete forty-two (42) pieces of jigsaw puzzle, with different designs, respectively. The assigned music was played all throughout the experiment. Their spatial reasoning skills were measured through the time they have spent in completing the task. Time in seconds was recorded and compared using statistical treatment. B. Research Design In this particular study, the researchers used a within-participants post-test only design, because having the same participants take part in both conditions allowed the researchers to control for many inter-individual confounding variables. The small sample size was also considered. C. Participants The participants in the study were twenty-one (21) grade one pupils of Colegio de San Juan de Letran – Manila. There are eight (8) females and thirteen (13) males, whose age ranges from 6-8 years old with the mean age of 6.2381. D. Sampling Procedures Random chosen populations were given parental consent forms before they had undergone the experiment because of their age. From the total of 39 students, only twenty-one (21) were permitted by their parents/guardians to join. © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

E. Measures

In order to assess the spatial reasoning skills of the participants, jigsaw puzzles were used and the time in seconds of its completion was recorded. Jigsaw puzzle is a kind of puzzle that requires the assembly of tiles or interlocking pieces in such a manner as to form the desired picture or a three-dimensional structure. Each puzzle that was used in the experiment has the same level of difficulty. Scores depend on the speed of task completion using time in seconds. There have not been much any experimental studies testing the effects of jigsaw puzzles on the development of spatial skills of children. Yet it seems pretty clear that puzzle-solving ability and spatial intelligence are linked. According to Levine, et., al (2012), the more frequently young children worked on puzzles before the age of 4, the better they performed on a test of mental transformations of 2-dimensional shapes when they were 4 and a half. F. Data Analysis

Since they were exposed to two sets of treatments, the researchers used Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed Rank Test to determine the significance of music in the spatial reasoning skills of the participants. The Wilcoxon test for paired samples is the non-parametric equivalent of the paired samples t-test. It is used because the sample data are not normally distributed, and cannot be transformed to a normal distribution by means of a logarithmic transformation. Results

The variables that are used in the experiment are two kinds of music namely, the nursery rhyme (Old McDonald) and instrumental music (binaural beats). The result of the experiment shows that p-value is 0.002, which is less than the given p-value at 0.5 level of significance of p-value (0.002). This means that nursery rhyme is better than the binaural beats when grade one pupils are performing spatial reasoning task. The Binaural Beats takes more time in solving the given task as for the Old McDonald. This means that the grade 1 pupils take more time in solving the puzzle with the Binaural beats as their background music, which ÂŠ 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

is less than the result of the nursery rhyme, Old McDonald’s. This implies that music with fast beats lyrics like Old McDonald’s tends to help one to work faster than instrumental music like Binaural beats. On the other hand, Binaural beats help increase one’s concentration and attention on the task at hand.

Discussions The present study aims to determine the significant effect of different types of music, particularly instrumental music (Binaural Beats) and nursery rhyme (Old McDonalds), on the spatial reasoning skills of grade 1 pupils aging from 6-8 years old of Colegio de San Juan de Letran. Based on the results shown earlier, it can be said that nursery rhymes do stimulate the brain in processing images more accurately than that of the binaural beats. Children ranging from 6-8 years old are more likely to perform better on a spatial reasoning task if they are listening to fast-paced and familiar music (nursery rhymes), than that of the unfamiliar and slow-paced instrumental music (binaural beats). Those findings are congruent on the study of Fraser and Bradford (2013), in which their study reported that faster tempos increase the frequency of distractions to the task at hand. On the contrary, it is also possible that instrumental (or classical) music can also improve one’s cognitive function, because according to the study of Jenkins (2001), participants who listened to Mozart’s “Sonata for Two Pianos” had shown better spatial reasoning skills than those who had not. Specifically, the subjects also showed a short-term improvement in their IQ scores by eight to nine points (Jenkins, 2001). This effect is known as the Mozart Effect, and the idea is that the complex nature of Mozart's music stimulates an area of the brain that processes images and so helps it to process more accurately. Other than that, familiarity with the song can also affect the person’s spatial reasoning. It is because nursery rhymes are more familiar to them, that it has the tendency to be more efficiently processed and less distracting than the unfamiliar one (Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999; Pernham & Vizard, 2011). When hearing a piece of music that is liked, there is a tendency for their arousal to be raised and their performance to be increased, compared to when they are listening to a piece of music that they liked less. In the study, participants were obviously familiar with the nursery rhyme given to them, as they were they were singing along with the song while performing the task at hand. Thus, they were able to finish the task faster. On the other hand, instrumental music had not significantly improved their speed in completing the task. Nevertheless, it enhanced their concentration. The current result of the study contradicts with that of Alley and Greene (2008), in their examination of the effects of vocal music, equivalent instrumental music and irrelevant speech on one’s working memory, to be able to know the aspects of music that affects the performance and the degree of impairment. They have concluded that the performance on working memory is better when vocal music is used compared to that of instrumental music; however, either silence or irrelevant speech does not significantly affect performance on working memory. © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

The present study negates their conclusion because the result shows that vocal music with fast beats increases the participants’ speed in accomplishing the task at hand than that with instrumental music. Isen, Daubman, & Nowicki (1987), state that positive mood states or elevated levels of arousal created by the music could also have facilitated the participants’ performance on the spatial-reasoning task. Alternatively, negative moods or decreased levels of arousal caused by listening to minimalist and repetitive music such as binaural beats may have a detrimental effect (Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999), or both of these factors may have been operative. Minimalist and repetitive music such as binaural beats might induce boredom or low levels of arousal to the children. Negative emotions such as boredom may decrease the efficiency of information processing relative to positive affective states, causing decrements in learning and performance. (Boyle, 1983; Husain, Thompson, & Schellenberg, 2002; Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999). Meanwhile, exposure to fast-beat and happy music such as nursery rhymes can elevate the person’s engagement towards the task (Husain, Thompson, & Schellenberg, 2002; Nantais & Schellenberg, 1999). High level of arousal are often associated with high performance on a variety of perceptual, cognitive, and motor tasks (O’Hanlon, 1981). According to the study of Mayfield and Moss (1989), it is found out that college students who are exposed in any kind of popular music had the highest performance on class problems than those students who are not exposed in any kind of music. Thus, this shows that playing music while working can reduce boredom, frustrations, fatigue, errors and turnovers having a result of a positive performance at the workplace. Apparently, this experiment shows that music has a significant effect on the spatial reasoning skills of grade 1 pupils. Playing nursery rhymes (Old McDonald) had significantly increased the speed of the participants in completing the puzzle with the average time of 1168.76 seconds, compared to instrumental music (binaural beats) with the average score of 1495.71 seconds. Decrease in time means greater accomplishment. Nevertheless, instrumental music (binaural beats) as background music was observed to have increased the level of concentration of the participants. However, observation also suggests that they have manifested signs of boredom. Seemingly, these observed conditions account for the increase in the amount of time that the participants allotted in completing the puzzle. Meanwhile, nursery rhyme (Old McDonald) as background music appeared to decrease the time in completing the task since the song has a fast beat. Familiarity with the song may also have played a role in accomplishing the task more quickly. Although the research has reached its aims, there were some unavoidable limitations. First, this research was conducted only on a small size of population of grade 1 pupils in the Colegio. Second, the timeframe given in conducting the study is very minimal; hence, speed in completing the task was the only measure employed to test the improvement of spatial reasoning skills while under the given conditions. Lastly, the setting of the activity was manipulated. The tables were arranged to decrease the participants’ chances of cheating and to © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

avoid the disorderly layout of the pieces of puzzle. But the effects of such condition to the variables at hand were not accounted in this study. For additional findings, it is highly recommended to use other kind of spatial reasoning materials like Lego blocks, rubrics cube or other similar tools that can hone participants’ spatial reasoning skills. Other genre of music may also be considered to test the validity of the current findings to similar participants or to a more advanced age-group with higher academic level. It may also be advantageous to include the interplay of cognitive level, such as Intelligence Quotient (IQ) and spatial reasoning skills in examining the effectiveness of music on task performance. Other measure of performance, such as quality of spatial organization, can be used to assess improvement of spatial reasoning skills.

Conclusions Music has been proven as an effective intervention in enhancing higher-level of cognitive functioning across all ages. The present study tested its effectiveness on improving spatial reasoning skills of Grade one pupils. Results of the study strengthened previous findings. Music has an effect on enhancement of spatial reasoning skills. Between the two types of music employed in this study, fast beat music, such as nursery rhymes is proven to have more significance in enhancing the spatial reasoning skills of the participants. The familiarity of its lyrics and its lively tempo apparently increased speed and accuracy in performing the spatial task at hand. Contrarily, instrumental music, such as binaural beats, has lesser significance on improving spatial reasoning skills. Seemingly, its uncommon beat and its absence of lyrics decreased the participants’ speed in completing the task. The recorded average time of puzzle completion in seconds proves the claim. Nursery rhymes as background music allowed the participants to complete the puzzle at 1168.76 seconds, while instrumental music (binaural beats) made them finish at 1495.71 seconds, on the average. Despite its disadvantage on improving the speed for completion, instrumental music (binaural beats) increased taskconcentration and attention, as observed. Overall, both conditions are seen as effective interventions in augmenting spatial reasoning skills of children whose age ranges from 6-8 years old. As quantified, speed in spatial task completion is improved. In addition, greater concentration, and attention to spatial task is observed. These factors are essential in mentally manipulating and organizing details in the environment. Children at this age range are expected to develop them in order to master their specific cognitive developmental task and to prepare them for other forms of higher mental functioning. Henceforth, educators in this academic level should consider the use of both interventions as part of their teaching and learning strategies.

References Alley, T. & Greene, M. (2008). The Relative and Perceived Impact of Irrelevant Speech, Vocal Music and Non-vocal Music on Working Memory. Current Psychology 27, 277– 289 © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Berz, W.L. (1995). Working Memory in Music: A Theoretical Model. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 12(3), 353-364 Bower, B. (1994). Tuning up young brains. Retrieved August 9, 2013 from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Tuning+up+young+brains.-a015811444 Boyle, G. (1983). Effects on academic learning of manipulating emotional states and motivational dynamics. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 53, 347-357. Chaplin, J.P. (1985). In Dictionary of Psychology. Canada: Bantam Dell, Random House, Inc. El Haj, M., Postal, V., & Allain, P. (2012). Music Enhances Autobiographical Memory in Mild Alzheimer’s Disease. Educational Gerontology, 38, 30–41. Furnham, A. & Bradley, A. (1997). Music While You Work: The Differential Distraction of Background Music on the Cognitive Test Performance of Introverts and Extraverts. Applied Cognitive Psychology 11, 445-455 Fraser, C., & Bradford, J. A. (2013). Music to Your Brain: Background Music Changes Are Processed First , Reducing Ad Message Recall. Psychology and Marketing. 62–75. Goodin, P., Ciorciari, J., Baker, K., Carey, A.-M., Carrey, A.-M., Harper, M., & Kaufman, J. (2012). A high-density EEG investigation into steady state binaural beat stimulation. PloS one, 7(4), 347-389. Hallam, S. (2008). The Powerful Role of Music in Society. Retrieved July 30, 2013 from http://musicmagic.wordpress.com/2008/07/10/music-in-society/ Hallam, S., Price, J., & Katsarou, G., (2002). The Effects of Background Music on Primary School Pupils' Task Performance, Educational Studies, 28(2). Hammond, C. (2013). Does listening to Mozart really boost your brainpower? Retrieved August 9, 2013 from http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20130107-can-mozart-boostbrainpower/1 Hergenhahn, B. & Olson, M. (2007). Introduction to Theories of Learning. (7th ed). New Jersey: Pearson Hjortsberg, R. (2009). The effects of different types of music on cognitive processes. Retrieved July 20, 2013 from http://clearinghouse.missouriwestern.edu/manuscripts/303.php Husain, G., Thompson, W., & Schellenberg, G. (2002). Effects of Musical Tempo and Mode on Arousal, Mood, and Spatial Abilities. Music Perception, 20, 151-171. Isen, A., Daubmann, K., & Nowicki, G. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122-1131. Jenkins, J.S. (2001). The Mozart effect. Journal of The Royal Society Of Medicine 94, 170172 Kaplan, R.M., & Saccuzzo, D. P. (2009). Standardized tests in education, civil service, and the military. Psychological testing: Principles, applications, and issues (7 ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Kenney, S. (2005). Nursery Rhymes: Foundation for Learning. General Music Today, 19(1), 28-31. Kokotsaki, D. & Hallam, S. (2011) The perceived benefits of participative music making for non-music university students: a comparison with music students. Music Education Research, 13, 149-172. Lachance, J. A, & Mazzocco, M. M. M. (2006). A longitudinal analysis of sex differences in math and spatial skills in primary school age children. Learning and individual differences, 16(3), 195–216. Levine, S.C., Ratliff K.R., Huttenlocher, J., and Cannon, J. (2012). Early puzzle play: A predictor of preschoolers' spatial transformation skill. Developmental Psychology, 48, 530-542. Mayfield, C and Moss, S (1989) Effect of music tempo on task performance. Psychological Reports: Volume. 65, 1283-1290.

McLeod, S. (2013). Erik Erikson. Retrieved August 9, 2013 from http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html Nantais, K. & Schellenberg, G. (1999). The Mozart Effect: An Artifact of Preference. Psychological Science, 10, 370-373 O’Hanlon, J. (1981). Boredom: Practical consequences and a theory. Acta Psychologica, 49, 53-82. Olsen, K. (1996). The Effects of Music on the Mind: Beyond Soothing the Savage Beast. Retrieved August 9, 2013 from http://www.reversespins.com/effectsofmusic.html Pietschnig, J., Voracek, M., & Formann, A. (2010). Mozart Effect-Shmozart Effect: A Meta-Analysis. Intelligence, 38, 314-323. Perham, N. & Vizard, J. (2011). Can Preference for Background Music Mediate the Irrelevant Sound Effect? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25, 625–631 Pring, L. & Walker, J. (1994). The Effects of Unvocalized Music on Short-Term Memory. Current Psychology 13, 165-17 Salame, P., & Baddeley, A. D. (1989). Effects of background music on phonological shortterm memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 41A, 107–122. Schellenberg, E.G. (2004). Music lessons enhance IQ. Psychological Science, 15, 511–514. Thompson, W.F., Schellenberg, E.G., & Letnic, A.K. (2012). Fast and loud background music hinders reading comprehension. Psychology of Music, 40, 700-708.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 84-92, January 2014

Impact of Organizational Commitment and Employee Performance on the Employee Satisfaction Naveed Ahmad Faculty of Management Sciences, Indus International Institute, D. G. Khan, Pakistan Nadeem Iqbal, Komal Javed Faculty of Management Sciences, Baha Uddin Zakariya University Multan, Pakistan Naqvi Hamad PhD Statistics Govt. Postgraduate College, D. G. Khan, Pakistan

Abstract. The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of Organizational Commitment and Employee Performance on Employee Satisfaction. Author used statistical population of Banking Sector which covers 110 employees of 10 banks and data was collected through a self administrative questionnaire. Correlation coefficient, Regression analysis and “ANOVA were tested for the data analysis. There are two independent variables 1) Organizational commitment 2) Employee performance whereas Employee satisfaction is taken as dependent variable. Results showed Positive relationship between Organizational commitment and employee satisfaction and similarly Employee Performance has Positive relationship with employee satisfaction. Keywords: employee employee performance

satisfaction;

organizational

commitment;

Introduction Modern era of globalization brought many opportunities along with different challenges for corporations. In today’s world, organizations are competing “globally”. Globalization has shaped many opportunities as well as challenges for global and local firms. Cost of manufacturing is rising gradually due to many worldwide factors as economic depression, increase of fuel prices and limitation of resources. This increase in prices is pushing corporations to adopt those ways through which cost can be minimized to survive in competitive environment. © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Organizational growth requires more workforce and new hiring but satisfied and committed workers are true assets of an organization. The idea of employee satisfaction has been a center of study for two decades (Greasley, et. al., 2005) and is regarded as a serious issue for managerial performance. Different academicians and organizational “gurus” strained the importance of employee satisfaction. Theorists have common consent that employee satisfaction is as essential as customer satisfaction (Chen, et. al., 2006). Different theorists have defined employ satisfaction differently. Rousseau (1978) recognized three factors of the employee satisfaction: 1) individuality of organization 2) work task factors 3) personal character. Establishment which raises high employee’s job satisfaction is also further proficient of retaining and fascinating the employees through skills which they needed (Mosadegh Rad & Yarmohammadian, 2006). A. Objectives 1) To explore the impact of Organizational commitment on employee satisfaction. 2) To investigate the impact of employee performances on employee satisfaction. B. Research questions Based on research objectives there are two research questions: 1) What is the relationship between organizational commitments and employee satisfaction? 2) What is the relationship between employee performances and employee satisfaction? It is also obvious from existing literature that employee satisfaction is very important for organizations and similarly the relation between employee positive attitude and Human Resource practices is also verified by different researchers (Edgar and Geare, 2005). This research study provides more strength to existing literature by explaining the importance of employee satisfaction and commitment for organizational performance.

Literature Review A. Employee Job Satisfaction According to Janssen, (2001) job satisfaction means how an employee of an organization feels about work. These feelings may be positive or negative, more positive feelings mean employee’s level of job satisfaction is high. In other words positive emotions of an employee towards workplace also describe job satisfaction. Locke, (1976) identified that there is a positive relationship between job characteristics and the need of individuals. There is also common consent among researchers that Maslow theory of needs also explains this relationship between job characteristics and individual needs. Luthans (1998) indicated that job satisfaction has three dimensions 1) job satisfaction relates to emotional response of an employee to a job situation 2) job satisfaction can be measured by

estimating how well outcomes meet expectations 3) job satisfaction can be determined through several job related attitudes. Choo & Bowley (2007) indicated that satisfaction and employee performance are interconnected with each other and satisfaction is the resultant of job performance. Khan, Nawaz, Aleem, & Hamed, (2012) investigated job satisfaction of employees and performance and established the fact that job satisfaction provides input for better performancce to employeess. The sttructure of performance mangament also emphasizes on employee job satisfaction (Tinofirei, 2011). Job satisfaction is to create positive emotion among employees about their occupation Robbin and Judge (2008). Greater job satisfaction creates more positive emotions in the mind of employees about their job. Luthans (2006) indicated that job satisfaction creates positive emotional feelings that results from work evaluation. Nasaradin (2001) specified that the job satisfaction might be an enjoyable or the positive emotional state which is resultant from review of one’s job or his or her job experience. B. Employee Job Performance Performance is described as the attained result of skilled workers in some specific situations (Prasetya & Kato, 2011). Dharma (1991) thought that the performance is somewhat that is prepared, or products shaped and offered by a cluster of people. Robbins (2001), indicated that when employee feels happy about work related tasks then his performance is increased and he/she performs tasks in better way. Brandt, Krawczyk & Kalinowski (2008) said that there is a disagreement between employee personal life and performance. Prawirosentoso (2000) Explored that performance is outcome of work in an efficient way with cosiderable obligation for organization without interupting any law and organizational goals Mangkunegara (2005) says that performance of employee is the work consequence in excellence and the quantity that accomplished by somebody in directing his/her job obligations. C. Organizational Commitment Employee’s affiliation with organization is regarded as organizational commitment. Generally there are three dimensions of organizational commitment 1) continuance commitment 2) normative commitment 3) affective commitment (Allen and Meyer, 1996; Karrasch, 2003; Turner and Chelladurai, 2005; Greenberg, 2005; Boehman, 2006; Canipe, 2006). Meyer & Allen (1997) indicated that these types are independent and are demonstrated by different individuals at different levels of management in organizations. Similarly, porter (1974) explained that organizational commitment is the extent to which employees accept the goals and values of organization and are desirous to remain in the organization. Committed personnel of an organization demonstrate positive intentions to serve their organization and they think very less about quitting the organization. (Hunt and Morgan, 1994; Robbins and Coulter, 2003; Mowday, Steers, & Porter, 1982). According to Buchanan (1974) organizational commitment is defined as the emotional commitment to achieve the organizational objectives. Organizational commitment is “the aggregate

internalized normative demands to perform in a manner which meets organizational objectives and interestsâ&#x20AC;? (Wiener, 1982). Kitchard and Strawser (2001) proposed that satisfied employees develop high affective commitment for their firm. Marthis and Jackson (2000) defined employee commitment as the extent to which employees stay with organizations and considers about organizational objectives seriously. Luthans (2006), explored organizational commitment as the desire to be a member of an organization and not to complain about their organization. Organizational commitment is clear as the measure of authority of employee empathy by the objectives and morale of organization and remains involved in it, organization commitment as well be an improved indicator for employees who wish to stay at work or want to change (Mc Neese-Smith, 1996). D. Hypothesis H1: There is significant positive relationship between Organizational commitment and employee satisfaction. H2: There is significant positive relationship between Employee performance and employee satisfaction.

Methodology Author used simple random sampling process in different banks of Pakistan to show the impact of Organizational commitment and employee performance on employee satisfaction which is also supportive for other countries to inspect the impact of Organizational commitment and their employeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s performance in their regions. In this research study 110 respondents are selected randomly from the employees of 10 different banks of Pakistan as sample population. To examine the numerical propositions SPSS is used for evaluation. The provisions of validity of the is accepted beyond the beliefs. The reliability of the paper is accomplished over the 110 employees of 10 different banks of Pakistan as sample.

Findings The findings of this research are explained according to the SPSS results:

Hypotheses1: Results of correlation analysis supported that a positive relationship exists between organizational and employee job satisfaction. The value of r= .403** that is positive and indicates positive relationship among these two variables. Similarly, regression analysis showed that significant relationship exists between dependent variable and independent. As we may observe from regression analysis table that the value of beta= 0.939 that is positive and t value is = 7.681that is above average level 2 and is sufficient to show relative importance. Similarly, P value is=0.000 that is less than 0.05 and is significant. So it is evident from the results that null hypothesis is rejected and alternate hypotheses is accepted. So H1 is found to be true.

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics Mean

Std.

Deviation Commitme

4.6078

.35123

110

Satisfaction

4.5636

.55475

110

Performanc

4.6260

.71047

110

Table 2: Results of Correlations

Commitme

Pearson

Correlation

Commitme

Satisfactio

Performanc

.594**

.403**

.000

110

.594**

.340**

Sig. (2-tailed) N Satisfaction

Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

110

.403**

.340**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

110

Performanc

Pearson

Correlation

.000

110

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 3: Model Summary Mod

el 1

.594a

Adjusted R

Std. Error of

Square

the Estimate

.353

a. Predictors: (Constant), Commitment

.347

.44819

Table 4: Results of Regression Coefficientsa Model

Unstandardized

Standardize

Coefficients

Sig.

Coefficients B 1

Std. Error

(Constant)

.238

.565

Commitme

.939

.122

Beta .594

.421

.674

7.681

.000

nt a. Dependent Variable: Satisfaction

Hypotheses2: Correlation between employee performance and employee satisfaction is also positive as the result of r=.340** that is positive and shows positive relation. Similarly unstanderdized regression weight is also positive and explores that a positive relation is caused by independent variable in dependent variable. The value of beta =0.266 and t value is = 3.761 that is significant. The value of p=0.000 that is significant. So these results are providing sufficient ground to accept hypothesis 2. So the null hypotheses is rejected and alternate hypotheses is accepted.

Table 5: Model Summary

Mo del

R Square

Adjusted R Square

1 .340a .116 .108 a. Predictors: (Constant), Performance

Std. Error of the Estimate .52406

Table 6: Results of ANOVA

Model 1

Regressio n Residual Total

Sum of Squares 3.884 29.660 33.544

Df 1 108 109

a. Predictors: (Constant), Performance b. Dependent Variable: Satisfaction

Mean Square 3.884 .275

F 14.142

Sig. .000a

Table 7: Results of Regression analysis

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

B 1

(Constant) Performan ce

3.335 .266

Std. Error .331 .071

Standardiz ed Coefficient s Beta .340

10.086 3.761

Sig.

.000 .000

a. Dependent Variable: Satisfaction

Conclusions There is no second opinion about the fact that organizational commitment and employee performance play a pivotal role for employee satisfaction. At present era of globalization the cost of manufacturing is rising due to many factors so organizations should try to recover that cost through employee retention. Because hiring new employee requires cost of hiring and training so if employee of some organization stays for longer period of time then organization may compete in better way. The tradition of Pakistan is relationship-oriented as well as collectivistic relatively than an achievement-oriented individualistic culture. Managers of organizations should consider these factors of employee satisfaction in policy making and as tool of competition. Because if the level of satisfaction of employee is high than the organizational performance would be better. The findings of this research study are important for service sector because in service sector, staff of organization is very important for growth of organization. Although study focused banking sector but its finding may be generalized to other service sectors and in manufacturing sector.

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Rousseau, D. M. (1978). Characteristics of departments, positions, and individuals: Contexts for attitudes and behavior. Administrative Science Quarterly, 521-540. Scandura, T. A., & Lankau, M. (1997). Relationships of gender, family responsibility and ďŹ&#x201A;exible work hours to organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18(4), 377-391. Turner, B. A., & Chelladurai, P. (2005). Organizational and Occupational Commitment, Intention to Leave, and Perceived Performance of Intercollegiate Coaches. Journal of Sport Management, 19(2). Wiener, Y. (1982). Commitment in organizations: A normative view. Academy of management review, 7(3), 418-428.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 93-107, January 2014

A Multivariate Analysis (MANOVA) of where Adult Learners Are in Higher Education Gail D. Caruth Texas A & M University-Commerce Commerce Texas 75429 Abstract. American institutions of higher education were originally established with the purpose of educating the advantaged youth. However, over time colleges and universities began to educate more adult students, those 25 years of age and older. Due to this increase in adults reentering the academy, it is appropriate and timely to ask where these students are attending school, what is known about their distribution in the higher education system, and whether they are assembled in one type of institution or evenly distributed among institutions. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine where undergraduate, adult students (25 years of age and older) are located within the 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities offering undergraduate degrees in the United States. This study utilized descriptive and multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) statistical analyses. Descriptive analysis provided the number, means, and standard deviations for college and university enrollments obtained from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) of The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) to answer two research questions. Two MANOVAs and comparative designs were employed to examine electronic data accessed through IPEDS. Undergraduate students under the age of 25 are enrolling in 4-year public and private universities in the United States at about double the enrollment rate as that of for-profit universities. Keywords: Adult Learner; Adult Education; Nontraditional Students

Introduction American institutions of higher education were originally established with the purpose of educating the advantaged youth (Rudolph, 1990; Thelin, 2004). However, over time colleges and universities began to educate more adult students, those 25 years of age and older. Adult education has been affected by changes in demographics since the launching of colleges and universities in the United States. In recent years higher education has experienced numerous and substantial changes in such demographics as the following: adults outnumbering those under 18 years of age for the first time ever, the percentage of the population over 65 is growing (U.S. Bureau of the Census [USBC], 2010), and the public is becoming more educated than in years past (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007).

Students 25 years of age and older are more complicated than traditional younger students, those younger than 25 years of age. Backgrounds, educational histories, levels of maturity, reasons for returning to school, experiences with technology, and individual responsibilities of adult students are more complex (Clemente, 2010). Many facets of higher education, regrettably, are not designed with adult learners in mind in spite of the reality that almost half of current college and university students are adults (Tannehill, 2009). Furthermore, there is minimal literature on how to instruct students in multigenerational class settings. With traditional and nontraditional students enrolled together in classes consideration is seldom given to how to teach these two distinct groups of students. In addition, there is comparatively little thought given to how these traditional and nontraditional students work together, how professors endeavor to link the differences between these two diverse groups, or how the two unique groups may be united during classroom discussions. Finally, there is a shortage of empirical research on how multigenerational students interact with each other in higher education and how to enhance effective learning between the two separate groups (Clemente, 2010). This minimal exploration into the field of adult learning is bewildering, taking into account that educating adults has been a focus of higher education in the United States and in Europe soon after World War I (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2011). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine where undergraduate, adult students (25 years of age and older) are located within the 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities offering undergraduate degrees in the United States.

Significance of the Study There has been an emerging trend in enrollment of adult students in higher education. The percentage of adults student enrolled in higher education is at an all time high (Altbach, Berdahl, & Gumport, 2005). This percentage has increased from 29% in 1970 to 43% in 2009 (NCES, n.d.b). It is apparent that more adults are in search of learning opportunities in this increasingly educated society. The burgeoning need for adult learning has produced a lucrative endeavor for education and practitioners in the field of adult learning and development (Merriam et al., 2007). Enrollments in higher education have been significantly impacted due to the increase of older nontraditional students within the higher educational system (Knowles, 1984). In a study by Schaefer (2010), there are overwhelming consequences for colleges and universities with the anticipated escalation of college and university enrollments of adult students and their return to higher education. Schaefer focused on adult students earning bachelorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degrees at a public 4-year university. According to Schaefer, this area of study presents a crucial area for empirical research because there is minimal literature on older adult students returning to undergraduate college and university classrooms. The number of adults is greater than the number of youth for the first time in the history of the United States (Merriam et al., 2007, USBC, 2010). In 1987, Americans 65 years and older outnumbered those younger than 25 and

Americans 85 years of age and older are the fastest growing sector of the older population (Merriam et al., 2007). Americans are growing older and living longer. The public has realigned the concentration from youth to adults as a result (Knowles, 1984). The Digest of Education Statistics in 2010 published the 46th in a series of education statistics publications. Using these data, Table 1 compares the enrollment of undergraduate students 18-24 years of age and students over 25 years of age for years 2007 and 2009. Table 1. Fall Undergraduate Enrollments in Degree-granting Institutions by Age for 2007 and 2009

Age 18 to 24 years old 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 39 40 - 49 50 - 64 65 and older 25 years old and older Total Source: NCES (n.d.c)

2007 10,047,905 (68%) 1,710,195 (12%) 944,123 (6%) 709,012 (5%) 935,783 (6%) 445,568 (3%) 70,608 (0.5%) 4,815,289 (32%) 14,863,194 (100%)

2009 10,995,900 (66%) 2,044,157 (12%) 1,177,534 (7%) 841,719 (5%) 1,097,374 (7%) 536,289 (3%) 61,650 (0.4%) 5,758,723 (34%) 16,754,623 (100%)

Due to this increase in adults reentering the academy, it is appropriate and timely to ask where these students are attending school, what is known about their distribution in the higher education system, and whether they are assembled in one type of institution or evenly distributed among all types of 4year institutions. Nontraditional adult learners have different experiences and backgrounds compared to traditional students (Clemente, 2010). Also of significance is the question of what higher education is doing to prepare for this proliferation in adult learners in the college and university classrooms. Adult education has experienced immeasurable growth in enrollment and number of colleges and universities that acknowledge adult learning as a chief function of higher education. Adult learning is a lucrative endeavor (Knowles, 1968). However, it is thought that higher education is not doing a sufficient job in effectively educating adult students (Harper & Ross, 2011; Knowles, 1968) and that the very continued existence of society necessitates learning beyond youth (Knowles, 1968). The growing diversity of the student body has also impacted higher education outside of the classroom. Higher education administrators are encouraged to consider the needs of nontraditional students when developing university services and programs. Higher education administrators are also encouraged to take advantage of the knowledge and experiences of nontraditional students (Tatum, 2010). For example, university orientation programs are generally not designed with the older adult students in mind. These nontraditional students frequently have more complicated lives than do younger students. Orientation programs should be designed and provided at times and locations appropriate for older students. Adult learners, in addition, should have advisors who are

accustomed to the needs of older students. Also, older adult students can be a valuable resource for younger students as mentors or role models (Tatum, 2010). Institutions that focus on nontraditional students will be the ultimate survivors in education according to Tannehill (2009). College and university administrators are not responsive to the educational needs of the adult learners. Empirical research generally neglects the older, adult students by focusing on traditional students. What research there is focuses on descriptive analyses. Further multivariate analysis, according to Cruce & Hillman (2012), is needed â&#x20AC;&#x153;to confirm the findings of descriptive analyses" (p. 596). This growth in enrollment of adult students requires further research. This group of students is a neglected section of the total student body (Schaefer, 2010). There is little if any research on where these students are attending school. In order to fulfill the needs of these students it is time to identify where they are in the 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities offering undergraduate degrees in the United States.

Research Design This research study was an archival, quantitative, data mining study that utilized data retrieved from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) of The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), which is located within the U.S. Department of Education and the Institute of Education Sciences. NCES is the main federal body that collects and analyzes educational data in the United States and other nations. NCES carries out a Congressional directive to examine the state of American education by collecting, collating, analyzing, and reporting comprehensive statistics; completing and publishing reports; and analyzing and reporting on education internationally (NCES, n.d.a). This study identified differences between and among the percentages of enrollments of undergraduate, adult students, traditional students, and students ages 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-49, 50-64, and 65 and older in 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities offering undergraduate degrees in the United States. This study utilized descriptive and multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) statistical analyses. Descriptive statistics were employed to identify common tendencies (Creswell, 2012). Descriptive analysis provided the number, means, and standard deviations for college and university enrollments obtained from IPEDS to answer the two research questions. Two MANOVAs and comparative designs were employed to examine electronic data accessed through the IPEDS. MANOVAs were used to analyze the grouping differences between and among the percentages of enrollments in 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities offering undergraduate degrees in the United States. MANOVA is a statistical method for determining whether independent groups differ on more than one dependent variable (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007). The intention of this study was to ascertain whether there are statistically significant differences in enrollment between and among the percentages of undergraduate, adult students and traditional students in 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities with an archival research method using data extracted from IPEDS.

Target Population and Participant Selection IPEDS gathers data from nine interconnected surveys that are conducted over three collection stages (fall, winter, and spring) each year from institutions that participate in federal student aid programs. During the spring, IPEDS collects data on fall enrollment, graduation rates, and finances. During the fall, IPEDS collects data on institutional characteristics (including pricing data), completion rates of postsecondary certificates of less than 1 year to doctoral degrees, and 12month graduate and undergraduate enrollment data. During the winter, IPEDS collects data on human resources and student financial aid. Instrumentation Data for this study were obtained from IPEDS. The data were extracted from the interrelated surveys completed each year by NCES. IPEDS is a database for data from colleges, universities, and technical and vocational institutions that participate in federal student financial aid programs. The Higher Education Act of 1965, as amended, required institutions that participate in federal student aid programs to submit data on enrollments, program completions, graduation rates, faculty and staff, finances, institutional prices, and student financial aid (The Higher Education Act of 1965). These data are made available to the public through IPEDS. Research Questions The following research questions were used to guide this study: 1. What are the enrollment percentages of undergraduate, adult students by the age categories of under 25, 25 and older, and students over the age of 25 further broken down into the following subcategories of 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-49, 50-64, and 65 and older in private, public, and for-profit universities offering undergraduate degrees in the United States? 2. Do differences exist in the enrollment percentages of undergraduate, adult students by the age categories of under 25, 25 and older, and students over the age of 25 further broken down into the following subcategories of 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-49, 50-64, and 65 and older between or among private, public, and for-profit universities offering undergraduate degrees in the United States? Hypothesis The following hypothesis was tested at the .05 significance level: No differences exist in the enrollment percentages of undergraduate, adult students by the age categories of under 25, 25 and older, and students over the age of 25 further broken down into the following subcategories of 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-49, 50-64, and 65 and older between or among private, public, and forprofit universities offering undergraduate degrees in the United States. Methods and Procedures University undergraduate student enrollments for the year 2010 included a total of 1,494 4-year universities that were downloaded from IPEDS into an Excel spreadsheet. Universities reporting no enrollment information were deleted. Totals and percentages were calculated. Of the 1,494 universities, 544 were

public, 599 were private, and 351 were for-profit universities participating in federal student aid programs in the United States. Collection of the Data Data were obtained for 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities in the United States for the year 2010. The data were downloaded from IPEDS and converted into an Excel document. The Excel document was formatted and copied to a Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 19.0.0 spreadsheet for analysis. The data were stored on a flash drive under the control of the researcher. Analysis of the Data The statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS to answer the research questions using the purged dataset obtained from IPEDS. Descriptive data were calculated for each grouping of dependent and independent variables. Descriptives included the number, mean, and standard deviation. Two MANOVAs were completed. The first MANOVA was to determine the differences between undergraduate, adult students under the age of 25 and undergraduate, adult students 25 years of age and older in 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities offering undergraduate degrees in the United States. The second MANOVA was completed to investigate possible differences in enrollment percentages between and among the subcategories of the students ages 25 and older broader category. The subcategories of age were: 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-49, 50-64, and 65 years and older. The first step was to conduct descriptive statistics to determine what the enrollment percentages were of undergraduate adult students according to age and university type. Descriptive analysis presented the number, mean percentages, and standard deviations for university enrollments obtained from IPEDS to answer the research questions. The second step was to test the null hypothesis that no significant differences exist for the three groups of universities. This test was significant. Therefore, the second step was to complete follow-up tests to explain the group differences (Bray & Maxwell, 1985). Assumption one of MANOVA concerning independence was met because the IPEDS database presents responses for all universities participating in the federal student financial aid programs in the United States. No pattern for the selection of universities was used for this research study because all universities in the United States were included (Caruth, 2013). Assumption two of MANOVA concerning level of measurement of the variables was met because independent variables were categorical according to university type. The dependent variables were percentages that are continuous between the lower bounds of 0% and the upper bounds of 100%. Both independent and dependent variables satisfied the second assumption (Caruth, 2013). Assumption three of MANOVA, linearity of dependent variables, required correlation between the dependent variables. Linearity of the dependent variables was tested by calculating a Pearson Correlation Coefficient within each sector of private, public, and for-profit universities. The categories of ages within the larger variable of 25 years of age and older overall also resulted in

high correlations with the other dependent variables. While the weaker age group 65 and older (mean 0.15%) resulted in smaller correlations with the other dependent variables, robustness is increased when comparing difference between the averages of the stronger and weaker variables if strong and weak variables were identified prior to collecting the data (Cole, Maxwell, Arvey, & Salas, 1994, p. 472). Because it was easily recognized from the descriptive statistics that the 65 years of age and older age group was a weak variable due to the small percentage of enrollments of undergraduate students in 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities in the United States, assumption three was also satisfied (Caruth, 2013). Results Research Question 1 The first research question was, What are the enrollment percentages of undergraduate, adult students by the age categories of under 25, 25 and older, and students over the age of 25 subcategories (25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-49, 50-64, and 65 and older) in private, public, and for-profit universities offering undergraduate degrees in the United States? The enrollment numbers of undergraduate, adult students by the denoted age categories in each of the three sectors (private, public, and for-profit) of 4-year universities in the United States were obtained from IPEDS. Once obtained using the IPEDS Data Cutting Tool, data were cleaned to include only those institutions that served undergraduate, adult students by the age categories of under 25, 25 and older, and students over the age of 25 further broken down into the subcategories (25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 4049, 50-64, and 65 and older). Enrollment totals and percentages were calculated in SPSS. The names of the institutions were removed and data were coded according to private, public, or for-profit institution. Descriptive statistics were completed for each sector in SPSS as shown in Table 2 (Caruth, 2013). The data for public 4-year universities included 544 institutions. The mean enrollment percentage for undergraduate students under the age of 25 was 76.1%, with a standard deviation of 15.4 percentage points. In the private sector, 599 universities reported a mean enrollment rate of 77.5% for undergraduate students under the age of 25 with a standard deviation of 23.8 percentage points. In the for-profit sector, 351 universities reported a mean enrollment rate of 35.5% for undergraduate students under the age of 25 with a standard deviation of 16.5 percentage points. A total of 1,494 universities reported a mean enrollment rate of 67.1% for undergraduate students under the age of 25 with a standard deviation of 25.2 percentage points (Caruth, 2013). In the public sector, 544 universities reported a mean enrollment percentage of 20.8% for undergraduate students age 25 and older with a standard deviation of 13.1 percentage points. In the private sector, 599 universities reported a mean enrollment rate of 19.1% for undergraduate students age 25 and older with a standard deviation of 19.9 percentage points. In the for-profit sector, 351 universities reported a mean enrollment rate of 54.7% for undergraduate students age 25 and older with a standard deviation of 13.4 percentage points. A total of 1,494 universities reported a mean enrollment rate of 28.1% for

100

undergraduate students age 25 and older with a standard deviation of 21.9 percentage points (Caruth, 2013). Table 2. Undergraduate Enrollment Percentages for 2010

Age Group Under 25

Public Mean %

Private Mean % SD

For-Profit Mean % SD

Total Mean %

76.1

15.4

77.5

23.8

35.5

16.5

67.1

25.2

20.8

12.1

19.1

19.9

54.7

13.4

28.1

21.9

9.9

5.4

7.3

6.8

22.8

4.9

11.9

8.5

30-34

4.9

3.4

4.4

5.0

15.3

4.4

7.1

6.3

35-39

3.1

2.4

3.4

4.6

9.9

3.8

4.8

4.7

40-49

3.9

3.5

4.9

6.8

12.0

5.6

6.2

6.4

50-64

1.9

2.0

2.4

4.7

4.5

2.8

2.7

3.6

65 & above

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.7

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.5

Over 25 25-29

Enrollment data were further broken down according to the following subcategories of undergraduate students age 25 and older: 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-49, 50-64, and 65 and older. The purpose of this descriptive analysis was to provide in-depth descriptive details on adult students 25 years of age and older who are enrolled in 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities offering undergraduate degrees. Older undergraduate students tend to enroll in private and for-profit 4-year universities. Once adult students reach the ages of 35-39, data revealed that enrollments shift from public (3.1%) to private (3.4%) 4-year universities. Enrollment for students aged 65 and older are equal (0.2%) among institution type. Enrollment percentages for adult students over the age of 25 at for-profit 4-year universities are higher than both public and private 4-year universities until the age of 65 and older. For this older age group, the data revealed that the percentage of adult students at for-profit 4-year universities is 0.1% (Caruth, 2013). Research Question 2 Research question 2 asked, Do differences exist in the enrollment percentages of undergraduate, adult students by the age categories of under 25, 25 and older, and students over the age of 25 subcategories (25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-49, 50-64, and 65 and older) between or among private, public, and for-profit universities offering undergraduate degrees in the United States? The response to this question was determined by testing the accompanying hypothesis, which stated:

101

No differences exist in the enrollment percentages of undergraduate, adult students by the age categories of under 25, 25 and older, and students over the age of 25 subcategories (of 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-49, 50-64, and 65 and older) between or among private, public, and for-profit universities offering undergraduate degrees in the United States. This hypothesis was tested at a significance of α < 0.05 by performing a MANOVA in SPSS. The independent variable was the type of institution and the dependent variable was the percentage of enrolled students in each age group. Levene’s Test revealed significant differences in the error variances across groups (Caruth, 2013). However, Bray and Maxwell (1985) found that MANOVA is robust when this assumption is violated if a large sample is used. The large sample size used in this study meets the expectations addressed by Bray and Maxwell (Caruth, 2013). Bray and Maxwell also claimed that it is unlikely that all assumptions of MANOVA will be met; therefore, “violating the assumptions does not necessarily invalidate the results” and “MANOVAs are relatively robust to violations of assumptions” (Bray & Maxwell, 1985, p. 33). Differences by Under and Over 25 Years of Age The MANOVA findings for undergraduate students under the age of 25 and students 25 years of age and older showed a statistically significant difference [Wilks' Lambda = 0.537, F(4, 2980) = 271.913 p < .001, 2 = .267] in enrollment percentages among the groups. Effect size indicated that 27% of the variance in enrollment percentages of students according to age could be attributed to university type. Between-subjects effects revealed a significant difference in enrollment percentages for undergraduate, adult students by the age categories of under 25 and 25 and older in 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities in the United States (Caruth, 2013). This finding results in a rejection of the null hypothesis that no differences exist (see Table 3). Table 3. Between-Subjects Effects for Enrollment Percentages by Age Groups

Source

2

Under 25 Over 25

459743.969 324806.587

2 2

229871.985 162403.293

607.958 618.935

.000 .000

.449 .454

Differences by the Seven Age Group Subcategories The MANOVA findings for undergraduate students under age of 25, 25-29, 3034, 35-39, 40-49, 50-64, and 65 and older showed a statistically significant difference [Wilks' Lambda = 0.410, F(12, 2972) = 139.255, p < .001, 2 = .360] in enrollment percentages among the groups (see Table 4). Effect size indicated that 36% of the variance in enrollment percentages of students according to age could be attributed to university type. Between-subjects effects revealed a significant difference in enrollment percentages for undergraduate, adult students by the age categories under 25, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-49, 50-64, and 65 and older enrolled in 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities in the United States. However, enrollments of students age 65 and older were not

102

statistically significant. Even so, these results also lead to a rejection of the null hypothesis that no differences exist (Caruth, 2013). Table 4. Between-Subjects Effects for Enrollment Percentages by Age Group Subcategories

Source

ď ¨2

Under 25 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-49 50-64 65 up

459743.969 56515.856 30473.059 11779.158 15866.310 1509.924 1.194

2 2 2 2 2 2 2

229871.985 28257.928 15235.530 5889.579 7933.155 754.962 .597

607.958 815.899 805.258 423.694 263.779 62.802 2.357

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .095

.449 .523 519 .362 .261 .078 .003

A simple contrast was completed with public universities as the reference category to test the hypothesis (see Table 5). This method was chosen because adjusting the alpha level sufficiently to reduce the chance of a Type I error would result in an alpha level that was too strict. Findings indicated that a statistically significant difference in enrollments for undergraduate students between public and private institutions exists for age groups 25-29, 30-34, 40-49, and 50-64. There were no significant differences of enrollments between private and public universities for age groups under 25, 35-39, and 65 and older. These findings indicated that a statistically significant difference in enrollments for undergraduate students between public and for-profit institutions for all age groups (Caruth, 2013). Table 5. Simple Contrast Results

Age Group Under 25 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-49 50-64 65 & above

Significance of Comparison between Public and Private .211 .000 .033 .207 .004 .005 .756

Significance of Comparison between Public and For-profit .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .040

Summary Descriptive statistics presented general trends and tendencies in undergraduate, adult student enrollments in 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities in the United States. Results of the descriptive analysis indicated that of the 1,494 universities that participated in this research study, 599 were private, 544 were public, and 351 were for-profit universities that participate in federal student aid programs in the United States. The overall means for the two main groups of undergraduate student enrollment totals were 67.1% for students under the age of 25 and 28.1% for students age 25 and older. However, the overall means for undergraduate student enrollment totals for the six subcategories of the 25 years

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and older group were as follows: 25-29 (11.9%); 30-34 (7.1%); 30-34 (4.8%); 40-49 (4.8%); 50-64 (6.2%); and over 65 years of age (.1%). Results also indicated that public university enrollment percentages yielded an overall mean of 76.1% for students 24 years of age and younger and 20.8% for students 25 years of age and older. Private university enrollment percentages yielded an overall mean of 77.5% for students 24 years of age and younger and 19.1% for students 25 years of age and older. For-profit university enrollment percentages yielded an overall mean of 35.5% for students 24 years of age and younger and 55.7% for students 25 years of age and older (Caruth, 2013). Findings from the first MANOVA for undergraduate students under the age of 25 and students 25 years of age and older showed a statistically significant difference between the two age groups. Differences according to adult students under 25 and 25 and older suggested that enrollment percentages for adult students over the age of 25 in 4-year for-profit universities are higher than enrollment percentages for adult students over the age of 25 in both 4-year public and private universities. The effect size (the measure of the strength of the relationship between age and university type) indicated that 27% of the variance in enrollment percentages of students according to age could be attributed to university type (Caruth, 2013). Findings from the second MANOVA for enrollment percentages for undergraduate students under age of 25, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-49, 50-64, and 65 and older showed a statistically significant difference between and among 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities in the United States. Based on these findings, there is a difference in enrollment percentages among the various age group subcategories. Specifically, differences according to the age group subcategories suggested that once adult students reach the ages of 35-39, their enrollments begin to shift from public (3.1%) to private (3.4%) 4-year universities; enrollment percentages become equal between institution types for students 65 and older (0.2%). Enrollments of students age 65 and older are not statistically significant between and among the various university types. For the 65 and older student population, percentages of adult students at 4-year forprofit universities are slightly lower (0.1%) than the percentages for adult students at public and private universities (0.2%). There is a statistically significant difference in enrollments for undergraduate students between public and private institutions for age group subcategories 25-29, 30-34, 40-49, and 5064. There are no significant differences in enrollments between public and private universities for age groups under 25, 35-39, and 65 and older. Findings also suggested a statistically significant difference in enrollments for undergraduate students between public and for-profit institutions for all age group subcategories. The effect size (the measure of the strength of the relationship between age and university type) indicated that 36% of the variance in enrollment percentages of students according to age could be attributed to university type (Caruth, 2013). Overall findings suggested a statistically significant difference in percentages of enrollments for undergraduate students between and among the three types of

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universities according to age. However, enrollments of students age 65 and older were not statistically significant. Even so, these results led to a rejection of the null hypothesis that no differences exist. A simple contrast analysis suggested differences in the percentage of enrollments of undergraduate students between private and public universities according to the age groups 2529, 30-34, 40-49, and 50-64. There were also differences in the percentages of enrollments of undergraduate students between public and for-profit universities according to age groups 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-49, 50-64, and 65 and older (Caruth, 2013). Discussion Undergraduate students under the age of 25 could be enrolling in 4-year public and private universities in the United States at about double the enrollment rate as that of for-profit universities because of family tradition (other family members have attended the same university), lack of awareness (not knowing what other universities have to offer), or institutional reputation (selecting a university based name). The most astonishing finding was that as undergraduate, adult students increase in age, they tend to enroll in 4-year forprofit universities at a significantly higher rate and this is particularly true for students between the ages of 25-29. This could be because of credential needs, convenience, employment advancement opportunities, or customer orientation and student satisfaction. Adult students are enrolling in for-profit universities at almost double the enrollment rate of public or private universities (Caruth, 2013). Cost factors could be the reason for students between the ages of 25-29 enrolling in public universities at higher rates than in private universities. While students ages 40-49 are enrolling in private universities at a higher rate than in public universities. This could be because of institutional reputation and perception of degree value. An interesting finding is that the majority of adult students tend to enroll in for-profit universities at higher rates than either public or private universities, except for the 65 and older age group. These older students enroll in 4-year public and private universities at a higher rate than they enroll in 4year for-profit universities. This may be a statistical aberration and in the face of such low number difficult to explain. For-profit universities appear to be meeting the needs of adult students more effectively than either public or private universities with those age 25 and older enrolling in 4-year for-profit universities at more than double the rate of enrollments at either 4-year public or private universities. This finding may indicate that for-profit universities may also provide an environment that encourages adults to continue learning (Finn, 2011). As Tannehill (2009) suggested, universities that fulfill the needs of adult learners will be the ultimate survivors. Considering the finding of the 65 and older age group, public and private universities may be meeting the needs of these adult learners more effectively than for-profit universities. While this group is small in number, it is on the rise. Adult learners ages 65 and older are looking for something to do in retirement that has meaning and provides opportunities for continued

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development (Merriam et al., 2007). This aspiration indicates that the needs of these adult learners may be different from the needs of students in the younger subcategories (Caruth, 2013). Students ages 30 and older are enrolling in private universities at a higher rate than they are in public universities (Caruth, 2013). This suggests that private universities are meeting the needs of adults who recognize the importance of additional education to improve job skills (Merriam et al., 2007), enjoy a hobby, or simply to cope with life (Knowles et al., 2011). Private universities seem to understand that timing is crucial for nontraditional students and that adult learners tend to be ready to learn the things they need to know and do as the need develops in their already complex lives (Knowles et al., 2011). Assumptions This study was based on two assumptions. The first assumption was that the individuals who completed report information for their universities and colleges to IPEDS were competent and knowledgeable of their organizationsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; information. The second assumption was that the individuals who reported information for their universities and colleges to IPEDS were open, honest, and provided accurate information. Limitations of the Research In light of the completed study, a review of these limitations and delimitations that were understood at the inception of this research is essential. The quantitative data for this study were obtained from the 2010 academic year of institutions that reported to IPEDS. An investigation of previous or subsequent years may have yielded different results. Data were only collected from institutions that report to IPEDS. Although the IPEDS Data Center offered large sample sizes in all sectors of 4-year institutions, including data from institutions that do not report to IPEDS may have also altered the results of this study. Furthermore, the data for this research included only undergraduate students and 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities. Including data from graduate students or colleges and universities other than 4-year private, public, and for-profit universities might produce different results as well. Lastly, it is possible that data were reported to IPEDS incorrectly as with all self-reported data. The MANOVA would yield inaccurate results if this were the case (Caruth, 2013). Implications The findings of this research study have widespread implications, from opportunities that exist for the future practice of educating adult learns to benefits for students, faculty, and universities because of higher educations' recognition of the unique needs of nontraditional students in the classroom. One such opportunity is that public and private universities can review current programs and services. With the predictions of increasing college and university enrollments of adult students, this is a feasible market (Caruth, 2013). Private and public universities are encouraged to develop programs and services that align with the needs of adult students (Tatum, 2010). For example, Chan (2010)

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suggested that universities replace pedagogical methods of instruction with andragogical methods to construct more engaging learning environments. Another opportunity is that colleges and universities can take into account the precise needs of adult students ages 30 and older. For-profit universities enrollments almost double the number of adult students than private or public institutions, while private universities are attracting older adults at increasing rates and public universities are attracting adult students at decreasing rates. Public universities could examine the possible reasons for the low numbers of adult students, study actions taken by other universities to attract these nontraditional students, and imitate those actions (Caruth, 2013). Recommendations for Further Research The completion of this research study has presented a number of questions for further research. The first question comes to light from the first limitation of this research. This study collected data for a single academic year. While this may be the first study to compare the enrollment percentages of undergraduate, adult students by the age categories it should not be the last. Therefore, it is recommended that this study be replicated to verify the findings. In addition, a longitudinal study could be completed to compare the enrollment percentages. Investigating these data over an extended period may yield worthwhile information for all institutions to assist in identifying trends in adult enrollments in higher education. The quantitative data for such a research investigation are easily obtainable through IPEDS. This study looked at enrollment percentages in the United States. It is recommended that this study be replicated on enrollment percentages in various states in the United States to compare these national findings with individual state findings. Therefore, it is also recommended that a study conducted to include 2-year colleges, trade schools, etc. enrollment percentages. In addition, qualitative research methods could be conducted to identify reasons why students over the age of 25 are enrolling in for-profit universities at such a considerable rate. Questions could be answered as to why students over the age of 35 tend to enroll in private universities rather than public universities and students over the age of 65 tend to enroll in private and public universities rather than in for-profits.

References Altbach, P., Berdahl, R., & Gumport, P. (2005). American higher education in the twentyfirst century (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. Bray, J. H., & Maxwell, S. E. (1985). Analyzing and interpreting significant MANOVAs. Review of Educational Research, 52(3), 340-367. doi:10.3102/00346543052003340 Caruth, G. (2013). Andragogy in higher education: Identifying 2010 adult learners in baccalaureate degree-granting institutions. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Texas A & M University-Commerce, Commerce, TX. Chan, S. (2010). Applications of andragogy in multi-disciplined teaching and learning. Journal of Adult Education, 39(2), 25-35. Clemente, K. A. (2010). Experiences of adult students in multi-generational community college classrooms (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA. Cole, D. A., Maxwell, S. E., Arvey, R., & Salas, E. (1994). How the power of MANOVA can both increase and decrease as a function of the intercorrelations among the

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dependent variables. Psychological Bulletin, 115(3), 465-474. doi:10.1037/00332909.115.3.465 Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Cruce, T. M., & Hillman, N. W. (2012). Preparing for the silver tsunami: The demand for higher education among older adults. Research in Higher Education, 53(6), 593-613. doi 10.1007/s11162-011-9249-9 Finn, D. (2011). Principles of adult learning: An ESL context. Journal of Adult Education, 40, 34-39. Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P., & Borg, W. R. (2007). Educational research: An introduction (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Green, G., & Ballard, G. H. (2011). No substitute for experience: Transforming teacher preparation with experiential and adult learning practices. SRATE Journal, 20, 12-20. Harper, L., & Ross, J. (2011). An application of Knowles’ theories of adult education to an undergraduate interdisciplinary studies degree program. The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 59, 161-166. doi:10.1080/07377363.2011.614887 The Higher Education Act. 20 U.S. C. §1001. (1965) Hughes, B. J., & Berry, D. C. (2011). Self-directed learning and the millennial athletic training student. Athletic Training Education Journal, 6, 46-50. IPEDS Data Center. (n.d.). The integrated postsecondary education data system [Database]. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds Knowles, M. S. (1968). Andragogy, not pedagogy. Adult Leadership, 16(10), 350-352, 386. Knowles, M. S. (1984). Andragogy in action: Applying modern principles of adult learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2011). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (7th ed.). Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. National Center for Education Statistics. (n.d.a). IPEDS data center. Washington, DC: Author. National Center for Education Statistics, (n.d.b). Digest of education statistics, 2010, Chapter 3: Postsecondary education enrollment, table 199. Washington, DC: Author. National Center for Education Statistics, (n.d.c). Digest of education statistics, 2010, Chapter 3: Postsecondary education enrollment, tables 199 & 200. Washington, DC: Author. Rudolph, F. (1990). The American college and university: A history (2nd ed.). Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. Schaefer, J. L. (2010). Voices of older baby boomer students: Supporting their transitions back into college. Educational Gerontology, 36, 67–90. doi: 10.1080/17419160903057967 Tannehill, D. B. (2009). Andragogy: How do post-secondary institutions educate and service adult learners? (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA. Tatum, C.G. (2010). An explanatory mixed methods inquiry into the academic experience of nontraditional community college students (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Texas A&M University-Commerce, Commerce, TX. Thelin, J. R. (2004). A history of American higher education. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2010). The older population: 2010. Retrieved from http://2010.census.gov

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 108-130, January 2014

Group Communication and Interaction in project-based Learning: The Use of Facebook in a Taiwanese EFL Context Wan-Jeng Chang Overseas Chinese University 100,Chiao Kwang Rd., Taichung 40721, Taiwan Abstract. This study shows how Facebook and its interactive and collaborative features can help English as a foreign language (EFL) undergraduates to process and reconstruct knowledge regarding project-based learning. The research questions included: What types of communication interaction behaviors do participants exhibit? How do participants behave at various stages? How do student collaborations on Facebook help them to process and reconstruct knowledge regarding the EFL project? Open-coding and content analysis were conducted to determine what learners discussed and their communication patterns. The results confirmed that collaborative interaction on Facebook facilitated EFL and project-based learning (PBL). Among the various topics that students discussed, shared, and explored on Facebook, they linked existing knowledge with new stimuli to gain a new understanding of their experience. They developed technology skills, shared problem-solving ideas, gained academic knowledge, and finally completed the project successfully. Contributions and limitations of this paper are discussed as well. Keywords: Collaborative Learning; Interaction Process; Project-Based Learning; EFL Learning; Facebook; Computer-Assisted Language Learning

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INTRODUCTION The popularization of the Internet and the convenience of online social utilities have changed how people communicate and influenced how students learn. Online networking sites enable students to transmit files, share resources, and send instant messages without time and space limitations. Although strengthening the interface design of these sites is essential, understanding how learners use these sites is even more crucial for educators. Without meeting face-to-face, successful network learning depends largely on communication and interaction skills. The results from analyzing these interactions might serve as references to improve teaching and learning quality, which is worthy of serious consideration. Using the social network purposively as a primary learning platform is more complex than using it to facilitate academic communication after school, particularly when it involves teamwork projects. This study employed project-based learning (PBL) and applied the leading social network, Facebook, as a primary forum for students to conduct a project. English is the most commonly studied foreign language in Taiwan. Students are required to learn English as a foreign language (EFL) at various levels of schooling. Several studies (Allen & Rooney, 1998; Legg, 2007; Eguchi & Eguchi, 2006; Azman & Shin, 2011) have discussed EFL or English as second language (ESL) learning in the PBL environment. Other studies (Razak, Saeed, & Ahmad, 2013; Hassan & Muhi, 2012; Omar, Embi, & Yunus, 2012; Suthiwartnarueput & Wasanasomsithi, 2012) have examined how Facebook assists EFL and ESL students in enhancing their English ability. However, few studies have investigated how Facebook assists PBL, particularly in EFL settings. This paper explored how Facebook is used in constructing knowledge when working within an EFL project-based learning environment. Text communication on Facebook was analyzed to identify participant communication interaction behaviors and their learning process. LITERATURE REVIEW Project-based learning Learning-by-doing has been recognized as the most effective learning approach (Lombardi, 2007), and most educators consider projects as representing learning-by-doing (Blumenfeld et al., 1991). Thus, numerous researchers and instructors adopt a positive attitude toward PBL. PBL is a comprehensive perspective concentrated on instruction by involving students in investigation

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(Blumenfeld et al., 1991). In PBL, students collaborate in groups to solve authentic and curriculum-based problems, and decide how to approach a question and what activities to pursue (Solomon, 2003). PBL provides the student autonomy over and responsibility for what is learned, moves learners toward expert knowledge, and encourages them to explore and examine various problems and resources to construct strategies for solving these problems, and to negotiate and share information (Grant & Branch, 2005). PBL projects include several key features. First, every project must have its own specific purpose, because the desire to achieve this goal is a substantial factor in collective and emotional involvement (George & Leroux, 2001). Second, the activities related to projects should be interesting and meaningful to students (Blumenfeld et al., 1991). Third, the problems associated with projects must be challenging to learners (Thomas, 2000; Solomon, 2003; Meyer, Turner, & Spencer, 1997). Fourth, upon completion of the project, students must produce artifacts, such as works or productions (Blumenfeld et al., 1991). Finally, and most crucially, the real-world focus of projects is central to the PBL process (Solomon, 2003). Researchers have observed that knowledge is contextualized and that students solve real problems in situations where they use strategies, tools, and resources (Krajcik et al., 1994). In PBL, students are motivated to persist, integrate previous knowledge with new experiences, and generate rich domain-specific knowledge and problem-solving strategies to apply to real-world problems (Blumenfeld et al., 1991; Herrington, Oliver, & Reeves, 2003; Lombardi, 2007). Authentic questions are crucial because they involve certain distinguishing characteristics (Reeves, Herrington, & Oliver, 2002): real-world relevance requires learners to define the necessary tasks to complete the activity, comprising complex tasks for learners toward sustained investigation, the opportunity for learners to examine the task with multiple sources and perspectives, the opportunity to collaborate, the opportunity to reflect on learning, integrating an interdisciplinary perspective, integrating assessment and reflecting real-world evaluation processes, creating polished products that are valuable to learners, and allowing diverse outcomes and multiple solutions. PBL relies on group members to take full responsibility for their learning (Milentijevic, Ciric, & Vojinovic, 2008). Learners seek solutions to realistic

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problems by asking and refining questions, discussing ideas, making predictions, drawing up blueprints, collecting and analyzing data, deriving conclusions, communicating to others, forming new questions, and creating works or productions (Blumenfeld et al., 1991). The teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role in the PBL project is a consultant, assistant, or facilitator (George & Leroux, 2001; Thomas, 2000). In problem-focused learning, teachers break down tasks for scaffold instruction, initiate strategies for thinking and problem solving, and gradually transfer responsibility to the students (Blumenfeld et al., 1991). The potential advantages of PBL (Frank & Barzilai, 2004; Blumenfeld et al., 1991; Grant & Branch, 2005) include students developing an integrated and deep understanding of content. The process of investigating and pursuing solutions to problems enables learners to acquire an understanding of critical concepts and principles. Second, students learn how to work with people to discover answers to questions. Third, the PBL approach fosters responsibility and independent student learning. Fourth, students are engaged in various types of task, which meets the learning needs of students. Fifth, students can develop long-term competencies, such as literacy skills and thinking skills. Sixth, student motivation and interest are increased through managing relevant issues. Seventh, the flexible PBL environment provides opportunities for students to make decisions regarding their abilities, resources, and plans. A PBL project must meet five criteria (Thomas, 2000). First, centrality: PBL projects are not subordinate to the curriculum; they are the central teaching strategy. Learners encounter and acquire central concepts of the discipline through the project. Second, driving questions: PBL projects focus on driving questions or ill-defined problems that drive learners to encounter and struggle with conceptual knowledge. Third, constructive investigations: the central activities of PBL projects involve knowledge transformation and construction. Fourth, autonomy: PBL projects do not finish at a predetermined outcome or take predetermined paths; they should include considerable learner autonomy, choice, unsupervised work time, and responsibility. Fifth, realism: PBL projects focus on realistic challenges of authentic problems, and the solutions have the potential to be implemented. Certain studies have addressed how PBL assists EFL or ESL students in enhancing

their

English

ability.

Allen

and

Rooney

(1998)

used

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cooperative-learning, problem-based approach with ESL students in business communication at Western Michigan University and concluded that the approach benefitted students by giving them the confidence and experience they needed to communicate and compete successfully in their courses. Eguchi and Eguchi (2006) adapted English magazine projects to help develop the speaking and writing abilities of 44 low-level EFL learners in Japan. The projects were positive in participant satisfaction, but did not exert a substantial effect on their English learning. A possible explanation might be the lack of natural contact with native English speakers outside of the classroom. Azman and Shin (2011) assessed implementing PBL in the ESL classroom with 32 undergraduates in Malaysia. The findings showed that the participants had positive perceptions of PBL, and that PBL exerted a positive effect on their language skills, particularly on speaking skills. The study also suggested that PBL can be successfully implemented on a small scale. Technology-assisted learning Educators have emphasized PBL for decades, and the current trend is to use technology to support it. Blumenfeld et al. (1991) claimed that technology can serve as a powerful tool to enhance learner motivation to perform projects and to assist learners in completing projects. Jonassen, Carr, and Yueh (1998) argued that technologies should serve as knowledge construction tools with which students learn. Liaw, Chen, and Huang (2008) observed that web-based technology can serve as a potential tool for collaborative learning because it enriches learning performance by constructing individual knowledge and group-sharing knowledge. Certain scholars have explained the reasons why technology support is superior to regular classroom settings in PBL learning. Finger et al. (2006) argued that typical academic environments undermine the effectiveness of collaborative learning projects for three reasons. First, scheduling and attending meetings are often difficult for students, and certain team members might miss key information and decisions. Second, students do not typically have a dedicated meeting space. Various artifacts produced at the end of a meeting must be distributed among team members. However, no one can reconstruct the meeting. Third, students rely on the personal recall of these distributed artifacts when formulating new information, but the necessary coconstruction of knowledge is lost

during

the

project

cycle.

Thus,

Finger

al.

proposed

that

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computer-mediated support meets the demands of collaborative work by providing information mobility, flexibility, and persistence. Certain applications of communication and information technologies are designed to fulfill the needs of PBL and enhance the efficiency of project-based instructional form in practice (Collis, 1997). However, traditional online discussion forums are ineffective at recreating the natural social interaction between learners and the response and participation rates are low (Miller, 2013). This might be because students are unfamiliar with the software, or that it is difficult to relate the software to their lives. Crews and Stitt-Gohdes (2012) indicated that implementing social network sites into courses offers a familiar environment for learners. Numerous studies support using social networking for community building and for enhancing learner engagement in higher education settings (Toliver, 2011). Virtual communities enable students to work in small groups to achieve shared goals and to reinforce their commitment to the values inherent in collaborative learning (Cerda & Planas, 2011). Thus, the author proposed that popular social networking sites, such as Facebook, serve as an ideal learning facilitator for PBL. With over 500 million registered users, Facebook has proven to be one of the most prominent social networking sites in recent years (Cerda & Planas, 2011; Wang et al., 2012), and has become an essential aspect of many studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; daily routine (Charlton, Devlin, & Drummond, 2009; Toliver, 2011). Because of its unique built-in functions offering pedagogical, social, and technological affordances, it has great potential in the educational field (Wang et al., 2012). From the viewpoint of the educational potential that Facebook offers for collaborative working, Facebook functions are not limited to behaviors involved in a shared objective (e.g., discussing topics, offering opinions, organizing events, sending information, sharing ideas and proposals, elaborating content). These functions include a social sense of belonging, developing personal relationship networks in cyberspace, switching from simple information sharing to learning and professional development, motivating learners, and forming a virtual learning community (Cerda & Planas, 2011). The advantages of Facebook are that students already use it in their daily lives, reading posts on their Facebook status page and commenting immediately

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(Miller, 2013). Individual actions are posted on the accounts of others, giving them the chance to reply, thus creating enriching and complex lines of social interaction, and generating learning and collective intelligence networks (Cerda & Planas, 2011). Moreover, Facebook displays who has read the entries, which forces students to recognize and remember those messages. Several studies have reported that the use of Facebook promotes student motivation, satisfaction, classroom climate, and student-instructor relationships (Wang et al., 2012). The convenience of using Facebook helps foster participation in the online discussion and facilitates a sense of community within the course (Miller, 2013). Facebook is an inclusive interaction paradigm, representing a valuable chance to cultivate knowledge and intergroup cohesion (Cerda & Planas, 2011). Several studies have highlighted the advantages of integrating Facebook in EFL and ESL classrooms. Razak, Saeed, and Ahmad (2013) investigated 24 Arab EFL learners using Facebook as a learning environment in writing English. The findings revealed that the amount of EFL learner participation in the writing activities greatly increased, the learners were motivated to generate ideas, and they regarded the Facebook group as an interactive learning environment that contributed to enhancing their writing. Hassan and Muhi (2012) surveyed and interviewed 50 Saudi EFL learners who used Facebook informally to improve their language, and the results showed that the participants held positive attitudes toward it. Omar, Embi, and Yunus (2012) used Facebook as a platform for the information-sharing task of 31 ESL learners in Malaysia. They received extremely positive feedback from the participants, suggesting that Facebook is a promising virtual tool and environment to enhance interaction in English learning. Suthiwartnarueput and Wasanasomsithi (2012) used Facebook as a medium for grammar and writing discussions among 83 low-intermediate EFL students in Thailand. The results showed that Facebook provided participants with a convenient and attractive means to engage in discussions, and they had positive attitudes toward using Facebook for learning grammar and writing. Although previous studies have elucidated how Facebook can be used to encourage learning in EFL or ESL settings, scant empirical study has been conducted to analyze how Facebook interactions help students achieve their learning goals. Little is known about how Facebook is used for PBL and for

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enhancing the interactive process. Investigating how learners use and make sense of this highly interactive virtual social network is essential (Mazer, Murphy, & Simonds, 2007). Instructor knowledge about the feedback provision during the learning process can assist them in obtaining insights into how to improve learning (Rowntree, 1987; Backer, 2010). To fill the literature gap, the author adopted a case study approach to explore group interaction behavior by applying Facebook to PBL to clarify learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; communication process. Study framework Grant and Branch (2005) referred to PBL as an example of a learner-centered learning approach that adopts cooperative and collaborative learning. Furthermore, Milentijevic, Ciric, and Vojinovic (2008) indicated that PBL is a constructivist pedagogy. Thus, the author inferred that the theoretical basis of PBL lies in learner-centered learning, constructivism, and collaborative learning. Learner-centered principles focus on integrating the needs, skills, interests, and backgrounds of learners into curriculum planning (Chou, 2004). PBL engages students in various types of tasks, and each team member contributes personal characteristics to acquire knowledge through the process. The crucial aspect of the learning process is that students are exposed to diverse perspectives in a problem-solving case and draw a self-selected conclusion on a specific topic (Chou, 2004). Students acquire more effective knowledge when they can combine their experience with the course materials and make sense of them. Student learning enhances in the process of constructing knowledge (Chou, 2004). Constructivism is one of the primary learning theories (Mason & Rennie, 2008; Gunawardena et al., 2009; Ractham, Kaewkitipong, & Firpo, 2012). Constructivist concepts of learning assign primary significance to how students attempt to make sense of what they are learning and actively construct their knowledge by working with and using ideas (Krajcik et al., 1994). Recent learning theories have stressed the social and constructivist aspects of the learning process (Jonassen, Carr, & Yueh, 1998). Social constructivism is grounded on the concept that a person constructs knowledge through the process of negotiating meanings with other people (So & Brush, 2008). A

constructivist

online

learning

environment

emphasizes

knowledge

construction through social interaction (Chou, 2004). Certain characteristics of

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social constructivist learning correspond with social networking technology: students are actively involved in the learning process, learning occurs in a social context, students engage in a learning relationship with each other in active knowledge construction, students can construct their own learning environment, and students can access data whenever they want (Ractham, Kaewkitipong, & Firpo, 2012). Learning occurs in a social context in which students interact with and internalize modes of knowing and thinking that are represented and practiced in a group and draw on the expertise of team members (Krajcik et al., 1994). In PBL, social interaction is based on collaborative learning. Collaboration in problem-oriented learning stresses inter- and intragroup interactions, where learners actively participate in the learning process while solving problems as a group (Collis, 1997). Collaborative learning provides opportunities for students to develop, examine, and evaluate their thoughts with group members (Chou, 2004), and might motivate learners to prepare more thoroughly to avoid disappointing other team members (Umble, Umble, & Artz, 2008). Successful collaborative learning involves the constant generation, transfer, and understanding of knowledge (Liaw, Chen, & Huang, 2008). METHODOLOGY Research questions Previous studies have reported that group sharing and discussion are productive learning strategies (Umble, Umble, & Artz, 2008). Certain studies have focused on PBL effectiveness, and some papers have stressed the advantages of Facebook in an educational setting. However, few studies have examined the PBL process by using Facebook, particularly in the EFL context. Therefore, this study examined the extent to which EFL college students use Facebook, and analyzed the approaches and experiences of learners using Facebook to assist in their project. The objective was to gain insight into the potential use of online social networks for learning and teaching in the EFL project context and in higher education. The study was guided by the following research questions: 1. What types of communication interaction behavior do participants exhibit? 2. How do participants behave at various stages? 3. How do student collaborations on Facebook help them process and

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reconstruct knowledge about the EFL project? Method The current paper employed a case study research method to examine the patterns of EFL learnerâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;learner interactions in a Facebook-based PBL course in a learner-centered and collaborative instructional design. Open-coding and content analysis were conducted to determine what learners discussed and their communication patterns. Because of the small-scale sample size, descriptive statistics was used to analyze the collected participant data that served as the qualitative evidence. Participants The participating students of the study included six undergraduates studying Applied English in Central Taiwan. These students were selected from a project course that they were required to complete to meet their program criteria. They all cited Mandarin Chinese as their mother tongue, but the project artifacts were required to be in English. In the project course, these students were required to complete the project as a team within 16 months, and they met their exclusive instructor once a week for 1 hr. PBL was the central teaching strategy in this case. Students could vote for their team leader and had the freedom to choose their project theme as long as it was related to what they had previously learned. They could decide how to approach the project theme and what activities to pursue in an interesting and meaningful approach. The participating students took a research method course for one semester before starting the project course. This experience equipped them with basic knowledge to perform the project effectively. The English proficiency level of all participants was intermediate; the consistency lowered the variation and simplified the difference between students. They were all familiar with Facebook and already used it in their daily lives. Procedures Participants were required to discuss the project in an exclusive Facebook group. To create a free and natural discussion environment, students could write in either Chinese or English. The project productions included a contract, a thesis in English, and a presentation in English. The project involved various challenges. First, the students were required to find an enterprise related to their

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project theme and sign a contract with the company. The contract did not involve money, but simply showed support and identification. Second, the students were required to write a thesis in English. The thesis included research background, motivation, literature review, questionnaire design, expert validity, data collection, result analysis, conclusion, and suggestions. The thesis findings had to benefit the enterprise and solve problems for them. Contacting an enterprise and trying to solve related questions added authenticity to the project. Third, at the end of the project, the students were required to conduct a formal presentation in English in front of three faculty judges, and English slides were required during the presentation. The students took full responsibility for their learning. The team instructor served as a facilitator to guide students as they engaged in the project. The instructorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s task primarily included discussing with students the difficulties they encountered in the process and proofreading their thesis and presentation draft. The instructor offered guidance through Facebook or in weekly meetings. The text communication of the instructor was minimal. Data analysis The project duration was 16 months, and was divided into three stages: preparing, executing, and finishing (Yueh & Chung, 2005). The first stage tasks included selecting a project theme and finding a suitable enterprise. The executing stage consisted of data collection, various learning activities, and completing the thesis. The final stage goals involved preparing the presentation and reflection. Open coding and content analysis were used to identify student-learning themes and patterns. Based on previous research (Chou, 2004; Jensen & Chiberg, 1991; Yueh

Chung,

procedural-oriented

2005),

this

interaction,

paper

divided

task-oriented

online

messages

interaction,

into and

relationship-oriented interaction. Procedural-oriented interaction included diverse administrative behaviors to maintain the project progress. Task-oriented interaction involved various behaviors directly related to the project. Relationship-oriented interaction contained diverse social behaviors. Unlike certain educational online systems, Facebook records text communication, but does not calculate the data. To proceed with content analysis, each of the text messages were coded by the researcher. Because of the large amount of

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qualitative data, the data was read multiple times before and after open coding and content analysis. To maintain completeness, the analyzed data included both students and their instructor because of the influence of the instructor on student behaviors. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Research Question 1: What types of communication interaction behaviors do participants exhibit? The participating students employed Facebook to discuss a wide range of topics related to their project. A total of 2,223 entries and responses were analyzed in this study. Based on the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s inductive analysis of the text communication, each interaction type was categorized into 5 to 14 communication acts. The agreeing behavior included words with agreement meaning and the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Likeâ&#x20AC;? button on comments. Table 1 shows the basic information regarding the interaction behaviors of participants. The descriptive statistical data reveals that the students most commonly used Facebook to agree with others on task-oriented issues (15.5%), propose suggestions (12.1%), and provide information (10.2%). Relationship-oriented interaction includes 14 communication acts, which is the highest among the three interaction types. This result implied that students performed complex social behaviors during this period, and learned with social support. Among the three types, task-oriented interaction was the highest (52.7%) among all participants. Table 2 reports the interaction behaviors of participants. Table 3 illustrates the number of posts and responses. The team leader made the most posts, and the instructor made the least posts. Certain students were more active than others were. Certain students might serve as leaders, whereas others might be followers. Each student performed various roles and contributed personal characteristics. The information shown in Tables 1, 2, and 3 demonstrates that Facebook offers students a space to share and interact with others on topics directly related to their project, and meets their administrative and social needs.

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The social and emotional support (such as encouraging, reminding, volunteering, caring, praising, and appreciating) shown in this study indicated the potential of Facebook in promoting social interactions that can benefit knowledge development. Students did not become discouraged when they encountered difficulty regarding their project and English problems. Certain social behaviors (such as volunteering, apologizing, and self-blaming) in this case might indicate that students attempted to avoid disappointing other team members, and tended to prepare more thoroughly. This confirms the assertions of Umble, Umble, and Artz (2008), regarding how collaborative learning motivates learners. The analysis process yielded several intriguing findings. First, although this was an EFL project, all participants communicated in Mandarin Chinese unless it was necessary to use English. This might have been caused by a lack of confidence in using the English language, insufficient English ability, or simply feeling more comfortable with their mother tongue. Second, when the instructor posted guidance or when someone passed on the instructorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s message, the student responses tended to be more polite, typically exhibiting â&#x20AC;&#x153;agreeingâ&#x20AC;? behavior, and fewer opinions were expressed. This phenomenon might be related to the cultural background of the students, because Taiwanese people generally value status and formality, and students are typically restrained and polite to show respect to their teachers. Table 1. Participant Performance of Communication Acts

Interaction type

Communication acts

Number

Percentage

214

9.6

Setting a deadline

0.9

Assigning tasks

4.2

Agreeing

100

4.5

Confirming progress

0.9

Total

447

20.1

Making an appointment/ Contacting each other Procedural-oriented

Instructor guidance/ Passing Task-oriented

instructor 66

3.0

messages Asking questions

122

5.5

Proposing suggestions

269

12.1

121

Providing information

226

10.2

Agreeing

344

15.5

Checking and revising

0.1

Sharing resources

142

6.4

Total

1,171

52.7

Greeting

0.9

Making a joke

3.7

Chatting

3.6

Agreeing

3.8

Expressing anxiety/confusion

2.0

Reminding

1.1

Easing the atmosphere

0.4

1.7

0.9

Self-defense

0.9

Requesting help/Volunteering

118

5.3

Caring/Responding to caring

0.8

1.6

Praising peers

0.5

Total

605

27.2

2,223

100

Self-encouraging/Encouragin Relationship-oriented

g others Apologizing/Self-judgment/S elf-blaming

Expressing appreciation/ Responding to appreciation

Total

Table 2. Participant Interaction Behaviors

Procedural- Task-

Relationship-

oriented

Student 1

80 (18.1%)

235 (53.3%) 126 (28.6%)

441 (100%)

Student 2

110 (19.9%)

310 (56.1%) 133 (24.0%)

553 (100%)

Student 3

67 (19.6%)

158 (46.2%) 117 (34.2%)

342 (100%)

Student 4(Team leader) 124 (20.7%)

328 (54.9%) 146 (24.4%)

598 (100%)

Student 5

23 (22.1%)

50 (48.1%)

31 (29.8%)

104 (100%)

Student 6

40 (22.9%)

83 (47.4%)

52 (29.7%)

175 (100%)

Instructor

3 (30%)

7 (70%)

0 (0.0%)

10 (100%)

Total

447

1,171

605

2,223

Total

122

Table 3. Number of Posts and Responses Posted

Number

Participant

posts

Number

responses

Total

posted

Percentag e

Student 1

389

441

19.8

Student 2

497

553

24.9

Student 3

286

342

15.4

Student 4(Team leader)

142

456

598

26.9

Student 5

104

4.7

Student 6

156

175

7.9

Instructor

0.4

Total

338

1,885

2,223

100

Research Question 2: How do participants behave at various stages? The study performed a chi-square test to determine any significant differences in participant interaction types regarding stages. The results presented in Table 5 indicate a significant difference. The number of interaction types at various stages is illustrated in Table 4. Task-oriented behaviors showed a higher level than

procedural-oriented

and

relationship-oriented

behaviors

did.

The

participants presented a higher percentage of task-oriented interaction, consistent with previous studies (Chou, 2004; Yueh & Chung, 2005). The outcome might have been caused by the distinct behaviors or attitudes (such as strategic experience and goal setting) of students in higher education (Yueh & Chung, 2005). The students who joined this study were undergraduates, and should be goal-oriented and project-focused. Table 4. Interaction Types at Various Stages

Procedural

Task

Relationship

oriented

Preparing

41 (22.6%)

74 (40.9%)

66 (36.5%)

181 (100%)

Executing

331 (22.7%)

773 (53.0%)

355 (24.3%)

1,459 (100%)

Finishing

75 (12.9%)

324 (55.5%)

184 (31.6%)

583 (100%)

Total

447

1,171

605

2,223

Total

123

Table 5. Chi-square Test

Value

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson chi-square

40.546(a) 4

.000

Likelihood ratio

42.378

.000

Linear-by-linear association

9.488

.002

Number of valid cases

2,223

0 cells (.0%) have an expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 36.40 Research Question 3: How do student collaborations on Facebook help them process and reconstruct knowledge about the EFL project? The content analysis of the entries and responses of the Facebook group indicated that the students who engaged in the project experienced and demonstrated one or more aspects of knowledge development regarding problem-solving in this EFL project. Solving Problems by Using Technologies The participating students attempted to solve certain problems they encountered by learning new technologies. One student made suggestions or shared resources when certain software or tools enhanced the project, and the other students followed. For new technologies, students used Google Drive to store files and Google Docs to design online questionnaires; they filmed video clips to enrich their presentation and used iPads to hold webcam conferencing when they could not meet in person; they used Skype to discuss current topics and learned to use Prezi instead of Powerpoint to show their slides. Table 6 summarizes brief examples of student technology use to assist their project. Table 6. Examples of Student Technology Use for Project Assistance

Communication acts Making an appointment

Examples 

“If I forget to show up on webcam conferencing on Saturday night, please call me.” (Student 2)



“Let’s go to Skype and talk about it now.” (Student 2)

Making suggestions



“One of my friends uses Google Docs to

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conduct surveys. Can we do that as well?” (Student 1) 

“I found a cool way to conduct presentations (http://prezi.com).

you

have

any

questions, please feel free to ask me.” (Student 3) Providing information



“You can see the number of participants so far and the responses in Google Docs.” (Student 4)



“I

recorded

two

video

clips

using

single-lens reflex camera with full HD video. I will send the attachment to you later.” (Student 1) Asking for help



“I don’t know how to edit the questionnaire on Google. Could someone help me with that?” (Student 1)



“Why can I only see the questionnaire questions, but not the responses?” (Student 1)

Volunteering



“I am the person who proposed using Prezi as a presentation tool, so I am responsible for teaching you how to use it.” (Student 3)

Solving Problems Related to Contacting With Native English Speakers The students all cited Mandarin Chinese as their mother tongue, and their English proficiency level was intermediate. Contacting and communicating with native English speakers posed a challenge for them. However, they decided to ask 100 Americans to fill out the questionnaire. During the survey, they attempted to locate Americans, and had to explain the questions to them individually. Table 7 presents a brief summary of the examples of student ideas for contacting Americans to complete the survey. Facebook provided a forum that enabled students to share their ideas on how to contact native English speakers. Table 7. Examples of Student Ideas for Contacting Americans

Communication acts Making suggestions

Examples 

“We can go to kindergartens or cram

125

schools to find Americans to fill out the questionnaire” (Student 4) 

“How about chatting on Omegle so we can meet Americans who might be willing to help us?” (Student 4)



“We can post the questionnaire on the Facebook wall.” (Student 4)

Volunteering



“Tomorrow I will go to school and ask foreign teachers to fill out the survey.” (Student 1)



“I will call the language centers of nearby universities to see if there are foreign teachers who can help us conduct the survey.” (Student 4)

Solving Problems Related to Academic Knowledge Because the participating students were not proficient at English, they decided to first discuss the thesis content in Mandarin Chinese, and each team member was subsequently responsible for part of the translation. The finished translation was posted on Facebook and team members conducted proofreading for each other before handing in to the instructor. Thus, learning occurred in the social context and students took advantage of team member expertise. Students reconstructed knowledge by learning new knowledge through collaborating and building on their previous experience Table 8. Examples of Student Understanding of Academic Knowledge

Communication acts Asking for help

Examples 

“I have translated “The Overview.” Please see the attachment and give me some feedback.” (Student 2)



“Could you check the grammar for me?” (Student 4)

Making suggestions



“You should put “s” at the end of “custom” because it is a countable noun.” (Student 1)



“There are two verbs in your sentence. You should rephrase it.” (Student 6)

126



“You can put “ing” at the end of “know” so that you don’t need to rephrase your sentence.” (Student 1)

Appreciating



“Thank you for your reminder about grammar.” (Student 4)

Volunteering



“Please notify me when you finish writing. I will check the APA format.” (Student 4)

CONCLUSION Social constructivism asserts that a person constructs knowledge through the process of negotiating meanings with others (So & Brush, 2008). In this case, Facebook provided an opportunity for students to learn and reconstruct knowledge through social interaction. A person who poses a question reflects and responds to a problem and invites others to engage in the knowledge construction process. The analysis of the collaborative conversations of six EFL undergraduates on Facebook demonstrated that Facebook enables students to support each other in solving problems. By discussing, sharing, and exploring various topics on Facebook, students linked existing knowledge with new stimuli and constructed a new understanding of their experience. They developed technology skills, shared problem-solving ideas, gained academic knowledge, and finally completed the project successfully. Although this research confirmed that collaborative interaction on Facebook facilitates EFL and PBL learning, the actual extent of progress on students’ English ability remains uncertain. Because the students focused on completing the project, they were not devoted to improving their English. Enhancing English ability was an additional benefit, not the learning goal for the students. Another limitation concerns data collection. This study only stressed text communication on Facebook. However, the participating students also discussed the project through Skype, webcam conferencing, and weekly meetings. The records of other communication channels were not included and analyzed in this study. Furthermore, the paper only explored a group of six EFL undergraduates in Taiwan. The results might not be generalizable to represent the attitudes and perspectives of all EFL learners. Facebook provided a convenient avenue to engage students in discussions in this study. However, in addition to Facebook features, the instructor also played a crucial role in assisting students to complete their project. In this case, the instructor served as

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