International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 4 (April 2022)
Print version: 1694 2493
Online version: 1694-2116
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 4
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Pedagogical Practices for Organizing Simulation Based Healthcare Education 1 Tuulikki Keskitalo
Black Learner Perceptions of Teacher Learner and Learner Learner Relationships in Multicultural Spaces of Historically White Schools................................................................................................................................................... 28 Anthony Mpisi, Gregory Alexander
Comparative Determination of Communicative Competence of Saudi Students of English for Tourism and Hospitality (SSETH) to Develop ESP Course Content 46 Eidhah Abdullah AbdulRahman Al Malki, Adel Awadh Al Harthi, Choudhary Zahid Javid, Muhammad Umar Farooq, Ghazi Fahad Algethami
Aspects Influencing ESP Syllabus Design in Lifelong Military Education 63 Stanislava Jonáková, Mária Šikolová, Magdalena Veselá
The Secondary School Students’ Interest toward the TVET Programs: Demographic Differences 80 Nazia Azeem, Muhd Khaizer Omar, Abdullah Mat Rashid, Arnida Abdullah
COVID 19 Pandemic Experiences: Cross Border Voices of International Graduate Students in Australia and America 97
Francis R. Ackah Jnr, John Appiah, Hyacinth Udah, Emmanuel Ayisi Abedi, Kwesi Yaro, Kwaku Addo Kissiedu, Isaac Kwabena Agyei, Isaac Opoku Nkoom
Media Timeline Development with the Focusky Application to Improve Chronological Thinking Skills 114 Ofianto Ofianto, Aman Aman, Sariyatun Sariyatun, Bunari Bunari, Tri Zahra Ningsih, Marni Emiar Pratiwi
Mathematics Teachers’ Perceptions on the Implementation of the Quizizz Application ......................................... 134 Muhammad Sofwan Mahmud, Ming Lei Law
Killing Two Birds with One Stone? A Study on Achievement Levels and Affective Factors in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) 150 Hengzhi Hu, Nur Ehsan Mohd Said, Harwati Hashim
Correlates of Employability among the Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education Graduates of a Philippine Public University 168 Shirley T. Pamittan, Catherine B. Caranguian, Apolinaria D. Andres, Jasmin B. Saquing, Rudolf T. Vecaldo, Antonio I. Tamayao, Panfilo C. Canay
The Reflectivity of EFL Preservice Teachers in Microteaching Practice 186 Eunjeong Park
The Teaching of Literature: Voices and Lenses............................................................................................................... 205 Jeson A. Bustamante
Using Books in Early Childhood to Prevent the Assumption of Traditional Gender Roles 220 Nur Ika Sari Rakhmawati, Melia Dwi Widayanti, Awalia Nor Ramadan, Rachma Hasibuan
The Influence of Emergency Remote Learning on Level 2 Accounting Students at a South African University 240 Onke Gqokonqana, Felicia Jurie, Andisiwe Madubedube, Lonwabo Mlawu
Challenges of Nature and Biology Online Learning for Students with Disabilities: A Mixed Methodology Approach 255 Mila Bulic, Ines Blazevic
Glimpses of Teaching in the New Normal: Changes, Challenges, and Chances 276 Janet Mananay, Rivika Alda, Maria Salud Delos Santos
Exploring How COVID 19 Shapes the Professional Identities of South African Student Teachers 292 Laura Arnold, Emma Groenewald
Students’ Preferences and Learning Styles in Relation to Reading and Writing Strategies at Distance Higher Education ............................................................................................................................................................................. 316 Carmen Benitez Correa, Alba Vargas saritama, Paul Gonzalez Torres, Ana Quinonez Beltran, Cesar Ochoa Cueva
Assessing the Impacts of IT Usage, IT Adoption, and Innovation Capabilities in Increasing the Hybrid Learning Process Performance........................................................................................................................................................... 337
Reina Setiawan, Elfindah Princes, Yovita Tunardi, Alvin Chandra, Noerlina ., Tirta Nugraha Mursitama, Devinca Limto
Physiotherapy Students’ Perceptions of e Practical Learning on Achieving Learning Outcomes A Pandemic Perspective 355 Chiew Si Yan, Rajkumar Krishnan Vasanthi, Ambusam Subramaniam
The Effectiveness of a Training Program to Develop an Attitude toward Creativity in Gifted Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 365 Sherif Adel Gaber
A Study of Technostress Levels of Secondary School Teachers in Malaysia During the COVID 19 Pandemic 380 Nur Yuhainis Ab Wahab, Hanifah Mahat, Marshelayanti Mohamad Razali, Nurul’Ain Mohd Daud, Nur Hidayah Baharudin
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 1 27, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.1
Received Jan 26, 2022; Revised Mar 19, 2022; Accepted Apr 4, 2022
Abstract. Despite the positive findings on the results of simulation based health careeducation,whattrulymakes itsuccessfulremainsunclear.We do not know enough about when and how the simulation based learning environment (SBLE) should be applied. Thus, the specific aim of this thematic review study was to determine what the facilitators’ pedagogical activities are in the simulation based education process. For this purpose, the study reviewed 83 previous studies in which the pedagogical practiceswere explained or examined. Based onthe literature review, the pedagogicalpracticeshave beenclearlylinked tofacilitators’activitiesbefore, during, or after simulation. Most of the research has focused on facilitators’ activities during simulation based education, especially during the debriefing phase. Some studies have examined pre simulation activities, but the research concentrating on facilitators’ post simulation activities is limited. All in all, this thematic literature review provided insights on the successful pedagogical practices for implementing the simulation based health care education process. To further develop simulation based health care education and to optimize the use of such a learning environment, scholars should describe facilitators’ and learners’ activities more accurately; and they should use more rigorous research methods to analyze the teaching and the learning activities. Furthermore, such knowledge should be synthesized and used to developpedagogical models and methods for simulation based healthcare education and to integrate them into various learning contexts.
Keywords: learning theories; pedagogy; facilitation; practices; methods; thematic literature review
In the last two decades, there has been growing interest in using simulations in healthcare education, in order to enhance learning, to improve learning experiences, and ultimately, to increase the quality of patient care and safety (Littlewood, 2011; Van Soeren et al., 2011; Ziv et al., 2000). However, simulation is a technique that must be used appropriately; and it must be tailored to the learning
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(Chee, 2014; Clapper, 2010; Gaba, 2004; Harder, 2009; Jeffries, 2007). Thus, regardless of how advanced a simulation is, it will enhance learning only if it is used appropriately.
It is currently, generally accepted that the use of simulation in medical and healthcare education enhances the learning of medical (Swamy et al., 2013) and nursing students (Hope et al., 2011; Yue et al., 2022), as well as that of professionals in fields, such as emergency medicine, (Chakravarthy et al., 2011; Schroedl et al., 2012), anesthesia (Ramsingh et al., 2014) and surgery (Bearman et al., 2014; Nguyen et al., 2015).
Simulation based education has been noted as being superior to basic lecture style courses (Burden et al., 2014; McCoy et al., 2011; McGaghie et al., 2011); and it is well received by learners (Brewer, 2011; Hope et al., 2011; Konia & Yao, 2013; Solnick & Weiss, 2007; Swamy et al., 2013; Weller, 2004). Certain effects have also been demonstrated with regard to enhancing the efficiency of interprofessional team training (Batchelder et al., 2009; Gough et al., 2009). Moreover, the use of simulation has been shown to have moderate effects on clinical practice (Cook et al., 2011).
Specifically, simulation has reportedly improved learners’ basic science knowledge, clinical skills, communication skills, and teamwork; and it has supported the formation and growth of confidence in one’s professional identity (Berragan, 2011; Cant & Cooper, 2009; Chakravarthy et al., 2011; Davies et al., 2012; McGaghie et al., 2011; Norman et al., 2012; Paige & Daley, 2009).
The reason for the positive learning experience with simulation may be that simulation is an active learner centered learning method, in which instruction can be tailored to meet the needs of the individual learners (Beauchesne & Douglas, 2011; Bland et al., 2011; Van Soeren et al., 2011). The widely cited review of Issenberg et al. (2005)found specific features that enhance learning in these novel learning environments, including feedback, repetitive practice, curriculum integration, a range of difficulty levels, multiple learning strategies, clinical variation, a controlled environment, individualized learning, defined outcomes, and simulation validity.
The systematic review by Cook et al. (2013) empirically supports nearly all these features. However, these reviews do not indicate specifically how these features should be implemented in practice. The facilitator’s pedagogical thinking and decision making have a marked influence on learning. However, pedagogical decisions and activities are rarely described in the research literature. As Garden et al. (2015) noticed, poor descriptions of pre briefing activities can hamper the assessment of the influence of debriefing on learning (e.g., see also Leigh & Steuben, 2018).
Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory, as well as Vygostky’s (1978) ideas of learning, and the principles of adult learning (Knowles et al., 1998) have previously been seen to provide an appropriate framework for considering the use of
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simulation in health care education. Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning model can be considered the first pedagogical model for guiding the simulation based learning process; and it continues to inform simulation based education practices in healthcare. Thereafter, a few more pedagogical models (e.g., Keskitalo, 2015a) have been designed to better address the special characteristics of the healthcare simulation context and to assist the meaningful learning of students. Pedagogical models practically describe how certain learning environments can be used and what type of learning they aim to support (Keskitalo, 2015a). With the help of the pedagogical model, simulation facilitators can actually root the learning in the proper context, frame their educational interventions with learning theories, and use techniques that are congruent with such theories.
Pedagogical models are also beneficial when structuring the simulation based learning process. Usually, the simulation based learning process is divided into four phases: the introduction, the simulator and scenario briefing, the scenarios, and debriefing.
Despite the existing models and the learning theories that are used to inform simulation based education, the pedagogical foundation is still somewhat lacking in healthcare simulation research (Rivière et al., 2018). This complicates the evaluation of its intervention and results. As Cianciolo and Regehr (2019) wrote to deepen our understanding of learning in context and to draw proven educational implications from healthcare education research, we must now consider intervention in its wider educational framework. Only in that way we can know whether the intended intervention actually took place.
As noted, we often miss the strong pedagogical foundation of simulation based healthcare education. In addition, we do not have a clear understanding of the facilitator’s role or what pedagogical activities the intervention actually involved. In other words, we do not know enough about how the simulation based learning environment (SBLE) is used (Cook et al., 2011; Garden et al., 2015; Cianciolo & Regehr, 2019; Issenberg et al., 2011). According to Ker (2012, p. 346), “There is a need to ask more how and why questions, as opposed to ‘does this work?’ or ‘which is better?” Thus, what truly makes simulation based education successful remains still unclear.
These findings, but also the researcher’s observations, motivated me to study simulation based education more closely from the facilitator’s point of view, as the facilitator is responsible for planning, organizing, and evaluating simulation based education. The focus of this thematic research review is to synthesize current knowledge regarding the pedagogical use of SBLE, in order to provide guidelines for healthcare simulation education practice, as well as ideas for future research. The specific aim is to determine what the facilitators’ pedagogical activities are in the simulation based learning process. The research question that this study attempts to answer is as follows: What kind of pedagogical activities do healthcare facilitators perform during the simulation based education process?
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Next, I present the review criteria and the methods. Then, I illustrate the synthesis of the pedagogical practices that facilitators have used to facilitate learning in this novel learning environment. Finally, I summarize the results, highlight the gaps in our understanding, and suggest some insights for future research.
This thematic review (e.g., Attride Stirling, 2001) aims to examine the pedagogical practices of simulation based healthcare education from the perspective of the healthcare simulation facilitator. This review is not intended to be complete; as there are numerous studies on simulation in healthcare and medical education (e.g., an August 2020 the online database search of ScienceDirect from 2000 to 2021 resulted in 115,044 journal articles related to simulations and education) (cf. Fanning & Gaba, 2007). As, the aim is to investigate and understand the present issue, in order to provide healthcare facilitators with theoretical viewpoints, guidelines, and best practices for organizing simulation based healthcare education, and of course, to guidefuture research. Therefore, we considered thematic analysis a useful method for this review; since it provides enough guidance for the researcher; but it is also flexible in nature to capture the complexity of the issue and to reflect the current reality. All in all, thematic analysis can be defined as a method of identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns in the data (Attride Stirling, 2001)
The research data were collected in four steps. The first data collection period was in spring 2015 (see Keskitalo, 2015b); the second, in autumn 2016; the third, in autumn 2017, and the last, in spring 2022. The reason for the multiple steps was the author’s inability to continuously perform the data collection and analysis, due to the intermittent research funding and the researcher’s variable workload.
The literature search was conducted with an electronic search platform, which made it possible to search multiple databases simultaneously. The databases searched were BioMed, DOAJ, PsycINFO (ProQuest), Social Sciences Premium Collection (ProQuest), PubMed, ScienceDirect (Elsevier), Academic Search Elite (EBSCOhost), and SpringerLink. Multiple search terms (“simulation,” “simulation based medical education,” “simulation based healthcare education,” “learning theories,” “pedagogy,” “method”, “strategy”, “practice”, “teaching,” “facilitation,” “instruction,” and “learning”) were used in a mixed setup with the Boolean word. The initial search produced 11,242 articles, including duplicates from overlapping searches. Then, we analyzed the titles, the abstracts, and the keywords of the studies, and this narrowed the corpus down to 202 articles.
The literature for this thematic analysis (see Attride Stirling, 2011; Braun & Clarke, 2014; Hämäläinen & Vähäsantanen, 2011; Irby, 1995) was selected, based on the following predefined inclusion criteria: (1) the articles were written in English; (2) the articles discussed the learning theoretical backgrounds, pedagogical models, methods, practices or strategies used in simulation based healthcare education; (3) the participants were students in higher education or adult professionals in medicine or healthcare (mainly nursing); and (4) the methodological underpinning of the articles could be in any form (qualitative, quantitative, mixed methods, review, theoretical, and commentaries) that could help us to answer the research
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question. The search was not restricted to the year in which the article was published, because the first publications on simulation based education appeared in the 1980s, (Gaba & DeAnda, 1988).
After closely reading 202 articles, a total of 83 articles that illustrated the pedagogical practices of simulation based healthcare or medical education were selected on the basis of the above mentioned inclusion criteria. Thereafter, the literature was coded and analyzed using colored pencil and an Excel sheet based on the basic information and the research question. During the analysis, I first read, and at the same time highlighted the concepts and ideas that directly answered or provided relevant insights into the research question. During this process, the codes were also written and saved in a separate Excel sheet, which made it possible to modify them later in this iterative analytical process. Basic information included the publication year, the names of the authors, the journal, the type of text, the methods used, and the participants. Based on the research question, pedagogical information included the facilitator’s pedagogical activities before, during and after simulation based learning.
The analysis of the 83 articles (see Appendix 1, the list of all the included articles) was also deductive in nature; since the themes were based on the previous research literature; for example, the phases of the simulation based healthcare education and the facilitator’s role during these phases. As a result of the iterative data analytical process, we discovered the following themes in relation to our research question: (1) the facilitator’s pre-simulation activities: designing a meaningful and safe learning experience; (2) introduction: setting the ground for the learning experience; (3) pre briefing: facilitating familiarization; (4) scenario: facilitating the active participation of the learners; (5) debriefing: facilitating reflection on the learning experience; and (6) the facilitator’s post simulation activities: reflecting and developing simulation based education.
Of the 83 articles, 15 were reviews, 18 were quantitative, 21 were qualitative, and 4 were mixed method (mixing both quantitative and qualitative) articles. However, most of the selected articles were theoretical or commentaries (n = 25). The selected articles were published between 2000 and 2022 in 34 different journals, thus representing a multidisciplinary approach to the topic. The participants in the empirical studies were mostly healthcare personnel (e.g., teams in hospital operating rooms) and medical or nursing students. In some of the selected studies, the participants were simulation facilitators or residents. Next, we focus on the pedagogical foundations of simulation based healthcare education and the facilitator’s role as a conductor of the learning processes.
In the articles reviewed, pedagogical practices have been clearly linked to activities before, during, or after simulation, thereby providing us with a natural way to thematize them. Most research focused on what facilitators should do during simulation based education, especially during the debriefing phase. Some studies have examined pre simulation activities; however, research concentrating on facilitators’ post simulation activities is scarce (see also Leigh & Steuben, 2018). To
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further understand the facilitator’s role, as a conductor of the learning process, the pedagogical activities during the actual, face to face simulation based education have been further analyzed in relation to the simulation based pedagogical models that divide simulation based learning into separate phases (introduction, simulator briefing, scenarios, and debriefing).
According to the literature, pre simulation activities demand much work from the facilitators. Facilitators must consider the target group (usually adult learners) and what kind of training should be provided to this group. Secondly, an important task is to design the learning objectives for the course with these individual learners in mind. Thirdly, a facilitator should design the case scenario, while considering the learners and the learning goals.
Case scenarios and their design have been the subject of the debate in the healthcare simulation field. According to the literature, high simulation realism (high fidelity) has often been a priority in simulation based education because it can increase the learners’ immersion in the situation; although it is not self evident that high fidelity enhances learning. This controversy can be explained by a study of Rystedt and Sjöblom (2012), who argued that the realism of a scenario cannot be planned too strictly in advance, as the situation develops and changes in the interactions during the simulation. However, scholars agree that the realism of the case scenario must be tailored to the goals of the simulation and the participants’ competence levels, and that the complexity should increase gradually as the learners’ competences develop.
In his theoretical article, Alinier (2011) wrote that more realistic case scenarios often require more time to prepare, as there are many factors to consider. In addition, the higher that the fidelity of the simulations is, the more advanced and skillful the learners must be, as they must demonstrate not only theoretical knowledge (know how), but also practical knowledge (show how and do) (see also, Tremblay et al., 2019). According to the literature, adding emotional stressors to simulation scenarios has also been shown to enhance learning.
In addition to designing the case scenario, other critical considerations include designing the learning environment and selecting the devices and possible role players for the scenarios. Facilitators must also consider whether pre assignments or readings are valuable; since these can enhance learning and affect learners’ expectations (e.g., Moll Khoswari et al., 2021). Finally, facilitators must script and time the learning event appropriately. Pedagogical models and Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning cycle have been noted to be useful in this regard.
Simulation-based education usually starts with an introduction, which Arthur et al, (2013) viewed as a highly important phase for preparing participants for the learning experience. During the introductory phase, the participants become familiar with one another; the facilitator also explains what the course is about; and s/he presents the learning objectives during this phase. Some studies also noted
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that in the first phase, the stimulation of learners’ previous knowledge and experiences is an important prerequisite for their future learning, the formation of the learning objectives, and aids in answering students’ questions.
However, the most important goal in the introductory phase is to create a psychologically safe and non threatening atmosphere for learners, because participating in the simulation can be stressful (e.g., LeBlanc & Posner, 2022). According to the literature, there is no explicit or proven way to foster such an atmosphere; however, some techniques have been proposed. Firstly, the facilitator should explain to the students that simulation based learning would help them to maintain their skills and knowledge, and also to acquire new ones. If the simulation is not for assessment purposes, this should be clearly stated; and, of course, vice versa. The facilitator should also state that in the SBLE, students can make mistakes without adverse consequences; and such mistakes can be used as opportunities for learning. Moreover, in a simulation setting, feedback is given about the performance, rather than the performer. The facilitator should also clarify that simulation based learning is confidential and that participants should not break that rule.
In the study of Zigmont et al. (2011a), the use of a written confidentiality agreement proved to be useful in protecting individuals and their privacy, and in ensuring that the participants felt safe during the learning process. Van Soeren et al. (2011)also found that facilitators who had adopted a student centred approach to the learning process actually sat down with the students, used humor and empathy, and shared their own experiences with the students. Thus, to ensure a positive atmosphere, the facilitator should encourage pleasant, secure, open, and personal interactions. Walton et al. (2011) noted that facilitators should use welcoming voices and postures. However, facilitators should also be prepared to deal with students who are unwilling to participate.
The simulator and scenario briefing, that is, the pre briefing phase, takes place after the introduction. In this familiarization phase, the participants get to know the physical environment, the case scenario that will be handled, the goals of the simulation exercise, their roles, and the rules to be followed during the exercise. This phase is important, so that the learners would understand how to handle the simulation and how they are expected to interact with the environment and with other learners, or possible role players. It is also important that students should have hands on time with the simulation; since they must recognize the differences between the simulation and working with real patients.
When introducing the scenario, the facilitator can use fictitious problems or real world examples as learning triggers. S/he can also show video clips of the correct performance for a more detailed demonstration (e.g., Jarvill & Krebs, 2018). Power et al. (2016) also suggested using patients’ stories, in order to enhance learners’ emotional engagement with mannequins. All of these helps put participants in the right mood for the exercise and improve their motivation. Research literature also suggests that procedures and any decisions that the participants would be
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required to make should be introduced at a general level, in order to avoid spoiling the surprise elements of the simulation experience.
3.4. The Scenario Phase – Facilitating the Active Participation of Learners
In the scenario phase, the learners participate in the case scenario and take the active role. The case scenarios are usually handled in small groups of preferably three to four participants. In the scenario phase, more often, the facilitators’ role is to stay on the sidelines and monitor the participants’ behaviors. However, if the scenario is going in the wrong direction, some authors suggest that the facilitator should step in and direct the scenario to ensure that the participants still achieve the learning objectives.
On the other hand, some authors suggest that interruptions should always be avoided, in order to maintain the realism in the simulation. For example, Garrett et al. (2011) found that students prefer that facilitators should take on a secondary role, as students are eager to see the impacts of their actions on the condition of the “patient”
This may also enhance student learning, as the study of Goldberg et al. (2015) study showed (see also Bearman et al., 2019). Previous studies have reported that compared with professionals, novices benefit from and prefer more explicit instructions, which might indicate that the former could benefit from the facilitators’ interruptions. As noted, a somewhat controversial issue exists in relation to this topic. However, according to Dieckmann et al., (2007) explicitly terminating the case scenario is important for learning, despite the acknowledged competence level of the simulation participants.
An important question about the scenario phase is whether active participation has a greater impact on learning than mere observation. According to Lai et al. (2016), learning outcomes do not improve when learners are active participants versus when they are mere observers.
3.5.
Debriefing is the final phase of simulation based education; and it is commonly regarded as the most important one. Scholars have proposed different models for conducting the debriefing phase. To date, no clear evidence has been presented to prove that any one particular method is better than another (e.g., Dufrene & Young, 2014). However, there is evidence that feedback is essential for enhancing learning (e.g., Issenberg et al., 2005; Tutticci et al., 2018) Process oriented feedback is considered particularly valuable when learning complex tasks, such as crisis resource management. Specific individualized feedback is also valued by learners and facilitators. The most common and effective method is to debrief learners immediately after the simulation scenario in a private and peaceful place, which helps to maintain the safe learning environment. The time required for debriefing depends on various factors; however, Kilhgren et al. (2015) noted that a more in depth analysis requires a longer time for discussion.
The goal of the debriefing is usually for the participants to share their feelings, to review their understanding and skills, and to formulate new learning objectives.
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To encourage these issues, the facilitator may help the participants explore their decisions and actions during the scenario in a supportive and humorous manner, which is why Rudolph et al. (2008) described the facilitator’s role during the debriefing as that of a “cognitive detective.” Open ended questions and active listeninghave been proposed, as valuable techniques that can be used by facilitators when debriefing. Facilitators should also be able to engage both the active participants and the observers to support the goal of collaborative learning.
This is because the most active participants in the scenarios also tend to be the most active in the debriefing. During the debriefing, facilitators may use video feedback from the performance, which has been shown to be beneficial and valuable for learners; since it provides more realistic and accurate feedback on their performance. However, Garden et al. (2015) and Levett Jones and Lapkin (2014) found contradictory results regarding the use of videos in the debriefing. Some authors also argued that such a feedback should be used carefully, in order to avoid boredom or humiliation. Cheng et al. (2014) found that the effectiveness of video playback may be related to the learners, the topic, or the method of video use.
Many articles cited the Steinwachs’ (1992) three phase model of debriefing, which is commonly used within simulation based healthcare education. The first phase in the three phase debriefing model is the descriptive phase, in which the learners describe what happened and share their first impressions and feelings regarding the scenario. The typical question in this phase is, “What happened?” According to Gardner (2013, p. 169), “this phase allows for participants to vent and blow off a little steam.” However, there might be cultural differences in the discussion of emotions. Dieckmann and Rall (2007), proposed that every debriefing should start with the facilitators asking the participants about their views on the scenario; because the participants do not necessarily experience the scenario in the way that the facilitators expect.
In the next phase of debriefing, the analytical phase, the participants go deeper into the scenario, in order to figure out the reasons for their decisions and actions. A typical comment in this phase could be: “Tell me about your thought process;” or “Show me how you came to that decision.” The goal of this phase is to help the participants figure out why they did what they did, and how they can change their mental models to behave differently next time. In other words, during this phase, the facilitator usually seeks to examine the mental models behind the participants’ performance, in order to reveal each participant’s knowledge gaps, thereby creating new understanding and practices.
According to Cheng et al. (2014), it is also important that facilitators should use the “I” perspective to reveal their own thoughts, in order to model expert reasoning. Thus, the facilitators first state their own perceptions of the case scenario; and then they ask the participants about their thoughts and perceptions during the simulation. The facilitators should also try to help the participants to relate their actions to previous experiences and knowledge to offer explanations for their actions.
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During the application phase, learners consider what they can take home from the learning experience, what they can apply to actual clinical practice, and how they can assume responsibility for their own learning after the simulation exercise. Interestingly, Nyström et al. (2016) argued that this kind of scripted debriefing, as proposed by Steinwachs (1992), does not necessarily allow room for learners’ initiative, thus making it a more teacher centered approach to learning. This perspective contradicts the ideas of many simulation researchers, who argue that individual learners and their learning needs should be fully considered during the debriefing process. Dieckmann et al. (2012) also found that facilitators are more actively involved than desired, indicating thereby that debriefing may not always be performed in an ideal manner.
3.6.
Facilitators’ post simulation activities are important for the development of simulation based education, and for their own roles as facilitators of the learning process. Basically, post simulation activities are those that happen after the actual simulation session. However, this point is rarely discussed in the research literature. Wang (2011) proposed two frameworks, namely, those of Kirkpatrick (1998) and Kneebone (2005), which could help facilitators to evaluate and develop their own expertise and education. According to Keskitalo et al. (2014), the principles of meaningful learning can also be used to evaluate simulation based healthcare education. They proposed 14 characteristics that can be used to evaluate, develop, plan, and implement education. These characteristics help to identify the gaps that must be reconsidered and developed in education, thereby ensuring that a more holistic and meaningful approach to teaching and learning in SBLEs is adopted. In the same year, Franklin et al. (2014) developed a simulation design scale that can also be used for assessing students’ self confidence, simulation design and educational practices.
4.1
This study sought to review those concrete pedagogical practices that are influenced by the learning theories and multiple contextual factors. Based on the iterative data analytical process, we identified six themes that helped us to answer the research question, namely: (1) the facilitator’s pre simulation activities: designing a meaningful and safe learning experience; (2) introduction: setting the ground for the learning experience; (3) pre briefing: facilitating familiarization; (4) scenario: facilitating the active participation of learners; (5) debriefing: facilitating reflection on the learning experience; and (6) the facilitator’s post simulation activities: reflecting and developing simulation based education. Themes clearly depict the aims of the different phase, thereby aiming to aid participants’ learning.
Based on this review, there were articles that provided more in depth understanding of facilitators’ pedagogical activities. According to these articles, facilitators play a significant role in planning, implementing, and evaluating simulation based education. There are numerous practical tips on how to plan simulation
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based education and what it requires from facilitators (e.g., Alinier, 2011; Motola et al., 2013). However, actual pedagogical practices are still somewhat vague; as the descriptions of the theoretical background, structures, and methods are often missing, or they lean toward simulation based teaching and learning interventions, thus making it difficult to compare the educational processes and to determine which processes eventually lead to successful practice (Levett Jones, & Lapkin, 2014; Cheng et al., 2014). This study also showed that tools and methods for evaluating and reflecting simulation based education are scarce; but they would be very helpful for striving for excellence in healthcare teaching.
Simulation based education is often divided into four phases, in which debriefing has gained an enormous amount of attention. However, we also think that simulation based learning should be considered in its entirety, in order to develop simulation based healthcare education and evidence based implications that are feasible in practice. Debriefing is important, but it cannot stand alone (cf. Garden et al., 2015). For example, the pre briefing can already set the tone for the whole simulation exercise; and it may affect the depth of the discussion. Therefore, to understand simulation based learning, we should also understand the whole process, which requires a rigorous description of the participants’ activities. In the articles, the simulation facilitator’s roles have been described as those of an organizer, a co learner, a tutor, and even a “cognitive detective” (Rudolph et al., 2008). These role descriptions depict the approach that is considered the most functional and efficient in SBLE. In summary, a facilitator should adopt a student centered approach to learning in order to design meaningful simulation-based learning opportunities for participants. In practice, this means finding a balance between participants’ needs, pedagogical design, and other different necessities.
This study had limitations that must be addressed. Firstly, it began with thenotion of the author (who is an educational scientist himself) that simulation based education is rarely grounded in learning theories or pedagogical principles. Thus, the author’s own preconceptions might have influenced the results. However, this was also why we wanted to conduct an extensive data collection and analysis. Secondly, although we conducted an extensive literature search, we might have inadvertently excluded some articles that should have been part of the analysis; for example, due to the combination of the search terms. Thirdly, the analysis included all articles, including commentaries and theoretical contributions, that described pedagogical practices used or suggested for simulation based healthcare education.
Therefore, some of the pedagogical practices described in the article may definitely need more research. However, we think these articles were important to include, because many of their authors of those articles have extensive expertise in the field, and their thoughts and reasoning would add important contributions to the field and may provide to the field some “food for thought” or completely new directions for discussion, research, or practice. In this way, we were also able to better address the current situation and to have ongoing discussions within the field. However, we also believe this review article makes an important
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contribution to the field; as the descriptions of the theories and the pedagogical design in the field are still limited and need more attention.
Fourthly, the analysis was conducted using thematic analysis, which is a useful and flexible method of analyzing qualitative data. However, due to its flexibility, there could be a lot of variation in its use, and much depends on the analytical skills of the researchers. However, we think this long and in depth research process has provided us with enough time to think through and correct our interpretation, thereby providing the readers with more reliable results. However, in the future, it might be necessary to apply a more systematic approach to validate the results of this study.
4.3.
Thus far, numerous studies have shown that simulation is an effective learning tool; and that simulation technology actually works (Cook et al., 2011). However, to provide answers, especially to the questions of how and why it works, more research is needed. This is because many studies lack the description of the facilitators’ and the learners’ activities during the simulation based education (Levett Jones & Lapkin, 2014; Cheng et al., 2014).
Firstly, future studies should explain the guiding learning theoretical framework and pedagogical practices in greater detail, and how exactly these are implemented during simulations. In addition, the role of facilitators and learners in simulation-based education should be described in a more detailed manner. For example, Garden et al. (2015) pointed out that we need a more rigorous description of how the other parts of simulation sessions are conducted to explore the efficiency of debriefing.
In this regard, the application of more innovative and creative research methods would be helpful. For example, from the articles chosen for this review, only four used mixed methods. This is a clear deficiency. On the one hand, design based research studies would be helpful (Barab & Squire, 2004); as their purpose is to develop theory and practice in the iterative cycles of design, implementation, analysis, and redesign in collaboration with practitioners. On the other hand, analytical methods, such as video ethnography and discourse analysis, may help to reveal the underlying processes that make simulations so successful for learning.
For example, discourse analysis might be useful in determining what kinds of dialogues enhance trust and safety among the simulation participants. In conclusion, simulation based healthcare education would benefit from mixed method studies that describe the pedagogical grounding and intervention in a more detailed manner. Only through this approach can we find out what kinds of practices could generate the most valuable results. For example, we do not really know which model or method is the most appropriate for specific types of learners (Dufrene & Young, 2014). Therefore, in future studies, researchers should compare these different pedagogical models and methods with various participants, in order to determine which of these is the most successful. The findings of such works could eventually lead to improved performance in real practice.
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In addition to the learning theories, which have already been presented in this study, the cognitive load theory could be helpful in conducting simulation based learning research, which could provide us with a better understanding of the individual perspectives on learning (Issenberg et al., 2011; Allvin et al., 2017). For example, such research could help us to explain the relationship between emotions and performance in simulation based learning. In addition, the socio cultural theory and socio material perspectives might help us to understand simulation based learning as a social practice, how events actually evolve in a simulation, and, for example, how the physical environment prevents or fosters learning.
For instance, given that simulation fidelity has long been debated in the field, the socio material perspective might help us to address questions about this topic, such as why high fidelity does not necessarily lead to better immersion and learning outcomes. Is there something in the simulation environment itself that we must consider? Furthermore, we could provide more comprehensive answers to our research questions by combining more than one perspective in research design. Thus, a multi disciplinary approach to studying and applying simulation based education is also needed.
Most researchers and practitioners agree that in simulation based education, the introduction, simulator and scenario briefing, scenarios, and debriefing phases should be present (e.g., Dieckmann, 2009; Keskitalo, 2015). Among these, debriefing has received the most attention. However, for the future development of simulation based healthcare education, it would be interesting to examine how we could successfully implement the other phases, in order to enhance meaningful simulation based learning. Thus, an important question in future studies could be related to, for example, how we can best organize participants’ pre briefings to create safe environments for learning. Future studies should also concentrate on the pedagogical thinking of healthcare simulation facilitators, that is, their conceptions and beliefs about teaching and learning. Research on this topic is scarce (Allvin et al., 2017; Laksov et al., 2008). However, pedagogical thinking affects facilitators’ pedagogical decision making, and subsequently, the learners’ achievements also (Laksov et la., 2008).
The aim of this thematic review study was to question the facilitators’ pedagogical activities during the simulation based education process. For this purpose, the study reviewed 83 previous studies, in which the pedagogical practices were explained or examined. Based on the iterative data analytical process, we discovered the six themes in relation to our research question. These themes depict the roles and the most important pedagogical practices that the simulation facilitator performs during each phase. Besides the numerous practical tips, we also acknowledged that the pedagogical practices have been clearly linked to facilitators’ activities before, during, or after simulation. Most of the research has focused on facilitators’ activities during simulation based education, especially during the debriefing phase, but studies regarding pre simulation or post simulation activities are lacking.
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To conclude, this thematic literature review provided insights into the pedagogical practices for implementing the simulation based healthcare education process. To further develop simulation based healthcare education and to optimize the use of such a learning environment, scholars should describe facilitators’ and learners’ activities more accurately; and they should use more rigorous research methods to analyze the teaching and learning activities. Then, such knowledge should be synthesized and used to develop pedagogical models and methods for simulation based healthcare education and to integrate them into various learning contexts. Examining the learning theories, or the facilitator’s pedagogical practices in simulation based healthcare education is essential, in order to understand why, when, and how to integrate healthcare simulation into the curricula, and to use them in practice.
Declaration of Interest: The author reports no conflicts of interest.
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1. Alinier, G. (2011): Theoretical
2. Ahmed et al. (2012): Qualitative interview study
3. Andreatta et al. (2010): Mixed method
4. Arthur et al. (2013): Qualitative Delphi study
5. Aura et al. (2016): Qualitative interview study
33 healthcare professionals
27 preclinical medical students
32 international experts
16 diagnostic radiographers
Prepare a practical guide for developing high fidelity simulation scenarios
Identify best practice guidelines for effective debriefing
To study learners’ stress reaction during simulation based laparoscopic training
To identify quality indicators for the design and implementation of simulation
The aims of this study were to explore and define radiographers' competence in intravenous pharmacotherapy before and after a simulation based education and to examine radiographers’ perceptions of the transfer of learning into clinical practice
Outcome
A practical guide for simulation facilitators
Best practices for debriefing
Stress reactions can be induced in SBLE
Study results 15 quality indicator statements
Provide information on the pedagogical practices and explain the learning theoretical background of the intervention (Kolb’s experiential learning cycle)
6. Bearman et al. (2019): Qualitative study
7. Beauchesne & Douglas (2011): Theoretical
8. Berragan (2014): Qualitative mixed method study
5053 participants from a faculty development program
The aim of the study was to seek powerful SBE experiences and through this to understand in what ways SBE may influence learning
To describe the creation of a simulation learning experience
Provide understanding on the scenario phase of SBE
Provide some guidelines for the simulation facilitator
students (n = 9), nurse educators (n = 3), and nurse mentors (n = 4)
To explore the experiences of nursing students while participating in the simulation
To formulate an expansive model of learning
9. Bland & Tobbell (2016): Qualitative mixed method study
10. Boese et al. (2013): Theoretical
11. Boet et al. (2014): Theoretical
46 final year study
To study attributes that enable student learning in SBLE
This study offers a theoretical basis for understanding simulation based education
To illustrate the standards for a competent facilitator Best practices for the facilitator
To provide educational and pedagogical tips for the simulation facilitator
Provide facilitators with 12 practical and pedagogical tips for SBE
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12. Brewer (2011): Review 10 articles
To explore techniques used successfully in simulation based nursing education
13. Cant & Cooper (2009): Review 12 articles To compare simulations with other educational strategies
14. Chen et al. (2015): Quantitative study
60 nursing students
To compare low and high fidelity simulations
Simulation is a valuable tool, but there is need for discovering how to facilitate it
Simulation is an effective method of teaching and learning
There were no significant differences in performance between low and high fidelity; describe the pedagogical activities of participants
15. Cheng et al. (2014): Review 177 articles To evaluate the effectiveness of debriefing There is no clear evidence of the type of simulation that leads to effective learning. Debriefing characteristics were noticed to be incompletely reported
16. Chiniara et al. (2013): Theoretical
17. Cook et al. (2013): Review 289 articles
18. Craft et al. (2014): Quantitative study
19. Decker et al. (2013): Review
20. DeMaria et al. (2010): Mixed method quantitative study
21. Der Sahakian et al. (2015): Theoretical
22. Dieckmann et al. (2012): Qualitative interview study
32 nursing student
To provide a taxonomy for the instructional design of healthcare simulation
Evaluate the effectiveness of instructional design features
Produced instructional framework
The several instructional design features are effective
To compare two instructional methods Guided experiential learning is more effective
Best practices for the facilitation of debriefing Tips for debriefing
25 medical students
To study the effects of anxiety on learning
Added emotional stressors led to greater anxiety, but enhanced learning
To set conditions for productive debriefing Six principles for productive debriefing
7 simulation educators
To describe goals and success factors for and barriers to optimizing the simulation based learning environments
The functional use of simulations depends on the humans involved, the equipment they use, and the organizational framework
23. Dieckmann et al. (2009): Mixed method
89 simulation center leaders and participants of simulation exercise
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Describe the practice of debriefing
The practice of debriefing might, at times, differ from the ideal
24. Dieckmann (2009): Theoretical
25. Dismukes et al. (2006): Editorial
26. Dreifuerst (2012): Quantitative quasi experimental study
238 nursing students
27. Dufrene & Young (2014): Review 13 articles
To understand the structure of simulation based education
The aim is to provide understanding on the facilitated debriefing
To study the effectiveness of the Debriefing for Meaningful Learning method for clinical reasoning skills
To review the usefulness of debriefing strategies and study participants’ perceptions of debriefing
To illustrate the simulation setting model
Illustrates the role of the facilitator and learners in debriefing
DML is an effective debriefing method. Provide understanding on the best practices of debriefing.
There is no clear evidence which debriefing methods is the best, although feedback accompanying learning is beneficial
28. Fanning & Gaba (2007): Review
29. Fenwick & Dahlgren (2015): Theoretical
30. Garden et al. (2015): Review 8 articles
31. Gardner (2013): Theoretical
32. Garrett et al. (2011): Mixed method
33. Gibbs (2014): Qualitative interview study
34. Goldberg et al. (2015): Quantitative study
30 senior nursing students
12 sonography students
24 first year residents
The aim of the paper is to critically review what is felt to be important about the role of debriefing in the field of simulation based learning
The aim is to present a socio material perspective on simulation based education
To study the effectiveness of debriefing methods
The aim is to introduce the essential topics related to debriefing
To explore the experiences of using HFS in Canada
Illustrates many models and strategies for effective debriefing
Provide understanding on the planning of the case scenario
Generally, performance was improved after skilled debriefing
Many pedagogical principles for debriefing
Provide understanding on the students` experiences in simulation
To study the experiences of students Provide some insights to pedagogical practices in SBE
Studying the effects of self directed learning and patient’s death on learning
Allowing residents to practice independently in the simulation, and subsequently, allowing them to fail, can be an important part of simulation based learning.
35. Ha (2014): Quantitative study 44 nursing students
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To identify attitudes towards video assisted debriefing
Provide insights on debriefing
36. Horsley & Wambach (2015): Quantitative study
37. Hunt et al. (2014): Quantitative study
38. INACSL (2016): Theoretical
91 junior lever nursing students
70 paediatric residents
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the presence of nursing faculty on students’ levels of anxiety, self confidence, and clinical performance
To study if performance improves after a rapid cycle of deliberate practice
To illustrate standards for the facilitation process
There was no difference if faculty was present
Pediatric residents’ skills improved after rapid cycle of deliberate practice
Standards for facilitation before, during, and after the simulation scenario
39. INACSL (2021): Theoretical
To illustrate standards for the simulation design process
40. Issenberg (2006): Editorial
41. Issenberg et al. (2005): Review 109 articles
42. Jarvill & Krebs (2018): Quantitative
43. Jaye et al. (2015): Theoretical
44. Keskitalo et al. (2014): Qualitative study
45. Kihlgren et al. (2015): Qualitative study
46. Kneebone et al. (2007): Theoretical
68 undergraduate nursing students
To emphasize that in the future, we must focus on the most effective use of simulation for healthcare education
To find out the features and uses of simulation that lead to effective learning
Purpose is to study the use of an expert role modeling video during pre briefing in simulation
The aim of the article is to present the diamond structure for debriefing
Provides a framework for developing effective simulation based experiences for participants
Provide understanding on the role of the facilitator
There are 10 features in simulation based medical education that facilitate learning
Complete our current understanding on the best practices if prebriefing
Provide ideas for debriefing
9 facilitators, 25 medical students and residents
38 debriefings, 10 debriefer
To investigate the meaningfulness of simulation based learning
To investigate the reflection level in debriefings
This paper argues for a structured approach to procedural skills training
The simulation based learning is inherently meaningful
Participants reflection were low level
Offer principal components for simulation based learning and its evaluation
47. Lai et al. (2016): Quantitative study
39 emergency medicine residents
To compare active participation and observer participant in simulation followed by a debriefing
Active participation is not necessarily required; debriefing seems to be important
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48. LeBlanc, & Posner (2022): Theoretical
49. Leigh & Steuben (2018): Review 11 articles
50. Levett Jones & Lapkin (2014): review
10 articles
51. Li et al. (2011): Quantitative 30 medical students
52. Littlewood (2011): Review
53. McGaghie et al. (2010): Qualitative review
54. Mills et al. (2016): Quantitative study
55. Moll Khosrawi et la., (2021): Quantitative study
70 nursing students
The purpose of the article is to present a narrative overview of the research on emotions, cognitive processes and learning within simulation
Purpose of the study is to discuss the components of a superior pre briefing phase and provide practical suggestions for educators when designing pre simulation assignments
The aim of the study was to explore the effectiveness of debriefing methods
To investigate whether pre training evaluation and feedback aid student learning
The aim is to review the current terminology, current practice, and current research in simulation
To review historical and contemporary research on SBME
To investigate whether more people in SLE increase their stress and anxiety
102 3rd year medical students
Study aimed to analyze, whether flipped learning improved students´ non technical skills (NTS) performance compared to lecture based learning (LBL)
Provides strategies to mindfully consider emotions during SBE
Provide practical tips for pre briefing phase
No debriefing method is better than any other
Pre training evaluation and feedback were beneficial for students’ learning
12 features of best practices that lead to effective learning within simulation
Greater amount of people during simulation increase anxiety and result poorer performance
Pre learning affect learners’ performance.
56. Motola et al. (2013): Review
57. Neill et al. (2011): Review 9 articles
58. Norman et al. (2012): Review 24 articles
This guide focuses on educational principles that lead to effective learning
The guide includes many topics important for simulation based education, e.g., feedback and debriefing, deliberate practice, and curriculum integration
The aim of this review is to analyze the literature on the use of simulation debriefing in nursing education
To compare High fidelity simulation and low fidelity simulation
There is no consensus for effective debriefing, however, it is central strategy for SBL
Both simulations resulted improvements in learning, however,
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59. Nyström et al. (2016): Qualitative 106 nursing and medical students
To study debriefing as a sociomaterial practice
no significant advantages was found when used HFS
Debriefing practice is relational to social and material arrangements, and debriefing as laissez faire seems to be more learner centered.
60. Paige et al. (2015): Theoretical
61. Parmar & Delaney (2011): theoretical
62. Paskins & Peile (2010): thematic analysis of focus group
63. Power et al. (2016): Qualitative study
64. Rivière et al. (2018): Theoretical
28 final year medical students
One aim of the paper is to demonstrate how to debrief effectively
Key elements for educators to keep in mind include: approach, learning environment, engagement of learners, reactions, reflection, analysis, diagnosis, and application
To discuss the experience with different skills simulators
To explore in depth the features of simulation based education that lead to effective learning
9 students
How to enhance students’ engagement with mannequins
The aim of the article is to provide theory informed practical strategies for procedural simulation
The more proximate the feedback, the better its effectiveness
Medical students value the simulation based learning, but the effect of simulation on confidence, anxiety, and self efficacy is more problematic
Stories (pre briefing) can facilitate students’ engagement emotionally with the manikin
Article presents 12 practical tips for efficient procedural simulation
65. Rudolph et al. (2006): Theoretical
To present the feedback method “debriefing with good judgment”
The technique is designate to increase the mutual respect and that the trainee hears and processes what the instructor is saying without being defensive or trying to guess the critical judgment
66. Rudolph et al. (2007): Theoretical
67. Rudolph et al (2008): Theoretical
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This article offers an approach called “debriefing with good judgment”
The authors present a four step model of debriefing
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The proposed model help to close the performance gap.
68. Rystedt, & Sjöblom (2012): interaction analysis of video data
Healthcare personnel
To explore the requirements needed to establish and maintain simulation as an authentic representation of clinical practice
The realism of the simulation is maintained through the participants’ mutual orientation to the moral order of good clinical practice and a proper simulation. > learning to simulate
69. Saylor et al. (2015); Quantitative
70. Shanks et al. (2010): Quantitative
71. Shinnick & Woo (2015): quantitative
11 experts
To develop an instrument to assess a debriefer’s excellence
106 internal medicine residents
161 nursing students
72. Sorensen et al. (2017): Qualitative 25 healthcare professionals
To study how simulators should be used in a procedural curriculum
To investigate students’ learning styles and learning with HFS
To examine off site and in situ learning experiences
To provide instruments and some practices for debriefing
Residents value simulation based education in the form of small group sessions
The HFS support learning despite the different learning styles
In situ simulation had more organizational impact and provided more information for practical organizational changes than off site simulation
73. Spence et al. (2016): Quantitative
74. Treadwell & Grobler (2001): Qualitative
75. Tremblay et al. (2019): Mixed methods
138 medical students
The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of video compared to verbal feedback
196 medical students
167 2nd year pharmacy students
To study students’ experiences of practical skills’ training in a simulation based learning environment
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of task complexity on undergraduate pharmacy students’ cognitive load, task performance and perception of learning in SCI
Use of video feedback when teaching cardiopulmonary resuscitation is more effective than verbal feedback, and enhances skill retention
SBL enhanced learning. Students gave many recommendations for SBE
Provide understanding on the case scenario design
76. Tutticci et al. (2018): Qualitative study
654 students, 55 debriefing observation
77. Udani et al. (2014): Quantitative 21 anesthesia residents
Purpose of the study was to inquiry about collaborative debriefing and its implication for students’ reflective thinking
The paper determines if adding simulation based deliberate practice to a base curriculum
Provide further understanding on the debriefing phase
SBE added to base curriculum improves anesthesia residents’ performance. Explained
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78. Van Soeren et al. (2011): Qualitative 152 clinicians
improved the performance of a subarachnoid block the pedagogical model used
To explore simulation based teaching and learning processes
The study illustrated aspects that need careful attention: enthusiasm and motivation; professional role assignment: scenario realism; facilitator style and background; team facilitation
79. Walton et al. (2011): qualitative 26 nursing students
80. Wiseman & Horton (2011): Qualitative
81. Woolley & Jarvis (2007): Theoretical
82. Zigmont et al. (2011): Theoretical
83. Østergaard et al. (2007): Theoretical
To understand how students learn with simulation and to identify basic social processes and supportive teaching strategies
The paper aims to describe an international experience of developing simulated learning with students
To present a pedagogical model for teaching and learning clinical skills
To design a framework for facilitators of debriefing
To describe a framework for a team training course
Conceptual model of socialization process was to develop to assist faculty in understanding students’ learning
Students’ experiences can be effectively used to develop simulated learning experiences
To present model that draws from the principles of cognitive apprenticeship
Paper offers a 3D model: Defusing, Discovering, Deepening for debriefing
Example of the development of the team training course (needs assessment, learning objective, educational methods and tools (adult learning principles) etc.)
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 28 45, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.2
Received Jan 14, 2022; Revised Mar 30, 2022; Accepted Apr 18, 2022
Abstract. The purpose of this paper is to report on a research study which explored the perceptions of black learners with regard to their teacher learner and learner learner relationships in multicultural spaces of HistoricallyWhiteSchoolsinthefiveeducationaldistrictsoftheNorthern Cape province in South Africa. A quantitative research approach, embedded in a descriptive data method of data analysis was employed, where a self designed 4 point Likert scale questionnaire was given to 1037 black high school learners attending Historically White Schools in the Northern Cape. Learners used for the study included learners in grades 10 to 12. Selected items related to black learners’ perceptions of their relationships with their teachers and fellow learners in Historically White Schools. Data were analysed usingdescriptive analyses. Ingeneral, the study revealed that black learners experienced relatively pleasing relationships with their teachers and fellow learners alike. The study is noteworthy, as it reveals that black learners attending Historically White Schools feel accepted and respected by their teachers and fellow learners, which, in turn, is favourable for learners’ emotional security, sense of belonging and academic achievement. The study further highlights the critical value of teacher learner and learner learner relationships to learning, interaction, socialisation and communication in Historically White Schools, noting the tendency of these schools to assimilate black learners into the existing school culture, which is fundamentally based on Eurocentric values.
Keywords: teacher learner relationships; learner learner relationships; multiculturalism; Historically White Schools
*Corresponding author: Tony Mpisi; tony.mpisi@spu.ac.zqa
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The first South African democratic elections in 1994 made it possible for black learners to enrol at multicultural schools, more specifically Historically White Schools. Virtually all of these Historically White Schools, who previously exclusively catered for learners from monocultural (white) backgrounds, responded to the opening of schools for all learners by adopting an assimilationist approach. Elias & Feagin, (2020) view assimilation as a construct that portrays the upholding and promotion of the dominant values, traditions and customs of one group in framing the social context of the school this process in turn affects the fostering of a positive school climate and the promotion of healthy human relations between people. Furthermore, it is noted that the cultivation of positive social relations between teachers and learners have a positive outcome on learner success, motivation and the promotion of social cohesion in school settings, which are increasingly becoming multicultural in its composition (Alexander, 2016). Social relations in multicultural school spaces, such as Historically White Schools, should as such enhance the relational ties among peers in a class and school, relations between learners and teachers, and relations between parents. Therefore, schools exhibiting positive and sound social relationships among learners, and between learners and teachers, are considered to be cohesive (Carolan, 2014; Mpisi, 2010).
Time constraints, and racial and cultural barriers may lead teachers to direct their efforts to immediate issues instead of investing the time necessary to develop these learner-teacher relationships. On the other hand, weak and distrustful relationships lead to uninvited and unconducive learning spaces (Marzano, 2011). Furthermore, Hayat et al. (2020) view teacher learner relationships as a regulatory function for the development of various skills related to learners’ social, emotional, and academic abilities Positive teacher learner and learner learner relationships can lead to warm and safe classroom spaces that facilitate meaningful learning and adjustments in multicultural school settings. This may in turn increase learners’ motivation to learn, interact with other individuals in a constructivist manner, and sustain healthy and trusting relations (Mpisi, 2010)
Regrettably, sporadic media reports indicate that racism, social exclusion, incidents of violence, intimidation, and bullying levelled against black learners are still rife in the Historically White Schools context of South Africa. A case in point is a media report by News 24 (2020), stating that black learners from former Model C (Historically White Schools) schools in Gauteng, the Western and Eastern Cape, as well as KwaZulu Natal provinces have posted their lived experiences and encounters of alleged racism at their schools by teachers and fellow learners.
We further argue that within the confinement of Historically White Schools, aspects pertaining to the cultural wealth, values and norms of black learners are perceived to be inferior to that of white middle class knowledge based trusts, values, and social standards (Lemon & Battersby Lennard, 2011) this tendency in turn provides great uncertainty for the promotion of shared experiences, mutual understanding, healthy interactions, and quality relations between
learners and teachers, and amongst learners. It stands to reason that black learners’ sense of social identity (culture, heritage,language and traditions), issues associated with the self esteem and the cultivation of sound human relations, appear to be relegated to the archives in these Historically White Schools (Bazana & Mogotsi, 2017).
Against the latter background, this paper explores the perceptions of black learners with regard to teacher learner and learner learner relationships in Historically White Schools in the five educational districts of the Northern Cape province in South Africa. For the purpose of this study, as it relates to the South African schooling context, the term “black” refers to learners of African, Indian and “coloured” descent.
Humans are social beings by nature and therefore have an innate need to belong, in order to survive (De Haas, 2021) The need to belong is a powerful and important determinant of human behaviour, which has numerous influences on human emotions and thoughts (Wang et al., 2017). The greater the need to belong, the harder humans will work to achieve fulfilling relationships (Pillow et al., 2015). Fiske (2014: xvi) claims that “The environment to which humans adapt is the social group and the culture codifies survival rules for different groups ” The multicultural school context is no different, since learners too have the inherent need to belong and consequently teacher learner and learner learner relationships are critical for their “survival” at school. Hence, Besser et al. (2020), and Alexander (2016), reason that when learners feel respected by their teachers and fellow learners, they tend to experience a greater sense of security and wellbeing, that subsequently may result in heightened academic commitment, and as such contribute towards an understanding and acceptance of certain imperatives associated with multicultural education, such as an acceptance for diversity, the advancement of quality education, and the realisation of equal opportunities for all learners. Cimillo (2011), Mpisi (2010) and Nussbaum (2003) assert that multicultural education is viewed as a human rights and comprehensive reform philosophy, as well as a school wide process, focussed on changing the entire school space so that learners from diverse backgrounds and social group identifications (race, language, ethnicity, gender culture, socio economic status, sexual orientation, social class, age, disability, ability status, religious and spiritual traditions and migration status) experience the ideals of freedom, social justice, equity, human dignity and equality.
The aspects discussed below provide an exposition of the importance of teacher learner and learner-learner relationships. Furthermore, the authors of this paper also explore the implications of such relationships within the confines of multicultural spaces in Historically White Schools.
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Teacher learner relationships are a central part of learners’ interpersonal context at school, and influence their social, emotional and academic development (Martin & Collie, 2019). These relationships are also fundamental for effective teaching and learning to take place in a school, especially in organisations confined to multicultural school settings. Positive teacher learner relationships are usually characterised by respect, friendliness and trust, as well as minimised levels of interpersonal conflict (Aldrup et al., 2018; Mansfield et al., 2016). To this end, numerous scholars in the discourse are in agreement with the aforementioned and are convinced that sincere, unrestrained teacher learner relationships have the potential to enhance learners’ academic achievement, emotional security, sense of belonging and self confidence (Hayat et al., 2020). The aforementioned sentiments could be linked to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, positing that human beings can only progress to a higher need once the preceding lower need has been satisfied (Hopper, 2020). According to Aden (2021), and Mafandala, (2020), the opposite also holds true and the scholars argue that adverse, strained and conflicted teacher learner relationships, on the other hand, have the proclivity to constrain the learners’ academic performance, interaction, and socialization, which in turn may result in more negative attitudes toward school, particularly in multicultural school spaces.
Correspondingly, Rucinski et al. (2018) elect to incorporate the social emotional dimension of the teacher-learner relationship, more specifically in the multicultural spaces of Historically White Schools In this regard the aforementioned scholars claim this dimension to be a key “predictor of learners’ academic success or failure ” Likewise, many theories in both education and psychology have attempted to understand the role of teacher learner relationships in relation to learners’ academic success. These theories include the goal theory that explores how goals can be established among learners through the influence of teachers (Khalaf & Zin, 2018).
Another such theory is the attribution theory, which articulates how attributions are learnt by cooperating with others, including teachers (Anderman, 2020). Equally, the self determination theory postulates how basic psychological needs are fulfilled when there is support from important people in one’s life, such as teachers (Qian et al., 2020)
Teacher learner relationships therefore seem to play a significant role in the social, emotional and academic development of learners, and more so in multicultural school spaces It therefore becomes important for teachers to be aware of the important influence their relationships with their learners have on the holistic development of learners. It is for this reason that Rucinski et al. (2017) insist that teachers make a concerted effort to ensure that the learners in their classrooms are aware that they care about them as valued individuals and that they (teachers in Historically White Schools) are accessible to support learners unconditionally irrespective of race, colour and other forms of diversity.
Navigating social spaces at school, especially in Historically White Schools, can prove to be challenging for many learners, since these spaces are intricate and multidimensional (Uslu & Gizir, 2017:64). The same scholars claim that there are “ many different domains involved in school, including classroom social and learning dynamics ” Additionally, these domains may include teacher learner relationships, peer relationships, family involvement at home, and family involvement at school.
In keeping with the former sentiment, the school community and classrooms can thus be regarded as the social setting in which an array of interactions among learners and their peers play out. These interactions, particularly in multicultural classrooms spaces, have the added advantage of also contributing to the learners’ sense of belonging at school. Uslu & Gizir (2017) concur with the vital role that learners’ sense of belonging plays in the learning process and contends that when learners feel that they belong, they are more likely to participate willingly in the classroom activities. Moreover, these interactions with peers also have the potential to influence learners’ social and emotional adjustment, engagement, academic motivation, and learning (Wang et al., 2019).
Similarly, in recent years, a growing number of studies have pointed to the significant role learners’ interactions with their peers play in the development of learner engagement, motivation, learning success and academic achievement (Alamri, 2019; Deng et al., 2020; Mishra, 2020). The findings of these studies, foregrounding the social and academic benefits of learner learner interaction, are supported by Vollet et al. (2017:637) who postulate that “classmates and friends also fulfill a crucial role in learner motivation and engagement in school ” It is therefore imperative that schools encourage learners to interact with their peers socially and particularly in Historically White Multicultural Schooling contexts. The latter sentiments are highlighted by Wang et al. (2018), who argue that learners who have constructive experiences at school are more likely to engage more with their peers. The same scholars further advance that this peer engagement may in turn result in academically proficient, socially incorporated and devoted learners
The significant influence learner learner relationships exert on the teaching and learning process can easily be undermined. The discussion above foregrounds the complexity and multidimensionality of social spaces in a multicultural school context. Hence the interaction between learners in these spaces becomes critical, since it could enhance learners’ sense of belonging. When learners manage to foster cordial relationships and feel accepted by their peers, their classroom engagement and academic motivation may improve. The criticality of learner learner relationships should therefore not be underestimated, particularly in the case of black learners in Historically White Schools.
Implications of Teacher-Learner and Learner-Learner Relationships in the Multicultural spaces of Historically White Multicultural Schools Judging from the discussion provided above, teacher learner relationships and learners’ relationships with their peers form an essential part of the learners’ sense
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of belonging and learning. The discussion further foregrounds the significant influence both these relationships have on the holistic development of learners in terms of their social, emotional and academic growth The importance of these relationships and the influence they exert on the teaching and learning process hold equally true for Historically White Schools in South Africa.
As postulated by Slabbert and Naudé (2020:2), it is critical to understand the historical backdrop against which integration and diversity in a school system transpire to actually appreciate its significance and underlying value for multicultural school contexts. After the attainment of democracy in 1994, the racially and culturally segregated education system that characterised education provision during apartheid South Africa was transformed into a more diverse schooling system, referred to as multicultural education in this study. Given this history of separatist schooling along racial and cultural lines, one can understand the challenges a diverse form of schooling held for the relationships of particularly black learners in Historically White Schools in South Africa.
Certain scholars argue that multicultural education is regarded as a schooling system that has explicitly been planned, taking into account the diverse cultural backgrounds of all learners, in order to structure the teaching and learning context in a manner that will enrich the effective learning opportunities, problem solving skills and critical thinking abilities of all learners (Mikander et al., 2018; Susanto, 2018).
Makhalemele and Payne van Staden (2020) further emphasise, in particular, the importance of meaningful relationships between teachers and learners in multicultural school spaces Hence, the process of democracy in South Africa and its concomitant transformation policies made it possible for black learners to access Historically White Schools (Cele, 2021). For the purpose of this study, the term black refers to learners of African and Indian descent, and “ coloureds” refers to South Africans who have a racially mixed heritage.
Even though transformational changes endeavored to redress the educational imbalances and inequalities of the past, major challenges remained (Shultz et al., 2022). Many of these Historically White Schools that formerly solely catered for learners from monocultural backgrounds, reacted to the presence of black learners by espousing an assimilationist approach. The assimilationist approach involves the supremacy of values, traditions and customs of one group in outlining the social context of the school (Elias & Feagin, 2020). The adoption of this approach essentially meant that black learners attending Historically White Schools were forced to abandon their cultural identity in favour of the school’s dominant culture, which was mainly of a Eurocentric nature Black learners were thus expected to fit into the existing culture and curriculum of Historically White Schools, without consideration for their background or lived experiences (Borrero et al., 2018) In this regard Fataar (2010) argues that learners from a cultural origin other that of the Historically White Schools’ prevailing culture and identity had to identify with and adapt to “acceptable cultural the expectations and behaviour.”
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Smith et al. (2020) suggest an alternative to the assimilationist approach and argue that integrated pluralism can serve as a vehicle in enhancing a sense of belonging among black learners in multicultural spaces. The same scholars postulate that integrated pluralism occurs when schools vigorously and purposefully communicate their support for learners’ diversity and culture, but simultaneously promote learners' understanding of self and their link to the schools.
Similarly, the manner in which many Historically White Schools responded to education transformation, particularly by adopting an assimilationist approach, seems to have failed to instill a sense of belonging in black learners. Learners belonging to the non dominant group, such as black learners, are subjected to more peer rejection in classrooms where assimilationist peer norms predominantly prevail (Celeste et al., 2016). Likewise, Celeste et al., (2019) contend that black learners “feel alienated and experience a sense of less belonging when schools enforce assimilationism ” Accordingly, many black learners and their parents felt excluded and marginalised, because of Historically White Schools’ failure to acknowledge their indigenous languages and culture (Ndimande, 2013).
This sentiment is supported by Slabbert and Naudé (2020:3) who argue that “When an assimilationist approach is adopted, attempts at equitable, quality education for learners with diverse experiences are less successful.” Additionally, the response of Historically White Schools in accommodating black learners are in contrast with the fundamental pillars constituting positive teacher-learner and learner learner relationships, as discussed earlier
Accordingly, occasional media reports alluding to negative and disharmonious teacher learner and learner learner relationships experienced in Historically White Schools in South Africa are further proof of transformation challenges A case in point is the media article reporting on the incident where a Historically white multicultural school passed a policy declaring black school girls’ hair styles “untidy” (The Guardian, 2016). Another media article reports on the manner in which a school in the Gauteng province articulated its language policy so that it excluded black learners from the school, because they were unable to speak Afrikaans (Mail & Guardian, 2018). A different media article reports on a learner at a KwaZulu Natal school who is facing expulsion for making racially derogatory remarks towards the father of a fellow Indian learner (Sunday Times, 2021)
The abovementioned media reports are in direct opposition to the traits, such as that of respect, friendliness, trust, and minimised levels of interpersonal conflict, that should underpin these relationships (Aldrup et al., 2018; Mansfield et al., 2016). In this respect, Roksa & Kinsley (2019) caution that incidents, as mentioned in these media reports, may lead to strained relationships. These latter mentioned incidents may even fail to influence learners’ social and emotional adjustment, engagement, academic success, and learning, as suggested by the literature (Roksa & Kinsley, 2019). Additionally, Alvaré (2018) and Marrun et al., (2021) claim that white teachers at Historically White Schools tend to have lower academic expectations of their black learners.
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A further danger of the assimilationist approach adopted by Historically White Schools is that learners from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds may mistakenly be categorised as learners with barriers to learning, when, in actual fact, the apparent learning or behavioural underperformance may be associated with cultural or linguistic reasons (Cruz et al., 2019).
An empirical investigation, using the quantitative research method, was conducted. A quantitative approach comprises “processes of collecting, analysing, interpreting, and writing the results of a study” (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). A quantitative approach was thus apt, since the researchers sought to collect data from a large population to analyse and discuss the perceptions of black learners on their experiences of teacher learner and learner learner relationships at Historically White Schools in South Africa. According to the authors of this paper, the five identified items are central to the reconceptualisation of the relationships of black learners in a multicultural context at Historically White Schools in South Africa
The study followed a quantitative survey design. According to Creswell (2017) a survey design is used when one gathers facts about a society, or part of it, about the quality of interaction among its people or institutions (Rossi et al., 2013). As the study sought to reconceptualise relationships of black learners in a multicultural context at Historically White Schools in South Africa, this survey design was suitable in providing the methodological direction.
The research site of this study was limited to twenty seven (27) Historically White Schools in the five education districts of the Northern Cape province of South Africa. The sample comprised 1037 black learners attending Historically White Schools in the five education districts The learners used in the sample included black learners in grades 10, 11 and 12. All the chosen schools had catered solely for white learners prior to South Africa’s democracy in 1994. The data acquired from the questionnaires were integrated with the data acquired from the literature study in order for the researchers to compile summaries, draw conclusions and offer recommendations.
For the purpose of this paper, the authors focus on the analysis and discussion of five selected key items which were part of an extensive questionnaire used for a doctoral study conducted with 832 black learners (grades 10 12) from 27 Historically White Schools in the five educational districts of the Northern Cape province in South Africa. This research was based on the probability sampling method, in which stratified random sampling was employed. A self designed, four point Likert scale questionnaire, distributed to 269 white teachers and 832 black learners, probed aspects pertaining to characteristics, issues and challenges that both learners and educators are confronted with, as well as the scholastic experiences of black learners in multicultural high schools in the Northern Cape. For the purpose of this paper, the authors report on the data component of one
aspect of the extensive questionnaire, namely learner teacher and learner learner relationships of black learners attending Historically White Schools in the Northern Cape province of South Africa. This paper therefore only reports on learners’ perceptions of their interaction with their peers (fellow learners) and their perceptions of their relationship with white teachers in Historically White Schools.
A self designed 4 point Likert scale questionnaire was employed The first component of the questionnaire (questions 1.1 to 1.2) sought to obtain information regarding learner learner relationships at Historically White Schools. The second component (questions 1.3 to 1.5) of the questionnaire was intended to determine black learners’ perceptions in respect of their relationship with their white teachers. For the purpose of this paper, the authors focus on the analysis and discussion of five key items drawn from the questionnaire which had relevance to two components, namely learners’ perceptions on their relationship with their teachers, as well as their perceptions of their learner learner relationships at Historically White Schools The authors are of the view that these five items, drawn from the two components, are fundamental to the reconceptualisation of black learners’ relationships at Historically White Schools in South Africa.
The research participants were treated with respect and dignity, and their rights and confidentiality were protected. During the process of the research various ethical measures were applied. First, approval from the Ethics Committee of a leading university in South Africa was sought. Thereafter, consent to conduct research in the participating Historically White Schools in the Northern Cape province (South Africa) was sought from the Northern Cape Department of Education. Permission from the high school principals was obtained. Key elements about the research study were shared with participants. Permission to participate in the study was obtained through written consent from the participants Participants were informed that anonymity would be maintained by not mentioning their names or the names of their schools in the study.
Data were analysed using descriptive analysis methods. The data acquired from the five key items were integrated with the data attained from the literature study, in order for the researchers to make summaries, draw conclusions and offer recommendations. A leading university in South Africa’s computer centre helped with the approval, analyses, processing and interpretation of the aforementioned data.
The Importance of Learner-Learner Interaction Items 1.1 and 1.2 were meant to elicit black learners’ perceptions concerning their interaction with learners from different cultural backgrounds. Figures 1 and 2 provide an exposition of learner’s responses in this regard.
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Interaction with learners from different cultural backgrounds.
The majority of learners, males (32.4%) and females (38.1%), thought that learners from different cultures had a feeling of unity amongst each other, as depicted by Figure 1. The findings disputed that of the literature that claim that most learners belonging to the non dominant group, such as black learners, are subjected to more peer rejection (Celeste et al., 2016). This finding further disagrees with the argument advanced by Baysu et al. (2021) suggesting that learners from the non dominant group, such as black learners in this instance, feel alienated and unaccepted at these schools. The finding is significant, because it gives an indication of how the deliberate intentions of the apartheid education system managed to sow fear, disharmony and disunity among the different races and cultures in South Africa. This finding may even further point to the awakening of South African society to the fact that people from different racial backgrounds possibly had more in common than not.
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Figure 1. Percentage of learners’ response to whether most learners from different cultures had a feeling of unity amongst each other
between learners from different cultural backgrounds in the classroom
Judging from Figure 2, most of the learners, male (37.7%) and female (43.5%), agreed that the relationship between learners from different cultural backgrounds in the classroom was good, even though most Historically White Schools adopted an assimilationist approach. This finding disputes that of the literature (Celeste et al., 2019) and the media report (Sunday Times, 2021) arguing that black learners felt marginalised and left out These findings are significant, as they point to the presence of some of the critical tenets underpinning learner learner relationships at Historically White Schools. These tenets are the learners’ sense of belonging, and an encouraging social classroom setting (Uslu & Gizir, 2017) This finding can
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further serve as a catalyst to address incidents of disharmony and dissention at not only Historically White Schools, but also schools in general.
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The Importance of Teacher-Learner Relationships
Items 1.3 to 1.5 were asked in order to elicit black learners’ perceptions concerning their relationship with their white teachers. Figures 3 to 5 provide an exposition of the learner’s responses in this regard.
Relationship with their white teachers
According to Figure 3, the majority of learners, namely black (23.4%), coloured (28.5%), Indian (0.4%) and other race groups (2%), agreed that white teachers had higher academic expectations from white learners than from black learners. There seems to be consensus between the findings of the literature and the findings of the study claiming that white teachers had greater academic expectations from white learners than for their black counterparts (Tevis et al., 2022). This finding is particularly concerning since teacher learner relationships are fundamental for the academic development of learners (Martin & Collie, 2019). More so, the relationship is also supposed to be built on trust (Mansfield et al., 2016; Aldrup et al. 2018). It therefore means that if these teachers have lower academic expectations from black learners, these learners might lose trust in their teachers, thus compromising these critical relationships. The aforementioned state of affairs may in turn impede the academic development of black learners, consequently perpetuating the perceived narrative of the academic inferiority of black learners.
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Figure 3. Percentage of learners’ response to whether white teachers had higher academic expectations from white learners than from black learners
White teachers are able to interpret customs and non verbal behaviour of learners from different cultures Figure 4 depicts the learners’ responses on the question on whether white teachers are able to interpret customs and non verbal behaviour of learners from different cultures. Most learners indicated in the affirmative, namely black (19%), coloured (36.8%), Indian (0.6%) and other race groups (3.3%). The latter finding is in disagreement with the literature, which states that most black learners felt marginalised since white teachers at these schools are unable to interpret their culture (Ndimande, 2013) or considering their background or lived experiences (Shultz et al., 2022). The finding is profound in that although white teachers and the school ethos embrace mainly Eurocentric values, being able to interpret customs and non verbal behaviour of learners from different cultures is rather progressive. The finding, relating to white teachers’ ability to interpret black learners’ culture, further points to deliberate efforts made by these teachers to nurture the important teacher learner relationship, which is central to enhancing learners’sense of belonging, social, emotional and academic growth. More so, the finding bodes well for the imperatives of multicultural education to provide schooling to all learners, taking into account their cultural backgrounds, the aspect of quality education, and the realisation of learning opportunities (Mikander et al., 2018; Susanto, 2018).
Black Coloured Indian Other
Figure 4. Percentage of learners’ response to whether white teachers are able to interpret customs and non-verbal behaviour of learners from different cultures
Trusting relationships with white teachers and fellow white learners
The greatest percentage of learners, namely black (29.2%), coloured (50.1%), Indian (1.1%) and other race groups (4%), as indicated by Figure 5, stated that they had trusting relationships with their white teachers and fellow white learners. This finding is profound and concurs with the literature claiming the importance of meaningful relationships between teachers and learners in the multicultural classroom (Makhalemele & Payne van Staden, 2020). The finding further confirms the argument of Vollet et al. (2017), advancing that cordial learner learner relationships enhance learners’ sense of security and subsequent intensification in academic commitment. This finding is particularly significant, given the deep seated mistrust that continues to exist among different races in South Africa, especially if the previously cited media reports are considered. The finding can well be as a result of the progress made with regards to transformation in multicultural spaces of Historically White Schools since the early days of democracy. The finding may further suggest that Historically White Schools have made a concerted effort to create school spaces of acceptance, social cohesion and unity across the various racial and cultural divides.
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The aim of the study was to determine the perceptions of black learners with regard to their teacher learner and learner learner relationships in multicultural spaces of Historically White Schools in the five education districts of the Northern Cape, South Africa. We argue that both teacher learner, as well as learner learner relationships are important for the learners’ sense of belonging, social, emotional and academic development in Historically White Schools. Furthermore, the researchers strongly highlight the critical value of these relationships to learning, interaction, socialisation and communication in Historically White Schools, noting the tendency of these schools to assimilate black learners into the existing school culture, which is fundamentally based on Eurocentric values. The study further argues that in instances where Historically White Schools have elected to respond to the enrolment of black learners with assimilationism, these schools run the risk of leaving black learners feeling excluded and alienated. Instead, a case is being made for Historically White Schools to strive to employ multicultural education as a vehicle to create an inviting and conducive schooling environment. This learning environment should be structured in a fashion where teaching and learning considers the cultural backgrounds and lived realities of all learners (Alexander, 2016). The insights gained on black learners’ perceptions of their relationships with white teachers and fellow learners may serve to inform policy, practice and initiatives for the development of future multicultural school programmes aimed at enhancing teacher learner and learner learner relationships in Historically White Schools in South Africa, as well as abroad. Such future relationship enhancing programmes may succeed in assisting minority learners (in the South African context, black learners), to feel accepted and included at Historically White Schools A future study is envisaged where the guidelines for the development of future teacher and learner relationship enhancing programmes will be explored.
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*
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 46 62, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.3
Received Feb 28, 2022; Revised Apr 13, 2022; Accepted Apr 18, 2022
Eidhah Abdullah AbdulRaheem Al Malki Foreign Languages Department, Taif University, Taif, KSA
Adel Awadh Aidh Al-Harthi Foreign Languages Department, Taif University, Taif, KSA
Choudhary Zahid Javid* Foreign Languages Department, Taif University, Taif, KSA
Muhammad Umar Farooq English Language Center, Taif University, Taif, KSA
Ghazi Fahad Algethami Foreign Languages Department, Taif University, Taif, KSA
Abstract. Development of tailor made indigenous teaching content, after assessing the target learners’ needs and proficiency, is necessary to address to specific needs of specific learners, ensure optimum learning and motivation. This quantitative investigation attempted to determine the communicative competence of SSETH in English language skills to develop indigenous teaching content. A Likert scale questionnaire was developed and administered to 289 participants to record their perceived proficiency in English language skills and sub skills. Independent samples T test was run to generate descriptive statistics and determine whether any significant differences exited in their perceived proficiency level. The results revealed medium low English language proficiency by the participants. SSETH reported comparatively higher proficiency in the productive skills of writing and speaking as compared to the receptive skills of listening and writing. The cohort form College of Tourism and Hospitality, Taif (CTHT) reported slightly higher competence as compared to their counterparts from College of Tourism and Hospitality, Madinah (CTHM). Comparative results generated by Independent
Corresponding author: Choudhary Zahid Javid; email: choudhary@hotmail.com
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
samples T test rejected the null hypotheses as no statistically significant differences were found in the perceived communicative competence of both groups. It is recommended that various stake holders should work in close coordination to develop and implement indigenous teaching content which should be periodically assessed and modified to suit the changing ESP needs of SSETH. This procedure may be followed as a model for other disciplines to develop indigenous teaching material
Keywords: comparative determination; tourism and hospitality; communicative competence; ESP course content
Tourism is a thriving industry which is currently promoted by various countries to strengthen their economies and provide business opportunities to their people. The magnitude of its scope is evident as “UN World Tourism Organization predicts that by 2030, the number of international tourists will increase to 1.8 billion” (Alisher, 2015, p. 58). Trickledown effect of this industry is all encompassing. Bora (2011) highlighted the role of this industry in promoting economy of a country and reported that “tourism has several multiplier effects and has the potential to benefit all sections of society” (p. 13). Several studies reported its positive role in developing the economies of many countries worldwide (Fujita, 2020; Rahman, 2016). Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) has prioritized tourism sector in an effort to broaden the economic base instead of mainly oil-dependent economies and the tourism sector is considered a source of income as well as to diversify the national economy and provide employment to their youth (Alhowaish, 2016).
Saudi Arabia set ambitious targets to promote tourism sector through national and international partnerships and Ministry of Tourism, Saudi Arabia (n.d.) initiated ‘the tourist investment fund’ with an enormous capital of ‘15 billion Saudi riyals’. Saudi Vision 2030 is a futuristic map to strengthen and diversify Saudi economy through investing in multiple mega projects. Tourism related goals include increasing tourism industry share in national GDP from 3% to 10%, achieving target of 1.6 million jobs by adding additional one million jobs in the tourism sector and ‘attracting 100 million local and international visits annually by 2030’ (Ministry of Tourism, Saudi Arabia (n.d.). Serious efforts are manifested in the Travel and Tourism Competitive Report (2017) which stated that Saudi Arabia significantly outperformed the remaining GCC countries in promoting five UNESCO World Heritage sites and thousands of historical sites to attract local and international tourists. NEOM, AMAALA, Red Sea Project and Qiddiyah are part of ambitious six giga projects which is Saudi Arabia’s $7 trillion development plan. This plan epitomizes Saudi vision 2030 to transform Saudi economy to show ‘the nation’s geographical wealth, cultural heritage and hospitality, economic ambitions and aspirations for environmental conservation’ (Kane & Al-Khudair, 2021).
Prachanant (2012) stated that tourism workforce requires to interact with tourists who speak different languages. Therefore, a properly trained workforces is needed in the tourism industry to interact efficiently with international tourists.
This mutual communication is supposed to be done in a language which is commonly used as a lingua franca. English language acquired the status of a common language for mutual communication and widely used in “international affairs, trade and commerce, tourism and so on” (Rahman, 2016, p. 43). A growing mass of research reported that tourism industry cannot sustain and progress without trained and skilled tourism workforce that is proficient in English language and communicative skills (Tanković et al., 2021; Robles, 2019; Bury & Oka, 2017; Dhiman, 2012; Bobanovic & Grzinic, 2011; Chen et al., 2011).
Bobanovic and Grznic (2011) pointed out that it is mandatory to use a common language to maintain effective communication between tourism work force and international tourists from around the globe. It is unavoidable to execute a comprehensive plan to offer specialised courses of English for tourism to enable Saudi tourism workforce efficiently communicate with their target clients (Kim et al., 2017: Yasmin et al., 2016). Technical and vocational training corporation (TVTC) initiated a large scale program to equip Saudi aspirants in the field of tourism and hospitality with technical and communicative skills. Several technical colleges have been established in various regions of Saudi Arabia which offer English for tourism courses to equip SSETH with the required English language proficiency and communicative competence to meet the challenge. Several studies revealed that English language proficiency of Saudi students is quite low as compared to their international counterparts (Al Malki et al., 2022: Alrabai, 2016a; Al-Seghayer, 2014). ‘EF Education’ conducted a largescale investigation and English language proficiency of 2.3 million non native speakers from hundred countries was measured and Saudi students were placed on 98th position as mentioned in EF EPI 2019 annual report of English proficiency Index (Arab News, 2019). This poor English language proficiency of Saudi students is a major hurdle in achieving ambitious tourism targets set in Saudi vision 2030. There is an urgent need to undertake a coordinated effort including all stake holders to devise a comprehensive plan to upgrade English language teaching in Saudi Arabia. Colleges of tourism and hospitality situated in various regions of Saudi Arabia are teaching general English or ready made English for tourism courses available in the market. These courses do not seem to cater for the specific needs of SSETH. Tailor made indigenous teaching content, based on comprehensive needs analysis and current English language proficiency of SSETH, is needed to fill this gap and address to the target needs of SSTH efficiently (Al Malki et al., 2022). This investigation aimed to identify proficiency level of Saudi students studying at colleges of tourism and hospitality situated in Taif and Madinah as no such study has been done in Saudi Arabia to the best knowledge of the researchers.
Dudley Evans (2001) stated that ESP is “a separate branch of English Language Teaching” (p. 131) which is different from general English language courses. General English language courses are meant to teach presumed fundamentals of English whereas ESP courses are developed based on target situation analysis (TSA) and present situation analysis (PSA) of the target population. ESP courses
target the specific English language needs of the students’ academic or professional purposes (Liu & Zhang, 2020; Al Khatib, 2015; Johns & Price, 2014). Johns and Price (2014) identified this approach as “a pedagogical movement in applied linguistics” (p. 471) and it is presently a well established and widely used approach in English language teaching to satisfy specific needs of learners (Anthony, 2018). Dudley Evans and St John (1998) informed that variable characteristics of ESP include planning English language courses for specific disciplines, applying different pedagogical procedures than general English, targeting university undergraduates or on job trainees and designing them for intermediate and advanced level students. ESP course may be grouped in various pedagogical categories based on the target learners’ academic, occupational or professional needs and are developed and “tailored to the specific learning and language use needs and goals of the identified groups of students” (Johns & Price, 2014, p. 206). An inevitable feature of all ESP courses is to follow standard procedure of assessing needs of the target population before developing tailor made teaching content (Liu & Zhang, 2020; Robles, 2019). Tailor made teaching content facilitate EFL learners to “maintain their interest and enjoyment in learning English” (Alqarni, 2021, p. 73).
Needs assessment (NA) is the foremost and primary component of ESP that “distinguishes ESP from general English” (Liu & Zhang, 2020, p. 207). General English courses target “the presumed fundamentals of the language” whereas specialized ESP courses are developed through “a careful assessment of a particular group’s specific language learning needs and target situation” (Johns & Price, 2014, p. 472). A growing mass of research has offered a valuable insight into the fact that NA is “the corner stone of ESP” (Dudley Evans & St John, 1998, p. 122), “the key defining feature of ESP” and always “the first step for ESP” (Dudley Evans, 2001, p. 133). Brown (2009) stated that development of specialized teaching content is the major target of NA which “satisfies the language learning and teaching requirements of the students and teachers within the context of particular institution(s) involved” (p. 269). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) highlighted the role of ESP in English language teaching as “the irreducible minimum” (p. 53) and it was also regarded as “a key instrument” (West, 1994, p. 2) for any serious attempt of ESP material development. Johns and Price Machada (2001) concluded that “[In] every genuine ESP course, needs assessment is obligatory, and in many programs, an ongoing needs assessment is integral to curriculum design and evaluation” (p. 49).
TSA and PSA are critical components of NA. TSA covers “necessities, lacks and wants, and asking questions about the target situation and participants’ attitudes towards it” (Liu & Zhang, 2020, p. 207). TSA provides an umbrella term for identifying various language skills and sub skills to cope up with the target situation. PSA or deficiency analysis “seeks to establish what learners are like at the beginning of the course” and attempts to identify the “students’ current level of proficiency including lacks” (Elsaid Mohammed & Nur, 2018, p. 54). This includes the learners’ “weakness and strength in language, skills, and learning experience” (Dudley Evans & St John, 1998, p. 125). It is further elaborated that PSA also investigates the learners’ ability to use the target language and their
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ambitions and motivation to learn as well (Hossain, 2013; Duddley Evans & John, 2009). Identification of PSA is an initial step in developing tailor made teaching content because it “seeks to ascertain what the students are akin to at the start of their language course, looking into their strengths and weaknesses” (Rahman, 2015, p. 27). Noor (2019) also expressed that PSA involves ‘fundamental variables’ which should be addressed in the beginning of needs analysis. In conclusion, PSA is the corner stone of NA and identifies the “discrepancy between necessity and what the students have already known concerning with the subject and related with their current skills and performance” (Yundayani, 2018, p. 120).
This large scale survey research employed the quantitative paradigm to identify communicative competence of SSETH in various English language skills and sub skills. The researchers used a Likert scale strongly agree to strongly disagree questionnaire to collect data from SETS studying at College of Tourism and Hospitality, Taif (CTHT) and College of Tourism and Hospitality, Madinah (CTHM). Survey research was selected for this investigation because the target population consisted of large number of students. Dörnyei (2007) suggested that a survey is an efficient and cheap instrument to collect data from large populations.
The following research questions were set for this comparative investigation:
1. What is the proficiency level of SSETH from CTHT and CTHM in various English language skills?
2. What is the proficiency level of SSETH from CTHT and CTHM in various English language sub skills?
3. Are there any differences in the proficiency of SSETH from CTHT and CTHM in various English language skills?
4. Do SSETH from CTHT and CTHM differ in their in various English language sub skills?
This quantitative survey research attempted to test the following null hypotheses:
H0 1. There does not exist any statistically significant differences in the proficiency level of SSETH from CTHT and CTHM in various English language skills?
H0 2. There does not exist any statistically significant differences in the proficiency level of SSETH from CTHT and CTHM in various English language skills?
Relevant research studies were thoroughly reviewed to develop a survey instrument to gather data (Liu & Zhang, 2020; Yundayani, 2018; Yasmin et al., 2016; Javid & Khan, 2013; Rahim & Tazijan, 2011). The researchers constructed a Likert scale strongly agree to strongly disagree survey to elicit responses of the
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participants related to their perceived communicative competence in various English language skills and sub skills. The initial version of the survey, along with the title, research questions and hypotheses set for the study, was sent to three professors of applied linguistics for their feedback to achieve content validity. The feedback was incorporated in the final version of the survey. The final version of the questionnaire was translated into Arabic language to generate authentic responses. It was assumed that the participants were not proficient enough in English language to understand survey in English language and record their responses. The translated version of the survey was administered to 27 SSETH from CTHT to determine reliability of the survey. Pearson correlation matrix was calculated for the data generated through the pilot study and high Cronbach's alpha coefficient (.932) was achieved.
The participants of this survey were randomly selected SSETH studying English for tourism and hospitality courses at CTHT and CTHM. Total number of respondents to the survey were two hundred eighty nine (n=289) and the details are given below:
Table
No Participants Number 1 SSETH from CTHT 184 2 SSETH from CTHM 105 3 Total 289
The researchers submitted the final English and translated versions of the survey to Taif University ethical committee for their permission to conduct the investigation. Permission was granted and a letter (42 137) was issued. The researchers wrote a request letter to Taif University vice president to issue official requests to the deans of CTHT and CTHM to facilitate the data collection procedure. Separate letters were issued to the deans of both colleges. The participants of the investigation were ensured that their information and data would be kept confidential and used only for this survey.
The researchers uploaded the Arabic version of the questionnaire on ‘Google Forms’ and link was shared with the participants of the study to record their responses.
Independent sample T test was run to calculate descriptive analyses and comparative means. Descriptive analyses were used to determine the communicative competence of the participants and P value was considered to determine whether any statistically significant differences existed in the communicative competence of SSETH from CTHT and CTHM.
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Table 2: Current level of communicative competence in language skills?
No Language Skills Group n M p value
1 Listening skills
CTHT 184 2.7174 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.6190 .573
2 Speaking skills CTHT 184 2.9022 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.8381 .695
3 Reading Skills CTHT 184 2.6304 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5238 .514
4 Writing skills CTHT 184 2.7228 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.6476 .643
Table 2 presents descriptive analyses of the participants’ perceived proficiency level in various English language skills and sub skills. Speaking skills were ranked at the top followed by writing skills. The participants reported low competence in listening skills and reading skills which were assigned 3rd and 4th position with medium low mean values. Furthermore, no item of this category showed statistically significant difference in their perceived proficiency of various English language skills; though, SSETH from CTHT reported slightly higher mean values in all items than SSETH from CTHM. SETS assigned comparatively higher proficiency in productive skills as compared to receptive skills.
Table 3: Current level of communicative competence in listening sub-skills
No Listening and understanding.. Group n m p value
1 the tourists’ personal details.
CTHT 184 2.7391 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.4952 .158
2 reservation details. CTHT 184 2.7446 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5905 .385
3 the tourists’ demands. CTHT 184 2.7772 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5619 .217
4 the tourists’ instructions. CTHT 184 2.7717 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5333 .176
5 the tourists’ complaints. CTHT 184 2.8587 p < 0.05 CTHM 105 2.4857 .034
6 the tourists’ feedback. CTHT 184 2.8696 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5429 .075
7 the tourists’ suggestions. CTHT 184 2.8859 p > 0.05
8 major English language accents.
CTHM 105 2.5619 .076
CTHT 184 2.7446 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5429 .256
The participants assigned medium to medium low preferences to all sub skills of listening. The highest competence was reported for listening and understanding to the tourists’ suggestions and feedback. Understanding the tourists’ demands
remained the 3rd most preferred item. Slightly low mean values were recorded for listening and understanding the tourists’ instructions. The descriptive analyses revealed that the participants of this survey were least proficient in understanding personal details of their clients. Comprehending major English language accents was also allocated extremely low mean values. Similarly, listening and recording reservation details also received low mean. The remaining 2 items of this table received medium low preferences. Comparative analyses generated by independent sample T test showed that statistically significant differences existed in their perceived proficiency of listening and understanding the tourists’ complaints.
Table
No Questionnaire items Group n m p value
1 Greeting and bidding farewell to tourists
CTHT 184 3.1957 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 3.1524 .826 2
Apologizing & presenting excuses CTHT 184 3.1087 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 3.0476 .755 3 Giving directions Helping tourists with directions
CTHT 184 2.8859 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.7143 .324 4
Explaining social etiquettes
CTHT 184 2.7609 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.4857 .119 5 Offering help CTHT 184 3.0163 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.7714 .175 6
Suggesting and advising CTHT 184 2.7717 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5143 .147 7 Guiding tourists about tourist attractions CTHT 184 2.7826 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5143 .126 8 Providing trip details CTHT 184 2.7174 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.4667 .148 9
Asking about tourists’ requirements CTHT 184 2.7174 p < 0.05 CTHM 105 2.3714 .038 10
Asking for feedback CTHT 184 2.5978 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.3905 .204 11
Asking for suggestions CTHT 184 2.7174 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.4476 .120 12
Describing places to tourists CTHT 184 2.7337 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.6190 .514 13
Interacting with intelligible pronunciation
CTHT 184 2.8152 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5714 .167
Comparative descriptive analyses of various speaking sub skills generated through independent samples T test are presented in table 4. Medium high to medium low mean values were assigned to these sub skills which indicate that the participants considered this area challenging as other English language sub skills. ‘Greeting and bidding farewell’ and ‘apologising and presenting excuses’ were reported the most preferred items respectively. The participants revealed
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that they had medium level of proficiency in ‘offering help’ and ‘helping tourists with directions’. The sub skills in which the least proficiency was reported were asking the tourists for feedback, requirements and suggestions respectively. Both groups saw eye to eye to each other in reporting their proficiency in speaking sub skills as only one item out of thirteen exhibited statistically significant difference as calculated by the comparative analyses. The results showed that SSETH were rather weaker in speaking sub skills which are related to interacting with tourists at the end of their trips.
No
and understanding Group n M p value
1 Social media messages
CTHT 184 2.8424 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5905 .161 2 tourists’ emails CTHT 184 2.8641 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5905 .146 3 tourists’ requests and enquiries CTHT 184 2.8315 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5524 .127 4 tourists’ feedback
CTHT 184 2.8315 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5333 .102 5 tourists’ instructions CTHT 184 2.8967 p < 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5238 .044 6 advertisements CTHT 184 2.8967 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5429 .055 7 tourist attraction web sites CTHT 184 2.8750 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.5429 .067 8 sign boards and notice boards CTHT 184 2.9402 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.6095 .078 9 Pamphlets and booklets CTHT 184 2.8315 p < 0.05 CTHM 105 2.4476 .030
The results presented in table 5 showed that SSETH from CTHT reported higher proficiency in all reading sub skills as compared to their counterparts from CTHM. There were only two items, i.e., reading and understanding instructions, pamphlets and booklets which bore statistically significant differences in their perceived proficiency. The highest mean was assigned to understanding sign boards and notice boards followed by understanding advertisements. Understanding tourists’ emails received the third highest mean. As far the least preferred reading sub skill was concerned, understanding pamphlets and booklets was allocated the lowest mean. The next preferred items were understanding tourists’ requests, enquiries and feedback. An interesting finding is that the participants from CTHM allotted 2.83 to all the least preferred items whereas SSETH from CTHM assigned medium low mean values.
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Table
No Writing ……… Group n M p value
1 social media messages
CTHT 184 2.8641 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.4952 .034
2 emails CTHT 184 2.8315 p < 0.05 CTHM 105 2.4095 .019
3 while listening
CTHT 184 2.7391 p < 0.05 CTHM 105 2.2095 .001
4 instructions CTHT 184 2.7609 p < 0.05 CTHM 105 2.3524 .019
5 descriptions CTHT 184 2.7446 p < 0.05 CTHM 105 2.2762 .005
6 answers to queries CTHT 184 2.6576 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.3619 .080
7 Reports
8 proposals
9 power point presentations
10 social media advertisements
CTHT 184 2.5543 p > 0.05
CTHM 105 2.2381 .066
CTHT 184 2.5380 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.2762 .113
CTHT 184 2.6576 p > 0.05
CTHM 105 2.4571 .253
CTHT 184 2.6413 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.4095 .176
11 trip itineraries CTHT 184 2.6522 p > 0.05 CTHM 105 2.2952 .030
Table 6 details the results related to perceived proficiency of both groups in writing sub skills and the participants have assigned lower means as compared to all other categories. Average mean score of SSETH from CTHT remained the highest in all items of this section than their counterparts’ proficiency. An important finding is that five items of this category bore statistically significant differences in the perceived proficiency level of both groups in writing sub skills. ‘Writing social media messages’ remained at the top followed by ‘writing emails’ and ‘instructions. The results highlighted that the participants were extremely weak in ‘writing reports’. The other least preferred items were ‘writing while listening’ and ‘writing proposals’.
The participants of this investigation reported medium to medium low proficiency in English language skills and sub skills with slightly higher proficiency in productive skills as compared to the receptive skills. This seems that frequent use of social media with their international acquaintances help them improve their speaking and writing skills. The findings are partially in line with Moattarian and Tahririan (2014) who investigated all stake holders and reported that tourism management graduates in Iran had weak communicative competence. They suggested that indigenous teaching materials should be designed with special emphasis on enhancing communicative skills. Similar findings have been revealed by Lin et al. (2014) as well. Several studies which
were conducted in Saudi Arabia disclosed that Saudi EFL learners were found weak in all English language skills which confirm the findings of this investigation (Alrabai, 2016b; Alrashidi & Phan, 2015; Alsamadani & Ibnian, 2015; Javid et al., 2013; Alrahaili, 2013; Al Khairy, 2013a etc.). Alhawsawi (2013) and Rajab (2013) supported the results of this study and stated that English language proficiency of Saudi students remained unsatisfactory even after serious efforts by Saudi government in this regard. One possible reason of low English proficiency level of Saudi EFL students, including the ones in the field of tourism, is extensive use of Arabic language with their teachers and class fellows instead of English language (Alhawsawi, 2013; Alshammari, 2011).
The results of this study revelaed medium low communicative competence of SSETH in listening and speaking sub skills. In line with the results of this study, Prachanant (2012) found that employees of tourism industry faced problems in understanding accent of their clients. Ahmad (2014) and Al Seghayer (2014) concluded that frequent use of audio lingual and grammar translation methods is one major cause of weak listening skills. They mentioned that teachers teach through explicit rules and discreate skills instead of providing facilitative atmosphere in the classrooms to practice oral skills. Similar findings were reported by several studies conducted in Saudi Arabia and reported low proficiency in listening skills among medical undergraduates (Javid, 2018; Aljumah, 2011). Alrabai (2015) reported that “Saudi EFL learners usually have problems developing the productive skill of speaking” (p. 10). Rahman and Deviyanti (2018) found a significant correlation between EFL learners’ motivation and their communicative competence. This lack of the required competence in speaking sub skills is for obvious reason “that Saudi EFL students rarely speak in English with each other” (Rahman & Deviyanti, 2018, p. 220). In line with the results of this perceptive study, Alharbi (2015) stated that Saudi EFL learners prefer to interact in Arabic language which deprive them of the opportunities to have the required speaking practice with their teachers and class mates inside classrooms. There is a need to emphasize on this component in developing teaching content because tourism workforce has to constantly and actively interact with their clients orally. Al ma’shy (2011) concluded that inappropriate textbooks and untrained teachers were the main reasons behind weak speaking skills of Saudi secondary school learners. Several other studies in different academic contexts of Saudi Arabia highlighted that Saudi EFL learners have serious issues in speaking skills (Bawazir, 2019; Eissa, 2019; Bani Younes & Albalawi, 2016).
The results indicate that SSETH recorded medium proficiency in reading skills with slightly higher level of comprehension when they read short sentences or phrases as compared to reading extended texts. Frequent use of social media with their international contacts seems to be the reason in this regard. Both groups exhibited weaknesses in understanding their clients’ feedback and instructions which is an important task to maintain clients’ loyalty. All items of this category received medium mean values of less than 3 indicating that reading sub skills should be given priority in developing teaching content for SSETH.
Like all other skills, SSETH disclosed their weakness in various writing sub skills as well Al rabai (2016b) disclosed that Saudi EFL learners face “serious problems in their academic writing because of weaknesses with using appropriate lexical items and grammar; organizing ideas; spelling; and using prepositions, irregular verbs, articles, punctuation, suffixes and prefixes” (p. 11). Alharbi and Alqefari (2021) also supported the findings of this study and informed that Saudi EFL learners have challenges in academic writing. Similar findings were presented by Javid et al. (2013) who investigated 194 Saudi EFL learners from Taif University. Confirming the results of the present study, Al Khairy (2013b) announced that Saudi English major learners faced problems in writing extended paragraphs. He reported that they commit mistakes in vocabulary, punctuation, prepositions, verbs etc. The findings of this survey also found that the participants faced problems in writing reports, proposals and tip itineraries. It seems that frequent use of social media enabled the participants to achieve comparatively higher proficiency in writing short texts but had problems in writing longer texts. Aljafen (2013) also declared that Saudi EFL students feel anxious during the process of writing.
The results of this perceptive study reported medium low English language proficiency among SSETH. It was found that their communicative competence is low as they lack in all English language skills and sub skills. Slightly higher proficiency level was recorded in productive skills of writing and speaking but the situation is rather worse in receptive skills of listening and reading. As far oral skills were concerned, the participants perceived understanding the tourists’ personal details and different accents as the most problematic. Similarly, the identified problematic areas of speaking sub skills remained asking for tourists’ feedback, suggestions and requirements. Reading and understanding booklets and pamphlets remained the most challenging sub skills followed by understanding the clients’ feedback and instructions. The participants declared that writing proposals, reports and answering questions posed maximum challenge. It was also revealed that the participants from CTHT exhibited comparatively higher proficiency level as compared to their counterparts from CTHM but the results rejected the null hypotheses as the comparative analyses recorded statistically significant differences in very few questionnaire items.
There is no denying of the fact that ready made teaching content cannot fulfil their specific needs and seems inappropriate to teach Saudi tourism workforce who have specific needs and are much less proficient in various English language skills and sub skills. Therefore, development of tailor made teaching content is unavoidable based on the TSA and PSA. SSETH were found a mixed ability EFL learners and need to be handled accordingly. It is also recommended that the students need to be divided and taught in different groups according to their proficiency level in English language. It is also extremely important that close coordination should be ensured among different colleges of tourism and hospitality situated in different regions of Saudi Arabia. Furthermore, NA is an on going process and tailor made indigenously developed teaching content should be periodically assessed and modified to suit the recent needs of the
students. This is recommended that similar investigation may be conducted in the field of science and other disciplines to identify competence in the relevant areas.
This investigation involved SSETH from two colleges. It is suggested that tourism workforce presently serving in the field should also be investigated in future studies to assess their proficiency in various English language skills and sub skills to develop ESP courses for them as well.
Contribution/Originality: This comparative investigation aims to determine the communicative competence of SSETH to develop tailor made ESP course content. Standardized procedure was followed to identify English for tourism and hospitality communicative competence of SSETH in various skills and sub skills of English language to ensure efficient and effective teaching.
Funding: This study is financially supported by Saudi Ministry of Higher Education and Deanship of Scientific Research, Taif University under the ‘Group Project Number, 1 441 94.
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Acknowledgements: All researchers contributed equally to the conception, execution and report writing of this investigation
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 63 79, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.4
Received Sep 14, 2022; Revised Mar 9, 2022; Accepted Mar 17, 2022
Abstract. This paper aims to identify and compare aspects affecting English language syllabus design at military language centres in six NATO countries. Close attention is devoted to course syllabi for Level 1 (Survival; approximately corresponding to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) Level A2) and Level 2 (Functional; approximately corresponding to CEFR Level B1). The descriptive quantitative research, conducted in 2019, concentrated on determining which stakeholders participated in creating the English language syllabi presently in use and which critical aspects of syllabus design the creators considered in the process of their compilation. The findings reveal that active teacher participation is one of the most prominent characteristics of the entire syllabus design processinall of the institutionsexamined,whichresultsfromthespecificnatureofthecourses focused on preparing learners for final English examinations in a military context Integrated syllabi, which are product oriented and teacher led, areanotherdefiningcharacteristictypicalforbothlevelsinallinstitutions. The syllabi in the countries studied are designed similarly, considering such crucial aspects as the learners’ entrance level, previous syllabus, exit requirements, and the type and length of courses. The study offers new insightintotheorganisationalstructureofcoursesattheelementarylevel, and an increase in the number of lessons in courses for Level 1 organised within the Czech army is strongly proposed.
Keywords: ESP; military environment; needs analysis; syllabus design
In today’s globalised world, knowledge of English is one of the essential prerequisites for success in various professional fields. Thus, ESP courses play a decisive role in the contexts of adult education and corporate training. As such courses are mostly provided for a specified period, criteria, for example, course effectiveness and financial costs, are commonly considered. Consequently, fundamental questions, e.g., What is to be taught? How closely should it be specified and by whom? How should it be organised? arise before designing any specialist course (e.g., Brown, 1995; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Widdowson, 2002). In this context, a syllabus, frequently defined as a document presenting information on
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what topics or content are to be covered in the course of study (Ur, 1996, p. 185; Richards, 1990) is at play. However, views on the syllabus are not unanimous and range from highlighting to underestimating its importance and role in the teaching and learning process. On the one hand, its pragmatic and pedagogical efficiency is accentuated (Yalden, 1984, p. 14; also see Brumfit, 1984); on the other hand, there are adverse reactions against the syllabus as it seems “centralised, management oriented, and predictive” (Candlin, 1984, p. 32). Nevertheless, as Hutchinson states, “a syllabus, particularly an ESP syllabus, also has a cosmetic role. Sponsors and students will want some reassurance that their investment of money and/or time will be worthwhile. If nothing else, the syllabus shows that some thought and planning has gone into the development of a course” (1987, p. 84).
Teachers of English at the Language Centre of the University of Defence in Brno concentrate on revising the existing course syllabi to align with the final exam requirements, which may decisively influence their adult learners’ future career prospects. Prompted by instructors’ teaching experience and students’ final exam results, changes are made. These alternations include introducing new commercial materials, modifying the current teaching materials, and creating task based activities to develop productive language skills.
As military professionals in other NATO countries are also required to take final examinations in accordance with NATO STANAG 6001 (pp. 11 29), teachers of English in foreign military language institutions cope with similar problems related to the efficiency of preparation for these final examinations. To further improve the whole teaching process at the Language Centre of the University of Defence, English instructors decided to investigate how English language syllabi are designed by the workplaces of their international colleagues.
This study aims to identify and compare aspects affecting ESP syllabus design at military language centres in the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, and Bulgaria, in which the authors have professional contacts. The study concentrates on determining which stakeholders participated in creating the English language syllabi presently in use and which critical aspects of syllabus design the creators considered in the process of their compilation.
In ESP, courses are run for a specific period and focus on learners’ particular needs related to their study or occupation (Brown, 2016, p. 5; Woodrow 2018, pp. 6 7); thus, content selection and sequencing are considered to be crucial syllabus design procedures (Graves, 1996, p. 3; Nation & Macalister, 2010, p. 82), and needs analysis is perceived to be the basis for ESP syllabus design (Dudley Evans, 1998; Woodrow, 2018).
In the ESP content selection process, different stakeholders take part in order to obtain relevant information about learners’ target needs, which Brown perceives as “whatever elements of the ESP majorities of all stakeholder groups (teachers, administrators, and so forth) want, desire, expect, and so forth”. As he further explains, “this broader definition still allows needs to be framed around what the
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students need, but from various stakeholders’ viewpoints, which will generally shape the needs into much more than just what the students want” (2016, p. 13).
To illustrate the complexity of identifying ESP learners’ needs in terms of their professions, some examples of needs analysis research conducted on a narrower scale in local settings are presented. In the context of tertiary education, the studies conducted by Qaddomi (2013) and Lee (2016) focused on which language skills students will need the most in their future work. The data were collected at both universities using a questionnaire completed only by pre experience students. Based on the findings, both institutions suggested that all language skills should be practised, emphasising the favoured skills (in Qaddomi (2013), listening and speaking, in Lee (2016), listening). Nonetheless, predicting by pre experience learners which language skills will be the most beneficial for their future jobs is problematic as they may not know exactly which field they will enter and/or what responsibilities will be placed on them after graduation (also see Serafini et al., 2015, p. 21).
Unlike the studies above, factual and up to date information about university students’ needs received from in service learners, together with the opinions of pre service learners and teachers of English, provides deeper insight into the required target needs. In research by Sari (2003) at Gülhane Military Medical Academy, the coursebook content was analysed on the assumption that the institutional goals may not wholly comply with the learners’ immediate and future needs. In this context, target situation analysis carried out by three groups of respondents (students, teachers, and doctors) revealed that these groups had different priority language skills. Based on compromise, a new programme with three topic based syllabi for three proficiency levels was created, focusing primarily on reading and listening skills but also incorporating speaking and writing activities (also see Alhuqbani, 2014; Hidayat, 2018). Another way of designing a syllabus for undergraduates at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University was demonstrated by Chan (2018), who applied a research informed approach to identifying needs, together with an in house needs analysis. Based on the findings, Chan incorporated elements of illustration, interaction, and induction into the syllabus, which contributed not only to learners’ grammatical accuracy and fluency but also to their interactional skills (p. 38).
In contrast to the tertiary context mentioned above, compiling information about learners’ target needs seems less difficult in the contexts of corporate training and adult education (Chan, 2018, p. 29). Based on teaching experience at dozens of multinational companies, Edwards (2000) considers student input crucial to the successful design of an ESP course in any context (p. 292). How significant domain experts’ views (employees and their employers) are in terms of syllabus design may be presented in studies completed by Benavent and Sánchez Reyes (2015), Cowling (2007), and Edwards (2000), who produced integrated syllabi based on in depth target situation analyses. In a case study based on the target situation analysis involving teachers and domain experts, Cowling, for example, reported on an intensive syllabus for workplace courses at a Japanese company. The syllabus, consisting of notional functional and content based syllabi, enables employees to adapt current general English knowledge into business situations,
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consider cultural issues when communicating with foreign businesspeople, and provide realistic (authentic) language examples (pp. 433 434).
Within the military context, Solak (2010) endeavoured to design a syllabus for the Advanced Level English Course at Gendarmerie Schools Command in Beytepe. Using questionnaires, an analysis of the course including course participants (officers and non commissioned officers) and their teachers of English revealed a critical view of the course objectives, which did not match learners’ expectations or institutional goals. Also, the course books were criticised, and it was suggested supplementing them with authentic materials or revising or replacing them entirely. The respondents called for an exam oriented course in order to be trained in the skills necessary to achieve NATO STANAG 6001, Level 3 requirements. The outcomes formed the basis of a suggested multiple syllabus comprising elements of topic based, task based, skill based, lexical, and structural syllabi (also see Park, 2015). A quasi negotiated ESP syllabus to be applied in a programme for the military personnel who are or will be assigned abroad in the near future was developed by Yaşar (2015). The findings (e.g., a significant need for knowledge of military abbreviations and acronyms; developing language skills) were considered, together with the specific environment of multinational units in the Turkish Armed Forces.
Referring to the needs identified above, the authors concur with Brown, who states that “needs may be many things, but they should never be thought of as the truth. Hence, needs can at bestbe said to be sets ofjudgements and compromisesjustified by observation, surveys, test scores, language learning theory, linguistics, or otherwise” (2016, p. 16). Moreover, as any syllabus actually used in the classroom is “continually reinterpreted and recreated by teacher and learners” (Breen, 1984, p. 47), ESP needs analysis is never a once for all activity. In practice, it is executed in different phases of the teaching process, typically with the emphasis on subjective learners’ needs in order, for example, to increase learners’ motivation, or to facilitate more effectively developing particular language skills (e.g., Chan, 2015; Todea & Demarcsek, 2017; Rebenko & Nikolenko, 2019; Shykhnenko & Nozhovnik, 2020).
The studies presented above point to the fact that the functional view of language is highly supported. In ESP courses, synthetic as well as analytic approaches to syllabus design (defined in detail e.g., in Hadley, 1998) can generally be combined. As a result, elements of several syllabi, such as functional, situational, lexical, topic based, task based and skill based, commonly operate simultaneously. This eclectic approach seems to be the most rational as any syllabus should recognize the complexity of communication. In this context, Swan claims that the real issue is not which syllabus to put first, but how to integrate them into a sensible teaching programme (1985b).
The sequencing of the content derived from a needs analysis is influenced by “the particular views of language, learning, and classroom conditions held by the syllabus designer” (Breen, 1984, p. 49). Criteria such as the learnability, teachability, simplicity and complexity of structures usually relate to the syllabus
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representing a structural view of language. In contrast, usefulness, practicality, and frequency criteria are typical of the syllabus representing a functional view of language (also see Brown, 2016, pp. 48 50). Nonetheless, “the criteria themselves can never be strictly objective and they will be assumptions or good guesses rather than established facts about language learning, or classrooms” (Breen, 1984, p. 50).
As a core textbook frequently builds a strong basis for developing an ESP syllabus, its content map is commonly mirrored and syllabus designers more or less follow the structure of lessons in the textbook (e.g., Jonáková et al., 2019), which makes the whole process of sequencing a syllabus much easier.
Studies show that topics also provide a framework around which language skills, vocabulary, and grammar can be developed in parallel. The integrated syllabus designed by Cowling (2007), for example, includes nine topics covering areas of future Japanese workers’ needs, under which several communicative functions can be grouped. In the master’s thesis by Yaşar (2015), the suggested syllabus for multinational peacekeeping operations consists of ten units divided into three main areas called ‘Social’, ‘Military’, and ‘Other general’, and a topic for each of them includes, for example, ‘Skills’, ‘Context and Functions’, ‘Vocabulary’, and ‘Tasks’ (also see Solak, 2010).
On the other hand, some researchers go a step further and concentrate not only on identifying topics and target tasks relevant to specific groups of learners, but also on the cognitive and linguistic difficulty of the operations involved in the particular tasks. Based on a needs analysis, Park (2015) identified target situations and target tasks encountered in these situations, in which Korean naval officers are expected to use English (p. 36). They were viewed from their relative frequency, criticality and also difficulty in terms of mastering English. Based on the outcomes, the content specifics were provided, and suggestions for syllabus design were considered, with emphasis on improving speaking skills and adopting Communicative Language Teaching.
Unlike the research by Park, the study conducted by Malicka et al. (2019) offers an empirically supported basis for sequencing tasks according to their complexity. Based on the Task Complexity component of Robinson’s Triadic Componential Framework, the specific task characteristics in the domain of a hotel receptionist’s job were identified. The findings, in general, not only influence the sensible way of task sequencing, but also contribute to designing pedagogic tasks that may differ in levels of cognitive load. Nonetheless, as Ellis states “… there is no algorithm for selecting tasks and grading them in order to sequence them vertically and horizontally. … So for the time being, and probably for a long time, syllabus designers will have to draw on their experience and intuition, informed by taxonomies such as Robinson’s, to decide how to sequence tasks” (2018, p. 469)
The present study’s objective was to identify and compare aspects considered in the syllabus design of ESP courses at elementary and intermediate levels currently used by various NATO countries’ militaries.
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Specific research questions included:
1. Which critical aspects of syllabus design were taken into consideration when compiling the syllabi for elementary and intermediate level ESP courses presently in use?
2. Which stakeholders participated in the creation of the syllabi for elementary and intermediate level ESP courses presently in use?
The survey was conducted at the military language institutions of NATO countries in which the study authors maintain professional contacts (see Table 1). Participants were only teachers of English expressly involved in syllabus design of English language courses for elementary and/or intermediate levels, or who were directly responsible for syllabus design in the stated centres. In total 12 respondents took part, 2 from each country.
Country City Military Institution
Bulgaria Shumen National Military University Croatia Zagreb Croatian Military Academy "Dr Franjo Tudjman"
The Czech Republic Brno The University of Defence Hungary Budapest National University of Public Service Poland Lodz The Polish Armed Forces School of Languages
The Slovak Republic Liptovský Mikuláš Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik
Having considered the research objective and questions, the authors decided to use a descriptive quantitative approach utilising a questionnaire as a research instrument, which ensured smooth and timely data collection from the respondents (Creswell, 2012). The authors could not find a pre existing questionnaire suited to their research aims, so they created their own. In constructing the questionnaire, the authors drew upon theoretical principles concerning the construction of research instruments explained in the works of Pelikán (2004) and Chráska (2006).
The questionnaire was constructed in February 2019, and its content was based on a review of professional publications in the area of syllabus design. It consisted of 20 items and was divided into three sections. In the first section, the purpose of the survey was explained, and brief instructions were provided on how to complete it correctly. In the following section (4 items), questions pertained to the types of ESP courses, their length, the number of lessons, and the required exit language level. The last section (16 items) consisted of questions regarding the participants’ direct involvement in syllabus design, the piloting of the syllabi, the factors considered in the syllabus design process, the teaching materials, and the types of syllabi. The items were formulated primarily in the form of closed and semi closed questions
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and respondents were allowed to select more than one option. They could also express themselves freely and in more detail in the sections designated for commentary.
To guarantee the validity of the questionnaire, five foreign language teachers working at the Language Centre of the University of Defence were asked to evaluate the original 20 item version of the questionnaire in February 2019. They were selected on the basis of their long term experience in questionnaire design. Based on their feedback, some items were reformulated for clearer understanding.
Questionnaires were distributed to respondents electronically on 13 March 2019 and completed by the end of September 2019. Therefore, all results and conclusions of the research are related to this date.
After data collection was completed, the answers to the items were transformed into data matrixes and processed with the use of Microsoft Office Toolbox. In cases in which exact data evaluation was not possible, a verbal assessment was done.
4.1. Findings related to research Question 1 4.1.1. Data analysis regarding elementary level courses (Level 1 SLP 1111)
As illustrated in Figure 1 below, all institutions run intensive ESP courses for SLP (Standardised Language Profile) 1111, defined as Level 1 proficiency in the four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. As for other types of courses offered at this level, only the Czech Republic runs upgrade courses; Bulgaria and the Czech Republic run refresher courses, and Hungary and the Slovak Republic run non intensive courses.
The length of intensive courses ranges among countries from eleven to twenty weeks. Similarly, the number of lessons per week varies among countries from 26 to 38. In all countries, one lesson lasts 45 minutes. The longest courses are offered in Poland (612 lessons), the Slovak Republic (570 lessons), and Hungary (520 lessons). In Bulgaria, courses last 480 lessons, and in Croatia as well as in the Czech Republic, they are 330 lessons long. In all countries except Croatia, courses culminate with the final examinations in accordance with NATO STANAG 6001.
The length of refresher courses run in Bulgaria and the Czech Republic is four weeks, and they include 120 lessons each. The upgrade course is offered only in the Czech Republic; it is seven weeks long (210 lessons) and finishes with the examination in accordance with NATO STANAG 6001. Non intensive courses organised in Hungary provide eight lessons per week for 40 weeks (320 lessons), and participants are obliged to take the final examination in accordance with NATO STANAG 6001. The Slovak Republic holds non intensive courses for twelve weeks, during which four lessons are taught per week (48 lessons).
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As shown in Table 2 below, in the process of syllabus design, all countries took into consideration the previous syllabus, facilities, and resources available at the institution, as well as the length of the course. Regarding consideration of the students’ entrance level, only the Czech Republic differed somewhat, as the students enter courses without having to fulfil any entrance requirements. Particular significance was given to familiarity with institutional exit requirements arising from the NATO STANAG 6001 descriptors. A thorough analysis of these descriptors led syllabus designers in the choice of content to focus mainly on concrete topics, functions, productive and receptive language skills, as well as vocabulary and grammar.
Table 2: Factors considered in syllabus design in SLP 1111 courses Country Student's entrance level Previous syllabus Facilities and resources Exit requirement Length of the course A SA SD D A SA SD D A SA SD D A SA SD D A SA SD D Bulgaria
In all countries, the syllabi were based on commercial textbooks, in house teaching materials, and teachers’ own materials. In Bulgaria, Hungary, and Croatia, the core teaching materials were selected by syllabus designers in cooperation with other in house teachers and institutional management. In Poland, the central materials were chosen by syllabus designers in cooperation with other in house teachers. On
the other hand, in the Slovak Republic, the primary materials were selected by syllabus designers in cooperation with the institution management. In the Czech Republic, the core materials were chosen only by head teachers who designed particular syllabi. In all countries, the syllabi were adapted to the content of the selected textbooks with an emphasis on General English. The level of importance of Military English varied among the countries from very important (Hungary, Croatia, Poland), to quite important (Bulgaria and the Slovak Republic), and unimportant (the Czech Republic).
Course participants in all countries are taught according to integrated syllabi, comprising mainly structural, situational, and skill based elements, which is in full compliance with the requirements of the final examinations in accordance with NATO STANAG 6001 (see Table 3 below).
Country Structural Notional Situational Content based Skill based Task based Integrated Bulgaria ✓ ✓ ✓ Czech Republic ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Hungary ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Croatia ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Slovak Republic ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Poland ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
4.1.2. Data analysis regarding intermediate level courses (Level 2 SLP 2222) Figure 2 below indicates that all countries run intensive ESP courses for SLP (Standardised Language Profile) 2222, defined as Level 2 proficiency in the four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Bulgaria and the Czech Republic also run refresher courses. However, only the Czech Republic offers upgrade and non intensive courses. The length of the intensive courses ranges between eleven and twenty weeks and the number of lessons per week between 26 and 38. One lesson lasts 45 minutes in all countries. The longest courses are run in the Slovak Republic (570 lessons) and Hungary (520 lessons); in Bulgaria as well as in the Czech Republic the courses are of the same length (480 lessons). In Poland and Croatia, courses are shorter (360/330 lessons). With the exception of Croatia, intensive courses conclude with an examination in accordance with NATO STANAG 6001. In the Czech Republic, both upgrade and non intensive courses culminate in mandatory examinations in accordance with NATO STANAG 6001. The refresher courses held in Bulgaria and the Czech Republic are between four and five weeks (120/150 lessons), respectively. The upgrade and non intensive courses held in the Czech Republic are seven and ten weeks long (210/300 lessons), respectively.
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As illustrated in Table 4 below, in the process of syllabus design, the previous syllabus, facilities and resources available at the institution, exit requirements, as well as the length of the course were taken into account in all countries. Syllabus designers comprehensively considered the descriptors of NATO STANAG 6001, which became the basis for content specification. In this context, all designers concentrated on the stated topics, grammar, and vocabulary. Except for Hungary, syllabus designers also focused on functions, accuracy, and fluency. In all countries, the syllabi were based on commercial textbooks, in house teaching materials, and teachers’ own materials. However, none of the syllabi included materials provided by students. In Bulgaria, Hungary, Croatia, and the Slovak Republic, the core teaching materials were selected by syllabus designers in cooperation with other in house teachers and with the institutional management. In Poland, the materials were chosen by syllabus designers in cooperation with the institution management. On the other hand, in the Czech Republic, materials were selected by syllabus designers in cooperation with other in house teachers. In all countries, the syllabi were adapted to the content of the selected textbooks with the emphasis on General English. As for the importance of Military English, it varied among the countries from very important (Hungary, Croatia, Bulgaria), to quite important (Poland, the Czech and Slovak Republics).
All the language institutions placed emphasis on integrated syllabi, stressing mainly the elements of structural, situational, content based, and skill based syllabi, which is fully in compliance with the requirements of final examinations in accordance with NATO STANAG 6001 (see Table 5 below). In all countries except the Czech Republic, the syllabi were single level, not entirely considering different learners’ entrance levels.
4.2. Findings related to research Question 2
4.2.1. Data analysis regarding elementary level courses (Level 1 SLP 1111) Syllabi for elementary level courses were created predominantly by in house teachers. In the Czech Republic, designers were only head teachers in charge of their courses who did not discuss the syllabi with other language teachers at the institution. In contrast, in Croatia and the Slovak Republic, the syllabi were designed by a team of in house teachers. In Poland and Hungary, the syllabi were elaborated by both individual teachers and a team. Syllabi were produced by a superseding body together with a team of in house teachers only in Bulgaria. With regard to working in a team, all countries expressed their satisfaction with mutual trust and good communication among the members, as well as with the institution management. Most of the participants were given creative freedom while working on the syllabi.
When asked what syllabus designers felt were the most serious risks in implementing the current syllabi, respondents from all countries identified two factors: too much content to be taught, and an insufficient entrance level of the learners. In view of this, syllabus designers teaching according to the syllabi would partially make some changes, especially by revising the current teaching materials.
4.2.2. Data analysis regarding intermediate level courses (Level 2 SLP 2222)
The syllabi for the intermediate level courses were mostly created by teams of inhouse teachers. Individual teachers produced the syllabus only in Hungary; in Bulgaria, the syllabi were designed by a superseding body, together with a team of in house teachers. Concerning the teamwork to create the syllabi, respondents from all countries reported feeling satisfied with the level of mutual trust and good communication among the members and also with the institution management. The syllabi were discussed with other language teachers at all institutions.
With regard to the chief risk of implementing the syllabus, respondents from all countries included in the study voiced concern about ‘too much content’ to be taught. The insufficient entrance level was considered as a risk in Bulgaria, Croatia, and the Czech and Slovak Republics. Moreover, the Czech and Slovak Republics perceive overemphasis on students’ preparation for lessons to be a risk. In addition, in the Slovak and Czech Republics, as well as in Poland, deviation from the syllabus by some teachers seems to be another potential drawback. Syllabus designers in all countries, except Bulgaria, indicated that they would implement changes by revising the teaching materials. In the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland, these changes included enriching the teaching materials. In Croatia, syllabus designers would appreciate reducing the current teaching materials. Respondents from the Slovak Republic and Poland indicated that they desired more flexibility.
The findings presented above reveal that learners’ preparation for final high stakes examinations is the most significant factor affecting content specification in ESP elementary and intermediate level courses. Unlike the studies mentioned in the Literature Review, it is a thorough analysis of the NATO STANAG 6001 descriptors which becomes the basis for selecting particular topics, functions, language skills, as well as vocabulary and grammar. The importance of such an approach to the choice of syllabus content was also justified in the research by Solak (2010), in which respondents (military professionals) called for an exam oriented course in order to be trained in the skills necessary to achieve NATO STANAG 6001, Level 3 requirements.
The outcomes also show that in house teachers play a decisive role in syllabus design for both levels, which results from the specific nature of provided language courses aimed at preparing learners for final examinations in accordance with NATO STANAG 6001. Syllabi are created mainly by teams of in house teachers, whose work is characterised by open communication and creative freedom, and these syllabi are discussed with other language teachers at the institutions. Active teacher participation is one of the most prominent characteristics of the entire syllabus design process in the examined institutions. Also, the research conducted in Estonian and Czech military schools stressed the significance of language teachers’ academic freedom relating to designing and following course syllabi, choosing appropriate teaching methods, and selecting suitable teaching materials (Piirimees et al., 2020, p. 237).
Integrated syllabi, consisting primarily of elements from structural, situational, and skill-based syllabi, are another defining characteristic typical for both levels in all institutions. Such syllabi are based on core commercial coursebooks commonly comprising vocabulary, grammar, topics, functions and skills, which are also considered the core in terms of preparation for the examinations in accordance with NATO STANAG 6001. In this context, textbook content maps are frequently reflected, and the structure of units followed. This finding is in line with the views of Edwards (2000) who advocates the use of commercial textbooks which can be
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selectively used and efficiently adapted to the specific needs of particular students in an ESP context (pp. 293 295).
Regarding the NATO STANAG 6001 exam specificity, textbooks for both levels do not entirely meet the requirements for final exam preparation (e.g., an insufficient range of topics and communicative situations), so they are supplemented with in house and teachers’ own instructional materials. This result is consistent with Richard´s opinion on teacher generated materials in ESP classes as they are relevant to students’ and institutional needs, reflect local content, issues, and concerns, and can be flexibly revised or adapted as required (2001, p. 261; also see Bouckaert, 2019). Noteworthy is the fact that no materials in use are provided by learners.
As can be seen, syllabi in the examined countries are designed in a similar way. However, a fundamental difference lies in the length of intensive courses for both levels. The shortest intensive courses for Level 1 are organised in the Czech Republic, and are attended by true and false beginners since no entrance tests are required. This course heterogeneity, together with low numbers of lessons, results in the fact that the pace of teaching is usually too fast for true beginners, and at the same time, it slows down the progress of false beginners. The insufficient course length also seems to have an undesirable effect on final exam results, mostly in receptive skills, as learners suffer from a severe lack of essential receptive vocabulary. Unsuccessful learners are generally offered an upgrade course, which often does not immediately follow completion of the intensive course, and in some cases, students may wait a couple of years to be enrolled in an upgrade course. As a result, a final exam success rate is not always satisfactory. Unlike the Czech Republic, the other countries studied provide Level 1 intensive courses with considerably higher numbers of lessons and do not run upgrade courses at all. It is reasonable to assume that this large course time allocation contributes to teaching and learning effectiveness as well as to a higher final Level 1 examsuccess rate. It may also be assumed that learners entering Level 2 courses more or less master English at the required entry level.
The authors are fully aware of the research limitations as only a quantitative method in the form of questionnaires was used; hence, it was not possible to obtain relevant information in detail. Therefore, based on the current research findings, future research might draw attention to an analysis of existing teaching programmes of the language institutions included in this study (e.g., kinds of commercial textbooks and in house materials in use; preferred teaching methods), the learners’ level of English knowledge required at the beginning of the course, as well as gaining insight into entrance and final exam formats and final exam results.
Based on the facts mentioned above, the military course specificity decidedly influences the way of identifying learners’ target needs as well as the role of in house teachers in syllabus design. Consequently, an analysis of the NATO
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STANAG 6001 descriptors should always be taken into careful consideration and English teachers’ active participation promoted.
The authors also suggest increasing the number of lessons in intensive courses for Level 1 within the Czech Armed Forces. However, the question arises to what extent the current course length should be prolonged. Based on the in house teachers’ experience, suggestions usually range from two weeks (60 lessons) to four weeks (120 lessons). Nevertheless, determining the right length of intensive courses should be a subject of further discussion as participants do not prioritise long courses due to impacts on their private and professional lives (Rüter & Martin, 2021).
The proposed organisational change seems to positively affect the whole teaching and learning process, resulting in a higher final exam success rate. It may also be a precondition for attaining a more sufficient level of English and, consequently, a precondition for succeeding in follow up Level 2 courses. Moreover, it may contribute to greater economic efficiency as upgrade courses for Level 1 (210 lessons) and preparatory courses for Level 2 (120 lessons) may not be needed. Nonetheless, this issue must be resolved principally at the macro level (Ministry of Defence management) and meso level (University of Defence management) as it may have a far reaching impact on the operation of workplaces in the Czech Armed Forces.
The findings proved a crucial role of an analysis of the NATO STANAG 6001 descriptors in syllabus content selection. Furthermore, the results confirmed a key role of in house teachers in syllabus design processes for both levels, which results from the specific nature of provided ESP courses mostly aimed at preparing learners for final examinations in accordance with NATO STANAG 6001. Integrated syllabi, which are product oriented and teacher led, are another defining characteristic typical for both levels in all institutions. The syllabi in the studied countries are designed in a similar way, taking into consideration key aspects such as the type and length of the courses, the learners’ entrance level, the previous syllabus, and the exit requirements. In this context, the study offers new insight into the organisational structure of courses at the elementary level and an increase in the number of lessons in courses for Level 1 organised within the Czech army is strongly proposed. Nevertheless, qualitative research appears warranted to deepen knowledge about ESP syllabus design in a military context.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 80 96, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.5
Received Jan 31, 2022; Revised Mar 21, 2022; Accepted Mar 31, 2022
Abstract Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) has been globally recognized as one of the most vital subjects in any educational system. Pakistan is currently confronted with numerous challenges because of globalization and the emergence of new economic and social orders. To satisfy the updated requirements of economic trends, current educational systems must prioritize TVET as the most effective tool for satisfying globalization expectations. This study aimed to determine the demographic differences of secondary school students' interest toward TVET programs, which may be considered success factors for future enrollment initiatives. We perform an in depth investigation into the relationship between students' interest in TVET programs and their demographic features, including gender, field of education, and geography. A total of 386 secondary school pupils in Pakistan participated in the study. A cross sectional research approach was employed. The mean, frequency, t test, and ANOVA results were calculated on the collected data using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The findings indicate that students' perceptions of their interest in the TVET programs on all three dimensions (i.e. affection, cognition and conation) were somewhat poor. The t test revealed a statistically significant difference in male and female students' interest in TVET programs. Male students were more interested in TVET programs compared to females. According to their field of education, the one way ANOVA test revealed a substantial difference in their interest in TVET programs. Tukey HSD post hoc analysis results suggest that there is a substantial disparity in students' interest in TVET programs in the field of education. The mean scores indicate that students in the humanities group were more interested in TVET programs, followed by bioscience, and computer science. The t test reveals that students who live in urban regions have a higher level of interest compared to those who live in rural areas. The data gathered from this study provide insight onto the possible approaches academic institutions can take to prepare for and address current problems associated with introducing TVET programs in secondary schools. This
* Corresponding author: MuhdKhaizerOmar, khaizer@upm.edu.my
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
paper argues for the need to integrate TVET programs in Pakistan which can promote transformative, lifelong learning and provide vital implications with recommendations for policy and practice.
Keywords: demographic variables; secondary schools; technical and Vocational Education and Training
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) has received significant attention in numerous national and international contexts (Kizu et al., 2019). The progression of globalization demands a more properly trained workforce that is industry responsive and possesses high order skills (Marope et al., 2015). A skilled workforce has an important role in industrialization, economic growth, employee development, and increased foreign direct investment (Hussain et al., 2021). Over the years, people have increasingly realized that public education is relatively overly theoretical and academic, and does not sufficiently prepare the younger generation for employment in practical settings. There is no doubt that, compared to general education, vocational education is more directly related to professional and economic development (Edokpolor & Abusomwan, 2019). Consequently, organizations must respond strategically to changes to benefit from economic growth.
Pakistan is a highly populated developing nation in South Asia, with a high proportion (64%) of youth between 15 30 years of age (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2020). With such a fast growing youth population, Pakistan requires skilled TVET graduates who can fill the modern demands of the market and human capital for the progression of the country. The Pakistani government has released vision 2025, recognizing the need for TVET and encouraging economic development and aids to reach the vision of a fully developed and industrialized nation by 2025 (Planning Commission, 2014). Economic development relies upon a series of factors, including increased productivity, increased exports, and the maintenance of quality standards necessary to compete globally (Sarastuen, 2020). Sustaining a trained and skilled workforce becomes a component in achieving vision 2025.
Pakistan is confronted with issues of underemployment and unemployment, which are obstacles in the way of economic development. Pakistan experiences a shortage in the skilled workforce, and unemployment in the face of globalization The rate of unemployment may be minimized by individuals’ employability and economic growth. However, without employable skills, poor people cannot be employed. To address these challenges, a skilled workforce may be created through TVET (Pavlova, 2019) Considering these challenges, a well organized TVET is one of the country's potential remedies (Government of Pakistan, 2015).
The importance of secondary education cannot be exaggerated. It helps the child acquire added awareness, skills and traits beyond the required level of education and its part as the bridge between primary and higher education (Meyer et al., 2019). The main factor that calls for the acquisition of secondary education in Pakistan is that, regrettably, lower than 20% of the youth completes
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secondary education. Additionally, a meagre percentage of practical skills are acquired (Ministry of Education of Pakistan, 2018). Thus, there is the acute need to develop a robust pool of skills among young people so that they can earn a reputable living for their families (Ministry of Education of Pakistan, 2018).
Dual style vocational education, which is already in use in several European nations, comprises of professional degrees that integrate employment and study in a dual program (Saari & Rashid, 2013). The dual system encourages collaboration among government, industry, and academic institutions. The Pakistani government may consider this program to aid Pakistan in its efforts to collaborate closely with both industrial and academic institutions, and to promote TVET. The main advantage of the dual system as a study paradigm is that students can immediately connect classroom knowledge with on the job experience. This program supports students in making a seamless transition from an education setting to a work life setting (Omar et al., 2019; Rashid et al., 2009)
There is a dearth of studies in the literature on students’ interest toward TVET programs in Pakistan, which can provide insight on whether Pakistani students are interested in the dual system of vocational education. Consequently, this study considers students' perceptions and levels of interest in TVET programs.
Social and cultural issues contribute to low enrolment in TVET program and affecting students’ interest in the TVET program (Ayub, 2017). In the Pakistani context, TVET refers to the program of theoretical and hands on training for the world of work, and on the actual attainment of proficiency in manual skills. Skilled workers are generally associated with doing jobs with their hands in Pakistan and many of the occupations and trades in TVET are regarded as ignoble and unbecoming. These trades are considered for the poor and underprivileged (Alam, 2015). Due to this belief, many parents do not want their children to earn a living as a full time carpenter, motor mechanic, plumber, farmer, and brick layer.
In Pakistan, TVET faces many challenges: cultural and social norms play a vital role in developing individual interest and keeping pupils reluctant to enroll in technical institutes (Chamadia & Shahid, 2018). Personal interest is a construct that plays a crucial role in understanding human behavior and motivation. It is acknowledged that individual interest rises in early childhood and is mostly consistent from childhood to young adulthood. The combination of psychological factors and background variables can explain the development of individual interest. Human development occurs within a context of the system that is formed by one’s affiliations (e.g., family, neighbor, or school), associations of the different social groups, and significant socio political climate (Slot et al., 2020).
Pakistan inherited no formal TVET foundation at the time of independence in 1947. Technical and vocational teaching was first considered in Pakistan during
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1950s when two polytechnic institutes in Rawalpindi and Karachi were founded. Since that time, Pakistan's technical education has undergone several changes (TEVTA, 2018). These eras can be divided into two significant periods in terms of technical and vocational education in the Punjab, namely the prior to the Technical Education and Vocational Training Authority (or TEVTA) and post TEVTA eras in Punjab (Hassan, 2007). However, TEVTA divides the pre TEVTA period into five phases.
The first phase in 1947 1957 involved sensitization and orientation in which the Council for Technical Education was set up in 1948 under the guidance of Quaid e Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah. In 1947, Pakistan's first education conference introduced technical topics at secondary school level to provide opportunities for rural residents and alleviate pressure on the urban labor market (Government of Pakistan, 1947). In 1950, the Technical Educational Committee formulated the scope of vocational education at the secondary level. Later in 1951, a joint conference between the Central Education Board and the Inter University Board (renamed the Higher Education Commission by the earlier University Grants Commission) advised that commerce and agriculture be made compulsory at the secondary level (Government of Pakistan, 1959)
The second era in TVET's history occurred between 1958 and 1969, during which the TVET program grew. Additionally, Lahore's first Polytechnic Institute for Women was founded in 1967 as part of an initiative for technical education.
In the third period, TVET observed innovation and experimentation between 1970 and 1979. An administration unit in West Pakistan was also banished, and the provinces of Sindh, Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) Province, and Baluchistan were revived. In 1972, the government of Pakistan announced the education policy for 1972 1980, which encouraged diversification in secondary education with a technical education stream at various levels (National Education Policy, 1972). This policy suggested that by 1980, enrollment in the technical stream should reach 33%. Another significant development was the introduction of matriculation numbers for students’ identification purposes (Government of Pakistan, 1972)
The fourth phase between 1980 and 1990 became the implementation and expansion phase, and this involved the introduction of the National Training Ordinance during the first year in this phase. By 1988, the participation of women in technical education began to increase, and three women polytechnics were established in Faisalabad, Multan, and Bahawalpur (Chamadia & Shahid, 2018). The last period under the classification considered in this study, the qualitative improvement period in vocational training occurred from 1991 to 1999.
Technical education in Pakistan has made noticeable progress. It used to be considered something out of the mainstream of education but recently it has come to be looked upon as an integral part of education. TVET may have been neglected initially, but as presented in the five phases, it has been given attention.
In this section, recent works from the existing literature are summarized. Many research works on student attitude and interest toward TVET have been conducted from different perspectives and countries, which are discussed hereafter.
The study of interest is one of the central constructs in career psychology. For example, there have been over 2,000 research studies of interest among Holland’s realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional (RIASEC) themes alone (Atitsogbe et al., 2018; Perera & McIlveen, 2018; Slot et al., 2020) in the STEM field. Some studies demonstrate the influence of students’ interest on their decisions regarding TVET programs (Azeem et al., 2021; Aziz & Zulkifli, 2020; Ngugi & Muthima, 2017). The study conducted by Mansor and Rashid (2013) revealed that being uninformed about TVET and what it can offer may decrease students’ interest in enrollment. Omar et al. (2020) indicated a high level of motivation (M=4.23, SD=1.17), interest (M=3.84, SD=1.10), and knowledge (M=3.72, SD=0.95) for choosing TVET, likely due to the promotion and strategy on empowering TVET for developing its positive image among Malaysian secondary school students.
The study by Ochieng et al. (2020) comprised of 291 Kenyan students and aimed to determine the relationship between attitude, motivation, interest, and career choice in science TVET programs. Proportionate sampling was used to select the students and a significant negative relationship was found among psychological factors and female students’ career choices in TVET programs (r = -0.16: p <0.01).
This shows that the absence of positive attitude, interest and motivation toward particular TVET courses impacted their selected careers in science based TVET programs.
Historically, vocational education programs were split into stereotypically male and female occupations. As a result, female students participated in occupational programs such as childcare, social work, nursing, household management, and secretarial jobs. Meanwhile, male students enrolled in auto mechanic work, electrical work, plumbing, carpentry, and metal work. Despite various efforts by governments, teachers, and international organizations, this legacy persists to progress gender inequality in terms of access to non traditional jobs (U.S. Department of Education, 2016).
UNESCO (1999) has been an advocate for gender equality, notably female involvement in vocational and technical education, on a global scale. According to Second International Congress on Technical and Vocational Education report (UNESCO, 1999), traditional notions of men and women's acceptable responsibilities in the workplace should be questioned. TVET must respond by providing gender inclusive education.
The study conducted in Pakistan by Ullah et al. (2020) discovered that the gender of students plays a significant role in their parents' decision to enroll them at schools. Boys were considered to be more talented compared to girls, and parents claimed that their sons outperformed their daughters. This tendency appears to be related to women's lower involvement rate (25%) in Pakistan's labor market, compared to the involvement of men (75%) (UNDP, 2019). Other
research indicated that more boys than girls attend vocational schools, implying that girls are more intellectually and conceptually oriented compared to boys (Adewale & Adhuze, 2017; Ngugi & Muthima, 2017). Additionally, Azeem and Omar, (2019) confirmed by systematically reviewing literature that students’ interest in TVET programs is dependent on gender, location, and educational background. In contrast, Mahajan and Golahit (2017) discovered that students' interest in vocational education and training is not gender dependent. Gender was not found to be a statistically significant predictor of attitude differences, implying that both females and males have a relatively neutral attitude toward vocational education.
Due to the difficulty in locating vocational or technical work in rural areas, particularly for females, students from these areas are more academically oriented compared to those from urban areas (Al sa’d, 2007). Neusuess (2020) discovered that area of residence affects children's choice of TVET. Rural students tend to be more interested in technical education than their urban counterparts. Alnaqbi (2016) confirmed that attitudes of TVET are different in urban and rural locations. According to Song et al., (2013), vocational pathways are not favored by students from rural areas. These students would rather pursue their academic careers.
This article descriptively analyzes the level of secondary school students’ interest in TVET programs, and the difference in the demographic variables in Punjab, Pakistan. The following research objectives were formulated for this study:
i. To determine the level of interest in TVET programs among secondary school students in Punjab, Pakistan.
ii. To assess the difference of students’ interest in the TVET programs in secondary school students in Punjab, Pakistan based on gender.
iii. To examine the difference of students’ interest in TVET programs in secondary school students in Punjab, Pakistan based on field of education.
iv. To determine the difference of students’ interest in TVET programs in secondary school students in Punjab, Pakistan based on location.
The following research hypotheses were formulated for this study with a significance level of 0.05:
H01: No significant difference exists in students’ interest in TVET programs in secondary school students in Punjab, Pakistan based on gender.
H02: No significant difference exists in students’ interest in TVET programs in secondary school students in Punjab, Pakistan based on field of education.
H03: No significant difference exists in students’ interest in TVET programs in secondary school students in Punjab, Pakistan based on location.
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A cross sectional quantitative research design was employed in this work. This approach is suitable for collecting numeric data from the formal measurement, which was analyzed using statistical procedures (Ary et al., 2018). A set of self reported questionnaires was used to assess secondary school students' interest in the TVET program. For this research, Cochran’s formula was used to compute the sample size with 95% confidence level (Cochran, 2007). The sample size formula is presented as below: �� = ��0 1+ (��0 1) ��
(i) where N = number of people in the population where n0= sample size ��0 = ��2���� ��2 (ii) where Z = 1.96, and q = 1 0.5 =0.5, where q=1 p where d = acceptance margin error for mean being estimated = 95% (0.05) ��0 =384, and therefore, ��1 =384
However, another 5% was added to the minimum sample in order to avoid non responses from the students during the data collection phase (Fraenkel et al., 2017). The 5% sample size was obtained by summing another 5% (i.e. 19 samples) to the existing 384 samples. The total sample size used was 403 secondary school students in the Punjab province, Pakistan. From the 403 questionnaires distributed, 386 were fully filled and returned. Thus, data from 386 questionnaires were analyzed in this research, which comprised of 197 girls and 189 boys. The students were from 10th grade and were aged between 15 and 17 years.
The present study used a multistage proportionate stratified random sampling technique to collect data. In the initial stage, 12 districts were chosen randomly among Punjab's 36 districts (four districts were randomly selected from each high, high medium, medium and low medium social stratum). The researcher then used computer generated digits to randomly select three schools with equal sample sizes from the 12 districts in Punjab (3 x 12=36 schools). The sample size was calculated in accordance to its proportion (%) in each district on the assumption that all government high and higher secondary schools had similar standards and environments. Lastly, the respondents of the research were randomly selected at the school level to complete the questionnaires.
A student’s interest scale was used to measure the secondary school student’s interest towards the TVET programs. It involved a demographic section, and
students’ interest in TVET programs. The demographics consisted of three items for identifying students’ gender, age, study field, and location.
The set of 19 items were adapted from Ainley (2011) and Baker et al. (2015). The items were grouped into three categories according to content, including affection (7 items), cognition (5 items), and conation (7 items). Some samples are “I like working with my hands” (affection), “I know different ways to create a design” (cognition), and “I am persistent and willing to try new processes to get an invention to work” (conation).
Participants were requested to fill out a five point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5 (1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree). The survey instrument was validated by experts from academics and practitioners with PhD qualifications and experiences of the TVET field. The internal consistency reliability value for the instrument was measured using Cronbach’s alpha. For the affection, cognition, conation, the values were 0.77, 0.71, 0.78 respectively. The reliability of the predefined questionnaire was 0.95. These values indicate good internal consistency for the scale as a whole and for the three subscales.
Descriptive analysis was employed to analyze Research Objective 1: To identify the variable level by the mean score. The level of students’ interest in TVET programs was measured according to the interpretation chart mean score by Ishak et al. (2018). The level of acceptance is shown in Table 1. An independent t test and ANOVA were used for comparing the means of the variables.
Table 1: Interpretation of Mean Score
Mean Score Acceptance Level
1.00 2.00 Low
2.01 3.00 Moderately Low 3.01 4.00 Moderately High 4.01 5.00 High
Ishak et al. (2018)
The respondents' demographic data showed 189 (49.0%) male and 197 (51.0%) female respondents. For location, 188 (48.7 %) of the respondents were from rural areas and 198 (51.3%) were from urban areas. It is depicted from the results that a larger portion of the data were collected from the urban location. With regards to the field of education of the respondents, the computer science group were in the majority constituting (34.7%) of all participants; 128 (33.2%) of respondents were from humanities group; and the remaining 124 (31.1%) were from the bioscience group.
Table 2 indicates the demographic variables (gender, location, and the field of education) frequency distribution and percentage of respondents.
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Gender
Table 2: Respondents’ Demographic Profile (n=386) Profile Frequency Percentage (%)
Male 189 49.0% Female 197 51.0% Location
Rural 188 48.7% Urban 198 51.3% Field of Education
Computer science 134 34.7% Bioscience 124 32.1 Humanities 128 33.2
The descriptive analysis of the students’ interest in TVET programs is discussed in this section. A total of 19 statements were asked to measure the self perception of students’ interest in TVET programs among secondary school students. A five point Likert scale was used to measure the responses for each item. Descriptive statistics such as mean and standard deviation were used to show students’ interest in TVET programs.
Additionally, the results suggest that the top mean scores for students' interest in TVET programs among secondary school students in Pakistan were affection (M=2.66, SD=.95), cognition (M=2.60, SD=1.0), and conation (M=2.54, SD=1.02). The remaining scores in each construct were found between these two extremes of mean scores and standard deviation values, as presented in Table 3. The overall students’ interest in TVET programs (M=2.61, SD=.94) was moderately low. Thus, the three dimensions (affection, cognition, and conation) all stood at a moderately low level.
Table 3: Levels of Students’ Interest in the TVET Programs
Variable Dimension Mean Score Acceptance Level F % M S.D
Affection
1.00 2.00 Low 122 31.6 2.01 3.00 Moderately Low 169 43.8 2.6 0.95
3.01 4.00 Moderately High 44 11.4 4.01 5.00 High 51 13.2
Interest Cognition
1.00 2.00 Low 110 28.5 2.01 3.00 Moderately Low 206 53.4
3.01 4.00 Moderately High 42 10.9 2.6 1.00
4.01 5.00 High 28 7.2
Conation 1.00 2.00 Low 105 27.2 2.01 3.00 Moderately Low 199 51.5 2.5 1.02
3.01 4.00 Moderately High 42 10.9
4.01 5.00 High 40 10.4 386 100 2.6 0.94
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This means that secondary school students in Punjab have a moderately low interest in TVET programs. The findings may be due to the lack of awareness, low affection and low motivation regarding TVET programs. The findings are in line with the study by Ohieng et al. (2020), showing that a lack in positive attitude, motivation, and interest in particular TVET programs impacts their selected careers in science TVET programs. These results are also in agreement with prior studies conducted by Ngugi and Muthima, (2017) and Azeem et al. (2021). However, the findings are contrary to those by Aziz and Zulkifli (2020), who indicated high student interest in TVET programs, and highlighted interest in TVET programs as the main factors that impact student enrollment in TVET institutions.
The moderately low level of students’ interest in TVET programs among secondary school students’ might be attributed to the Pakistani society, where manual work has been primarily held in low esteem. This may lead to a relatively low interest. Also, some students from secondary schools have developed fears about career interest in TVET programs, due to the negative impressions passed on to them, either by their senior peers/classmates or by friends. Such expectations in learning TVET can have a significant direct effect on their interest and intention to join the TVET programs.
4.3
A t test was used to determine the difference in students’ interest in TVET programs. The inferential analysis shows that males (M=3.7, SD=.89) have a higher interest than females (M=1.87, SD=.97). The summary of the results is shown in Table 4. Therefore, the null hypothesis for “there is no significant difference in students’ interest the TVET programs (t=1.98, p>0.05) according to gender” was rejected.
Table 4: Mean Scores of Students’ Interest with Respect to Gender Variables N Mean SD. t df Sig.
Gender Male 189 3.74 .89 1.98 384 .268 Female 197 1.87 .97
Note: Level of significance: 0.05, N= Sample size, df= Degree of Freedom
These findings support the study conducted by Neusuess (2020), which found that the dominant perception about the TVET field is that it is considered a masculine domain. Most girls are hesitant to attempt to excel in these subjects, as they perceive this as drawing unwanted attention to themselves. Any success may also isolate them from other females and even males, who were frequently reported to dissuade girls from positively participating in and achieving well in these subjects.
According to this study's findings, traditional technology education teaching that emphasizes technical concepts is unlikely to appeal to females. As a result, females will opt out of technology and engineering courses (Ngugi & Muthima, 2017). However, when teachers of engineering and technology add compelling,
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real world activities, both males and females become more interested (Adewale & Adhuze, 2017 )
Ullah et al. (2020) considered capability, or the capacity for functioning, as the variable that should be equalized amongst persons while taking into account their diverse characteristics. Men and women are equally well off if they possess equal primary commodities, although women may be at a disadvantage in Pakistan, owing to personal qualities or gender roles. The realization of the potential in full human resources and sustainable development are impossible if one half of humanity (i.e., females) continues to be denied basic human rights and opportunities. Females are a significant constituency in the economy, and their entitlement to equal access to education and training as males has been incorporated into the globally accepted Millennium Declaration and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), or ‘Education for All’ (United Nation, 2005). This has laid the groundwork for development and advancement, and major strides have been made in terms of access to education for females.
One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the difference in students’ interest in TVET programs, with respect to field of education. The results suggest that there is a difference in students’ interest in TVET programs, based on field of education. Therefore, the null hypothesis for “there is no significant difference in students’ interest the TVET programs (F=3.37, p>0.05) according to field of education” was rejected. A summary of the results is shown in Table 4.
Table 4: One Way ANOVA for Students’ Interest with Respect to Field of Education
SS Df MS F Sig.
Between groups 5.85 2 2.92 3.37 .39
Within groups 332.53 383 .87
Total 338.378 385
Note: Level of significance: 0.05
To identify which of the three field mean scores differed significantly from one another; Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) post hoc test was applied for the analysis. The mean scores indicated that students in the humanities group were more interested in TVET programs, followed by bioscience, and finally computer science. These results are in accordance with the study that showed that individuals with a business background had a more positive attitude toward a TVET program like entrepreneurship compared to those with an engineering background (Chaudhary & Chaudhary, 2017).
4.5
A t test was used to determine the difference in students’ interest in TVET programs. The inferential analysis shows that the urban students (M=2.8, SD=.92) have higher interest in TVET than rural students (M=2.3, SD=.90). A summary of the results is listed in Table 5. Therefore, the null hypothesis “there
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is no significant difference in students’ interest in TVET programs based on location” is rejected (t=1.35, p>0.05).
Table 5: Differences in Mean of Students’ Interest with Respect to Location Variables N Mean SD. T df Sig. Location
Rural 188 2.3 .90 1.35 384 .179
Urban 198 2.8 .92
These findings are in agreement with Yingquan et al. (2014), that students from urban areas had a higher inclination towards vocational education in comparison to rural students. Vocational pathways are not favored by students from rural areas. These students would rather pursue their academic careers.
In contrast, Neusuess (2020) discovered that the area of residence has an effect on children's choice of TVET. Rural students tend to be more interested in technical education than their urban counterparts. Alnaqbi (2016) confirmed that attitudes of TVET are different in urban and rural locations.
The findings in this study reveal that students' perceptions of their interest in TVET programs across all three dimensions (affection, cognition and conation) were somewhat low, and that students' interest in TVET programs varies by gender, field of education, and location (rural or urban). However, it is vital to include the influence of other elements, such as parental education level and family socioeconomic circumstances.
This research aims to serve as a guide for future researchers conducting similar studies. The findings can also assist the relevant authorities in their efforts to increase youth participation in TVET programs.
The results obtained were limited by the small sample size considered, the presence of some categorical data that constrained the types of analyses, as well as the examination of only demographic characteristics. Continuous measures and expanding the study to incorporate additional factors, such as vocational self efficacy and outcome expectation, would result in more robust findings.
Future studies utilizing more rigorous designs and randomly selected subjects might produce more conclusive findings. Future research should also include an equal number of males and females to eliminate gender skewness. Additionally, this study did not consider additional demographic variables such as religion or ethnic origin. Future research should take these characteristics into account.
It is critical to detect and offer interventions such as individual counselling, not only to tenth grade students, but also to senior students, who may also be concerned about their future transition after graduation.
According to the findings, it is proposed that the recognition of TVET qualifications, the capacity to develop a high quality workforce with knowledge and capability, innovation, strong work ethics, and social values, be extensively
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promoted via online media. Additionally, the yearly technical education and vocational training expos hosted by the Department of Technical Education and Vocational Training of the Ministry of Education at a provincial level should be utilized to attract and encourage secondary school students to enroll in TVET programs. The public impression of technical and vocational education can be further enhanced by documentary films about work success, mobility, and by individuals who work in Pakistan and abroad.
This study has significant implications for the relevant authorities, as it will assist them in increasing their focus on TVET promotion among family, teachers, and parents. Training activities can be conducted to keep them informed of the latest developments in the TVET domain, enabling them to urge their children to pursue TVET programs. It is also recommended that short courses need to be offered to secondary schools regarding TVET programs. These courses can be tailored to address the problems that affect the everyday living of these students, and it will strengthen the reputation and image of TVET programs as reliable centers for learning and holistic development.
To better engage women, policymakers should review their curriculum and incorporate a variety of activities that appeal to both men and women. If women lack confidence in their ability to succeed in TVET programs, teachers should provide an opportunity for them to develop their skills or gain the knowledge they believe they lack.
Teachers should become familiar with the various approaches in which students' TVET interests are supported at school and in the community, and they should spread information about informal TVET related programs. Secondary schools should also offer parents and school counsellors with updated information on the workforce demands for TVET occupations, and the advantages of encouraging both male and female students to pursue these careers.
Appreciation goes to Faculty of Educational Studies of Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) and Research Management Center (RMC) for the coordination and distribution of financial support for this study.
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Appendix 1
(Please tick the appropriate box) Gender Male Female Location Rural Urban
Student Interest Scale
This section contains 19 item scales that measures respondents’ interest in TVET programs. Please tick the option relevant to your opinion Items
I like making projects that people can see and use.
I like working with my hands.
I like using tools to fix things
I like discovering how things work
I like to solve technical problems.
I like to get a little dirty from time to time.
I like expressing myself artistically.
I know different ways to create a design
I have the knowledge and technical skills to create mechanisms/devices.
I know how to use tool.
I know enough about a system to explore.
I understand technical drawings such as wiring diagrams.
I can build something with my hands.
I can visualize a product from the description of a problem.
I am persistent and willing to try new processes to get an invention to work.
I am inquisitive.
I try to understand how things work in order to fix problems
I have creative abilities.
I can take things apart and put them back together۔
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*
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 97 113, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.6
Received Mar 1, 2022; Revised Apr 15, 2022; Accepted Apr 28, 2022
Francis R. Ackah Jnr* Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia
John Appiah Auburn University, Alabama, USA
Hyacinth Udah James Cook University, Townsville, Australia
Emmanuel Abedi Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia
Kwesi Yaro University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
Kwaku Addo Kissiedu University of Development Studies, Tamale, Ghana
Isaac Kwabena Agyei Kwame Nkrumah University of Science Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
Isaac Opoku Nkoom Community University, Takoradi, Ghana
Abstract. The study analyses cross border experiences of international graduate students in two universities, one in Australia and the other in the United States of America, during the COVID 19 pandemic to understand how this impacted their learning and wellbeing. COVID 19 crisis led to dramatic changes in higher education institutions worldwide, affecting the academic and social life of international students, and as well opening windows of opportunities for them. International students of African and Asian backgrounds were purposely selected for the study. Data were collected with an open ended qualitative questionnaire and analysed
Corresponding author: FrancisR.Ackah Jnr,fr.ackahjnr@yahoo.com
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
thematically. Findings indicate international students had mixed experiences, including stress and hardship, isolation, fear and insecurity, frustration and helplessness that affected their academic and social lives and wellbeing. Other students however developed strong connections, resilience,confidence,andoptimismforthefuture.Thesharedcross border experiences raise awareness to the global impact of COVID 19 in higher education. Findings have implications for how universities could respond to the needs of international students, which must be inclusive, equitable, and human centric, during unforeseen crises.
Keywords: COVID 19; experiences; higher education; international students; learning; wellbeing
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID 19) took the world by storm, raging across borders, and plaguing nations and continents. It was first reported in Wuhan, a central Chinese province in December 2019 (Cao et al., 2020), but became known to the world in January 2020. COVID 19 ravaged a few countries such as China in Asia and later Italy in Europe. And it then travelled across the globe, from North America to the United Kingdom, Europe, South America, Asia, and finally to Africa. Quite a few countries were spared, including Tonga, Saint Helena, Nauru, and Cook Islands (Hubbard, 2021). The fast spread of COVID 19 in a short time increased global awareness that the world is interconnected.
COVID 19 exposed the opportunities and challenges of navigating a new global world. It engineered a new world order and lifestyle (Ackah Jnr & Appiah, 2021), marked by silence, fear, and panic, and later self quarantine, social distancing, and lockdown practices (Aristovnik et al., 2020; Gomes & Forbes Mewett, 2021), but retrospection of what world countries can do in common to help its citizens and economies. Despite the scepticism, unbelief, hesitancy, and uncertainty about the spread and impact of the virus, it became a reality: The World Health Organisation (WHO) declared COVID 19 as a pandemic in March 2020 (WHO, 2020) due to its devastating effects on the world’s population and ecosystem. The number of COVID 19 cases has surpassed 270 million, with more than 5 million deaths (Hubbard, 2021). In every facet of human life, the virus affected millions of people socially, economically, culturally, politically, and educationally. Global economic activity was expected to fall by 6% in 2020 (Schleicher, 2020). Education funding fluctuated in response to external shocks, as governments reprioritised investment to focus on their citizens and people’s health, safety, and lives. The pandemic led to behavioural changes and health related outcomes of the world population (McBridge et al., 2021).
COVID 19 moved beyond institutional boundaries. As it later developed into a global emergency, the economy of international higher education was impacted and not spared (Cao et al., 2020). In the United States, COVID 19 had a significant impact, with more than 1100 colleges and universities rescinding in person classes and sending students home (Kiebler & Stewart, 2021). International student experience fractured (Gomes & Forbes Mewett, 2021) as students encountered grave disruption and uncertainty in their academic, personal, and social lives
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(Ackah Jnr & Appiah, 2021). Higher education institutions, including universities worldwide, responded to COVID 19 by making changes to the organisation and delivery of teaching and learning and support architecture to cushion students. COVID 19 induced changes, and the need to avoid in person contacts meant most universities were shut down, but others offered limited on campus face to face activities. As Sahu (2020) claims, universities shifted partially or fully to online or virtual platforms, which brought excitement and challenges to some students and lecturers. Disruptions in traditional instruction or schooling practices, however, gave way to new opportunities for higher education institutions to use innovative pedagogies, reach out and share information, and collaborate with a range of educational stakeholders to promote safe and human centric teaching learning processes. If not for nothing, COVID 19 ignited flexibility, outside the box practices and thinking in higher education.
COVID 19 also increased awareness and utilisation of technology in education. In higher education, educational programs and courses were increasingly delivered online or remotely via technological media platforms such as Zoom, Teams, Blackboard Collaborate Ultra and Panopto and other similar applications. This resulted in new challenges and opportunities (Schleicher, 2020) for students who needed to adapt their learning and social habits. While digital media in education can increase student engagement, some lecturers however ‘struggled’ to adapt to these teaching learning modes COVID 19 occasioned. The sudden change in instructional modes, with technology playing a critical role, aggravated difficulties some students had due to limited physical support to use such online and technological resources for learning (Huges, 2013)
The shift to technology led instruction exposed inadequacies and inequities inherent in universities as many students could not physically access university campuses, networks, and friends or lost relationships. As Schleicher (2020) claims, perhaps most importantly, the [COVID 19] crisis raises questions about the value offered by a university education which includes networking and social opportunities…educational content. To remain relevant, universities will need to reinvent their learning environments so that digitalisation expands and complements student teacher and other relationships.
Berg and Farbenblum (2020) note that international students who were financially reliant on their family found themselves with less or no support due to the financial impact of the pandemic in their home countries and study destination. To make matters worse, many students lost their jobs, were unable to work, and others were made redundant. Research shows COVID 19 caused mental and emotional health issues for international students (Aristovnik et al., 2020; Cao et al., 2020; Perz et al., Sahu, 2020), but others responded to the pandemic with resilience (Sarmiento et al., 2021; Versteeg & Kappe, 2021).
Studies show that international students have a wealth of personal, professional, educational, social, cultural, and economic experiences and competencies or resilience that enable them to succeed and achieve their academic aspirations and goals (Huges, 2013; Sarmiento at al., 2021). Push and pull factors inform their decision making expectations of higher education and choice of university and
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destination country selection (Bista & Dagley, 2015). International students, particularly in a COVID 19 world, are more likely to face new challenges. Because they were hard hit during the lockdowns as they negotiated implications of limiteduniversity support and closures on their status on campus andwithin their host country (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2021; Schleicher, 2020), it is important their experiences are examined. Their experiences especially in times of crisis can provide new insights into how higher education institutions might respond to future crises in a manner that considers the uniqueness of this category of students.
To study abroad can be a tremendous sacrifice as students may not enjoy the same level of care and compassion from people around them as they would normally have in their home country. International students’ ability to successfully adjust to new environments and avoid obstacles, including homesickness, social isolation, and financial pressures (Baba & Hosoda, 2014; Bista & Dagley, 2015) impacts their success and wellbeing in their chosen universities and destination countries. Mesidor and Sly (2014) found international students experience increased psychological problems such as depression and anxiety if universities and countries are unsupportive of their needs. The incidence of mental health problems, particularly anxiety, is high among tertiary international students compared with domestic students (Forbes Mewett & Sawyer, 2016). Wellbeing, which also denotes how international students feel good and function well, matters. As previously stated, context specific factors may conspire to impact the wellbeing and functioning of international students. For instance, directives by countries such as America that international students stand to lose their visas or should return home because their programs were online culminated in doubts, frustration, and despair, affecting their wellbeing. Jordan et al. (2020) captured in The New York Times a directive by the Trump government that [sought to] strip international college students of their U.S. visas if their coursework was entirely online prompted widespread confusion …students scrambled to clarify their statuses and universities reassessed their fall reopening policies amid the coronavirus pandemic. Although the Trump administration later abandoned the deportation plans, this directive damaged the emotional and psychological welfare of many international students (Jordan et al., 2020). In Australia, Prime Minister Scott Morrison similarly told international students to go home if they could not support themselves. Unlike industries and businesses, Australian universities were not supported with COVID 19 stimulus packages, leading to high redundancy and loss of jobs in mid June and late November 2020. This lack of institutional funding affected how universities could support international students. These practices contrasted responses from countries, including the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Canada, that supported universities and provided wage subsidies to temporary migrants such as international students (Berg & Farbenblum, 2020). Overall, student wellbeing was impacted during the coronavirus outbreak, resulting in hardship and vulnerability (Versteeg & Kappe, 2021). Following local and international restrictions, social distancing and isolation requirements, international students experienced psychological distress (Brooks et al., 2020).
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These experiences cannot be essentialised, so there is the need to unpack how the pandemic played out for different international students The study’s purpose was to explore cross border experiences of international graduate students in Australia and the United States of America during the COVID 19 crisis and how this impacted teaching, learning and wellbeing. The question is: What are the experiences and impact of the COVID 19 pandemic on international students’ teaching, learning and wellbeing?
The methodology discusses the research approach, research instrument, and data collection and analysis. We also considered the study context, participants, and sampling approach.
We used a qualitative method to explore the experiences of international students. As Leedy and Ormrod (2019) argue, a qualitative research approach is relevant for describing, interpreting, verifying, and evaluating situations It enables us to answer questions to gain deeper understanding of participants’ views. We employed a partial ethnography, with embedded case studies, to examine the lived experiences of international graduate students in America and Australia. The researchers were not detached observers, as most of them have also been international graduate students and were resident in the two countries during the COVID 19 crisis. We appreciate the participants’ everyday life experiences.
Data were collected between July and August 2020, with an open ended qualitative questionnaire (OQQ), which offered participants the opportunity to share their experiences in a non restraint manner on COVID 19 and how this impacted teaching and learning and wellbeing. The OQQ had a demographic section and two questions: What are your feelings and experiences during the COVID 19 crisis? How did the COVID 19 impact on teaching and learning and wellbeing at your university and study country? Participants were encouraged to provide candid responses. Data were analysed using thematic analysis approach, from which key themes were derived, interpreted, and supported with selective extracts. The thematic analysis involved a 6 step process, familiarizing with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and writing the report (Braun & Clarke, 2019) We undertook inductive coding and themes classification.
Participants were purposely selected international graduate students enrolled in two universities in Australia and America during the COVID 19 pandemic. Purposive sampling, according to Leedy and Ormrod (2019), involves choosing people for a particular purpose, or intentionally using non random sampling to select data sources, which can yield the most information about a topic under investigation. The universities and countries attract international students from Africa and Asia. Nine students voluntarily participated in the study after
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consenting or being attracted to its objectives. Participants, whose stories formed the study’s data corpus, comprised five female and four male graduate students
Two were undertaking doctoral studies in education and chemistry, while the remaining seven pursued masters’ programs in education (1), forestry (1), business (2), health (1), engineering (1), and tourism (1). Four were beginning graduate students, while five were in second (3) and final (2) year. The students were aged above 25 years. Three students were from Ghana, and one each from Congo and Kenya. Another three were from China and one was from Japan. In effect, five students were Africans and four Asians, as shown in Table 1.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Male African student #1 Masters in Forestry Ghana
Male African student #2 PhD in Education Ghana
Female African student #1 PhD in Chemistry Ghana
Female African student #2 Masters in Education Congo
Female African student #3 Masters in Health Kenya
Female Asian student #1 Masters in Business China
Female Asian student #2 Masters in Tourism Japan
Male Asian student #1 Masters in Engineering China
Male Asian student #2 Masters in Business China
Participant responses revealed a mixture of positive negative experiences that impacted the academic and social life, as well as the health, safety, and wellbeing of international students. Findings are presented and discussed as five themes: (1) isolation and loneliness, (2) fear and insecurity, (3) frustration (4) helplessness, and (5) stress and hardship, as shown in figure 1, based on categorisation and labelling of common experiences. Verbatim data excerpts are used to support interpretations of findings, as a step to enhance the study’s credibility.
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Figure 1: Experiences of international students during COVID 19 crisis
While quarantine, social distancing, and border restrictions are health measures for COVID 19 containment, our study indicates these strategies increase instances of social and physical isolation, and the amount of time spent away from friends and families (Lewnard & Lo, 2020). Feelings of exclusion, disconnection, loneliness, and isolation among international students (Sullivan & Kashubeck West, 2015) have detrimental effects on their mental health and wellbeing, and during crises, especially COVID 19, this can worsen (Brooks et al., 2020; Sanderson et al., 2021). In our study, loneliness was one key experience International students reported feeling emotionally, socially, and physically isolated since they were physically cut off from their university campuses, lecture rooms and other facilities. Other students had minimal interactions with their faculty because teaching and learning were wholly conducted online and remotely, or that their universities had closed. Feelings of separation somewhat worsened for students that did not get face to face interactions with course mates to physically share and discuss lecture notes, course contents, or other information. One participant stated:
Because of COVID 19, most work, lectures, and assignments are done remotely… no campus work or interaction… we want one on one, face to face meetings with our teachers…we can’t physically interact with our course mates and share ideas on course content. It’s not all about virtual stuff… (Male African student #1)
Some first time international students felt lonely due to their location and lack of social support such as friends and physical access to peers for collaborative learning and engagement:
I felt extremely lonely. For someone who lives alone on the Gold Coast, I don’t have friends as I just moved here at the beginning of the year to Australia and soon after our university life commenced, we began online learning. It’s very isolating and worrying. There is no one to discuss class contents and assignments… (Female Asian student #2).
Other students were isolated because of how online teaching and learning was conducted in some universities. Some “lectures were recorded and uploaded online for students to access, without live face to face virtual meetings and discussions” where students could interact with their lecturers and peers. The recorded lectures did not afford students the opportunity to ask questions for immediate clarification. Other students had delayed feedback. Even if you send messages to lecturers to ask questions or for an explanation of things that are not clear, it takes a longer time to get responses than the face 2 face… (Female African student #2)
Another factor responsible for experiences of isolation was separation from family members and spouses or loved ones. The presence of loved one could have eased the burden of loneliness and challenges: we are separated…doing so alone as our family is not around. If they are here this will be the best choice. If not because of COVID 19 it will afford me the opportunity to have time with my wife and other family members. (Male African student #1)
These notwithstanding, some students had increased contacts and connections due to access to friends, online interactions, and other physical communications. Frequent phone calls and online messaging were social support and comfort, enabling some students to overcome feelings of isolation or loneliness: For me I speak with my mother and family many times through WhatsApp…They keep checking on me. I have some people from my country in Australia and where I live. They helped during the time COVID was high. (Female Asian student #1)
Travel and movement restrictions, aimed at slowing the spread of COVID 19, limited international students’ ability to access family members and other people for interaction and support, resulting in further social exclusion (Dube, 2020). Such lack of social connectivity placed a damper on students’ emotional, health and wellbeing and academic matters. This finding is consistent with the results of LaRosa et al. (2021) that at the individual level, feelings of isolation was one major challenge students faced during COVID 19, affecting their mental and physical health, and ability to learn.
Perz et al.’s (2020) validation of the fear of COVID 19 found high anxiety for students of Asian backgrounds. Liang et al. (2021) identified Chinese postgraduate students had negative experiences of anxiety and depression, which impacted their mental health and academic work. Participants’ responses also showed international students, including Asians and Africans, were quite insecure on campus, at shopping centres and within the larger community. Such
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sense of insecurity heightened students’ fear when they were “outside”, in the open or encountered large groups of people in the community. Participants noted some Australians and Americans branded international students as potential sources for spreading the COVID 19 virus and were alarmed at their presence. For some participants, such ‘erroneous’ thinking caused students from countries that reported high spikes of COVID 19 cases to live in fear because they became targets for induced gaze, discrimination, ridicule, and exclusion. Threats and unsavory commentaries about them built an atmosphere of insecurity. Such racial attachments and aggressions are detrimental: The challenges for international students were that people looked at us as if we infected them with COVID and avoided or wanted to attack us. It makes us feel bad. They talk about us anyhow. If we’re infected, we wouldn't go on with our normal lives but be in quarantine, so you aren’t happy to go out and meet this… (Male Asian student #1).
As Gomes and Forbes Mewett (2021) similarly found, international students, especially those from China and of East Asian background, experienced racism and xenophobia COVID 19 ignited a sense of ‘fear and freeze’ in international students not only because they could contract the virus and die but claims that it spreads in enclosed environments and where people were in close contact. Due to concerns about the safety and effectiveness of social distancing practices in universities, schools, aircraft, and cars and other public places, some students had no choice but developed ‘protective’ mechanisms of staying indoors or secluding, which limited their movements and interactions.
I prefer to stay at my location without travelling by car or plane to avoid being infected. One needs to be careful moving in the community and to campus. With social distance people are getting the virus. (Female African student #1)
Despite experiences of insecurity and occasional negativity, some students were safe and secure due to assurances and encouragement from their social networks, including friends, relatives, families, university, and community members. It’s a pandemic, so we [international students] need not to fear… my university and family kept telling me things will be fine… I also believe it will be okay. I don’t think about the COVID too much…I was [a bit relaxed] doing my studies... Something [vaccine] can be found… (Male Asian student #2).
It was evident that some international students were optimistic the virus would end or a vaccine could be found, which gave them the assurance, resilience, and stamina to continue with their daily learning and social routines. Evidently, some humans turn to faith and religion for comfort and explanation (Bentzen, 2021). They can pray and hope to cope with adversity or uncertainty, and COVID 19 is no exception. Goodman (2020) claims people, including university students, can activate their faith to find peace in COVID 19 times. Unsurprisingly, some students relied on their religious faith and beliefs as buffers to stay confident and safe. One student reported, although “there is some [air of] doubt and panic, I keep faith in God…pray for strength to stay strong, and not be afraid.” The findings indicate that due to the unpredictability of the virus and its associated
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health and emotional concerns, some people, including international students, prayed (Bentzen, 2021) and were hopeful and assured, enabling them to stay secure and confident.
Sanderson et al (2021) identified that during the COVID 19 pandemic, student experiences and learning were impacted by feelings of worry and frustration. Similarly, a sense of frustration was a common experience among some participants. One female participant from Africa was particularly worried and dissatisfied with events and issues because she found it “difficult to meet the demands of the new ‘normal’ and [induced] learning, social and life needs”. She added, “the changes were quick, and I have to learn many things before I can adjust to studies and life…”. This means some international students’ inability to quickly adapt to the changes or attain proficiency to reach desired goals were disappointed. In specific instance in America, the announcement by President Trump that international students “should return home since university programs are now online” aggravated their frustration and uncertainty. They were upset, disappointed and irritated, and others lost confidence.
Other students felt broken because the logical pursuit of the directives meant they might be unable to pursue their goals, considering the financial investment. In Australia, international students were frustrated when the Morrison government also said it could not support them financially but rather supported domestic students and citizens. These actions were found discriminating. In the words of one participant, the ‘threats’ from some governments could have worsened the plight of international students if they had also contracted the virus: It was very frustrating and a feeling that could have ended our lives. If we had contracted COVID 19 it would be worse…announcements that students should return home if they can’t support themselves made us more uncertain (Male African student #2).
The frustrating experiences made many international students unsure about their plight in the study destination. It was a feeling of anxiety and hopelessness: COVID and things like no support for international students made us feel bad. We are sometimes anxious and didn’t know what to do (Male Asian student #1)
The inability of some international students to get refunds of payments for accommodation and other utilities or get goods and services they ordered online further worsened matters. Delayed delivery and non availability of stock or the inconvenience of online shopping increased their frustration and worry.
A sense of helplessness in coping with threats in a specific domain, including COVID 19 pandemic, can serve as an anxiety buffering function (Lifshin & Mikulincer, 2021). Participants also noted that international students were somewhat helpless during the COVID 19 outbreak. They were caught in webs of indecision because they were unsure of what to do to stay safe and how to get help. Others were helpless due to fear of contracting the virus or whether to
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abandon their programs. With the devastation COVID 19 was causing, some participants indicated that students lost their self regulation capacities. Some students felt abandoning their programs was not the best option since it would take them further away from the weekly interactions with lecturers and peers or would not overturn the shutdown imposed on schools and communities. As international borders were closed and flights cancelled, students had to hang on and put in the best effort to continue with their programs amid the challenges of getting support and physical contacts. Some students stated that the COVID 19 trapped “them in [a sea of] confusion, not knowing what to do” or “where to go for help”. Since no one could control the COVID 19, they felt “the end [of the road] had come” Feelings of helplessness impacted more those with limited social networks.
…we didn’t know what to do because of COVID 19. My family asked me to return to my country as they were concerned but I couldn’t …Things were out of control… (Female Asian student #1).
As a first year student, I was really looking forward to learning with people with the same interests but COVID 19 has made it very difficult…I don’t know what to do (Female Asian student #2)
However, some international students developed confidence, resilience, and positive attitudes during the crisis, enabling them to pursue cherished activities. They adapted and braced the circumstances and were optimistic that things would normalise, so what they needed to do was to follow healthy life practices to stay safe to pursue their learning, and social and life goals.
I tried to stay focused on my life and learning. I did my best to be positive and mindful but avoid things that will expose me to COVID.
I learnt to adapt… (Female African student #1)
This experience of international students agrees with Lifshin et al ’s (2020) study that perceived helplessness can help people to stay safe and avoid being infected with the COVID 19 virus. In a similar study conducted with participants from the USA, Australia, and other Asian countries, it was found that helplessness can also serve as a protective psychological function against fear and anxiety arousal due to COVID 19 (Lifshin & Mikulincer, 2021)
Stress can disrupt the academic progress of university students (OECD, 2021). Dealing with the threats and uncertainties of COVID 19 was likely to cause stress for many people, including international students (Garfin et al., 2020; Qi & Ma, 2021). Research identified that higher levels of stress and anxiety were evident among international students (Forbes Mewett & Sawyer, 2016), which impacted their mental health and wellbeing (Aristovnik et al., 2020; Cao et al., 2020). Our findings show international students were subjected to forms of stress and hardship during the COVID 19 period. Naturally students were anxious and tense, and others worried about contracting the virus, having worse health conditions, and eventually losing their lives. For some participants, the fear of the unknown contracting and exhibiting symptoms of the novel virus affected students mentally, emotionally, and psychologically, resulting in academic and health challenges. Stress increased for students that monitored news updates on
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COVID 19 and cases of deaths. Students were stressed when they learned of the deaths of family members, close relatives, and members of their communities. Watching TV news and seeing people in my country and community die of COVID was stressful…sometimes I said what next? (Female Asian student #2)
Life in America is stressful. COVID 19 has made it harder than before. Our family can’t support us; the virus is everywhere (Male African student #1)
Online [studies] is hard and the way people are dying from the virus…see Italy where I have relatives. I think a lot can’t sleep. (Female African student #3)
Sahu (2020) found therewas inadequate time to prepare to reorganise the teaching and learning processes and because the transition had to be quick and efficient, this placed more stress on university staff and students. Our study uncovered that some students were academically stressed due to universities shifting to online learning, with increased workload and expectations. It was noted COVID 19 led to the use of online platforms and other technologies that many international students were unprepared for and unfamiliar with or increased the challenges they experienced using online resources to learn pre COVID 19 (Huges, 2013). COVID 19 thus aggravated challenges students face accessing online platforms, locating academic materials, or conducting group work. Other students found the limited proficiency of some lecturers to use online technologies, for example, in teaching math related content, made it difficult for students to understand concepts, adding to their stress. One participant felt students were overwhelmed with balancing the ‘new’ study life demands: It’s difficult to balance my studies and personal life. There is no escape from the pressure. It’s stressful for us (Female Asian student #2)
Many students reported financial hardships because they had planned to return to their home countries or travel for the summer holidays and paying in advance for air tickets and other expenses but the onset of COVID 19 and subsequent international border closures meant they had to stay behind. Because payments for air tickets were mostly not refunded, these students did not have extra money to cover induced expenses. Some participants revealed students had no option, so the continued payment of rent and other utilities impacted them financially because they did not undertake much activity at the peak of COVID 19 and were confined indoors. Some participants claimed that their situations were stressful and differed from that of their counterparts in countries such as New Zealand and Canada, where they received wage subsidies and housing support (Berg & Farbenblum, 2020) or had their rent and other utility bills reduced: We continued to pay our rents and related bills while our stipend did not cover the whole academic year. The school or state could have supported us in some way to pay our bills or sanctioned the freezing of rents for all international students. (Male African student #2)
Qi and Ma (2021) found that some Australian universities’ reluctance to reduce tuition fees was a source of worry and hardship for international students. According to almost all the participants, the inability of international students to
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work, was another major source of stress and hardship. Many students could not gain employment to raise money to supplement the payment of tuition fees and support families during the crisis, and those students who had secured jobs received messages from employers terminating them. There is so much problem getting some work to do to support ourselves e.g., fees, bills and other families. It’s difficult (Male Asian student #2)
It was however noted that those international students on sponsorships and scholarships and did not have to worry about paying fees and other charges, were less stressed: “I am paying fees and other utilities, so I am feeling the pain”. But I don’t think it is the same for those on scholarships” (Female African student #3).
The study indicates that international students had mixed experiences during the COVID 19 crisis. There were positive experiences, including resilience, increased connections, and feelings of security and hopefulness, which show the wealth of buffers or coping strategies international students can rely on during unforeseen disruptions to their academic and social pathways. Experiences of stress and hardship, isolation, fear and insecurity, frustration, and helplessness were also common, which impacted students’ academic success, health, and wellbeing. Findings show that the level and accessibility of support systems at the university, community, and host country influenced the cumulative effects of COVID 19 on students’ experiences. We identified border crossing experiences of international graduate students from Africa and Asia in Australian and American universities, who have unique orientation to community or collectivistic values and ideologies. We believe their experiences were impacted more because they might have lost the benefits and buffers of belonging, caring and concern for one another that characterise their home countries. And this we perceive is what some universities could not fully appreciate, together with the practical realities of being an international student in a foreign country in a COVID 19 era.
Cumulatively, international students experienced stress, so it is appropriate to support them to acquire coping strategies to enhance their resilience and ability to manage the effects of such unplanned situations to their academic journey. The identified experiences also necessitate universitiesto reconsider how they support and engage international students, as this can help ameliorate the pandemic’s effects on their wellbeing and academic life. As Sanderson et al. (2021) found in their study on supporting student experience during the pandemic and beyond, such effective support services can improve students’ mental, social and psychological wellbeing. We propose that such support practices should entail universities adopting a more human centred, inclusive, equitable and sustainable approach, regardless of student backgrounds. These practices are imperative, as Berg and Farbenblum (2020) found that international students experienced exclusion and discrimination and others felt a “sense of abandonment” during the COVID 19 outbreak (p. 9).
International education, student mobility and corresponding foreign revenue for destination countries cannot exist without international students. The role universities play during crises such as COVID 19 can impact students’ satisfaction
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with academic, social, and emotional life (Aristovnik et al., 2020) and future study destination choice. Thus, the increased internationalisation of higher education and the economic benefits to universities, make increasing financial and other material support to international students tenable in any situation (Lieb, 2016). For effective support to international students in higher education, Bista (2019) articulates this requires a deep understanding of the complex and shifting realities of international students and a commitment to addressing these comprehensively. As she pointedly adds, this must involve a balanced ratio of support services and international students, with a human face. LaRosa et al. (2021) re echoed, university students, including international students, felt that learning cannot be prioritised over loss of safety amid the pandemic, health concerns or social injustices. This suggests the need for universities to refocus attention on the safety, belonging and wellbeing of all students.
Regarding the teaching learning experiences during COVID 19, it is important that ongoing needs specific pedagogical and technological supports are provided to enhance students’ efficacy of using online platforms and technologies for learning. Assessment and learning requirements should embed humanistic lenses that consider their health, mental and wellbeing. Higher education institutions must incorporate online support platforms to improve students’ interconnections while studying remotely. Collaborative online learning with telecommunications technologies can reduce students’ feelings of loneliness and foster their learning (LaRosa et al., 2021). Additionally, teachers and lecturers who lead teaching and learning through online platforms should be adequately trained. We reaffirm OECD’s (2021) call that COVID 19 exposed the need for higher education institutions and policymakers to re examine established instructional models. This change should be geared towards using innovative and blended learning provisions for traditional and international students to promote a sustainable internationalisation in higher education that is resistant to disruptions.
COVID 19 conditions, such as fear and isolation, could not afford the researchers the opportunity to conduct face to face interviews, which could have provided more in depth knowledge from participants. We acknowledge the sampled students and universities are not representative of Australian and American universities and student population, and a matter of convenience is reflected in the choice. As such, the experiences participants shared might differ from those of other countries, universities, and international students. Yet the experiences shared highlight the need for universities worldwide to support international students in times of crises.
The experiences of participants are not distinct to only international students, so we recommend domestic students’ experiences are examined. We suggest further that a study be conducted into the relationship between international students’ experiences and support systems universities provided during COVID 19, as well as students’ coping strategies.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 114 133, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.7
Received Jan 31, 2022; Revised Apr 1, 2022; Accepted Apr 15, 2022
Ofianto Ofianto
Universitas Negeri Padang, Padang, Indonesia Aman Aman
Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Sariyatun Sariyatun Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia
Bunari Bunari Universitas Riau, Pekanbaru, Indonesia
Tri Zahra Ningsih Zahra* Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia
Marni Emiar Pratiwi Marni
Universitas Negeri Padang, Padang, Indonesia
Abstract. Students studying history must possess chronological thinking skills to identify time order, calculate calendar time, understand timelines, and reveal historical continuity and change. A wide range of instruments and media is required to support the development of these skills. This research aims to create media timelines to help students enhance their chronological thinking skills. The research techniques employed were Research and Development (R & D) and the ADDIE development model. The ADDIE stage is broken down into three parts, namely, analysis, development, and implementation. The sample subjects consisted of expert teams as expert validators, history teachers, and Class XI students to assess the product's practicality and determine the effectiveness of the developed media. Expert validation questionnaire sheets, student and teacher response questionnaire sheets, and description exams were used to collect data. The descriptive analysis approach was used to define the level of media validity and practicality, * Corresponding author: TriZahraNingsihZahra,trizahra10019@gmail.com
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
while the N Gainapproach wasused todetermine the effectiveness of the media. The results of expert validation showed an average score of 4.44 in the very good category. The teachers’ and students’ response tests yielded average scores of 4.97 and 4.31, showing that the media timeline ispracticalfor learninghistory.The N Gainvalue of68% furtherindicates that the students' capacity to think chronologically improved Clearly, using the media timeline in history class to develop chronological explanation skills is feasible, practical, and beneficial.
Keywords: chronological thinking; history learning; historical thinking; media timeline
Chronological thinking is one of the essential abilities that students studying history (Erdem & Pamuk, 2020; Galán, 2015) need to develop because its comprehension is the act of arranging events logically, thereby enabling students to have a complete understanding of the sequence of activities from start to finish. Examples of chronological thinking skills are identifying the time order for each event; measuring, comprehending, and interpreting calendar timelines, and articulating thoughts about historical continuity and changes (Akbaba, 2020; Aktaş, 2021). Students need to develop this attribute because it is usually used to construct a thorough grasp of history, to analyze causes and effects, to discern the connections between these events, and to identify changes and continuity (de Groot-Reuvekamp et al., 2018; Fadli et al., 2021; Şeker, 2021). Although chronological thinking skill is an important attribute that must be acquired to understand historical meanings and narratives, field data shows that students' ability to explain certain events chronologically is still lacking, as is evident from their incoherent explanations of historical events. Students were also shown to be bad at linking or connecting past historical events because they are accustomed to learning methods that rely only on rote abilities, thereby ignoring the development of their critical and chronological thinking skills.
The teachers' inability to guide students in developing chronological thinking skills and the use of inappropriate learning media contributed to this issue. The problems identified are that students cannot assimilate the high level chronological order of events because the adopted learning techniques and media only provide information about the materials anddo not assist them in adequately explaining these activities. Consequently, learning tools that present historical data in chronological sequence are required to develop this skill.
History is the record of past events that are inextricably linked to space and time (Rosenlund, 2021). This essential aspect allows one to interpret the meaning of every activity that occurred within that period. It is impossible to explain past events thoroughly without the aid of time, the beginning and end of which tend not to be determined without a time marker used to readily categorize and compare it with other occurrences. To construct historical meaning, it is critical to learn about time (Ramalho., 2020) and the ability to comprehend it is one of the
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chronological thinking skills that students need to possess. Without adopting the appropriate learning media these skills continue to be deficient.
One of the learning media that might help pupils with their chronological thinking abilities is media timeline. A media timeline is a set of lines that describes an event from start to finish and is used in the classroom to assist both teachers and students with history lessons. Students can arrange events according to when they occurred, connect one event to another, and analyze their causes and impacts to draw conclusions, and build historical narratives (de Groot Reuvekamp et al., 2018; González & Ramírez, 2021; Ivanova, 2021). Using this media, students are expected to discern the time sequence in chronological order. Thus, a media timeline can provide a critical learning tool to strengthen historical thinking skills.
The problems encountered in this study were (i) the students' poor chronological thinking skills and (ii) the inappropriate learning resources employed by teachers in history classes to help improve this ability. The scope of this research is limited to developing a Focusky based media timeline as a historical learning medium to improve the chronological thinking skills of students in Class XI using their learning materials. The scope is specific to that of colonialism and imperialism and the Indonesian people's resistance and strategy in dealing with the Europeans and the implications on the nation's social, cultural, economic, political, and educational sector.
2.1.
A media timeline is a succession of lines that highlight the growth or process of a sequence of events to stimulate ideas, attention, feelings, and interests to produce an engaging and memorable learning experience (Leibowitz, 2017; Pellizzari et al., 2021; Silva et al., 2021) This timeline is used to describe the link between events and time and to connect several occurrences. The messages are presented in chronological sequence to help one comprehend the activities that transpired over time (de Groot Reuvekamp et al., 2018; González & Ramírez, 2021; Ivanova, 2021); that is, a media timeline is a medium used to convey an event chronologically. Its use causes students to become more interested and involved in the learning process and to improve their thinking skills in respect to the time series.
Teachers usually relay on maps to teach history, but a map has various flaws, the most notable of which is that it is restricted to the spatial/spatial aspect, and it cannot depict the chronological sequence of events (Collins, 2018). However, history is a subject that relies heavily on the concept of time; this is an important factor that separates it from other disciplines because it allows for real understanding and interpretation of various past occurrences. Because students can only read the places on the map, maps alone are unable to teach pupils to think at higher levels (Miaz et al., 2018) and pupils may be unable to understand each occurrence. The media timeline covers the lack of maps, and creating a media timeline using the Focusky application to increase chronological thinking abilities is an effective way to solve the inadequacies of the learning media used by instructors to date.
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The Focusky application based media timeline is a multimedia format that supports a wide range of material types, including video, audio, images, and text. Several studies have demonstrated that media in multimedia formats can help students improve their learning results and increase motivation and enthusiasm for studying, as opposed to learning media that is just text and images (Eltahir et al., 2021; Kang & Ritzhaupt, 2021; Pham, 2021). The generated media timeline can help students understand incredibly complicated historical learning material by simplifying it and encouraging them to remember events in chronological order. Using the media timeline might help them enhance their chronological thinking skills.
Several studies have demonstrated that using a media timeline to arrange data and events regularly is a good idea. According to Kenei et al. (2020), it is a useful tool for displaying medical data in accordance with time. Several media timeline studies have been carried out in the medical profession to depict the progression of an illness over time. For instance, Carvalho et al. (2021) used it to explain the spread of COVID 19 within a year. Ledesma et al. (2019) used it to visualize how clinical data enhances knowledge and aids medical personnel in recognizing complex data. The research carried out by Parsons (2014) advocates the use of media timelines to show how mobile learning has evolved over time which includes every stage of growth and change that occurs in the cellular learning process (Parsons, 2014) and shows that there is a need for future research to readily identify the flaws in the cellular learning process as well as offer new ideas. However, the only recent study on the use of media timelines in social and historical sciences was that of Nurulanjani (2018) who graphed the timeline of social studies learning media. In both the social sciences and in history, there is still a dearth of studies on media timelines and the researchers concluded that research into and development of media timelines, including their use in the learning process, especially in history, could potentially be very important in strengthening chronological thinking skills.
The term "chronological thinking" refers to comprehending an event from beginning to end. It necessitates an awareness of the contrasts between historical conditions at a specific time and place, and current situations (Carretero et al., 2017). The chronological concept is crucial in studying history, and without it, this subject is difficult to understand as students find it difficult to investigate links between events or explain causal historical relationships (Tanaka, 2016; van Straaten et al., 2019). Chronology depicts the progression of events across time, making it simple to establish a connection between them.
Attempts to explain past events without considering the concept of time results in a break in the chain of events and a series of misunderstandings. The importance of chronological thinking has been demonstrated in several studies. Powell and Fuchs (2018) investigated seventh and eighth grade high school students' grasp of several basic chronological ideas in history and social science themes. Akpinar and Kekeç (2019) demonstrated the effectiveness of the learning model in developing chronological thinking skills during social studies classes for seventh
graders. Safran (2014) researched the enhancement of the skills of fifth grade students. The teachers' perspectives of the activities employed in the class to enhance chronological thinking abilities were investigated by Şeker (2021), while Huijgen et al. (2017) analyzed the theoretical knowledge of geography, time, and chronology in historical education, and Pala (2021) examined the teachers' views of specific topics, location, and time, and changed the social studies curriculum to improve chronological thinking skills. Several studies have been carried out on these attributes; however, relatively few currently focus on these thinking skills in historical studies. Although the idea of chronology is a critical component of history education, multiple studies have proved that there is relatively little emphasis on the media timeline to strengthen these abilities. History differs from other sciences, which focus solely on events that occur on the surface, regardless of when they occurred, and students of history must have the ability to think chronologically in order to describe highly complicated previous events in a basic and easy to understand manner as well as to identify causal connections and provide explanations for events. Chronological thinking abilities, are essential for building those historical thinking skills.
Research and development (R & D) methods based on the ADDIE model (analysis, design, development, implementation, evaluation) were used to carry out this research which was divided into three stages: analysis, development, and implementation. The first phase involved analyzing basic needs through interviews with the teachers, curricular analysis, and an examination of the students' chronological thinking skills. The findings from this step were used to construct the media timeline. The development stage involved designing a media timeline, expert validation testing, and media trials. Four experts were involved in the validation process: two material specialists, one media design expert, and a linguist. The expert team evaluated the validity of the generated product; the validation assessment's findings were utilized as input for revision, and the feasibility of the developed instrument was measured using the criteria formulated by Sugiyono (2007), as shown in Table 1
Table 1. The Feasibility Criteria of the Developed Instrument Score Description ≥ 4 00 Very Feasible 3 00 3 99 Feasible 2,00 2.99 Less Feasible 1 00 1 99 Not Feasible
Source: Surgiyono (2007)
Following revisions based on feedback from the expert validators, the product was tested on a small group to discern the practical medium. Five history teachers and 56 students were given a limited trial of the program to assess its practicality. If the results showed that the generated media was useful, the product would to be immediately deployed to a wider class; if the generated medium was less practical or impractical, the product would be revised, based on students' and teachers' feedback. In the final stage, the product was implemented because it was
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approved by many respondents with the aim of assessing how effective the medium would be in developing chronological skills.
The third step was implementation, in which the product was extensively used in the field to assess the media timeline's progress in terms of developing chronological skills. The research subjects included four expert teams as validators, five history instructors, and 56 class XI students who were used to evaluate the product's practicality. Another 160 students from the same class evaluated the efficacy of the created medium. Expert validation, including the students and teachers' response questionnaire sheets and description exams, was used to measure chronological thinking skills as well as to collect the research data. Descriptive data analysis was used to describe the media validity and practicality level.
The N Gain test was then used to determine how much the media timeline variable contributed to the improvement of chronological thinking skills, and the value obtained was used to determine the effectiveness of the medium. It was assumed that if the score fell in the medium or high range, the material generated had successfully boosted chronological thinking skills. Conversely, if the value was low, it indicated that the media was ineffective in increasing this attribute. The N Gain criterion formulated by Richard Hake (1999) was used to determine the impact of media timeline on chronological thinking skills, as follows:
Table 2. Criteria for N Gain Score Interval Criteria g ≥ 0 7 High 0 3 ≤ g ≥ 0 7 Middle g < 0.3 Low
Source: Hake (1999)
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The proportional sampling strategy was used in this study and the sample size was adapted to suit the research goals. To demonstrate the study's impact effectively, sufficient samples were required. A sample that is too small may not reveal the study's effects, while a sample that is too large may increase expenditure and the time necessary to carry out the study (Barker et al., 2016).
The participants were class XI SMA students from preferred, medium, and non favourite schools in Padang, West Sumatra, Indonesia. The necessity for valid, reliable, and comprehensive study data triggered the selection of these institutes in accordance with favoured, middling, and unfavourable categories. Three groups were also identified as indicative of West Sumatra schools and students.
Learning media such as maps were used in the control class whereas students in the experimental class were taught using a Focusky based media timeline. The chronological skills test was administered twice, as a pre test and a post test. The pre test aimed to determine the students' initial abilities before the learning process. The post test was carried out after the experimental class was taught using the media timeline. The design of the chronological thinking skills exam is shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Design of the Chronological Thinking Skills Test Group Pre test Process Post test Control Chronological thinking skills
Experiment Chronological thinking skills
The teacher uses maps in the learning process. Chronologi cal thinking skills
The teacher uses media timeline based on the Focusky application. Chronologi cal thinking skills
The examination of chronological thinking abilities was set up as essay questions. The test required students to meet three specified chronological thinking indicators: first, to explain each response chronologically; second, to make connections between historical events; and third, to develop causal explanations for historical occurrences.
To determine whether the items employed to assess students' chronological thinking skills were valid and reliable, they were subjected to validity and instrument reliability tests, shown in Table 4 The table shows that the three item indicators have a significance value larger than 0.05, which simply implies that these three legitimate questions were used as instruments to assess the students' chronological thinking abilities.
Table 4. Results of Item Validity
No The items of chronological thinking Nilai sig. (2tailed) 1. Chronologically explaining events 0 568 2. Connecting events 0 625 3. Give a causal explanation 0.673
The instrument reliability test results are shown in Table 5 The results of the Cronbach's Alpha examination of the instrument's reliability were 0.816 > 0.05, and the tool was inferred as reliable for assessing chronological reasoning abilities.
Table 5. Test results for instrument reliability Cronbach's Alpha N of Items 0.816 56
In this study, quantitative and qualitative data analysis methods were integrated. To improve the resulting media, qualitative analysis was utilized, and an open questionnaire was employed to gather expert input on the quality of the media. These responses were reviewed during the creation stage to improve the quality of the media. An independent sample t test with the SPSS version 25.0 program was used to investigate the influence of using Focusky based media timelines on chronological thinking skills.
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4.1.
4.1.1.
History teachers were asked about the media they use in class to teach this subject. The following is an excerpt from the interview conducted with a teacher about the learning media used in teaching history: “In class, I seldom utilize other media; instead, I exclusively used those provided by the school, such as maps."
Questions were also asked to determine whether learning media motivate youngsters to engage in active learning. The teacher responded as follows: “The present media is perceived to be ineffective at triggering the children's enthusiasm to participate in the learning activities. Only a few of the students were active in answering the posed questions.”
Students are less involved in the learning process because teachers do not use a variety of media and they are also less able to answer the teacher's questions because they are dissatisfied with the teaching approach used to present the topic. The teacher was asked about the kind of questions the students found difficult to answer and responded: “Students usually find it difficult describing historical events in chronological sequence, which includes searching for connections between them."
Students' inability to organize historical events chronologically and discern the connections between them was due to the voluminous amount of material provided by the teacher. Another factor contributing to this inability was that the media adopted are not geared to assisting students in comprehending the sequence of events because maps only indicate where these activities occurred and not their chronology. This type of learning has not enhanced the students' chronological thinking skills; in studying this subject, students need to comprehend historical events in the order in which they occurred, and that requires learning media that trigger chronological thinking skills and simplify the voluminous historical material.
The curriculum analysis in this study was conducted using an in depth content analysis method on the history learning curriculum in Indonesia. Curriculum analysis entails assessing and analyzing Basic Competencies (KD) and indicators, and conformance to the present curriculum, specifically that of 2013. Based on the 2013 curriculum analysis, the aim of learning history in Indonesia is to increase the students' awareness of the importance of time and place or space concepts, to understand changes associated with the sustainability of the society and nation, as well as to develop those historical thinking skills which are the foundation of the ability to think logically, creatively, inspirationally, and innovatively. In short, it is essential to develop their chronological thinking skills. The results of the curriculum analysis require the construction of the media timeline to start by identifying the Basic Competencies (KD), learning materials, and objectives to be
attained. Table 6 shows the relationship between Basic Competence (KD), subject content, and learning objectives.
Analyzing the history of colonialism and imperialism, as well as the Indonesian people's resistance and strategy in dealing with the Europeans, and its implications for the nation's social, cultural, economic, political, and educational sectors
The Development of European Colonialism and Imperialism. The strategy adopted by Indonesians to resist European colonialism until the early 20th century.
Students learning by using a media timeline, have developed the ability to:
• use other sources, analyze related facts on the emergence and growth of European colonization, as well as the strategy adopted by Indonesians to resist European colonization (Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, English) to the twentieth century.
• report the results of the analysis chronologically in the form of historical narratives about the emergence process and development of European colonization, as well as the resistance strategy adopted by Indonesians to resist European colonization up until the 20th century, based on information presented in the media timeline
The Basic Competencies about the history of colonialism and imperialism, and the strategy adopted by Indonesians to resist the Europeans and its implications on the nation were selected after thoroughly examining the material from Indonesia's colonial and imperialist periods. This material was selected as appropriate to develop the students' chronological thinking skills and was realized through a complex series of time and periodization, starting with the arrival of the VOC, the change of leadership from colonialism, the emergence of forced cultivation, and the aftermath of its influence. Students were stimulated to enhance their chronological thinking skills by analyzing interconnected eras with similar effects.
An essay was used to assess the students’ chronological thinking skills in addition to three sets of basic questions that emphasized chronological components which were provided for only 56 students. Students were first tasked with developing a model or periodization based on Indonesia's history of European colonialism and imperialism. Second, they were asked to establish a link between events in
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Indonesia under colonialism and the European empire. Third, they were asked to provide a full explanation of European colonialism and imperialism in Indonesia, including its origins and effects. The results of the initial analysis of the students' chronological thinking skills are shown in Table 7:
Table 7. Students’ Chronological Thinking Analysis Initial Test Result Category Soal 1 Soal 2 Soal 3 Average F % F % F % %
True 16 28 57% 20 35 71% 10 17 86% 27 38%
False 40 71 42% 36 64 28% 46 82 14% 72 61%
Table 7 shows that only 16 students (28.57%) out of 56 answered the first question appropriately. Twenty of them (35.71%) answered the second question correctly and only 10 (17.86%) answered the third question appropriately. Based on these findings, it was concluded that students' chronological thinking abilities remained low, with only 27.38% able to answer and explain events in chronological sequence accurately, and 72.61% were unable to answer the questions correctly. Based on these findings, teachers' efforts to develop students' chronological thinking skills effectively and efficiently need to be boosted.
4.2.1.
The selection of programs to be used as software developers was the first step in media development. Focusky was used to create media timelines because it is simple, free, and requires no other software. It did not require design skills because all that needs to be done was to select and download the appropriate template (Idaharyani, 2017). Focusky software is used everywhere and at any time to draw attention and interest, motivate learning, and encourage students to think and use tools that allow them to add new items, images, change text, music, graphics, and videos. A component or feature was determined after selecting the program intended to be used as a developer application. The main page, user manual, and content comprise the media timeline. The main page included all elements that guided both students and teachers in using the media content. The material was organized into three primary timelines to improve chronological thinking skills. Table 8 shows the format of the media timeline that was created.
Table 8: The results of using the Focusky design to create a media timeline Section of the media Description
Showcase of media covers
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Section of the media
Description Frontviewofthemediatimeline
The Initial Timeline View
The Second Timeline View
The Third Timeline View
View from the Media End
4.2.2. Validation by an Expert
Expert validation was carried out afterwards to determine whether the product improved chronological thinking skills. In this study, materials, media, and language experts were engaged and the help of experts in the relevant fields was also enlisted. The material specialists had a history education background and technology experts were media specialists, while linguists were professors with a background in language education. Expert validation results served as the basis for making certain changes, as shown in Table 9.
Material 4.49 Very feasible Media 4.53 Very feasible Language 4.4 Very feasible Mean 4.44 Very feasible
The expert team's validation test results produced an average score of 4.44 for the manufactured product, which placed it in the feasible category as useful as a historical learning medium to enhance chronological thinking skills.
4.2.3. Media Trial
After completion of the expert validation testing, media trials were performed to analyse the teachers' and students' responses concerning the practicality of the developed products. The trials involved five history teachers and 56 Class XI students. The findings demonstrate the practicability of the media timeline in history education. Table 10 shows its level, based on the teacher's answer.
Interpretation
1 Content 4 46 Very good 2 Practicality 4 49 Very good 3 Language 4.32 Very good 4 Design 4 72 Very good Mean 4 497 Very good
The ‘excellent’ rating is evidence that the use of the media timeline boosted students' chronological thinking abilities in history learning, and that students found it practically useful.
The implementation stage was carried out in three classes with a total of 160 students as part of a large scale test. The N Gain test was used to determine the efficacy of the media, and its results are shown in Table 11.
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1 Chronologically explaining events 0.64 Medium
2 Connecting events 0 74 High
3 Give a causal explanation 0.65 Medium Mean 0 68 Medium
The media timeline was effective in enhancing the students' chronological thinking skills, with an average contribution in the medium group. The indicator used to explain events chronologically boosted the students' skills by 64% after the treatment whereas their ability to connect the events improved by 74% for the second indicator. The third indicator, which explains the causality of an occurrence, showed an improvement of 65% after treatment. The average student's chronological reasoning skills improved by 68% after treatment in the middle group. Based on Table 11, it is evident that the media timeline is effective, with an average contribution in the medium category.
This study reported that the media timeline is a realistic and practically useful historical learning tool that can enhance chronological thinking skills. The findings made by expert validation showed that the media timeline produced was effective and practical as a history learning medium, with an average score of 4 44. The material, media, and language aspects received excellent grades, based on their characteristics. In terms of material, there was a link between the timeline created, and the basic skills acquired; because the information is presented in chronological order, the students can easily develop historical narratives from the media presented. According to Brehmer et al. (2017), this approach helps students grasp the events in an orderly fashion and makes it simpler to trace the links connecting these events. In short, a media timeline tends to display a lot of information clearly and plainly, making it easier for the students. These findings support the research of Hope et al. (2013) in which media timelines were used to describe events observed by the children. When the participants were asked to explain their observations, the students employed the timeline and were easily able to describe the events that occurred, showing their ability to apply this medium to explain and simplify complex historical events.
Focusky was chosen as the program for creating media timelines because it is simple, free, and does not require any other software. It is a well known tool for making media timelines, and the multimedia format supports videos, music, photos, and text (Eltahir et al., 2021; Kang & Ritzhaupt, 2021; Pham, 2021), so that the media timeline produced by the Focusky application has a pleasing appearance and is simple to use. The findings of this study support several research results (e g , Budiarto et al., 2021; Sebbowa & Ng'ambi, 2020) on the effectiveness of the Focusky application which enables students to add new items, photos, change text, music, graphics, and videos and use them anywhere and at any time. The combination of text, images and videos enhances learning by enabling students to develop visual reflections and audio connections to the main
topic of the material and stimulates interest in learning. Because the timeline is written in easy to understand language, the text is straightforward and easy to read
The developed Focusky media timeline has various advantages over the former approach previously used by teachers in Padang City high schools, which consisted of maps. This application based timeline boosts the students' interest, motivation, and passion (Al Mardhiyyah et al., 2021), unlike learning media which consist solely of text and graphics. Several studies have reported that the media timeline helps to enhance learning outcomes, motivation, and interest in studying. According to Dale (1946), the use of multimedia improves learning material comprehension by approximately 80%. The designed media timeline simplifies complex history learning material and encourages the students to grasp events in chronological sequence, thus improving chronological thinking skills, and because the produced medium can be used both online and offline, students are encouraged to engage in autonomous and distance learning.
Text is a fundamental component of this learning media and is used to convey most of the information. However, lengthy texts are tiring to the point that readers tend to skip over some content (Casanave, 2019) A brief text with large font size in the media timeline was adopted, making it easy for students to view properly (Schüler et al., 2019) and to understand the material presented, so sparking their interest in learning (Jensen, 2019).
Because most students prefer visual content to lengthy text, the use of pictures and videos captured the students' interest and enthusiasm (Hu et al., 2021; Schüler & Merkt, 2021). The displayed pictures and videos encourage them to analyse each event in their own words (Rismark & Sølvberg, 2019), aiding the development of higher order thinking skills. According to Edgar Dale's (1946) cone of learning media, students who study by looking at pictures or watching videos perform better than those who merely listen to the lectures. The media timeline produced was extremely useful for improving chronological thinking skills.
From a practical standpoint, the teachers’ and students' response tests yielded an average score of 4.97 and 4.31, respectively, implying that the media timeline proved to be extremely useful for learning history. Both teachers and students used the developed media efficiently in the learning process. The medium tends to be used repeatedly, online and offline, suggesting that the media timeline assists students in comprehending historical content, and encourages their interest studying independently because it is simple to use and accessible at any time and from any location.
The N Gain score measures how effective the developed media is in enhancing the students' chronological thinking skills. The 160 students who had an average score of 0.68 were placed in the medium category which indicates that 68% of the media timeline affected the students' ability to develop their chronological thinking. The display of information in the form of a time sequence increased
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student enthusiasm about understanding a historical event. The students also used timelines to construct cause and effect relationships (Rosenlund, 2021). Because the materials were given sequentially, the students were motivated to search for changes, and because the period of events is concisely conveyed using the media timeline, the students found it easier to understand the content. Learning media containing text, images, and audio are expected to accommodate all students' different learning styles (Tugirinshuti et al., 2021; Yulianci et al., 2021).
The results of this research show that the designed media timeline enhanced chronological thinking skills. These results are consistent with the findings of Teopilus et al. (2019), who discovered that this procedure triggers learning outcomes and assists students in comprehending past, present, and future occurrences within a given time frame. According to Atamuratov (2020), the media timeline allows students to connect with learning without the teacher's domination and allows them to be actively involved in the academic process. Students used the media timeline to examine the effects of European colonial practices and imperialism on Indonesians and other nations over the same period, and were able to identify the characteristics of historical eras and compare them with the present (de Groot Reuvekamp et al., 2018). The students also investigated their origins and effects by identifying similar patterns and connections, gaining a fuller comprehension of the historical significance of European colonialism and imperialism. Their historical thinking skills improved as they searched for correlations, discovered connections between events, and drew conclusions. The Focusky based media timeline that was produced was valid, dependable, and a practical tool for use as a historical learning medium to strengthen chronological thinking skills.
The media timeline developed is valid and reliable for use as a historical learning tool to strengthen chronological thinking skills. The produced medium is also practical in terms of application, since it can be utilized both online and offline, encouraging students to engage in autonomous and remote learning. The Focusky application proved to be a crucial component in the creation of historical learning media. It can be easily used by teachers and students and presents a large amount of information clearly and plainly and can be used repeatedly to help the children develop their chronological thinking abilities. Presenting information in a chronological sequence reassures students and makes them interested in learning about historical events. The media timeline also establishes cause and effect relationships between these activities, so students can make comparisons and discern the relationships between similar events.
Further study needs to be carried out to analyze other interactive learning media that can enhance students' historical thinking skills.
Perfect research is not easily realized and the created media timeline is currently in its early stages of testing, with only three classes from two separate schools as
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participants. Trials need to be carried out in multiple institutes with diverse conditions to obtain an ideal learning medium.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 134 149, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.8
Received Aug 15, 2022; Revised Nov 15, 2022; Accepted Apr 12, 2022
Abstract. Quizizz is an application proposed by the Ministry of Education Malaysia that can be used to obtain information about pupils’ learning acquisition throughout lessons. Quizizz integrates technology and gamification concepts that captivate students’ desire to learn. For home based learning, Malaysian teachers were advised to guide pupils using communication mediums and applications so that the pupils would not be left behind in their learning. This study investigated the prior knowledge and perceptions of mathematics teachers regarding Quizizz, and their attitudes towards using this application. Furthermore, this study aimed to discover the interests among primary school mathematics teachers with different years of teaching experience in integrating the Quizizz application into their classes. We adopted a quantitative research method, using a questionnaire as research instrument. Fifty primary school teachers teaching mathematics in Johor were selected as respondents The data obtained were analyzed using descriptive statistical analysis and inferential statistical analysis. Findings showed that more than half of the respondents (68%) had followed a course on using Quizizz, and 94% felt that they could access the Quizizz website easily. Most of the respondents (mean > 3.67) had a positive attitude towards the Quizizz application. This study showed that teaching experience does not influence the teacher’s decision in implementing the Quizizz application in the teaching and learning process. Teachers are willing to learn new teaching methods.
Keywords: mathematics; online learning; Quizizz; teacher
The closure of schools and educational institutions due to the outbreak of COVID 19 has significantly impacted education systems worldwide. This has forced most schools and learning institutions to shift from conventional face to face instruction by embracing online based learning platforms (UNESCO, 2020). This has propelled mathematics teachers to use various creative approaches during online lessons. Teachers can conduct their lessons in a fun and engaging
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
manner by using any of the multiple platforms accessible online, such as the Quizizz application (Ines & Carvalho, 2017). However, some mathematics teachers may need additional skills and knowledge, especially technology related knowledge, to help them create meaningful and fun filled mathematics lessons.
The nature of mathematics learning, which requires students to understand abstract mathematical concepts and various mathematical problem solving procedures, becomes increasingly difficult when distance learning is implemented. Many teachers are unprepared for this sudden change to online teaching, which poses many problems (Lapada et al., 2020). These problems related to distance learning can result in mathematics lessons not being carried out effectively and the development of student learning being slowed down (Garbe et al., 2020). However, math teachers can use various applications to support their teaching, including the Quizizz application. This user friendly application can help teachers perform various teaching activities, including making exercises and assessments more efficient. This is in line with the implementation of education in the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) and efforts to ensure the continuity of education. The use of Quizizz can help teachers implement teaching more easily. In addition, this application is fun to use and has a variety of setting options suitable for various learning purposes
As a result of the outbreak of COVID 19, the Malaysian Government has ordered the implementation of a movement control order (MCO) to control the spread of the virus, subsequently making it impossible to implement teaching and learning activities. Therefore, the Ministry of Education (MoE) Malaysia issued a letter of guidelines for the implementation of teaching and learning during the MCO to ensure that the teaching and learning process was not hampered UNESCO (2020) has provided vivid guidelines for home based teaching and learning and remote learning to help teachers conduct classes via an online platform as face to face teaching is not allowed. Home based teaching and learning serve as a guideline to help teachers conduct and implement learning in a structured and planned manner. During the MCO period, teachers were advised to guide pupils using communication mediums and applications that are accessible to them so that pupils are not left behind in their learning. Undoubtedly, the role of educational technology is becoming pre eminently significant in the present day, especially in the education sector.
Students often encounter challenges such as difficulty remembering the necessary steps and mathematical formulas, understanding mathematical problems, and determining solutions such as mathematical problems whenever they answer mathematical questions. As a result, they struggle relating to the mathematical topics and applying the conceptual knowledge they have learned (Mahmud et al., 2021). Nevertheless, there are numerous online mathematics learning resources and technology which make it easier for students to understand the content of mathematics lessons. Making full use of such learning resources indirectly helps teachers improve the quality of their mathematics teaching. Although there is a wide selection of online technology and resources,
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it is advised that appropriate teaching strategies should be adopted to suit students’ content and levels of understanding to achieve academic success (Konnova et al., 2019).
Previous studies have shown that experienced mathematics teachers focus on traditional teaching methods and rely heavily on textbooks and exercise books (Mahmud, 2019). This is evident in the study of Dockendorff and Solar (2018), who concluded that teachers who are competent in information and communication technology (ICT) literacy do not apply this knowledge in teaching mathematical concepts to students. Incorporating technological elements into mathematics teaching lacks among experienced teachers, even though these teachers have professional pedagogical knowledge, teaching strategies, and methods. Novice teachers, on the other hand, are motivated and confident in integrating technology in mathematics teaching (Setiyani et al., 2020)
Teachers should assess learners by gathering information and feedback from them after lessons (Mahmud et al., 2020). According to Jamian et al. (2020), Quizizz is one of the applications proposed by the MoE Malaysia to achieve this. This application can obtain information about pupils’ learning acquisition throughout the lesson. This interactive Quizizz application was introduced to educators as an alternative medium to assess student performance (Ines & Carvalho, 2017). This holds to another study carried out by Permana and Permatawati (2020), who agreed that the Quizizz application can create more dynamic online classrooms. Setiyani et al. (2020) found that students have shown a positive attitude towards Quizizz and that the application could enhance mathematical problem solving skills. Mensah (2018) stated that by using the Quizizz application, students could review their mistakes after conducting a mathematics quiz. Therefore, mathematics teachers can improve the quality of teaching using the Quizizz application.
Furthermore, Quizizz is a suitable medium to test mathematics mastery levels during online classes (Mulyati & Evendi, 2020). Mathematics teachers must conduct practical online assessments to gauge students’ mastery levels. It is part and parcel of their teaching, as the information obtained from the assessments can be helpful when designing instructional activities which suit the learners’ level of understanding in the upcoming mathematics lessons. The vibrant interface of Quizizz with its engaging music makes it an appealing platform to most students worldwide. Besides this, the power up abilities of Quizizz were designed to increase pupils’ motivation levels (Ditch that Textbook, 2020).
Unfortunately, not much research has been done to determine the efficacy of using Quizizz in mathematical education in Malaysia (Md Saleh & Hajar, 2019). This explains the aim of this study, which is to identify the effectiveness of using the Quizizz application among primary school mathematics teachers in Johor during virtual learning. The scope of this study is to investigate the prior knowledge and perception regarding Quizizz and teachers’ attitudes towards
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the application. Primary school mathematics teachers’ interest in applying Quizizz to their teaching experience is another point of interest in this study.
The performance of Malaysian students in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) has improved from 2009 to 2018 (OECD, 2019). Based on the results released by the Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development (OECD) Malaysia accumulated 440 points in 2018, which is an increase of 36 points from 2009. Although Malaysia was ranked 57th out of 74 participating countries in 2009, the average global performance is still considered low. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (2000) agreed that technology is critical in implementing effective mathematics teaching and learning. A study carried out by Zakaria and Khalid (2016) also supported ICT integration in teaching. Technology helps to capture students’ attention and motivates them to learn better. According to Dinc (2019), the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process can be increased through the implementation of technology.
With the advancement of technology, many new technologies, such as online applications and software, have been integrated into education. Therefore, educators must be dynamic, proactive, and ready to embrace new technologies to adapt to the 21st century education system. Nevertheless, Aslan and Zhu (2016) posited that teachers use basic ICT skills such as Microsoft PowerPoint in their teaching. Therefore, the use of various technology applications in mathematics teaching and learning has become a need in recent years. Teaching and learning are evolving in tandem with technological advancement (McCulloch et al., 2018).
Great emphasis has been placed on integrating technology into education. The Quizizz application is a game based learning application that integrates technology and gamification concepts to motivate students to learn (Basuki & Hidayati, 2019; Mac Namara & Murphy, 2017; Mohamad, 2020; Zhao, 2019). However, thus far, not much is known about the level of mathematics teachers’ prior knowledge and perception regarding Quizizz and their attitude towards the application. In addition, further research is required on the interest of Malaysian mathematics teachers to use Quizizz based on their mathematics teaching experience. This will expand the literature and show real scenarios about mathematics teachers using the Quizizz application in their teaching. Therefore, a study should be conducted to explore the perceptions of primary school mathematics teachers in the implementation of the Quizizz application during online learning to be in line with the needs of this age of technology. This study will benefit teachers who act as catalysts for change in their teaching field to help learners achieve the desired learning objectives.
For this study, we have formulated three research questions and one hypothesis: • RQ1: What is the level of mathematics teachers’ prior knowledge and perception regarding the Quizizz application?
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• RQ2: What is mathematics teachers’ attitude towards the Quizizz application?
• RQ3: Is there a significant difference in interest to use the Quizizz application based on mathematics teachers’ teaching experience?
• H1: There is no significant difference in interest to use the Quizizz application based on mathematics teachers’ teaching experience.
We adopted a quantitative research method in this study, precisely the survey method with a questionnaire as research instrument. This study investigated the perceptions among mathematics teachers of using the Quizizz application during online classes. The chosen method can therefore be justified as it will allow data to be collected that can be used to describe the characteristics of the research population (Lim et al., 2016; Creswell, 2012; Majid, 2017; Peng & Daud, 2017; Restiana & Pujiastuti, 2019).
This research involved 50 primary school teachers teaching mathematics from Year 1 to Year 6 in Johor. Respondents were selected using random cluster sampling because we could not visit schools due to movement limitations during the MCO period.
We used Google Forms to draft and administer the questionnaire for data collection (Appendix 1) and to save cost, time, and energy due to movement limitations during the MCO period. Notably, the web based questionnaire is used widely for collecting instant data (Creswell, 2012). The questionnaire contained four parts. Part A consisted of questions on the demographics of the respondents regarding gender, highest qualification obtained, and mathematics teaching experience. For parts B, C, and D, the items were adapted from questionnaires of a previous study (Md Saleh & Hajar, 2019). Cronbach’s alpha was used to test the reliability of the items in the questionnaire. The alpha values obtained were larger than 0.70, indicating high reliability and thus suitability for usage (Md Saleh & Hajar, 2019).
We collected data on the respondents’ prior knowledge and perception regarding Quizizz (4 items), their interest in applying Quizizz in the teaching and learning process (7 items), and their attitude towards Quizizz (7 items). Questions were selected from the study by Md Saleh and Hajar (2019) that aligned with the aim of this study and would elicit the necessary data to answer the research questions. The questionnaire used a dichotomous scale (Yes/No) for part B and a 5 point Likert scale for parts C and D to analyze the collected data. The five options for the Likert scale were: 1 strongly disagree, 2 disagree, 3 moderately agree, 4 agree, and 5 strongly agree. Table 1 shows the distribution of questions.
Construct Questions Scale Demographics
Part A 1 3 Prior knowledge & perception regarding Quizizz Part B 1 4 Yes/No
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Interest to apply Quizizz
Part C 1 7 Likert Attitudes towards Quizizz Part D 1 7 Likert
The data obtained were analyzed through descriptive statistics using a summary of the overall data and can provide information directly and efficiently (Pallant, 2020). All data collected were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 26. Table 2 shows how the mean score was interpreted for data analysis (Ahmad, 1993)
Mean score Interpretation Level
1.00 2.33 Low/negative Weak 2.34 3.66 Average/neutral Medium 3.67 5.00 High/positive Good
Source: Ahmad (1993)
Furthermore, to determine the differences of interest in applying Quizizz among primary school mathematics teachers based on their mathematics teaching experience, data were analyzed using one way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Part A of the questionnaire collected the demographics of the 50 respondents. The results obtained were measured using frequencies and percentages (Table 3).
Item Category
Frequency (N = 50) Percentage
Gender Male Female 13 37 26% 74%
Highest qualification Teaching certificate Diploma in education Bachelor’s degree Master’s degree Doctoral degree
Mathematics teaching experience
Less than 5 years 6 to 10 years 11 to 15 years More than 16 years
4 36 10
15 16 11 8
8% 72% 20%
30% 32% 22% 16%
Table 3 shows that most of the respondents were female (74%), while male respondents constituted 26% of the sample Regarding highest qualification obtained, 36 respondents (72%) had a bachelor’ s degree, followed by 10 with a master’ s degree (20%) and 4 with a diploma in education (8%). No respondents had a teaching certificate or doctoral degree as highest qualification obtained. Furthermore, concerning teaching experience, 32% of respondents had been teaching for 6 to 10 years, with 15 respondents (30%) having taught for less than 5 years. The category of more than 16 years of teaching experience accounted for the smallest number of respondents (16%), while the 11 to 15 years category had the second smallest number of respondents (22%).
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Figure 1 shows the frequency distribution of respondents’ prior knowledge and perception regarding Quizizz. For the first item, 34 respondents (68%) showed an interest in attending courses related to the use of the Quizizz application. Furthermore, for item 4, more than half of the respondents (68%) had followed a course on using Quizizz. For item 3, the majority of the respondents (94%) reckoned that they could access the Quizizz website easily. In conclusion, the respondents did not experience any issues using the Quizizz application.
The findings showed that Quizizz is a user friendly application. It also showed that the respondents had used this application in their teaching and learning process. Based on the findings, Malaysian mathematics teachers are proactive in filling in the shortcomings of online teaching by participating in courses to enhance their skills to implement the Quizizz application in mathematics teaching.
For the section on respondent attitudes towards Quizizz, the following scale was used: 1 strongly disagree, 2 disagree, 3 moderately agree, 4 agree, and 5 strongly agree (Table 4).
Table 4: Distribution of respondents’ answers to items regarding attitude towards Quizizz
Item no. Statement 1 2 3 4 5 Mean score
1 The ranking function (leader board) in Quizizz motivates students to learn mathematics.
2 Quizizz makes my students think faster.
3 My interaction with the students will be more effective when I use Quizizz while teaching.
4 I like to use Quizizz to give students an overview of the learning content.
5 Quizizz will help students understand the concept of mathematics more clearly.
0 0 12% 70% 18% 4.06
0 6% 16% 58% 20% 3.92
0 4% 16% 60% 20% 3.96
0 4% 28% 54% 14% 3.78
0 4% 20% 60% 16% 3.88
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6 Quizizz is suitable for every student, whether weak, average or brilliant. 0 0 12% 70% 18% 4.06
7 My teaching will be easier when I use Quizizz. 2% 4% 16% 62% 16% 3.86 Overall mean score 3.93
As seen in Table 4, all seven items exceeded the minimum mean score for a good mean (3.67; see Table 2), with the overall mean score for this section being 3.93. All items thus have a good mean and are interpreted as high/positive. For both the first and second last items, 70% of the respondents agreed, and 18% strongly agreed. They thus believed that the ranking function in Quizizz motivates students to learn mathematics, and that Quizizz is a tool that can support students of different proficiency levels, be it weak, average, or brilliant. These two items also showed the highest mean score (4.06). In addition, 80% of respondents thought that the interaction between teacher and students will be more effective when implementing Quizizz in teaching (item 3). Furthermore, the majority of respondents (78%) agreed that Quizizz makes learners think faster (item 2) Item 4 had the lowest mean (3.78) and measured whether respondents liked using Quizizz because it gave students an overview of the lesson. For this item, 28% of the respondents moderately agreed and 4% disagreed.
Items 1 and 6 reported the highest mean (4.06). It is very likely that the ranking function in Quizizz has successfully aroused students’ interests. This function displays all the students’ names and the ranking in the quiz. In order to achieve a higher rank on the leader board, students participate actively and become motivated during the online mathematics learning. In conclusion, the overall mean score shows that most of the respondents had a positive attitude towards the Quizizz application.
The last test that was carried out was the one way ANOVA to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference regarding respondents’ interest to use Quizizz based on their mathematics teaching experience (Table 5).
Table 5: One way ANOVA results
Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
Between groups .143 3 .048 .154 .927
Within groups 14.231 46 .309
Total 14.374 49
Before the one way ANOVA was conducted, Levene’s test was applied to check the assumption of homogeneity of variance. The results showed that F (3, 46) = .630, p = .599 > .05, which indicates the homogeneity of variance was not significant. The variance for the two groups was thus homogeneous. The one way ANOVA was carried out after this. According to Table 5, the value of F = .154, whereas the value of p = .927, with the value of p > .05. The statistical equation can be written as: F (3, 46) = .154, p > .05. The study results thus
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showed that there was no significant difference in respondents’ interest to apply Quizizz based on their mathematics teaching experience.
Almost all countries across the world have adopted online learning due to its continuity (Wahyono et al., 2020). Thus, the MoE Malaysia has provided various digital online in service trainings and webinars to improve the skills of mathematics teachers in implementing digital mathematics teaching better. Furthermore, other countries, such as Indonesia, are actively providing Quizizz webinars, which are accessible via YouTube, to assist teachers in conducting online lessons (Tarmini et al., 2020). Besides this, educators can access the relevant information related to the Quizizz application via other platforms as they have this information at their disposal
In this study, nearly 100% of respondents felt that they could easily access the Quizizz website. This finding is consistent with that of studies carried out by Sodiq et al. (2021) and Mohamad (2020), who found that the Quizizz application is instructor friendly and practical. This finding shows that most mathematics teachers would be willing to participate in courses on the use of Quizizz. The same findings were made in a study carried out by Md Saleh and Hajar (2019). Most of the mathematics teachers in their study had a positive attitude towards attending courses on the use of Quizizz. Learning is a lifelong process, and therefore educators must expand their knowledge. Therefore, mathematics teachers ought to be creative by exploring the numerous online applications that can serve as indispensable tools in helping them with their teaching process. Besides online quizzes, the Quizizz application is embedded with an instructor paced function which allows teachers to control the pace of their lesson to further explain questions to students.
Furthermore, the majority of the respondents showed positive attitudes towards Quizizz. Findings by Mohamad (2020), Amri and Shobri (2020), Sodiq et al. (2021), and Md Saleh and Hajar (2019) also showed that mathematics teachers supported the use of the Quizizz application as they believed that this platform helps to achieve student based learning. It is therefore suitable for implementation in the teaching and learning process. Moreover, many respondents agreed that the ranking function (leader board) in Quizizz motivates students to learn mathematics. Finally, the use of gamification, such as the Quizizz application, in education is believed to be a feasible method that can be used to increase students’ engagement and their motivation levels (Denny et al., 2018; Jia et al., 2016). Teachers should therefore be open minded to explore more exciting platforms to maximize the effectiveness of the mathematics teaching and learning process during online learning.
The results of this study also showed that there was no significant difference related to respondents’ interest to apply Quizizz and their experience in teaching mathematics. Hence, we can conclude that teaching experience does not influence the individual’s interest to implement the Quizizz application in the teaching and learning process. Permana and Permatawati (2020) stated that most
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students were positive towards the Quizizz application and felt that the application could increase their interest in learning. Therefore, to attract students and keep them motivated, all mathematics teachers should implement suitable applications during online lessons. This study proved that both experienced and novice mathematics teachers are fascinated by the Quizizz application as it serves as a great tool to engage pupils actively in the lesson.
The implementation of the Quizizz application in the online teaching and learning process has shown a positive impact. By implementing this application, teachers can motivate students to learn mathematics and help them understand mathematical concepts to create a dynamic online classroom atmosphere. Teachers in Malaysia should make an effort to integrate different online technologies and resources throughout the teaching and learning process so that pupils are not left behind during home based teaching and learning. This could be quite challenging for both experienced and novice teachers who are less skillful in online teaching. Nevertheless, the study results showed that most respondents had positive attitudes towards the Quizizz application and were willing to engage in learning new teaching methods.
This study has shown positive implications for mathematics teachers in using Quizizz in their teaching. Using the Quizizz application ensures the effectiveness of teaching and learning activities and increases students’ motivation to learn mathematics. This study revolved around the perceptions and interests of teachers in applying the Quizizz application. We therefore recommend that obstacles and constraints encountered by mathematics teachers in implementing the Quizizz application be further investigated Besides this, due to the small sample size used in this study, research should be conducted with a larger sample to allow the findings to be more broadly generalized.
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Perception of Mathematics Teacher’s in the Implementation of Quizziz Application during Virtual Learning
Dear teachers, This questionnaire aims to evaluate the effectiveness of using the Quizizz application among Mathematics teachers during virtual learning. Responses to this questionnaire will be kept strictly confidential. However, your participation in this survey will significantly contribute to the accomplishment of this research project and will be used only for academic purposes.
This questionnaire consists of four parts:
i. Part A: Demographics
ii. Part B: Prior Knowledge & Perception about Quizizz
iii. Part C: Interest to Apply Quizizz
iv. Part D: Attitudes towards Quizizz
Thanks in advance for your contribution, and your honest responses are much appreciated.
1. Gender: Male Female
2. Highest Qualification : Teaching Certificate Diploma in Education Bachelor’s Degree Master’s Degree Doctoral Degree
3. Mathematics teaching experience: Less than 5 Years 6 To 10 Years 11 To 15 Years Over 16 Years
Item Statement Yes No
Have you ever followed a course on using Quizizz?
I can access the Quizizz website easily. I can follow the instructions in the Quizizz website easily. Are you interested in attending courses on the use of Quizizz?
The scale used to refer to the following: 1 Strongly Disagree (SD), 2 Disagree (D), 3 Moderately Agree (MA), 4 Agree (A), and 5 Strongly Agree (SA)
Item Statement 1 2 3 4 5
The ranking function (leader board) in Quizizz motivates students to learn Mathematics. Quizizz makes my students think faster.
My interaction with the students will be more effective when I use Quizizz while teaching.
I like to use Quizizz to give students an overview of the learning content. Quizizz will help students understand the concept of Mathematics more clearly. Quizizz is suitable for every student, whether weak, average or brilliant.
My teaching will be easier when I use Quizizz.
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Item Statement 1 2 3 4 5
I will always use Quizizz in my class.
Quizizz will help in making my Mathematics teaching more current.
Quizizz will help me prepare teaching materials for Mathematics more easily.
Quizizz makes students more involved in Mathematics learning.
I feel that Quizizz supports me in providing effective Mathematics teaching.
Quizizz will help me prepare teaching materials for Mathematics more easily.
Quizizz is suitable as a tool for school based assessment.
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 150 167, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.9
Received Feb 11, 2022; Revised Apr 8, 2022; Accepted Apr 19, 2022
Abstract. Despite the burgeoning research evidence on the multifarious effects of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in academia, only limited empirical evidence can be retrieved from the Chinese context. The intent of this study conducted in a Chinese higher education provider was to probe into the effects of CLIL on English proficiency and learning motivation in the College English Teaching context. Characterised by a quasi experimental pretest posttest design, this study involved 60 undergraduates who were categorised into either the High Group, Medium Group or Low Group based on their English proficiency. Data were collected from standardised English language testsand a questionnaire on motivationfor Englishlearning. Quantitative analyses involving the running of t tests and ANOVA mainly indicated that: 1) CLIL had a generally positive effect on the participants’ English proficiency and motivation; 2) the participants from the three subgroups all made significant progress in English proficiency with the low achievers showing increased considerable improvement; 3) CLIL negligibly affected the learners’ positive attitude to language learning; 4) the higher achievers appeared to display stronger motivation towards English learning at the end of the study than those with a relatively lower level of English proficiency. It was concluded that CLIL has the potential to benefit language learners of different levels in both effective learning and affective learning, while a critical attitude should be held to the view that CLIL is the panacea for all with an appeal for more classroom based research to enrich the performance and affective evidence of CLIL.
Keywords: College English Teaching; Content and Language Integrated Learning; English proficiency; motivation
In China, English language education (ELE) has been regarded as significantly important ever since its legitimisation in the early twenty first century. Since this
* Corresponding author: HengzhiHu,p108937@siswa.ukm.edu.my
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
point, English as a foreign language (EFL) has been a compulsory subject for Chinese students involved in primary, secondary and higher education with a publicly shared view that the proficiency in English as a lingua franca is a personal and national asset that can facilitate globalisation and internationalisation at home. In the upsurge of interest in ELE, College English (CE) is a topic of unfading interest and everlasting importance to Chinese policymakers, scholars and researchers (Qi, 2021).
CE is an integral part of the Chinese higher education agenda and “a required basic (EFL) course for undergraduate students” whose main subjects are not pertinent to English studies (Li & Xiao, 2020, p. 1720). Further, the delivery of CE courses is known as College English Teaching (CET). In the new century, dynamic reforms have been madein CET with a national endeavour to optimise curriculum design and implementation. A shared feature of the latest CE policies, such as College English Curriculum Requirements (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2007) and Guidelines for College English Teaching (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2020), is that CE should be regarded as not only an English course designed for the well rounded development of language proficiency but also as a conduit for learners to acquire content knowledge and develop cross cultural understanding. This specific nature reflects the philosophy of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) characterised by a dual teaching task as one of its properties (Coyle et al., 2010) and provides top down support for the implementation of this pedagogical approach in CET.
Although considerable significance has been attached to CET, chances are that traditional English teaching still plays a dominant role in practice. Official reporting and domestic literature have revealed a failure to sufficiently provide students with proficiency in the English language (Qi, 2021; Wang & Xu, 2020), and both sources claim that Chinese university students’ English competencies are far from satisfactory. Despite this issue, the fact that a number of Chinese students who have learned English for years and are able to achieve excellent performance in English assessments are demotivated for language learning, a study from He (2018) leads to the re examination of the effects of CET pedagogies on emotions aimed at figuring out an approach to achieve both language learning and affective learning. Thus, given the political requirements and the issues faced by CE learners, the purpose of this study featured by pretest posttest quasi experimental designs is to examine the effects of CLIL on English proficiency and the motivation for language learning. This falls into the category of performance evidence and affective evidence identified by Coyle et al. (2010) for a CLIL research agenda, which refers to how students perform and how they feel in a CLIL programme respectively. This study is assumed to be significant and can bridge the gap that most previous and ongoing explorations of CLIL in China’s academic agenda face, given their limit that exists at the theoretical level (Hu, 2021a). This study also prioritises the discussion of whether this is an ideal pedagogical approach for ELE through some classroom based research that examines the multifarious effects of CLIL, thus yielding practical insight as to its implementation and popularisation.
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According to Marsh (2003, p. 15), CLIL “refers to any dual focused educational context in which an additional language, thus not usually the first language of the learners involved, is used as a medium in the teaching and learning of non language content”, and it is “dual focused because whereas attention may be predominantly on either subject specific content or language, both are always accommodated”. In other words, CLIL emphasises both language learning and content learning in a classroom, and this feature distinguishes it from other pedagogical instructions, such as English Medium Instruction that merely emphasises the learning of content knowledge through the medium of English and Content Based Instruction and treats language learning as the ultimate goal for achievement through the vehicle of content knowledge (Brown & Bradford, 2017). From this perspective, scholars explain that CLIL offers learners an opportunity to learn the content subjects through the target language (TL) and to learn and use the TL meaningfully and purposefully through the conduit of content knowledge (Hu, 2021a; Maasum et al., 2012; Suliman et al., 2018).
Language learning is an essential part of CLIL. Although it falls into the category of Communicative Language Teaching and is characterised by a heavy focus on language meaning, the teaching and learning of linguistic forms as an essential part of language education should also be achieved in CLIL. A focus on form approach tends to invite language learners and teachers to take linguistic forms (e.g., grammatical rules) into prime consideration, as opposed to a focus on meaning method that facilitates language acquisition by exposing learners into abundant and authentic TL input and output (Celik, 2019). Tensions can easily occur in this dichotomy, while CLIL offers a solution in that “it is not a question of whether to focus on meaning or form but rather that it is fundamental to address both, the balance of which will be determined by different variables in specific CLIL settings” (Coyle et al., 2010, p. 67). Otherwise stated, the broad language teaching objective in CLIL has a dual focus on both form and meaning, the combination of which could contribute to the development of a learner’s language proficiency. This assumption is embedded in the view that “form focused instruction is therefore generally considered most effective when embedded in communicative contexts and is thus clearly distinguished from decontextualized grammar lessons” (Lyster, 2006, p. 40). When language learning needs are thoughtfully planned and attended to by teachers, student TL proficiency could be improved, thus facilitating the comprehensive development of listening, speaking, reading and writing skills (Dalton Puffer & Smit, 2013).
Abundant research has proved the language benefits of combining language learning with content learning (e.g., Liu, 2019; Martyn, 2018; Suliman et al., 2020; Yunus & Sukri, 2017). However, although academia takes the positive effects of CLIL on language development for granted (Ostovar Namaghi & Nakhaee, 2019), previous research has also revealed that CLIL was unable to help achieve the language learning objectives as anticipated. For instance, Kamal’s (2020) latest study of a CLIL oriented university programme revealed EFL learners’ poor performance in language assessment and their sceptical attitudes to the effects of CLIL on language learning, a finding that aligns with Setiawan’s (2013) research
that shows the double challenge of dealing with content and language learning could fail to improve EFL learners’ language proficiency. Further, some studies have indicated the ‘selective’ benefits of CLIL, suggesting that CLIL only serves advanced learners. For example, both Mewald’s (2007) and Zydatiß’s (2012) studies have shown that academically weak learners were unable to make as much progress in language proficiency as their more advanced peers did and suggested that there should be a threshold for the admission of CLIL learners to ensure teaching efficiency. This contrasts with Hu’s (2021b) latest research finding that demonstrates if CLIL programmes are differentiated as per learners’ needs, significant academic progress can be seen across all proficiency levels. This contradiction of research findings necessitates the re examination of the effects of CLIL on language learning and learners of differing levels.
Despite the potential of CLIL to promote language proficiency, it is also considered to be engaging and motivational for language learners (Marsh, 2003). In the field of language learning, motivation is defined as a combination of motivational intensity (i.e., the efforts made to learn the TL), desire to learn the TL and a positive attitude towards the TL (Gardner, 1985). Although CLIL places heavy emphasis on the integration of content and language learning, affective learning pertinent to a learner’s positive attitudes is also a nonnegligible feature of it. According to Mehisto et al. (2008, p. 29), CLIL could create “a safe and enriching learning environment” wherein learners’ confidence could be built through “the experiment with content and language”. This has been confirmed in some empirical studies, such as the ones conducted by Martyn (2018) and Liu (2019), which have displayed learners’ positive feelings in and through perceptions of CLIL. However, motivation is still an under researched field in CLIL, despite it being one of the hottest topics in bilingual education (Lasagabster, 2020). In other words, despite the fact that most researchers and practitioners seem to have acquiescently agreed on the affective advantage of CLIL and on the interpretation that motivation enhancement is one of the cornerstones in CLIL embedded in the nature of the mutually beneficial integration of content and language “to ensure more learners are motivated to learn and use other languages in the future” (Coyle, 2013, p. 23), there is not yet sufficient empirical classroom based evidence to vindicate this view, resulting in a gap yet to be bridged.
Bearing this brief review in mind, and to meet the research objective, the authors of this paper wish to answer the following questions in the study:
• What effects will CLIL have on students’ English proficiency and motivation for English learning?
• At the end of the study, is there any statistical difference in English proficiency and motivation for English learning amongst the learners of different language levels?
To examine the effects of CLIL on English proficiency and motivation for English learning, quasi experimental designs characterised by the non random pre selection of participants and the organisation of pretest and posttest were
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employed to investigate the cause effect relationship between variables (Indhiarti & Sudarwati, 2021). This gave the researchers the power over the variables to control them and was considered appropriate for this study to determine whether CLIL could affect students’ English proficiency and motivation for language learning.
This study was conducted in a comprehensive higher education provider situated in a major Chinese city, wherein various CLIL programmes were provided for undergraduates. Based on the eligibility criteria that the participants’ main courses should not be pertinent to English studies and that they would not take any other English classes other than the ones provided in the studied programme, a sample of 60 students was recruited from the Faculty of Law with informed consent and put into a CLIL programme called CE with American Law. They were put intotwoclasses as per the university’s administrative policies but weretaught by the same teacher to ensure that they were instructed by the same methodology. The sample consisted of 37 females and 23 males who were in the third year of their undergraduate studies and the fifth semester of CE learning. They had passed College English Test Band 4 (CET 4), a national standardised English test, and had similar demographic information, such as age (an average of 21 years old) and years of English learning (approximately 8 to 12 years).
The first instrument used in the study was a mock College English Test Band 6 (CET 6), papers that were adapted from authentic test batteries (Wang, 2017). CET 6 is a national standardised test developed by China’s educational authorities to measure undergraduates’ English proficiency of listening, speaking reading and writing. The listening and reading sections were objective, while the writing and speaking sections were subjective and assessed based on certain rubrics. CET 6 is highly rated in academia for its assessment validity and reliability with regard to its authentic paper design, assessment structure and administration (Zhang et al., 2019). This means the score earned by a candidate could be a good representation of their English proficiency. Although using standardised tests to measure learners’ learning outcomes in CLIL has been criticised for its lack of validity due to the misgiving that taught material may not be covered in assessment, Coyle et al. (2010) assume that the answer to the ‘how to assess’ question is context dependent, giving practitioners the autonomy to use standardised tests in their own educational contexts and to justify their practice. Given that passing CET 6 is regarded as an important indicator of Chinese undergraduates’ academic success from a personal, institutional and societal perspective (Chen & Webb, 2017), the implementation of it in this study could be an effective way to not only measure students’ English ability but also offer referential implications. Prior to this research, a pilot study had been carried out, indicating that pretest and posttest papers were reliable and that the writing (K = 0.74, 0.71, respectively) and speaking (K = 0.77, 0.76, respectively) tests had acceptable inter rater reliability. In original CET 6, the written test weighs 710 marks with the listening, reading and writing tests occupying 35%, 35% and 30% of the total score respectively; the full mark for the speaking test is 15, which is
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calculated separately from the written test score. In this study, all the data were recorded and analysed as raw scores.
The other instrument was the Questionnaire on English Learning Motivation designed based on Gardner’s (1985) Attitude and Motivation Test Battery, including 30 items on a six point Likert scale ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ (scale point 1) to ‘strongly agree’ (scale point 6). Three constructs, namely motivational intensity (MI), desire to learn English (DTLE) and attitudes to English (ATE), were measured as per the definition of motivation for foreign languages. This questionnaire was originally prepared in English. To ensure the subjects could fully understand the items and thus respond to them properly, Chinese copies were prepared by three professional Chinese English translators who implemented the back to back translation technique (Pradeep, 2021). The pilot study suggested the translated Chinese questionnaire had an acceptable internal consistency for each construct (Cronbach alpha = 0.72, 0.71, 0.75, respectively) and the entire questionnaire (Cronbach alpha = 0.81).
The study lasted for nine weeks in an academic semester from March to May 2021. The administration of the pretests and posttests was done in regular class time. To ensure the assessment validity, reliability and fairness, the English proficiency tests were organised, invigilated and marked by professional staff at the research site in line with the CET 6 regulations. The administration of the questionnaire was carried out with the assistance of the CLIL teacher in this study. All the participants completed the pretests and posttests. The collected data were then organised and processed by Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 25.0, the results of which are recorded in the following tables with descriptive data and inferential data. Inferential data analyses were a principal part of this study, and t tests and ANOVA were run to answer the research questions.
As shown in Table 1 and Table 2, a two tailed, paired samples t test with an alpha level of .05 was firstly run to compare the pretest (M = 456.80, SD = 39.16) and posttest (M = 471.17, SD = 39.72) scores of 60 individuals. On the whole, the participants’ average posttest score of English proficiency was 14.37 higher than the pretest score. The difference was statistically different, t(59) = 8.04, p < .001, d = .36. The same analysis was also carried out to examine each section of the English tests, demonstrating that the participants significantly improved their proficiency in English listening (p = .001), reading (p < .001), writing (p < .001) and speaking (p < .001) after the treatment of CLIL.
Table 1: Paired samples statistics of total group’s English proficiency tests
Mean Std. Deviation
Total Score Pretest 456.803 39.164 Posttest 471.168 39.724
Listening Pretest 155.295 19.740 Posttest 160.633 18.280
Reading Pretest 151.783 20.764
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Posttest 155.975 21.126
Writing Pretest 141.217 19.637 Posttest 145.693 17.380
Speaking Pretest 8.508 1.508 Posttest 8.867 1.359
Table 2: Paired samples test of total group’s English proficiency tests Mean (Pretest Posttest) Std. Deviation t Sig. (2 tailed)
Total Score 14.365 13.836 8.042 .000 Listening 5.338 11.432 3.617 .001 Reading 4.192 4.425 7.338 .000 Writing 4.477 6.689 5.184 .000 Speaking 0.358 0.402 6.901 .000
To further examine the effects of CLIL on students of different language levels, the participants were divided into three groups based on their pretest English proficiency scores, namely High Group (H Group) with a higher English proficiency and achieved the top 30% pretest scores (N = 18); Low Group (L Group) with a lower English proficiency and whose English pretest scores were within the bottom 30% of the total group’s (N = 18); and Medium Group (M Group) consisting of the rest of the participants who had an average English proficiency (N = 24). A one way ANOVA (see Table 3) was run, indicating the average pretest scores of the three subgroups were statistically different (p < .001). Post hoc analyses with Tukey’s HSD use of an α of .05 (see Table 4) further confirmed the significant statistical difference of pretest scores amongst the subgroups (p < .001) and demonstrated that students had significantly different levels of English proficiency prior to the study.
Table 3: ANOVA of subgroups’ average pretest scores
Sum of Squares Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 73925.625 36962.812 127.157 .000 Within Groups 16596.175 290.687 Between Groups 90494.799
Table 4: Multiple comparisons of subgroups’ average pretest scores
Turkey HSD (I) Group (J) Group Mean Difference (I J) Std. Error Sig. L M 47.613 5.316 .000 H 90.583 5.683 .000 M L 47.613 5.316 .000 H 42.971 5.316 .000
Each group’s pretest and posttest average scores were analysed by a paired samples t test. The descriptive data in Table 5 and the inferential data in Table 6 indicated that all the three subgroups improved their English proficiency after the intervention. Specifically, the L Group’s posttest score (M = 431.94, SD = 34.69) was 21.36 points higher than the pretest score (M = 410.58, SD = 20.40), and the difference was statistically significant, t(17) = 4.59, p < .001, d = .78. Similarly, the M Group’s posttest score (M = 468.60, SD = 10.37) was 10.41 points higher than
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the pretest score (M = 458.20, SD = 9.50), with a significant statistical difference, t(23) = 5.35, p < .001, d = 1.05. Likewise, the H Group’s posttest score (M = 513 81, SD = 23.75) was 12.64 points higher than the pretest score (M = 501.17, SD = 20.89). The difference was also statistically significant, t(17) = 6.19, p < .001, d = .57.
Figure 1 demonstrated the proficiency gains of the subgroups and illustrated that they all made progress in the studied programme. However, it should be noted that the L Group made more noticeable progress than the other groups, suggesting that the effects of CLIL could show increased effects for low achievers.
Table 5: Paired sample statistics of subgroups’ English proficiency tests
Group Mean Std. Deviation
L Pretest 410.583 20.401 Posttest 431.944 34.687 M Pretest 458.196 9.497 Posttest 468.604 10.372 H Pretest 501.167 20.891 Posttest 513.811 23.749
Table 6: Paired samples test of subgroups’ English proficiency tests
Group Mean (Pretest Posttest) Std. Deviation t Sig. (2 tailed) L 21.361 19.726 4.594 .000 M 10.408 9.539 5.346 .000 H 12.644 8.667 6.189 .000
500
480
460
440
420
400
520 Pretest Posttest L-Group M-Group H-Group
To further explore the effects of CLIL on the subgroups’ English proficiency, a Welch’s ANOVA (see Table 7) was run to analyse the average posttest scores under the conditions that the normality assumption was not violated but the homogeneity assumption was violated. It indicated that there were significant differences in the subgroups’ posttest English proficiency scores (p < .001). Then, post hoc tests (see Table 8) were run to further explore the differences amongst the subgroups with Games Howell (using an α of .05), and results indicated that there was a significant difference between the L Group with the M group (p =
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.001) and the H Group (p < .001), and between the M group with the H Group (p < .001). This illustrated that, by the end of the study, the H Group still had the highest English proficiency, and that the L Group had the lowest language proficiency.
Table 7: Welch’s ANOVA of subgroups’ average posttest scores
Statistic df1 df2 Sig. Welch 40.182 2 26.792 .000
Table 8: Multiple comparisons of subgroups’ English proficiency posttest (I) Group (J) Group Mean Difference (I J) Std. Error Sig.
Games Howell L M 36.660 8.446 .001 H 81.867 9.909 .000 M L 36.660 8.446 .001 H 45.207 5.985 .000
Firstly, a paired samples t test was run to compare the whole group’s questionnaire data collected before and after this study. Regarding the participants’ MI, as shown in Table 9 and Table 10, the average posttest score (M = 29.42, SD = 3.26) was 2.2 points higher than the pretest score (M = 27.22, SD = 2.79). The difference was statistically significant, t(59) = 3.90, p < .001, d = .73. Similarly, there was statistically significant difference in DTLE between the posttest (M = 27.32, SD = 4.01) and the pretest (M = 25.5, SD = 3.63), t(59) = -2.48, p = .016, d = .48. The descriptive data illustrated that the posttest score of ATE (M = 35.63, SD = 5.31) was higher than the pretest scores (M = 34.58, SD = 6.52), whereas inferential statistics did not demonstrate a significant difference of this construct, t(59) = 1.48, p = .144, d = .18. Generally, the data indicated that the participants had higher motivation score in the posttest (M = 92.37, SD = 9.81) than in the pretest (M = 87.3, SD = 8.20), t(59) = 3.95, p < .001, d = .56.
Table 9: Paired samples statistics of total group’s motivation tests
Mean Std. Deviation
MI Pretest 27.22 2.793 Posttest 29.42 3.264
DTLE Pretest 25.50 3.629 Posttest 27.32 4.006
ATE Pretest 34.58 6.523 Posttest 35.63 5.314 Total Score Pretest 87.30 8.199 Posttest 92.37 9.813
Table 10: Paired samples test of total group’s motivation tests
Mean (Pretest Posttest) Std. Deviation t Sig (2 tailed)
MI 2.2 4.376 3.895 .000 DTLE 1.817 5.682 2.476 .016
ATE 1.05 5.491 1.481 .144
Total Score 5.067 9.937 3.95 .000
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A paired samples t test was also done separately for each subgroup to explore the level of changes in motivation towards English learning. Table 11 and Table 12 presented the descriptive statistics and the inferential statistics respectively.
For the L Group, the test revealed that the participants had a more positive ATE with their posttest score (M = 32.61, SD = 5.22), a result that was higher than the pretest one (M = 29.11, SD = 5.37). The difference was statistically significant, t(17) = 2.56, p = .02, d = .44. However, their MI decreased as the posttest score (M = 26.33, SD = 2.91) was significantly lower than the pretest one (M = 28.72, SD = 2.11), t(17) = 2.84, p = .011, d = .95. Likewise, the average score of DTLE in the posttest (M = 23.39, SD = 2.48) was lower than that in the pretest (M = 26.44, SD = 4.26), t(17) = 2.90, p = .01, d = .91 Regarding their overall motivation for English learning, however, there was no significant statistical difference between the pretest (M = 84.28, SD = 9.43) and posttest (M = 82.33, SD = 5.86), t(17) = .84, p = .41, d = .26.
The M Group had a higher level of MI after the intervention with their posttest score (M = 29.92, SD = 2.02) higher than the pretest one (M = 26.75, SD = 2.80), t(23) = 6.26, p < .001, d = 1.31. In contrast, no statistical difference could be found between the pretest and posttest scores of DTLE (p = 23) and ATE (p = 87). However, the group generally displayed a stronger motivation towards English learning after the treatment of CLIL, as the posttest score (M = 91.63, SD = 6.04) was significantly higher than the pretest one (M = 87.92, SD = 8.51), t(23) = 2.44, p = .023, d = .51.
For the H Group, there was a significant difference between the pretest and posttest scores of MI (p < .001) and DTLE (p < .001). Although the posttest score of ATE (M = 39.50, SD = 2.28) was higher than the pretest one (M = 39.22, SD = 2.76), no statistical difference was found, t(17) = .45, p = .66, d = .11. On the whole, in relation to motivation, there was a significant statistical difference between their posttest score (M = 103.59, SD = 3.82) and the pretest score (M = 89.50, SD = 5.59), t(17) = 9.90, p < .001, d = 1.50.
Table 11: Paired samples statistics of subgroups’ motivation tests
Mean Std. Deviation
L Group MI Pretest 28.72 2.109 Posttest 26.33 2.910
DTLE Pretest 26.44 4.260 Posttest 23.39 2.477 ATE Pretest 29.11 5.368 Posttest 32.61 5.215
Total Score Pretest 84.28 9.430 Posttest 82.33 5.861
M Group MI Pretest 26.75 2.801 Posttest 29.92 2.020
DTLE Pretest 25.96 3.432 Posttest 26.71 1.967 ATE Pretest 35.21 6.447
Posttest 35.00 5.405
Total Score Pretest 87.92 8.505 Posttest 91.63 6.035
H Group MI Pretest 26.33 2.910 Posttest 31.83 2.526
DTLE Pretest 23.94 2.796 Posttest 32.06 1.924 ATE Pretest 39.22 2.756 Posttest 39.50 2.282
Total Score Pretest 89.50 5.586 Posttest 103.39 3.822
Mean (Pretest Posttest) Std. Deviation t Sig. (2 tailed)
L Group MI 2.389 3.567 2.842 .011 DTLE 3.056 4.478 2.895 .01 ATE 3.500 5.803 2.559 .02 Total Score 1.944 9.771 .844 .41
M Group MI 3.167 2.479 6.258 .000 DTLE .750 2.982 1.232 .23 ATE .208 6.366 .160 .874 Total Score 3.708 7.434 2.444 .023 H Group MI 5.500 3.204 7.283 .000 DTLE 8.111 3.359 10.246 .000 ATE .278 2.630 .448 .66 Total Score 13.889 5.950 9.904 .000
To further examine the effects of CLIL on students of different English proficiency levels, a one way ANOVA (see Table 13) was run to analyse their general levels of motivation for learning It indicated that there was not any significant statistical difference between the subgroups’ average scores regarding motivation in the pretest, F (2, 57) = 2.01, p = .144, η2 = .07. However, Table 14 indicated that the three subgroups had rather different levels of motivation at the end of the study, F (2, 57) = 68.47, p < .001, η2 = .71. Post hoc analyses with Tukey’s HSD (see Table 15) further showed that the L Group had a lower level of motivation than the M Group (p < .001) and H Group (p < .001) and that the M Group had less motivation than the H Group (p < .001). In other words, at the end of the study, the L Group was the least motivated in contrast to the H Group that was the most motivated, and the M Group scored the middle. This meant the subgroups’ general level of motivation for English learning was influenced differently by CLIL.
Table 13: One way ANOVA of subgroups’ motivation pretest Sum of Squares F Sig. Total Score Between Groups 260.656 2.005 .144 Within Groups 3705.944 Total 3966.600
Table 14: One way ANOVA of subgroups’ motivation posttest Sum of Squares F Sig. Total Score Between Groups 4012.031 68.473 .000 Within Groups 1669.903 Total 5681.933
Table 15: Multiple comparisons of subgroups’ motivation posttest Turkey HSD
Dependent Variable (I) Group (J) Group Mean Difference (I J) Std. Error Sig. Total Score L M 9.292 1.688 .000 H 21.056 1.804 .000 M L 9.292 1.688 .000 H 11.764 1.688 .000
Given the above data analyses, the first major finding is that CLIL had a positive effect on the participants’ general English proficiency and that their macro language skills all improved. This result corresponds to the data generated from previous research that CLIL is able to promote well rounded ELE and language development (Goris et al., 2019; Ostovar Namaghi & Nakhaee, 2019), as well as to the theoretical assumptions that CLIL could attend to language learners’ needs of developing receptive and productive skills (Mehisto et al., 2008). Also, the result of this study rejects some contradictory voices which have arisen from empirical studies that CLIL “does not even demonstrate convincingly the foreign language benefits” (Bruton, 2013, p. 587). However, it must be acknowledged that no matter how carefully and sensitively the lessons are planned, the implementation of CLIL may not always provide the results expected in terms of language gains or necessarily guarantee that learners’ language proficiency across all the skills can improve (Pižorn, 2017). Instead, a critical view should be held to the efficiency of CLIL, and it is not a panacea for all language learners or educational contexts. However, this study has at least reinforced the potential of CLIL in language learning and offered some, although few, educational implications for the application of CLIL in CET
The participants with differing levels of language proficiency all benefited from CLIL and improved their English proficiency, though at the end of the intervention there was still a gap between the relatively advanced learners and the lower achievers. This is contradictory to the critical voice that CLIL only attracts and benefits high achieving learners (Goris et al., 2019). Meanwhile, the research finding that academically weak learners actually made more remarkable progress in learning than their more advanced peers further confirm the very rare assumption that weaker English learners could benefit more from CLIL than their advanced peers (Blasco, 2014). Elitism in CLIL tends to be a vital issue in current academia and is characterised by the long standing debate about whether CLIL should be selective. Both Bruton (2011) and Paran (2013) assume that the potential of CLIL can be only explored in elitist educational contexts when implemented selectively with overachievers and that the criterion based selection of students is the prerequisite for the success of CLIL. Indeed, such a selective implementation
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of CLIL still frequently occurs in practice, and it has attracted a number of highly motivated and advanced learners (Goris, 2019; Kamis et al., 2021), with empirical research findings rationalising and necessitating this phenomenon. For example, by analysing the reasons for students to drop out of CLIL programmes, Zydatiß (2012) suggests that there should be a threshold of academic competence for CLIL admission, below which learners may easily find difficulty with their learning. However, the positive finding is that the less advanced learners also made academic progress in this research, a result that aligns with the results yielded in a few but not many classroom based studies (Dewi & Sudarmaji, 2020; Hu, 2021b; Karabassova, 2019). This illuminates the potential of CLIL to benefit a range of learners other than overachievers as well as foregrounding the need to re examine the “commonly harboured beliefs vis à vis the elitism of” CLIL (Cañado, 2019, p. 1).
Another finding of this study is that CLIL had a productive effect on the participants’ motivation for English learning, especially on MI and DTLE. This corresponds to previous findings that CLIL could considerably strengthen learners’ motivation for language learning and create an engaging learning environment (Young, 2018). However, it should be noted the participants who had relatively advanced English proficiency benefited more from CLIL than those with low English proficiency with respect to motivation enhancement. Specifically, the L Group learners held a more positive ATE at the end of this study but had decreased MI and DELE as well as an unchanged level of motivation in general. Although the M-Group learners generally had stronger motivation, their DTLE and ATE did not change. In contrast, the students involved in the H Group benefitted more from CLIL with an increased level of motivation. In this sense, it could be said that the affective benefits of CLIL were not equal for all. This finding contradicts other research that showed low achievers could emotionally benefit more from CLIL (McDougald, 2015; Jäkel, 2015) and challenges the assumption that the motivational effect of CLIL works for all learners (Hamidavi et al., 2016). Instead, it is consistent with the finding reported by Yang (2015) that although CLIL students who had relatively low English proficiency did not fall behind in their academic performance, they did feel more discouraged and less motivated than their more advanced peers. It is also interesting to note that the participants’ ATE did not change after the study, suggesting that CLIL had little effect on enhancing learners’ positive views of English learning. This finding challenges the widely accepted view and evidence that CLIL learners could have more favourable attitudes to either learning in general or language learning in particular (Marsh, 2003; Urgal, 2019). CLIL scholars and practitioners seem to have agreed on the emotional benefits of CLIL and have always taken them for granted. However, the findings reported in this paper bring to light the very rare assumption that language learners’ self confidence and learning attitude in CLIL may be negatively affected (Coyle et al., 2010), necessitating a critical review of the effects of CLIL and the re examination of the CLIL panacea in further research.
To a large extent, the aforementioned successful results both in language learning and affective learning stem from the nature of CLIL and the fact that it offers not
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only increased exposure to the TL but also a high quality solution. The natural use of language in CLIL could augment a learner’s motivation. When they are interested in the topic of the CLIL class, they will be encouraged to acquire the TL to communicate. This makes CLIL methodology different from traditional language lessons in the manner that students “learn to use language and use language to learn” by replicating “the conditions to which infants are exposed when learning their first language” (Mehisto et al., 2008, p. 26). In this regard, the focus on content learning rationalises the aim for language learning and use and creates a safe and participatory learning environment wherein learners’ motivation is greatly increased. In return, stronger motivation contributes to language learning (Liu, 2019), and a link can most likely be drawn between the participants’ higher level of English proficiency and motivation, especially in the greater MI shown after the intervention. Theoretically, these benefits are achieved, because CLIL “provides a cognitively challenging situation which is associated with a meaningful use of the foreign language and an improved sense of achievement”, “promote(s) fruitful discussions on pedagogical issues and practices” and “provides teachers and students with a sense of ownership of their teaching practice and the learning process” (Lasagabster, 2020, p. 348).
A possible explanation to the finding that learners having relatively lower English proficiency did not enhance their motivation as anticipated could be that the cognitive and linguistic challenge of learning EFL through the content subject might frustrate or demotivate CLIL learners. However, little information has indicated the intimate relationship between cognition and affectivity, and thus further research is needed. A more convincing explanation could be that language learners may easily feel disappointed when they realise their new language competencies do not match the time and efforts invested into learning (Mattheoudakis, 2019), which aligns relatively well with Lasagabster’s (2020) research findings that show when CLIL learners are unable to manage linguistic demands, demotivation spontaneously occurs. Therefore, the way in which CLIL teachers encourage and motivate low achievers or those that lag behind is a closely related issue here that requires further investigation.
The first limitation of this study was about the positivist nature of this research, which has only answered the ‘what’ and ‘how much’ questions related to the effects of CLIL but has not explored the phenomenon of interest from the perspective of interpretivism. This, to a large degree, falls into the research gap that most CLIL studies tend to focus on a few aspects of evidence (e.g., performance evidence, affective evidence, learning process evidence, materials and task evidence) and thus presents a narrow picture of CLIL programmes (Hu, 2021a). Hence, mixed methods designs are more appropriate to examine and understand the effects of CLIL and should be utilised in further studies. Besides, a non probability sampling technique was used, preventing the researchers from generalising the research findings to a larger population. Meanwhile, the sample size might not be large enough to detect more important differences with probability or generate more profound findings representative of a broader population, though the ‘n ≥ 30 rule of thumb’ was observed (Indhiarti &
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Sudarwati, 2021). Therefore, future quantitative research involving more participants is desirable to percolate further understanding of the effects of CLIL on learning.
Since the introduction of CLIL into language education, many studies have been carried out to examine its effects from different perspectives. The present study that explores some of the performance and affective evidence in the case of a CLIL programme provided in a Chinese university has unlocked the potential of this pedagogical approach, and, though small, is an attempt to enrich the CLIL academia in China. The myth that CLIL should be selective and only accessible to advanced students is dispelled, at least based on the findings that the participants of different language proficiency levels made learning progress in the same classroom. However, the view that CLIL is a panacea for all should be re examined, as it has been indicated that academically weaker learners in this research were motivated at a lower level than expected. To respond to the question whether CLIL can kill two birds with just one stone in CET that is to say, if CLIL can improve Chinese EFL learners’ language proficiency and motivation simultaneously a critical view should be assumed. In this study, the win win situation was true for proficient language learners but was not the case for those who were less academically competent. However, empirical research examining the effects of CLIL is required in any case, as it can provide vigorous evidence to support CLIL as the reason, or one of the reasons, for the gains language learners make in the learning process
The authors received support from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) with research grant codes GG 2019 011 and GGPM 2019 012 and from the Research Centre of Teaching and Learning Innovation, Faculty of Education, UKM.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 168 185, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.10
Received Feb 21, 2022; Revised Apr 8, 2022; Accepted Apr 25, 2022
Abstract. The global demand for work and skills has to be attuned to the emerging technologies ushered in by Industry 4.0. For a decade now, several teacher education institutions (TEIs) in the Philippines have implemented the Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education (BTTE) program and have produced many graduates. Hence, it is interesting to explore the whereabouts of these graduates to provide relevant baseline data on the BTTE program's success in general but specifically on its responsiveness to the needs of the learning institutions and to the industries for which it caters. Through descriptive correlational design, the study generally examined the correlates of the employability of the 164 BTTE graduates from a public university for the academic years (AYs) 2015 2019. Results revealed that the graduates were employable within 18 months after graduation in teaching or non teaching jobs. Moreover, some personal, family, and academic profile variables significantly correlated with their employability. Interestingly, their employability is also associated with their Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET) ratings. Higher ratings yielded a shorter waiting time for employment after graduation. Results are valuable inputs for policy and curricular enhancement for the BTTE program.
Keywords: Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education (BTTE), college general weighted average (GWA), employability, LET performance
The global market in the present time requires a workforce that is capable of demonstrating competence essential in ensuring convenience, comfort, and safety in daily life (Sadiku, 2017). In the realization of this demand, graduates of higher education institutions (HEIs) are expected to acquire relevant soft and hard skills (Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development [OECD], 2018). Since HEIs worldwide have a significant role in producing quality human
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
resources, they have the responsibility to align their academic programs with the employment demands of world market as emphasized by Industry 4.0. In doing so, they become vital instruments in developing human skills needed for economic, social and technological transformations of the 21st century (Himmetoglu, 2020). Hence, the quality of their curricular programs manifests in the employability of their graduates. Simply put, employability is the realization of the intended graduate outcomes in response to the emerging global landscapes (Smith et al., 2018).
In the Philippines, several quality assurance measures use the employability of graduates as an essential parameter of appraising quality in areas such as curriculum and instruction and institutional outcomes (Tiongco & Conchada, 2015). Consequently, accrediting agencies for public and private HEIs have adopted employability as an essential area in their accreditation instruments. Furthermore, in the case of state universities and colleges (SUCs), employability of graduates is a significant criterion for the SUC leveling evaluation of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) as well as in the granting of the Performance based Bonus (PBB), an incentive given to government agencies on realizing their targets and deliverables.
In the 21st century context, the Philippine teacher education institutions (TEIs) have focused on equipping future teachers with the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes in the emerging educational landscape and industries. Furthermore, these competencies are geared towards productivity, social responsibility, and nation building (Rojas & Rojas, 2016). With these demands, several curricular programs were instituted to respond to the qualification requirements for teachers. Therefore the BTTE was conceived to provide adequate technical and teaching preparation of future teachers in the technical vocational education and training (TVET) and prospective practitioners in various industries, i.e., food service management, electronics technology, and fashion design (Commission on Higher Education, 2007). Considering this framework, TEIs have offered BTTE as an alternative program for future teachers to boost their local and international employability.
Several TEIs in the Philippines have successfully implemented the BTTE program and have produced many graduates for a decade now. As such, exploring the whereabouts of these graduates may provide relevant baseline data on the program's success in general but specifically on its responsiveness to the needs of the learning institutions and to the industries for which they cater. Boholano (2012) confirmed the need for TEIs to have informed knowledge of the present industry innovations and practices as well as evidence-based awareness of the structures and functions of various workplaces among their graduates
In the light of this requirement, previous researchers have examined employability skills (Cornillez et al., 2021; Posadas et al., 2021), characteristics of employment (Oboza, 2017; Ulanday, 2021), and employment status (Almejas et al., 2017; Rojas & Rojas, 2016). However, none of them has examined the correlates of employability, particularly among BTTE graduates. Boholano
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(2012) noted that employability in teaching is complex and dependent on different factors such as educational qualification and academic performance, including communication, technological, and demonstration skills. In this regard, exploring the correlates of employability among graduates of TEIs is crucial, especially in identifying relevant and effective instructional interventions and curricular enhancements that may ensure graduates’ gainful employment (Orbeta et al., 2016)
In a local context, the Cagayan State University Andrews Campus is one of the few SUCs offering BTTE in the Northern Philippines. As a public HEI, it must respond appropriately to regional and national market demands, including the issues of job mismatch, unemployment, and the like. However, nothing has been reported on BTTE graduates' employability. Hence, this study was conceived to provide baseline data for curriculum enhancement and programmatic actions of TEIs. Given the preceding contexts, this paper generally examined the correlates of employability among BTTE graduates for the academic years 2015 2019. Specifically, it investigated the following: (a) the personal, family, and academic profiles of the graduates at the time of graduation; (b) the licensure examination performance of the graduates; (c) the employability of the graduates after graduation; and (d) the correlation between the employability of graduates and their profile variables and licensure examination performance.
Several graduate tracer studies have recently examined the employability of teacher education graduates, especially among SUCs. For instance, in Pangasinan State University, Navida (2017) it was found that most graduates were employed, and more than half were absorbed in private schools. Motivated mainly by salaries and benefits, most graduates landed their first jobs from one to six months after graduation. Similarly, Bansiong et al. (2020) revealed that most teacher education graduates of Benguet State University were employed as classroom teachers a year after graduation, mostly in private schools. Furthermore, Ulanday (2021) shared some interesting findings of the 108 Cavite State University teacher education graduates from 2013 to 2016. The majority of the graduates were first employed locally from two to five months after graduation. Most of them were successful in finding work in public schools. Of these a more significant proportion had more than one year of experience.
Other researchers have also focused on other aspects of employability. For example, in a local setting, Cornillez et al. (2021) considered the relevant skills that contributed to the employment of the 179 teacher education graduates of Eastern Visayas State University. Findings showed that effective communication, good human relations, and positive self assurance are the workplace's most sought after competencies and values. On the other hand, Boholano (2012) explored the top priorities in the workplace for teacher graduates of Cebu Normal University. The results indicated that work interest, high salary, and professional growth are the primary considerations of graduates in their search for employment.
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Based on extant literature, only a few among the HEIs offering the BTTE program had investigated the employability of their graduates. However, in the context of the Mindoro State College of Agriculture and Technology in Calapan City Campus, 100 of the graduates from AY 2008 to 2013 were successfully traced regarding their present employment (Chavez & Abaca, 2016). The study showed that six out of ten graduates were employed as professional teachers while others were employed in technical work. As to the employment status, more than half of these graduates were permanent while the rest were contractual, probationary, or self employed. Interestingly, most of them found their first job less than a year after graduation.
In another academic setting, Albanador et al. (2018) traced the 195 BTTE graduates of Bulacan State University who majored in Food Service Management (FSM) from AY 2015 to 2018. Most of the graduates were employed as classroom teachers. However, a few of them landed jobs as sales representatives, survey enumerators, food industry office administrators, and food service crew at strategic locations in Bulacan and Metro Manila. Notably, among the skills acquired, the graduates perceived problem solving as the competency most relevant to their occupations. The study concluded that the BTTE graduates were competent relative to the CHED competencies for the BTTE program with a major in FSM.
Previous studies have investigated the influence of personal profile on employability. For instance, women had a longer unemployment exit duration than men (Lim, 2019). However, Salas Velasco (2007) revealed that males have a shorter waiting time to obtain their first employment than females. Also, Alzeer (2017) found that male respondents were three times more likely to have a job in education than in the health care industry. Although conflicting, these findings confirm that gender is a significant variable related to employability. In terms of age and birth order, older graduates are claimed to be employable at a shorter waiting time (Ali, 2016), while middle-born children are more fulfilled in their careers (Salmon & Schumann, 2011). In a Philippine setting, Posadas et al. (2021) have found that gender, civil status, year graduated, and eligibility significantly correlated to the employment of teacher education graduates. Graduates who were female and single with professional licenses were more employable than their counterparts.
Furthermore, the family profile has a bearing on employability. Hundley's (2006) analysis showed that family background has an impact on one's propensity for self employment. Individuals with self employed fathers and higher parental incomes also tend to be self employed. Using another lens, Berloffa et al. (2017) affirmed that mothers' occupations have significant implications for their children's employment prospects in a European context. Considering mothers' employment leads to a better job for their children. Moreover, highly educated parents see their time spent with their children as an investment opportunity to develop human capital (Guryan et al., 2008). As a result, they tend to take an interest in their children's education, which is a crucial element in educational
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successes (Cabrera et al., 2018) that include graduating from high school, pursuing higher education, and looking for lucrative employment (Clearing House for Military Family Readiness, 2020). In contrast, Lindstrom et al. (2007) stated that family structure is not directly linked to employment outcomes.
Remarkably, some academic profile variables have been associated with employability (El Temtamy et al., 2016). In the study of Sulastri et al. (2015), graduates with a higher grade point average (GPA) showed higher levels of success in finding a psychology based job. Cole et al. (2007) claimed that employers consider a higher GPA to predict applicants' future job performance, reflecting better cognitive abilities and personality traits El Temtamy et al. (2016) found that the GPA at the time of graduation was also expected to have a positive relationship with employability. Moreover, extra curricular activities contributed to ensuring employability (Peng, 2019; Jackson & Bridgstock, 2021). Another study revealed that technical knowledge acquired from school is one of the essential factors affecting employability, as claimed by industry experts (Sehgal, 2018). However, De Guzman and De Castro (2008) asserted that an impressive employability profile is brought about not by the academic honors of the graduates but by the relevant knowledge, skills, and attitudes exhibited in the workplace.
Finally, a professional license is also associated with employability. For example, Tutor et al. (2021) revealed that graduates in courses without professional license requirements were employed five months after graduation, while those with professional license requirements landed jobs at least 11 months after graduation. This finding accounted for the mismatch of occupations obtained by graduates without professional license requirements such as contact centers, retail and sales, and other service works and jobs.
Based on the variables elucidated in the preceding literature review, the study was guided by the following conceptual framework (Figure 1): First, the paradigm shows the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The independent variables include the profile (personal, family, and academic) and LET performance of the graduates. The personal profile constitutes the gender, age, civil status, birth order, and religion of the graduates. Moreover, the family profile is composed of the graduates' family structure, parents’ marital status, educational attainment, occupation, and the family’s monthly electricity bill as a proxy metric for economic status. The academic profile includes the graduates' field of specialization, the academic awards received, college GWA, and leadership positions in school organizations
Furthermore, LET performance refers to the rate at which the graduates have mastered the knowledge, theories, and concepts in general education, professional education, and majorships On the other hand, the dependent variable is graduates' employability, which is measured by the waiting time to land the first job after graduation.
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A descriptive correlation design was employed in the study as it ascertained the correlates of graduates’ employability after graduation. Utilizing this design allows the description of two or more variables and the examination of their relationship instead of their cause and effect (Williams, 2007). The respondents were the 164 BTTE graduates of Cagayan State University for AY 2015 2019 who were successfully traced in the study. The distribution of respondents is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Distribution of the respondents by school year graduated Year of Graduation Frequency Percent (%) 2015 39 23.8 2016 26 15.9 2017 32 19.5 2018 23 14.0 2019 44 26.8
Total 164 100
A questionnaire (in Google Form) was utilized in determining the respondents' personal, family, and academic profiles, including their self-reported employment. This tool was subjected to face and content validation by three experts prior to its utilization. The academic and LET performances were obtained from the respondents as they provided a picture or a scanned copy of their official transcript of records (OTR) and LET ratings
The questionnaire was administered after securing permission from the university authorities. Since the study was conducted during the COVID 19 pandemic, the Facebook Messenger Group Chat was useful in tracing the target respondents. The data gathering lasted six (6) months, from March 2021 to August 2021. The respondents' consent was obtained through the free and prior informed consent (FPIC) form attached to the questionnaire. The FPIC also
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enabled the researchers to obtain a picture or a scanned copy of the graduates’ OTR and LET ratings The data gathered were tabulated, analyzed, and interpreted in relation to the research objectives.
The personal, family, and academic profiles, including the respondents' LET performance and employability, were analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequency, percent, mean, median, and standard deviation). Furthermore, the mean was used to compute the waiting time to land a first job as a measure of employability. Pearson r and chi square were employed in examining the correlates of the graduates’ employability. All hypotheses were tested at a 0.05 level of significance.
Table 2: Personal profile of the graduates at the time of graduation
Variables Categories Frequency (n= 164) Percent
Gender
Age
Male 62 37.8 Female 102 62.2
20 years 18 11.0 21 years 26 15.9 22 years 24 14.6 23 years 44 26.8 24 years 20 12.2 25 years 14 8.5 26 years & above 18 11.0
Mean= 22.9 years; S D. = 2.0; Median= 23 years
Civil status
Birth order
Single 148 90.2 Legally married 16 9.8
First born 46 28.0 Middle born 62 37.8 Last born 56 34.1
Religion Roman Catholic 120 73.2 Non Roman Catholic 44 26.8
Table 2 shows that the majority of the respondents are female (62.2%) and have a mean age of 23 years. Moreover, most of them are single (90.2%) and middle born (37.8%). Interestingly, a more significant proportion of the respondents belong to the Roman Catholic Church (73.2%).
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Table 3: Family profile of the graduates at the time of graduation Variables Categories Frequency (n= 164) Percent
Family structure
Nuclear 120 73.2 Extended 30 18.3 Single parent 14 8.5
Parents’ marital status Living together 120 73.2 Widowed 12 7.3 Separated 32 19.5
None 10 6.1
Father’s educational attainment
Primary education 54 32.9 Secondary education 58 35.4 Post secondary non tertiary education 8 4.9 Bachelor level education or equivalent 34 20.7
Father’s occupation
Retired, deceased, unemployed 18 11.0 Armed forces occupation 2 1.2 Professional 4 2.4 Service and sales workers 8 4.9 Skilled agricultural, forestry, and fishery workers 84 51.2 Craft and related trades workers 18 11.0 Plant and machine operators and assemblers 4 2.4 Elementary occupations 4 2.4 Not known 22 13.4
None 8 4.9
Mother’s educational attainment
Primary education 46 28.0 Secondary education 60 36.6 Post secondary non tertiary education 16 9.8 Bachelor level education or equivalent 30 18.3 Master level education or equivalent 4 2.4
Mother’s occupation
Retired, deceased, unemployed 32 19.5 Professional 6 3.7 Technicians and associate professionals 2 1.2
Family’s monthly electricity bill
Clerical support workers 4 2.4 Service and sales workers 26 15.9 Skilled agricultural, forestry, and fishery workers 28 17.1
Elementary occupations 6 3.7 Housewife 60 36.6
Php 300 pesos and below 44 26.8 Php 301 pesos to Php 600 50 30.5 Php 601 pesos to Php 900 28 17.1 Php 9001 pesos to Php 1,200 22 13.4 Php 1201 pesos to Php 1,500 12 7.3 Php 1,801 pesos to Php 2,100 4 2.4 more than Php 2,100 4 2.4
Mean= Php 704.39; S D. = Php 600.02; Median= Php 500
Table 3 indicates that the majority of the graduates come from a nuclear family (73.2%) and with parents living together (73.2%). In addition, most of them have fathers who are high school graduates (35.4%) and employed as skilled agricultural, forestry, and fishery workers (51.2%). Nonetheless, a greater proportion of the graduates have unemployed mothers (48.8%). Finally, the majority of them had families who have a monthly electricity bill of Php. 704.39.
Table 4: Academic profile of the graduates at the time of graduation
Variables
Field of specialization
Academic award
Leadership in school organization
College general weighted average (GWA)
Categories Frequency (n= 164) Percent
Food service management 80 48.8 Electronics 30 18.3 Garments 54 32.9
Did not receive academic awards 118 72.0 Received an academic award 34 20.7 Received more than 1 academic awards 12 7.3
More than 1 30 18.3 Only 1 40 24.4 None 94 57.3
Good 36 22.0 Very good 116 70.7 Excellent 12 7.3 Mean = 87.4; S.D. = 2.3; Median = 87.6
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Table 4 reveals that most of the respondents specialized in FSM (48.8%). It also indicates that about three in four graduates (72.0%) did not receive academic awards In terms of leadership in school organizations, more than half of the respondents (57.3%) did not hold a leadership position. Moreover, the table shows that the respondents have a mean GWA of 87.4%, of which a more significant proportion (70.7%) obtained a very good academic performance. This finding signifies that they have obtained the essential competencies required in their enrolled specializations
LET Performance Categories Frequency (n= 164)
Percent Mean SD. Median
Overall Failed 18 11.0 72.30 0.37 72 Passed 146 89.0 79.42 0.21 79.6
General education Failed 4 2.4 33.2 12.7 23.2 Passed 160 97.6 85.38 0.39 86
Professional education Failed 18 11.0 63.96 3.33 69 Passed 146 89.0 79.5 0.21 79.5 Majorship Failed 48 29.3 66.98 1.45 70 Passed 116 70.7 77.72 0.24 77
Table 5 shows that the majority of the graduates passed (89.0%) in their first take of the LET. Based on the LET passing rate, which is 75%, the graduates’ mean rating is 79.42% Their highest rating is for general education (x = 85.38%), and their lowest rating is on majorship (x = 77.72%)
Among the 164 respondents, 18 or 11% failed in their first attempt in the LET. Notably, there were four, 18, and 48 who failed in general education, professional education, and majorship, respectively. This finding implies that the respondents experienced difficulty passing their majorship compared to other subcomponents of the LET. This may be attributed to the fact that there is no available examination for BTTE majorship in the Philippines. Hence, the BTTE graduates have no recourse but to take the Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE) test, a majorship in Bachelor of Secondary Education (BSEd).
Table 6: Employability of the graduates after graduation
Variables Categories Frequency (n= 164) Percent
Nature of first job
Number of months before landing first job
Teaching 70 42.7 Non teaching 74 45.1 Unemployed 20 12.2
Five months or less 46 28.0 Six months to 11 months 44 26.8 12 months to 17 months 14 8.5
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18 months to 23 months 6 3.7
24 months to 29 months 14 8.5
30 months to 35 months 6 3.7
36 months to 41 months 18 11.0 48 months or more 16 9.8
Mean = 18.1 months; S.D. = 18.1; Median = 10 months
Table 6 shows that the majority of the respondents(87.80%) were employed in teaching (42.7%) and non teaching jobs (45.1%) within 18 months after graduation. Remarkably, most of them (28.00%) waited less than five months to land their first job after graduation. This finding implies that the respondents were qualified and prepared for work after graduation.
In addition, those employed in non teaching jobs gained employment in bakeries, hotels, electronic shops, dress shops, entrepreneurship, the Philippine National Police, the Bureau of Fire Protection, and the armed forces of the Philippines, among others. Those in teaching positions were employed by private schools.
5.6 Relationship between graduates’ employability and their personal profiles
Table 7: Correlation betweengraduates’ employability and their personal profiles Variables Correlation Coefficient Probability Value
Gender 12.0 0.100 Age 130.5 0.000* Civil status 22.5 0.002* Birth order 33.8 0.002* Religion 16.7 0.020* *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed)
Table 7 shows that personal variables such as age ( = 130.5, p=0.00), civil status ( = 22.5, p=0.002), birth order ( = 33.8, p=0.002), and religion ( = 16.7, p=0.020) are correlates of graduates’ employability Older graduates tend to have less waiting time for employment than younger ones. Interestingly, graduates who are single are more likely to have a shorter waiting time when looking for a job than those who are married Furthermore, the middle born graduates have more likelihood of being employed than those who are first and last born. Finally, Roman Catholic graduates tend to be employed earlier than their counterparts.
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Table 8: Correlation betweengraduates’ employability and their family profiles Variables Correlation Coefficient Probability Value
Family structure 30.1 0.007*
Parents’ marital status 32.2 0.004*
Father’s educational attainment 60.7 0.000*
Father’s occupation 136.3 0.000*
Mother’s educational attainment 85.7 0.000*
Mother’s occupation 86.2 0.001*
Family’s monthly electricity bill 57.4 0.057
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed)
Table 8 shows that family variables such as family structure ( = 30.1, p=0.007), parents’ marital status ( = 32.2, p=0.004), father’s educational attainment ( = 60.7, p=0.000), father’s occupation ( = 136.3, p=0.000), mother’s educational attainment ( = 85.7, p=0.000), and mother’s occupation ( = 86.2, p=0.001) are significant correlates of graduates’ employability. The findings imply that graduates from a nuclear family and whose parents live together tend to be employed earlier than those from extended and separated families. Remarkably, graduates whose parents have high educational attainment and are employed as skilled agricultural, forestry, and fishery workers are more likely to have a shorter waiting time for employment.
between Graduates’ Employability and their Academic Profiles
Table 9: Correlation between graduates’ employability and their academic profiles
Variables Correlation Coefficient Probability Value
Field of specialization 29.27 0.010* Academic award 24.49 0.040* Leadership in school organization 28.69 0.012* College GWA 0.178 0.023*
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed)
Table 9 reveals that the graduates’ employability is correlated with their academic profiles, specifically with the field of specialization ( =29.27, p=0.010), academic awards ( =24.49, p=0.040), and leadership in school organizations ( =28.69, p=0.012). This finding denotes that graduates who majored in FSM, receiving academic awards and holding leadership positions in school organizations have a higher probability of finding a job within a shorter time after graduation.
Furthermore, the table shows a significant correlation between the college GWA and the employability of graduates (r = 0.178, p=0.023). This finding signifies that graduates with higher college GWA tend to have a shorter time landing a job than those with lower GWA. The GWA is a reflection of the graduates'
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preparation in their field of specialization; a higher rating in this regard signals better preparation from the perspective of the employers.
Table 10: Correlation betweengraduates’ employability and their LET performance
Overall LET rating 0.241 0.002*
General education rating 0.099 0.208
Professional education rating 0.002 0.977
Majorship rating 0.027 0.736
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed)
Table 10 indicates that there is a significant correlation between graduates’ employability and overall LET performance (r = 0.241, p=0.002) but not in general education (r = 0.099,p=0.208), professional education (r = 0.002, p=0.977), or majorship (r = 0.027, p=0.736). This finding implies that graduates with higher overall LET ratings are more likely to have a shorter waiting time before landing their first job. The result can be accounted for in that the LET rating is given an equivalent point in assessing teacher applicants for public and private institutions. Having a higher LET rating may indicate better competence of applicants as this may reflect advanced knowledge, skills, and attitude in pedagogy and content.
The study is the first in the Philippines to examine the correlates of the BTTE graduates’ employability using waiting time to land the first job after graduation as the main construct of employability. Significantly, the BTTE graduates are employable in either teaching or non teaching jobs after graduation. This affirms the findings that BTTE graduates are employable as classroom teachers or industry technical workers on a permanent, contractual, or probationary basis, or they are self employed (Chavez & Abaca, 2016; Albanador et al., 2018). Furthermore, as revealed in the present study, the average waiting time (18 months) is consistent with the finding by Bansiong et al. (2020) that teacher education graduates were employed within a year after graduation. However, it is contrary to previous studies which showed that teacher education graduates landed in their first jobs within one to six months (Navida, 2017) or two to five months (Ulanday, 2021) after graduation
Furthermore, the BTTE graduates’ employability may be explained by their personal, family, or academic profiles, as well as by their LET performance. As to personal profile, older single, middle born, and Roman Catholic graduates are more likely to have a shorter waiting period before being employed. It affirms the findings that single graduates (Posadas et al., 2021) and older graduates (Ali, 2016) were more employable than their counterparts and that middle born children are more fulfilled in their careers (Salmon & Schumann, 2011).
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Relative to family profile, graduates living in nuclear and intact families tend to find earlier employment than their counterparts. This finding contradicts the claim that family structure is not directly linked to employment outcomes (Lindstrom et al., 2007). Remarkably, graduates whose parents have high educational attainment and are employed in skilled agricultural, forestry, and fishery positions are likely to secure employment within a shorter time. Previous researchers have noted that graduates whose parents are highly educated provide time and investment in the development of their children (Clearing House for Military Family Readiness, 2020; Guryan et al., 2008). Consequently, they influence their children's pursuit of education, leading to better employment opportunities (Cabrera et al., 2018).
Concerning academic profile, graduates who specialized in FSM and had received academic awards, with higher college GWA and leadership positions in school organizations, are more likely to have a shorter waiting time before being employed. These findings support the assertion that GPA is a predictor in successfully finding a job (Cole et al., 2007; El Temtamy et al., 2016; Sulastri et al., 2015) and counter the claim that academic honors of the graduates do not influence their employability (De Guzman & De Castro, 2008).
Notably, graduates with high LET performance experienced a shorter waiting time for employment. This finding suggests that graduates should perform satisfactorily in all components of the LET in order to have better chances of immediate employment. In the Philippine context, LET rating is considered a primary criterion in ranking applicants for either teaching or non teaching employment in both public and private institutions.
Finally, the paper contributes to the affirmation of the learning and employability framework (Sumanasiri et al., 2015), which offers a new perspective of employability focusing on the link between employability and learning process, environment, and outcomes. It also provides a theoretical lens and operational clarity in setting direction for the curriculum design and pedagogical approach to optimize graduates’ employability among HEIs.
In the light of these findings, it is held that the study is limited to BTTE graduates who were successfully traced as to their present employment. Since the study was conducted during the COVID 19 pandemic, the respondents were only reached through Facebook Messenger Group Chat and responses were obtained through Google Form. Also, employability focused only on the waiting time for landing the first job after graduation. Finally, its generalizability is only confined to the SUC under study.
The BTTE graduates are employable within 18 months after graduation, both in teaching and non teaching jobs. The personal profile variables correlating to employment are age, civil status, birth order, and religion. Older graduates who are single, middle born, and Roman Catholic tend to have a shorter waiting time for employment. On the other hand, family structure and parents' marital status,
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educational attainment, and occupation are significantly associated with employability. In particular, graduates living in nuclear and intact families and whose parents have high levels of educational attainment and with engagement in skilled agricultural, forestry, and fishery positions tend to secure earlier employment than their counterparts. Interestingly, immediate employment is evident among those who specialize in FSM, are recipients of academic awards, leaders in school organizations, and those with meritorious academic performance. Lastly, a shorter waiting time for employment is experienced by graduates who obtained higher LET ratings.
1. The Professional Regulation Commission is encouraged to craft a separate LET for BTTE Majorship through the Teacher Education Council (TEC);
2. Philippine TEIs offering BTTE are encouraged to craft enhancement activities focused on the higher competencies tested in the LET and those not covered in the BTTE field of specialization. This may be done through intensified LET review classes;
3. The TEIs may provide instructional opportunities so that the BTTE students would develop higher academic aspirations by taking on leadership roles in school organizations and striving to obtain higher GWAs, LET ratings and academic awards as these are significant correlates of a shorter waiting time for employability; and
4. The same study may be conducted in other BTTE programs of SUCs for broader analysis and greater generalizability.
As a funded research project by Cagayan State University (CSU), the authors declare no conflict of interest in the study, considering that ethical standards and relevant research protocols were strictly followed.
The researchers express their sincere gratitude to the Research and Development Unit of Cagayan State University, Andrew Campus for approving and funding this study.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 186 204, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.11
Received Feb 23, 2022; Revised Apr 6, 2022; Accepted Apr 25, 2022
Sunchon National University, Suncheon Jeonnam, South Korea
Abstract. Microteaching as a teaching practice helps preservice teachers develop their teaching and restructure their pedagogical schemes through reflection and feedback, particularly in teacher education. In particular, critical reflection helps preservice teachers describe their instructional experiences and perceptions and analyze what they have learned from those experiences. The study aimed to investigate how English as a foreign language (EFL) preservice teachers implement and reflect on their teaching performance in microteaching activities. The participants were 22 Korean EFL preservice teachers at a college of education Grounded in Amobi’s (2005) conceptual framework of microteaching reflectivity, the preservice teachers’ self reflection on microteaching and peer feedback checklists were collected and analyzed Content analysis was used for data analysis. The findings revealed that the participants’ teaching practice had a range of reflectivity patterns of describing, informing, conforming, and reconstructing. This study also found that the participants made progress through microteaching practice. The pedagogical implications of these results encompass the usefulness of microteaching in three groups of preservice teachers, teacher educators, and institutions.
Keywords: microteaching; preservice teachers; reflective practice; reflectivity; teacher education
Teacher education in English as a foreign language (EFL) context is a field in which innovation and change should progress, along with a focus on bridging theory and practice (Kumaravadivelu, 2006; Savić, 2019). According to Johnson (2013), “what is learned will be fundamentally shaped by how it is learned” (p. 75); therefore, quality teacher education programs for preservice teachers’ innovative and reflective practice are crucial.
Applying microteaching could be an avenue to bridge theory and practice and expand reflective teaching in teacher education. It encourages preservice teachers to connect pedagogical concepts with practice, and develop their concepts of
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learning, teaching and professional expertise (Savić, 2019). Microteaching also supports preservice teachers making their teaching behaviour effective and reflective (Amobi & Irwin, 2009).
Hence, preservice teachers need to appreciate their learning and experience from varied perspectives and stay broad minded in accordance with “professional knowledge developed through effective reflective practice” (Loughran, 2002, p. 40). Reflection on pedagogical knowledge and experience is “a process of learning that starts during preservice training” (Savić, 2009, p. 169), which should persistently advance in teacher education.
Reflective practice through microteaching has long been highlighted in teacher education (Lane et al., 2014). Critical reflection helps preservice teachers describe instructional experiences and analyze what they learned from those experiences (Brookfield, 1995). In reflective practice, inquiries arise in accordance with classroom observations and pedagogical experiences (Cavanagh & Prescott, 2010), which are essential for integrating and making sense of self (Warin et al., 2006). Engaging in reflective practice requires explicit teaching modelling and constructive feedback to preservice teachers (Lane et al., 2014; Rodgers, 2002; Russell, 2005; Shoffner, 2008). Preservice teachers’ understanding and application of teaching can be enhanced by thinking about why particular strategies are employed in a certain instructional context (Alger, 2006).
Although microteaching is widely used for preservice teachers’ pedagogical and reflective practices across teacher education programs, little research has focused on how it influences their subsequent teaching behaviour (Amobi, 2005; Amobi & Irwin, 2009; Jay & Johnson, 2002). Furthermore, preservice teachers often experience difficulty implementing appropriate teaching methodologies and strategies (Yunus et al., 2010), developing innovative pedagogical practices (Gan, 2013), and modifying or restructuring their lessons during the process of microteaching. Consequently, it is crucial to investigate how EFL preservice teachers perform and reflect on teaching behaviour in microteaching practice. This study was guided by three research questions:
1) What are the recurring reflectivity themes in the preservice teachers’ microteaching practice before and after microteaching?
2) What are the recurring themes of the preservice teachers’ confronting activities of peers’ evaluations in their microteaching practice?
3) How did the preservice teachers reconstruct their microteaching practice regarding reflectivity after microteaching?
Microteaching has been considered a crucial pedagogical and reflective tool in education (Courneya et al. 2008; Crumley & James, 2009; Kloet & Chugh, 2012). As a teaching tactic, microteaching dates to the 1960s. Allen and Eve (1968) coined and defined microteaching as a system of pedagogical practice that focuses on teaching behaviour and attitude in structured conditions. In 1961, a teacher education team under the direction of Dwight Allen at Stanford University developed a cycle of microteaching with the steps of “plan, teach, observe, re
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plan, re teach and re observe” (Brown 1976). This was modified by the University of Ulster to a three stage model of “plan, teach and observe” (Higgins & Nicholl, 2003).
With the history of microteaching, Quinn (2000) explained it as “a small group activity that can be a potent tool for the acquisition of skills” (p. 388). Richards and Schmidt (2010) defined microteaching as “a technique used in the training of teachers, in which different teaching skills are practiced under carefully controlled conditions” (p. 365). Wallace (2010) explained it as “a training context in which a teaching situation has been reduced in scope and/or simplified in some systematic way” (p. 92).
Microteaching is a cycle of events with the performance of language skills teaching and classroom management. It enables preservice teachers to become cognizant of the values, attitudes, and assumptions about teaching and learning (I’anson et al., 2003). Amobi and Irwin (2009) supported microteaching’ various strengths, such as practicing teaching skills, reflecting on teaching actions, and advancing teaching practice. For these reasons, microteaching is an essential element of teacher education programs for preservice teachers to simulate teaching in a classroom context.
Preservice teachers’ reflective thinking may emerge by analyzing their teaching performance and eliciting inquiries through varied feedback. Amobi and Irwin (2009) maintained that microteaching is an insightful and reflective activity, as preservice teachers demonstrate micro lessons to their instructor and peers, which is a replica of teaching, receive instant feedback from them, and have an opportunity to watch their performance through video recording. These help preservice teachers reflect on how they perform in their microteaching presentations.
The main components of implementing microteaching are self analysis of video recording (Rich & Hannafin, 2008; VanLone, 2018; Zilka, 2020) and feedback (Ekşį, 2012; Kloet & Chugh, 2012; Prilop et al., 2021). First, self analysis of teaching performance enables preservice and in service teachers to gain insights into the cognitive and pedagogical aspects of teaching and the relationships between practice and theory (Rich & Hannafin, 2008). Videorecording practice lessons during teacher training and practicum bring about changes in preservice teachers’ behaviour and affect their attitudes by promoting self awareness, instructional development, and openness to teaching (Zilka, 2020).
Specifically, preservice teachers may be able to identify the strengths and weaknesses of their teaching performance in their microteaching videos. Zilka (2020) revealed that most preservice teachers in Israel were critical of themselves and tried to improve their teaching demonstrations by changing some procedural activities. VanLone (2018) also found that using video self-analysis helped preservice teachers monitor their teaching skill growth and apply them in a real classroom context.
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Second, feedback is another important element in microteaching. It can be received from experts, such as teacher educators, professionals and researchers (Prilop et al., 2021), and peer cohorts (Ekşį, 2012; Kloet & Chugh, 2012).
Prilop et al. (2021) examined the effects of expert feedback to preservice teachers’ classroom management skills in an online blended learning environment. The results showed that preservice teachers who received expert feedback improved their classroom room management skills compared to those who did not receive any feedback on their performance.
Preservice teachers can also receive feedback from their peers. Observing others’ teaching performance is “a refreshing and insightful experience” (Donnelly & Fitzmaurice, 2011, p. 339) for preservice teachers. Donnelly and Fitzmaurice (2011) showed that observing others in a microteaching group allowed the participants to refine their performance in describing and differentiating characteristics for quality teaching. Discussions on microteaching became a learning environment where preservice teachers realized the importance of planning, constructing, and delivering lessons for student learning and engagement (Donnelly & Fitzmaurice, 2011).
Ekşį (2012) aimed at developing a constructivist approach in microteaching sessions for Turkish preservice teachers. The findings showed that the participants recognized the merits of peer feedback on their teaching practices. However, they were often reluctant to provide explicit feedback due to concerns about others’ feelings. Moreover, the study revealed that teaching performance improved through a structured feedback form.
Kloet and Chugh’s (2012) mixed methods study also focused on the peer feedback of microteaching. A total of 10 microteaching peer evaluation forms drawn from a Canadian post secondary education program were sampled and examined to identify how peer feedback forms may illustrate preservice teachers’ perceptions of what constitutes ‘good’ teaching. The findings revealed that the participants were triggered to reflect on and modify their teaching behaviour after receiving peer feedback, to conform to projected expectations and exemplify the status as a ‘good’ teacher.
Based on the literature, this study encompassed the effectiveness of microteaching in the three domains of preservice teachers, teacher educators, and institutions.
This study was a part of the “Materials and Methods in ELT” course at a medium sized university in South Korea. A total of 22 preservice teachers took this course to obtain a second degree teacher certification and become English language teachers in secondary schools. There were 15 females and seven males, and the participants’ ages ranged between 21 28 years old. To recruit the participants, a convenience sampling method was used in this study.
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This course was required for preservice teachers planning to take the national teacher certification exam after graduation. The main objective of the course is to provide prospective English teachers with a contemporary account of major trends in English language teaching (ELT) materials and methodology, designed especially for seniors in the Department of English Language Education.
The preservice teachers met weekly for 15 weeks, including the mandatory four week practicum. During the practicum, the participants observed other English teachers’ classrooms, prepared their lessons, and taught English in secondary schools. To prepare for the practicum, they learned how to write lesson plans and conduct microteaching. Therefore, two microteaching activities were provided to preservice teachers.
In the first microteaching activity, they prepared a micro lesson for 10 minutes before the practicum, focusing on language skills such as listening/speaking or reading/writing. In the second microteaching activity, they implemented a 20 minute micro lesson after the practicum, integrating four language skills.
These microteaching activities were graded by both instructors and peers. The grading checklist was distributed to the preservice teachers so that they could evaluate their peers’ microteaching with feedback in both spoken and written registers.
3.3.1.
The preservice teachers were given the task of writing self reflection on their microteaching practices. They wrote one page self reflection after the second microteaching practice. It consisted of three aspects: 1) the intention of the microteaching, 2) strengths and weaknesses of the microteaching, and 3) any changes if teaching the lesson again. This format was a replica of Amobi’s (2005) post analysis reflection.
The preservice teachers were grouped into teams of three or four participants and assigned to evaluate their team members’ first microteaching. While preservice teachers presented their microteaching, their peers put checkmarks in the relevant boxes of fifteen components, as shown in Figure 1. They also composed the strengths and improvements as general feedback about the presented microteaching.
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Figure 1: Samples of a peer feedback checklist
Amobi’s (2005) conceptual framework of microteaching reflectivity was employed in this study. Amobi developed four stages of reflectivity: describe, inform, confront, and reconstruct. These categories originated from Smyth’s (1989) work, but Amobi described that Smyth’s components targeted teachers’ concerns about the political and ethical issues underlying teaching, whereas Amobi’s categories represented the progression of preservice teachers’ reflectivity on the sequence and consequences of their microteaching. Thus, the present study followed Amobi’s framework of the four stages of microteaching reflectivity described in Table 1:
Table 1: The four stages of microteaching reflectivity (Amobi, 2005, pp. 118 119)
Briefly, the four categories of microteaching reflectivity can converge toward three aspects, with specific questions (Amobi, 2005, p. 119):
1) Describe (what did I intend to do in this micro lesson?),
2) Inform (what did I do?), and
3) Confront and reconstruct (what would I do differently if I were to teach this micro lesson again?)
Amobi’s (2005) framework of microteaching reflectivity was used to analyze the preservice teachers’ reflective thinking and sequence and consequences of their instructional actions.
The data were analyzed using content analysis grounded in the qualitative research paradigm. Content analysis enables researchers to examine a large set of
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data systematically, and discover the focus of various levels of individuals, groups, institutions and societies (Weber, 1990).
Directed content analysis was used in this study. It begins by identifying key concepts or themes as initial coding categories, using existing theories or previous research (Potter & Levine Donnerstein, 1999). Thus, coding categories are predetermined based on prior research or existing theory. For instance, the content analysis of this study began coding immediately with the predetermined codes such as ‘describe,’ ‘inform,’ ‘confront,’ and ‘reconstruct’ to investigate preservice teachers’ reflectivity on the sequence and consequences of microteaching practice.
The reliability of the coding was assessed using the data analysis procedure. To obtain intercoder reliability, the data were provided to a graduate teaching assistant. The two coders shared predetermined codes and discussed how to determine preservice teachers’ actions along with the codes. Then, they analyzed the data separately.
Intercoder reliability was checked by comparing the agreement and disagreement with the thematic occurrences of teaching actions. Cohen’s Kappa statistics were calculated for intercoder agreements. The results yielded a 0.87 for the analyzed datasets. The reliability statistics range indicates a high level of intercoder reliability with the interpretation of Kappa between 0.81 to 1.00 (here, ‘1’ indicates perfect agreement) (McHugh, 2012).
4.1.
The analysis of the preservice teachers’ pre microteaching sequencing entailed four describing reflectivity themes as the initial stage of reflectivity: D(a). named or implied the teaching model selected for the micro lesson, D(b). established the subject area or the content for the micro lesson, D(c). identified the learning outcome(s) for the micro lesson, and D(d). presaged instructional procedures.
Each describing reflectivity theme appeared with 4 D(a), 20 D(b), 13 D(c), and 8 D(d), respectively, as shown in Table 2.
Describing reflectivity implies preservice teachers’ decision making on teaching models, content, learning outcomes, and instructional procedures of the microteaching (Amobi, 2005). Excluding two participants, all preservice teachers incorporated at least one describing reflectivity theme in their pre microteaching activities. A further three preservice teachers featured all four describing themes, while others incorporated two to three themes of describing reflectivity. A preservice teacher (S20), who captured the four themes, described his lesson as follows:
“
The targeted content was ‘suit your taste’, referring to one’s preference (b). In this lesson, I wanted to involve skimming as a reading activity (a). So, the objective of the lesson was that students will be able to find the main idea of the text via skimming (c)… What I did was I explained the
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definition of ‘skimming’ (d), which is a speed reading method to find the gist, and how to skim the text” (S20, self reflection on microteaching).
Most preservice teachers (except for two) established content in their teaching. However, only four people identified teaching models and methods in their teaching performance. Furthermore, less than half of the preservice teachers (n=8) conveyed clear instructions in their microteaching.
The following four informing reflectivity themes emerged through the content analysis:
I(a). reviewed the events of the lesson as taught, I(b). expressed positive perception of instructional performance, I(c). expressed mixed positive and negative perceptions of instructional performance, and I(d). recalled first microteaching experience.
Each occurrence of informing reflectivity theme included 21 I(a), 19 I(b), 3 I(c), and 15 I(d) respectively, as presented in Table 2. Excluding one preservice teacher, the participants’ post microteaching yielded two or three informing activity themes. Informing reflectivity refers to “retrospective reflectivity thinking” (Amobi, 2005, p. 118) in the micro lesson. Amobi described the informing reflectivity stage as revisiting one’s microteaching. In this stage, preservice teachers reflect on their teaching actions and express whether their performance is either positive or negative. By self reflecting on “what did I do?”, preservice teachers may recall their previous microteaching performance.
Most of the preservice teachers reviewed their teaching actions and how they worked. For their post microteaching, 19 preservice teachers expressed their microteaching performance as positive, whereas, three among them had a mixed feeling of positive and negative. The following are the perceptions of some preservice teachers’ instructional performance related to informing reflectivity themes:
“I realized that I mispronounced some vocabulary in the first teaching demonstration. But, in the second time, I got more confidence in giving instruction in English” (S4, self reflection on microteaching).
“I think I made one sided instruction at first, but I allocated the given time as I planned. With less anxiety, I was able to perform my teaching in the second round” (S7, self reflection on microteaching).
“There was a lack of interactions in the first microteaching. After recognizing the weakness, I applied different instructional strategies in my microteaching. So, I’m very satisfied with my performance” (S10, self reflection on microteaching).
“I thought I could make it, but it turned out that I was too scary and couldn’t manage the time allotment. I am not that confident nor satisfied with my teaching performance. I need to work harder to make my microteaching better” (S22, self reflection on microteaching).
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The last quote shows that S22 had some difficulty in a public presentation of her microteaching. Although it was her second trial, she was anxious and afraid of showing her presentation in front of others. Her case was critical because teaching performance was required for the completion of the undergraduate program and the acquirement of second degree teaching certification. Eventually, she practiced more to reduce her anxiety about the public presentation of microteaching.
4.3. “Confronting” themes in the preservice teachers’ microteaching practice
Confronting reflectivity themes were based on how preservice teachers reacted to their peers’ evaluations of their microteaching. For the confronting reflectivity themes, post microteaching, peer feedback, and self reflections were corroborated by data triangulation. In this stage, different voices are mingled to represent the consequences of microteaching.
Confronting reflectivity themes are listed as: C(a). passive confronting, C(b). defensive confronting, C(c). affirmative confronting, and C(d). self critique confronting.
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These confronting reflectivity themes are not exclusively distributed. These may occur coincidently. As shown in Table 2, the confronting reflectivity themes in this study comprised of seven different patterns: (1) passive (7 occurrences), (2) self critique (5 occurrences), (3) defensive (4 occurrences), (4) affirmative (3 occurrences), and (5) affirmative and self critique (3 occurrences).
Amobi (2005) explained that the spectrum of confronting reflectivity extends to peers’ voices about the consequences of teaching actions. According to Amobi, passive confronting represents preservice teachers’ submissive compliance with peers’ evaluations of teaching actions. Self critique confronting refers to the appraisal of preservice teachers’ teaching performance. Regardless of peer feedback, preservice teachers acknowledge their own teaching actions and identify their strengths and improvements in microteaching. Defensive confrontations embody rebuttals to peers’ critiques of the teaching action. Participants justify their teaching performance by responding to peer feedback. Affirmative confronting indicates agreement with the peer feedback on teaching actions. The last pattern is the combination of affirmative and self critique themes that seem to overlap considering the confronting reflectivity. In this study, the passive confronting reflectivity theme was the most frequently occurring pattern (7 occurrences).
The preservice teachers demonstrated the passive pattern of confronting reflectivity as follows:
“
I appreciate my peers who made comments on my microteaching. I didn’t notice I used a lot of fillers while talking until my peer mentioned this” (S5, self reflection on microteaching).
“
My peer critiqued the entire structure of my microteaching. She commented on the missing part, which was presenting the instructional objectives of the lesson. I admit that I forgot presenting them earlier” (S16, self reflection on microteaching).
“
My peer said that there is no interaction with students in my lesson. Knowing from her, I found that I did my teaching as I did in my private institute. It’s common to do one sided teaching in the academy” (S19, self reflection on microteaching).
The self critique reflectivity theme occurred five times. Some of them are displayed:
“Reflecting on my microteaching, I think my lesson is a little monotonous and boring. If I had a chance to make another lesson, I could include various activities like games and pop songs. I also realized that it must be pretty difficult for the middle school students. I should have met the students’ levels of English proficiency” (S2, self reflection on microteaching).
“
I would divide the time evenly for each activity if I could do it again. I found that listening activities were dominant, and I skipped some steps of doing speaking activities” (S9, self reflection on microteaching).
“I watched the video of my microteaching. I felt shamed to watch it, but I did it because I really want to improve my teaching skills. I found too many mistakes and awkward situations in my microteaching. First, my hand writing on the blackboard is a mess. Second, I used informal language such as “guys”. Third, I murmured a lot. All of the poor performance made me feel ashamed, but next time I’ll try to fix the issues that I made for my future teaching” (S15, self reflection on microteaching).
The four occurrences of the defensive reflectivity theme were found in the preservice teachers’ self reflection writing. The preservice teachers’ defensiveness mostly originated from the misguided conception that microteaching is not authentic:
“
My professor suggested doing gesture naturally, but it was very awkward to act naturally because there were no students while microteaching” (S9, self reflection on microteaching).
“In my microteaching, I skipped some parts but it wasn’t real teaching. If I had students in real, the instruction could be more structured” (S20, self reflection on microteaching).
“I got a comment from my peer that I should first provide several examples and then the grammar rule. I understand giving examples is important, but I wanted to give clear instruction of the grammar rule so that my students have a clear sense of what is taught” (S21, self reflection on microteaching).
Regarding the last reflectivity theme, the affirmative and affirmative critique themes were shown with three occurrences of each. Each representative example is presented as:
“I’ve got a lot of confidence as I did microteaching several times” (S6, self reflection on microteaching).
“
In the second microteaching, I think my teaching got improved a lot. I think the structure of the lesson was good. But, I think I failed to meet the students’ proficiency levels” (S12, self reflection on microteaching).
Overall, all four confronting reflectivity themes were revealed by content analysis. Self critique reflectivity themes (with the combination of three affirmative cases) occurred more frequently than other themes. Passivity (7 occurrences) and affirmativeness (6 occurrences) were found in similar proportions. The defensive themes occurred the least in the confronting reflectivity.
4.4. Preservice teachers’ reconstruction of their teaching activities in the postmicroteaching
The final sequence of teaching performance was the reconstructing reflectivity. Reconstructing reflectivity themes can emerge as preservice teachers modify their
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teaching actions in post microteaching. Amobi illustrated that the responses of the reconstructing reflectivity were elicited by any change in teaching actions through peer evaluations or self critiques.
Its types include: R(a). no reconstructing, R(b). implicit reconstructing, and R(c). explicit reconstructing.
The results of the reconstructing reflectivity themes are presented in Table 3. According to Amobi, no reconstructing indicates that there is no alternative teaching performance in post microteaching, despite peers’ evaluations in the second round. Amobi (2005) explained that the pattern of no reconstructing may represent “complete satisfaction with their microteaching performance” (p. 123). In this study, however, two occurrences of no reconstructing reflectivity had no intention or effort to modify their teaching actions. Thus, they did not share any thoughts or comments on reconstructing reflectivity. Interestingly, these two preservice teachers had a pattern of defensive confronting reflectivity.
The second theme of implicit reconstructing reflectivity was characterized by the preservice teachers’ speculations of peers’ evaluations and obscure teaching actions. They acknowledged the need for change, but they did not fully enact their actions in post microteaching.
A total of ten occurrences showed implicit reconstructing reflectivity in post microteaching. Among them, several preservice teachers stated: “…especially, I need to do eye contact with people in front of me. I know that my gesture is very awkward when I present my teaching” (S8, self reflection on microteaching).
“I need to get my students’ attention because interacting with them is important… I should speak more accurately” (S14, self reflection on microteaching).
Explicit reconstructing reflectivity was evidently characterized by preservice teachers’ alternative teaching performance in post microteaching. Furthermore, they implemented their teaching performance as if it occurred in a real classroom context. A total of 10 preservice teachers executed their microteaching with explicit reconstructing reflectivity. Similar to Amobi’s (2005) findings of explicit reconstructing reflectivity, the participants explicitly showed diagnostic patterns of reflecting their teaching actions. Some examples of quotes are as follows:
“I received the feedback from my peer that giving chocolate as incentive may be sensitive depending on some contexts. And I agree with her. So, this time, I thought about different things such as giving stickers as incentive. Giving stickers to those who did well work quite well. It was very smooth in my second microteaching, so I’m very satisfied with it” (S6, self reflection on microteaching).
“My professor and peers said my English pronunciation is good, but my gesture was awkward. That’s because I thought it’s not real teaching at
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first. However, in the second time, I changed my mindset that it’s real teaching. Surprisingly but happily, I found my teaching style got more natural…” (S10, self reflection on microteaching).
“
I had some difficulty writing neatly on the board. But, I practiced writing, and I got some compliments from my professor in the second microteaching… I also got the comment of my low voice at first. I tried to raise my voice, and I’m satisfied with my louder voice in the second time” (S15, self reflection on microteaching).
There was a seemingly positive relationship between affirmative/self critique confronting and explicit reconstructing reflectivity, as shown in Table 3. A further eight participants aligned sequence of self critique confronting and explicit reconstructing reflectivity. However, passive and/or defensive confronting reflectivity did not correspond to no reconstruction. This may indicate that the preservice teachers tried to reconstruct their teaching demonstrations regardless of passivity or defensiveness.
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In the describing stage of reflective thinking and planning of the micro lesson, 20 out of 22 preservice teachers established the subject area and the content for their micro lessons. However, only four preservice teachers presented a specific teaching model for their microteaching. Less than half of the participants gave instructions in the describing stage. The participants were too focused on content, with little consideration for teaching models or frameworks. This may indicate that the preservice teachers were not strategic in designing their micro lessons and had little knowledge of instructional and theoretical underpinnings of teaching. Another reason could be that they considered microteaching as a pedagogical exercise on the continuum of apprenticeship. However, even during the preparation stage, preservice teachers should acknowledge the alignment of teaching components and integrate learned knowledge and skills from their coursework in the development of teaching competency (Jita, 2018).
Stoynoff (1999) suggests that microteaching experiences should be structured in a way that the knowledge and teaching are effectively integrated. Preservice teachers tend to rely on their personal experiences and common sense in developing teaching skills despite the vitality of theoretical and pedagogical knowledge (Sağlam, 2007, as cited in Mutlu, 2014). The effective integration of theoretical knowledge and pedagogical skills should be achieved through the enhancement of quality teacher preparation programs.
In the informing reflectivity stage, through revisiting of microteaching, preservice teachers had opportunities to reflect on their teaching performance. The reflective inquiry “what did I do” produced a positive outcome. Although not all participants expressed their microteaching performance positively, the majority perceived it as a productive teaching experience. These findings are similar to many other studies on microteaching (e.g., Courneya et al., 2008; Crumley & James, 2009; Kloet & Chugh, 2012), including Amobi’s (2005) seminal work. They confirmed that microteaching functions well as reflection for action (Farrell, 2013; Olteanu, 2017; Ruys et al., 2012) and reflection on action (Marcos et al., 2009; Schön, 1987).
The former refers to the power of instructional planning, providing preservice and inservice teachers with the choices for instructional materials and methodologies based on their prior experiences of teaching and learning. Thus, reflection for action through microteaching is effective and useful in increasing content quality in teaching situations (Olteanu, 2017). Reflection on action comprises domains of research (validated knowledge construction), teacher education/dissemination (knowledge sharing), and practice (professional knowledge development) (Marcos et al., 2009). Acknowledging its domains, preservice teachers will be equipped with well established sequences of teaching practice.
In the confronting reflectivity stage, the participants’ affirmative/self critique confronting reflectivity was positively correlated with explicit reconstructing. It is obvious that positive manners and self critiques lead to better performance in enactment. Hall’s (2020) ethnographic study revealed that self critiquing
enhanced preservice teachers’ reflective practice. With the development of technology, recent studies focusing on preservice teachers have evidenced self critiquing to improve teaching practice (Rich & Hannafin, 2008; VanLone, 2018; Zilka, 2020).
An increasing number of preservice teachers tend to video record their microteaching, and video recordings have become useful in self critiquing and reflecting on their teaching behaviour. Rich and Hannafin (2008) found the practicality of using video recordings to highlight preservice teachers’ pedagogical and instructional concerns, actions, reasoning, and reflection. When they self analyze or self critique their microteaching, preservice teachers happen to realize what has been going wrong or what needs to change for future practice. VanLone (2018) also argued that self critiquing enables preservice teachers to consider how to interweave instruction, practice opportunities, and performance feedback throughout the microteaching procedure. Zilka’s (2020) perspective is similar as self critiquing from microteaching brings about a change in the teaching behaviour of preservice teachers to endorse self awareness, openness, and development. Briefly, self critiquing confronting reflectivity enables preservice teachers to reflect on their teaching practices and restructure the teaching sequence in their performance.
This study investigated preservice teachers’ reflective thinking with the categories of describing, informing, conforming, and reconstructing reflectivity patterns based on Amobi’s (2005) framework. The findings highlight the importance of the alignment of teaching components and sequences, the integration of theoretical knowledge and pedagogical skills, and the development of the abilities to self analyze and self critique through video recording and tolerate feedback from others.
Regarding the findings, this study draws pedagogical implications for three levels: preservice teachers, teacher educators, and institutions. First, preservice teachers should be able to take opportunities to demonstrate and reflect on their microteaching to integrate theoretical knowledge into their pedagogical teaching skills in the classroom setting. Second, for teacher educators, microteaching sessions should become the opportunity to gain insights into their roles and prospects as effective professional guides to preservice teachers by engaging in productive dialogues with them. Third, postsecondary institutions should fully support both preservice teachers and teacher educators to develop successful programs or sessions of microteaching by providing physically affordable spaces, equipment, and financial provisions.
This study had limitations regarding generalizability. The participants were sampled using the purposive sampling method because the aim of the research was to examine reflective practice through microteaching, specifically targeting the EFL preservice teachers. Therefore, the results of this study may not be generalizable. However, they can be utilized and examined in other contexts with other populations of preservice teachers.
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Overall, this study can contribute to the field of teacher education by providing insights on how to navigate various ways of promoting preservice teachers’ reflectivity in microteaching. Teacher education programs should seek to train productive and reflective teachers by offering opportunities to connect theoretical knowledge and pedagogical practice. Teacher educators must inquire about preservice teachers’ varied patterns of reflectivity that could foster the development of best teaching practices.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 205 219, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.12
Received Feb 24, 2022; Revised Apr 15, 2022; Accepted Apr 26, 2022
Abstract. This paper is concerned with evaluating the teachers’ familiarityandawarenessofthedifferentliterarylensesinthelightof the teaching literature. This study explored the lived experiences of teachers in teaching the core subject of 21st Century Literature of the Philippines and the World in Senior High School. This research utilized the descriptive phenomenological design, in order to explain the lived experiences of the five Senior High School Literature teachers using an interview guide questionnaire. Significant themes were inserted that emerged after gathering the data, namely: Theme 1: I find ways, Theme 2: I feel Lit!, Theme 3: I teach through lenses. In conclusion, the literature provides unlimited opportunities for students to express themselves and tolearn best withappreciationand critical analysis. Furthermore, the use of literary lenses in senior high school is necessary for the references and in the instruction to be efficient in analyzing literary works.
Keywords: literature; literary lenses; phenomenology; senior high school
The "Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013" offers subjects that are new to the education curriculum. One of the core subjects of Senior High School is the 21st Century Literature of the Philippines and that of the World. This course aims to make the students engage in appreciating and studying the 21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World, encompassing the wide dimensions, elements, genres, contexts, structures, and traditions. Today, education is very vital to national development, and it provides skills and knowledge to the youth of the nation (Idris et al., 2012). In addition, the educational system emphasizes 21st century skills, namely: communication, collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking (4C's), when developing the higher order thinking skills of students is essential. Literature is taken as an important component of educational institutions and curricula, by making it a core subject for senior high school students from different tracks and strands.
In the teaching of Literature, there is no single strategy that fits all types of learners. For instance, a traditional common lecture might inspire a student; while it might possibly cause frustration to others; a task based activity might excite exuberant learners; but perhaps it might discourage and confuse timid students.
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Accordingly, the teachers should prepare a carefully planned lesson packed with various teaching strategies, in order to satisfy all the learners. As senior high school is still in its infancy in the K 12 curriculum in the Philippines, the teachers are being pressured to make their students responsive to their outcomes in the future. Consequently, the teachers are caught in a dilemma of how these issues should be addressed, and even more so, on how to be an effective teacher. To becoming effective, teachers must learn to adapt and consider teaching strategies in everyday lessons. Paolini (2016) stressed that effective teaching would require adjustment, monitoring, creativity, and flexibility. Therefore, literature in the classroom is not only about reading stories and other texts, but it also involves the right approach to be able to manifest creativity and critical thinking when analyzing texts.
Scholars, such as Rosslyn (2005), Wagner (2005), and Knapp (2004), unanimously believe that teaching literature makes sense in the context of the twenty first century, provided it is taught by a proper approach. Traditionally, teacher centred strategy views literature as a piece of knowledge, in which the students are seen as a storehouse of information about certain literary pieces, but not as creative and critical thinkers. Consequently, students may lack the necessary skills in processing significant information and analyzing some literature. Literary pieces, such as poems, shorts stories, and novels can be interpreted by using different types of literary criticism. Literary criticism or literary lens is an approach to understanding a specific literary piece.
Most English teachers would think that literary theory or literary lens is such a complex field, with jargon ridden disciplines and a number of concepts often being considered as "hot potatoes" in classroom teaching, even though it should rather be introduced in higher education (Chun, 2015). Although the literary pieces in some textbooks are different, the structures of the books are almost the same, consisting of a little bit of the author's biography, a short introduction of the literary work, an excerpt of the work, and vocabulary points, which need to be discussed. Most of the high school teachers in a literature class would prefer to adopt this approach, which is not linked to any literary lens or literary criticism, but rather focuses on the authors, some words and lines in the text, as well as some structures. Thus, this is merely manifesting a level of general information and perhaps literal understanding among students. Some of the most common literary lenses are mimetic, objective, expressive, reader responsive, and suchlike.
Literary lenses, if utilized by the teachers in teaching literary pieces, have a greater potential in transforming the learners to become critical readers themselves and creative explorers, which is the fundamental aim of 21st-century education (Yaqoob, 2011). The realization of this study was vital for senior high school teachers in basic education, in order to find new ways of teaching literature through adapting the literary lenses. With this, students are also trained to become active in meaning-making and critical thinking, rather than just a keeper of mere knowledge and information.
Therefore, this paper is concerned with evaluating the teachers’ familiarity and awareness of the different literary lenses in the context of teaching literature. This study also explored the lived experiences of teachers teaching literature in Senior High Schools. The insights of this study were used to enhance the teaching of literature in Senior High Schools.
The following studies discuss the different findings on literary lenses and the teaching of literature.
Mustakim et al., (2014) pointed out that to develop the students' potential in a holistic, balanced, and integrated manner, which also encompasses the intellectual, spiritual, emotional, and physical aspects, is the aim of Literature in education, in order to create a harmonious and balanced human being with high social standards. They also emphasized that the literature is for enhancing the language proficiency and generating the aesthetic part of the language, which is a personal response from students. Herlina (2016) also added that teaching literature has changed to different paradigms, which inevitably make the teachers play the important role in aesthetic readings; and this allows students to develop their own literary understanding.
Thus, the Literature broadens the students' life spaces through inquiries that push them outside the boundaries of their lives into other places, times, and ways of living. This is where transformation will occur, as the students carry their inquiries and experiences through literature back into their own worlds and lives.
In emphasizing the literary lenses, Gillespie (2010) defined the literary lens as a proven useful tool for discussing literary theories with students in different literature classes. It can be thought of as a microscope, eyeglass, telescope, and camera possessing different powers to facilitate and influence the scope of comprehension and perception in analyzing literary pieces. Metaphorically, literary lenses can sharpen, focus, deepen, dull, magnify, draw closer, shrink, distort, or even shatter the things we see just like the lens of a kaleidoscope. Each literary lens has distinct characteristics and limits, when used when looking into the deepest analysis of literary pieces. Specifically, it helps the students to gain critical vocabulary for reading, a set of ideas, and frameworks to help them go beyond "I like this story" or "I don't like this story," as their initial reactions It also prepares high school students for what college Literature instructors would be asking them.
The literary criticism and theory delved into the study of the different issues required to evaluate and interpret literature. Cuddon (2012) discovered that these include imitation or "mimesis"; the concept of beauty in relation to truth and goodness; the organic unity of a literary work; the moral, political, and social functions of literature; the impact of literary performance on an audience; the status and nature of language; the figures of speech and the development of a variety of literary genres, such as tragedy, comedy, epic, and poetry. At most significant, Cuddon (2012) explained that literary criticism is applied to the
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different literary texts, whereas literary theory is in full devoted to examining the principles behind such literary analysis. It is taken as a systematic explanation of practice; thus, theory gives light to the motives behind our practices; and it shows the clear connection of practice to ideology, religious attitudes, power structures, and historical constructs.
A research study of Van (2009) presented a basic review of six different approaches to the literary analysis used to evaluate and teach literature in the EFL (English as a Foreign Language) classroom in Vietnam, which is based on the colleagues' feedback. These approaches are: New Criticism, Structuralism, Reader Response, Stylistics, Language Based and Critical Literacy. The study found that students in the class are determined by their interest in the materials used by the teacher in the class, their level of persistence with the learning tasks, and their concentrations as well. The presentation of these literary approaches in the research study has shown how teaching literature can develop EFL students' motivation in learning English, while at the same time facilitating teachers' effective use of literature for improving instruction.
Consequently, Wilson (2014) also suggested ways to introduce literary theories to high school students, as a means of connecting to the various messages that the students receive in literature. It emphasizes that literacy allows people to render themselves oriented meaningfully to society, to deal with conflicting messages, to create and receive art, to become aware of the influences upon them, and most of all to make the world literate. Literature study is vital to promote multi-literacies among people; and teaching literary theories explicitly to students empowers them to recognize the raw materials in a text, and to make significant meanings.
These cited studies signify the importance of literary lenses in the teaching of the literature conducted. These studies showed affirmative and significant results on the use of literary lenses in the teaching of Literature.
This qualitative research used a descriptive phenomenological design to explain the lived experiences of the teachers that are teaching literature in Senior High School via literary lenses and to examine their ideas in the teaching of literature.
This study interviewed five (5) literature teachers in the Senior High School from the north and south of Cebu. They were chosen through purposive sampling, according to the inclusion criteria: a BSEd graduate, with English as a field of specialization, must have taught the core subject of the 21st Century Literature of the Philippines and the World for at least 2 years in any public senior high schools in Cebu covering the 2016 2017 and 2017 2018 academic years; currently teaching the subject; and they must have the willingness to participate, regardless of their age. The study was conducted in the four selected large public schools (with not less than 500 enrolled students) comprising a heterogeneous and a homogeneous group of learners in the Province of Cebu.
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The interview questions were open ended, in order to grasp in depth clarification of discussion among the key informants of the study. The content of the interview questions was validated by the experts in the university. These questions were framed into three parts, namely: preliminary questions, leading questions, and wrap up questions. Preliminary questions set the mood of the interview and sought the impressions of teachers about how they are teaching in the senior high school, the type of students they teach, and how their literature class is going so far. Lead questions deal with inquiries on the use of a literary lens in teaching literature, their awareness, application in the lesson and instruction, and their lived experiences. Lastly, the wrap up questions summarized the whole interview; and they sought to clarify some points that might be misunderstood during the interview process. Each interview lasts forty to sixty minutes, with each key informant via audio recording.
The responses of the key informants were transcribed, in order to explore their experiences. The transcribed responses were returned to the key informants to verify the similarity of their responses and those of the transcribed data. The significant phrases and statements were extracted from the transcripts, in order to identify the themes of their experiences. All emergent themes were explained in an exhaustive description; and they were supported by the exact responses or utterances of the key informants. The pursuit of this research study was made possible after the ethical considerations had been completed. Ethical protocols were followed and were adhered to before the conduct of the study, when the researcher was granted ethical clearance. To ensure the privacy and confidentiality among the key informants, they were assigned with codenames PA (Participant A), PB (Participant B), PC (Participant C), PD (Participant D), and PE (Participant E), in order to maintain their anonymity in this study.
The senior high school teachers teaching the core subject of 21st Century Literature of the Philippines and the World indicated unanimity in their voices upon expressing that Literature in Junior High School, where linguistic and grammar competencies are integrated, is different from Senior High School, where literature is taken purely and holistically in its focus without overlapping with language learning skills and concepts. This huge difference requires literature teachers to facilitate the literature subject in Senior High School with the best possible approaches.
Through a series of interviews among selected senior high school literature teachers, three major themes emerged in the data analysis. Furthermore, two sub themes in each theme were obtained in the process of the data analysis. The themes and sub themes in this study were evaluated and validated by a data analyst, who is an expert in qualitative designs and phenomenological investigations.
4.1 Theme 1: I Finding ways.
The realization of the senior high school of the Philippine educational system is still in its infancy; since it started in the year 2018, when the first batch of Grade
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12 students graduated. The situation resulted in a lack of references among teachers and unelaborated curriculum guides, which did not suggest any specific literary texts for the literature lessons. As the pioneering literature teachers in senior high school, it was challenging for them to teach the subject without any teaching guide and without sufficient references. The teachers had to take action on their own. These claims are supported by the following utterances: “.. I use the summary only because one of the problems here in a public school in DEPED is you don't have the necessary materials. Each student you really have to provide for if you have this this reading material. You have to provide for them (PB 145 149).”
“It is hard to look for literary pieces by yourself because the curriculum guide only shows the competencies; but it does not have any suggested literary pieces; and it is consequently challenging (PC, 192 194).”
Despite the concerns on curriculum and references, other concerns must also be considered. These concerns have long been identified by education experts. Nieto (2000) also suggested that the strategies, teaching activities, and approaches should relate to these diverse concerns. Thus, the attitudes and behaviors of students in their literature classes must also be considered and recognized by the teachers. Before the K 12 program, the students who have finished high school can immediately proceed to college; but now such students cannot be considered college students, because completion of senior high school must be done first. This also brought a variety of characteristics among senior high school learners. The following sub themes were also identified upon data transcription and analysis.
The Diverse Learners. The key informants from different divisions of Cebu shared the behaviors and characteristics of students in the literature classes. This sub theme refers to the characteristics of students and their behaviors during classes. Most of the students have fun in their literature classes, especially during performance tasks. Literature becomes enjoyable in situations where they can relate to the discussions. Active engagement among the learners is expressed when they suggest activities they want to do in class. This is where their identities are shown in the class, without inhibitions, and they intentionally read the texts that are being discussed. The following shows the responses of the key informants.
“.. sometimes they have fun, especially if they are asked to do performance tasks, like movie trailers (chuckles), or interpretation like a campaign or advocacy video. And when they present their outputs, they always giggle. (PC 172 176) ”
“Just like when they say: “Can we have a dance activity, as a presentation?” They have their ideas, based on how they prefer to do the performance task that suits their choice and interest. As a teacher, I give them that opportunity to create something of their own initiative (PD 30 34).”
Wu (2012) pointed out that a diversity of learning progress in the classroom exists among the students. Teachers must adopt strategies that promote valuing diversity, in order to enhance learning, given that these diversities of the students could make an important contribution to their efficient learning and critical thinking skills.
On the contrary, teaching literature to senior high school students becomes challenging at the same time, for various reasons. Comprehension problems among students become a huge burden to the teachers. Some students do not show any interest in literature classes; and slow students rely upon their classmates most of the time during written and performance tasks. Despite the diversity among the senior high school students in the literature classes, the teachers never fail to find alternatives and meaningful strategies to maintain the focus of learning among their students. The key informants show various approaches to maintaining the teaching learning process.
The Expanded Teaching Initiatives. Recognizing the different behaviors of the students in their literature classes is just the steppingstone to be taken by the teacher in the classroom. The next goal should be to find the appropriate actions to ensure learning, despite the diverse learner behaviors in the classroom. Many teachers would easily agree that for effective teaching to take place, the students must learn to think critically, develop understanding, communicate effectively; and they should manifest commitment towards lifelong self education. But for teachers who are accustomed to insufficient materials, references, and curriculum guides that need to be redefined, these teachers are bound to come up with interventions, and they find ways to deliver the competences in the literature classes.
The unspecified literary works to be covered in the subject oblige the teachers to find ways of looking for literary pieces to be discussed in the class. This situation may suggest incompleteness in the curriculum guide; however, it allows the teachers to expand their initiatives and creativity in terms of choosing literary texts for their lessons.
The length of the literary piece is one of the most considered factors by the teacher; they do not choose long texts in the class; since this leads to boredom among the students and reduces their delight in reading. Literary pieces with which students can find relevance to their lives are important; since they maintain interest throughout the discussion. Most of the teachers have their selected pieces, as references for discussions, following what they think would fit the interests of the learners. In some cases, the teachers have the initiative to blend 21st-century literature with the traditional. Classical literary pieces are also included in their sets of references. Transparently, the response from one of the key informants is as follows:
"We cannot give literary pieces to our students and let them understand on their own, without giving them strategies on how to analyze them; moreover, the curriculum guide does not have any suggested strategies for analyzing literary texts (PA 133 136)."
It has always been imperative to successfully deliver the competences of the literature subject. To uphold this obligation, the teachers shared some of the common practices they exhibit in their literature classes. The use of contextualization in literature discussion is favored by some of the teachers; since it helps the students to apply the concepts in a real setting and context. It helps learners to better understand the significance of the texts in life situations, and to develop literary appreciation. Presenting some of the videos and literary projects done by students in other schools also guided the learners in their classes and gave them a clearer understanding of the expected outcomes in their performance tasks. It serves as an encouragement for the learners to produce better outputs.
In a literature class, where the frequent use of a lecture discussion strategy would not be advisable, there is a need to exhibit varied activities in the class, in order to be very efficient. The teachers shared that they cater to the voices of the students, who suggest tasks and activities that they most preferred to do, when they are related to the texts; since this is where students become more involved in the teaching learning process.
“Firstly, I use art appreciation and life appreciation in the class; because those are the easiest. Just like in effectivism, it would be easier for them to understand the text; because they could then connect this with their own experiences (PA 224 227).”
"I show a video because I saw on YouTube a particular movie trailer made by students from other schools, somehow a project from schools in Manila. I make them view that, so that they can somehow make a comparison (PC 139 140)."
In analyzing the literary pieces, reading is an obligatory process. Teachers shared that even though students have fun in performing tasks and other activities in literature class, having the students read the literary texts frequently becomes challenging. As part of their initiatives, teachers encourage their students to read texts and even allot D.E.A.R. (Drop Everything and Read) time to students. Having a personalized set of literary works helped the teachers to discuss in class, for them to have a full mastery.
“
In fact, I use dear time. Drop everything and read, so I give them 20 minutes to read, just drop everything literally and read. In fact, I am the one bringing novels to them as reading materials... I notice that students have poor reading habits, so at least if they are given this time, no matter how limited it is, maybe somehow I could influence them to read (PC 52, 55 58, 83 86) ”
"Surely, I already have a list of a literary texts with analyses, and with discussion questions, which I have gathered in the past and it is not difficult for me to teach literature (PA 308 311).”
The expanded teaching initiatives of the teachers play a very vital role in the literature instruction in Senior High School, despite the challenges in the materials and the diversity of learners, they were able to find ways to uplift and efficiently deliver the teaching of literature among the students. San Jose (2015) identified
the teaching strategies utilized by AB English teachers in the teaching of literature. The findings revealed that lecture discussion appeared to be the best strategy in literacy instruction; and there are some teaching strategies performed by the teachers to address the varied learning skills of the students. The teacher further recommended that there must be innovation towards the current teaching strategies, in order to develop and to better achieve the desired learning outcomes; since the teaching of literature does not possess any one strategy that would fit all the criteria.
Therefore, these expanded teaching initiatives of the teachers are accepted by the diverse learners in the classroom and most of all with the other factors that affect the instruction. In general, the related studies about the diverse characteristics of the learners in the classroom would have ignited the teacher to expand teaching initiatives and to find ways.
4.2
In these present times, when the world is bounded by fact obsessed culture, the significance of literature in the classroom is sometimes questioned. In discussing fiction, for example, why are the students presented with stories; and they have their time occupied with reading books about events and things that are not even real? What if teachers would just teach them right away the things they need to know? For most teachers, these questions would appear to be too ridiculous to ask. Tondrow and Kwek (2017) added that teachers can aid students in understanding themselves and other people better in an interconnected and multicultural world, by exploring the breadth and depth of the human experience through the works of literature. The challenge of today's educators in Literature is to think constantly of many ways to be able to connect the lessons and subject issues in real life for their students, or take the risk of being labelled as teaching the subject of outdated tales.
Literature is indeed important; since it is even placed as a core subject in the senior high school curriculum; thus, any student from any kind of track would take the literature subject. The sub themes under Theme 2: I feel Lit! are the thoughts and feelings of the key informants on how they view literature. The following sub themes were determined when the responses about their feelings towards the subject were analyzed.
The essence. As the teachers shared their personal views on literature, the central idea revolved around the significance and essence of literature. It showed that the literature is all about the appreciation of life, in which self transformation is the goal. When students develop appreciation, literature then becomes something they do not just do for studying but rather something that they do for pleasure. Another essential element in literature is reading the literary pieces. Looking into the literary texts is dissecting them into more vivid details that would contribute to a better analysis of the texts, the author, the social realities, the characters, and the like.
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Wolf (2011) stated that although the teachers of literature in secondary schools view literature as a field of study or content area, the focus has been on teaching the formal arts of words and structures and inducting the learners into the literary heritage, rather than in experiencing literature as life. Literature is viewed as an inquiry into life.
Literature illuminates what it means to be human; and the aesthetic nature of literature leads to access to life's most fundamental experiences, such as hope, love, despair, loneliness, belonging, and fear. If literature is the imaginative way of shaping experience and thought into the structures and forms of language; then students are the readers who will reshape experience and will use literary language to transform life. As some of the key informants said: “Literature is basically reading. (PE 16)” “supposed to be literature should be for pleasure (PD 46).”
“Literature is about dissecting literary pieces (PC 267 268).”
The Neutralizer. Education should be grounded in more than just relaying dry information to students; most importantly, it is about fostering among the students critical thinking skills and understanding the things around us. Currently, the educational system offers an array of subjects in the senior high school that appear to be new to the learners. Some subjects would require students to engage in higher mathematical skills, namely Calculus and Statistical subjects. Other subject courses, such as research, language, and science subjects would even require students to show the utmost level of hard work, in order to grasp the concepts of these subjects. Despite the demands of these subjects on the learners, the key informants perceived Literature as the only subject that balances with the other subjects in the curriculum. Literature becomes the neutralizer in which students can learn concepts without coping with mentally challenging tasks.
“On a personal note, literature class would neutralize all the subjects. I believe there is a need for literature for students because it becomes a pity for them if they only have heavy subjects like mathematics and science. It is also literature that gives them an avenue to express themselves; and it gives a balance to their subject loads (PA 246 252) "
This unique characteristic of literature among all the academic subjects would imply that among all the subjects, it is literature that is transformative and powerful; as it provides a voice for the intensity of the readers' actions and feeling, with all its absurdity, ugliness, and beauty, something that does not emerge in other subjects. Moreover, it becomes fun for the students; as it triggers different emotions in students; and as it constantly surprises and shocks, disturbs, and provokes them into a new and heightened level of awareness of the experiences, creative and imaginative concepts, and ideas. Therefore, it helps students to achieve human potential in so many unprecedented ways.
Literature can provide almost unlimited points of perspective for the learners to be able to embark on varied activities to foster aesthetic and critical responses; not only in listening, viewing, and reading but also in discussing, performing, and
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writing. Literature can transport the learners to so many places and other times and then expose them to deeper real life values.
Literature is not only limited to what one knows and to how one knows things. It describes more about a state of mind or what is commonly known as critical consciousness much more an academic discipline that is connected to specific content knowledge.
The sub themes presented above pertain to how the teachers feel about literature based on their lived experiences in teaching the subject.
4.3
In teaching literature appropriately, a teacher must make the students decipher what is meant by the text. The role of the literature teacher does not end by just successfully making the students read the text. Most importantly, analyzing the essential meanings and concepts behind the literary pieces is a priority. Literary lenses provide a variety of methods for the analysis of literature. In most cases, literary lenses give a perspective for a substantial study of literature that uncovers multi layered valuable meanings. By literary lenses, it does not constitute the meaning of the texts, but the theories that reveal what these texts can mean to the readers.
As regards what DepEd wants to implement, the 21st, Century Literature curriculum addresses the demand that the senior high school students must investigate a wide array of multimodal texts that have equally varied contexts and styles from Philippine Literature and World Literature. This means that it is not only simply about a matter of providing them with the exposure to varied verbal and visual stimuli, but most of all in developing in the learners a critical disposition to be able to handle contemporary and unprecedented types of text and situations. Thus, the literary approach comes in to dignify these thrusts. Regarding the lesson plans of the key informants, the literary lenses used were stated and transpired in the documents.
Cuddon (2012) explained that the practice of literary lenses is applied to the different literary texts where literary theory is in full devotion to examining the principles behind such literary analyses. The literary teachers who participated in the study expressed that part of their lived experiences in teaching literature in senior high school is the use of literary lenses in their instruction. Some of them introduce literary lenses to students, as tools to understand the literature.
Based on the findings, literary theory trains and encourages students to generate new meanings of the texts by basing them on real world beliefs and experiences. It makes the students approach literary texts from multiple perspectives; and it makes them mature critical thinkers and problem solvers. Thus, it concluded that teaching literature with literary theories should help to achieve the major objectives of twenty first century education.
The following sub themes explain the literary lenses known and used by the teachers in their class during the interview sessions that transpired.
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The Known. Being aware of the literary lenses is a good start for someone who handles literature subjects. Aside from being familiar with these lenses, the teachers during the interviews even specified and named some of these lenses they commonly used and applied in the class. Teachers also believe that introducing the literary lenses is not a hard task for students; since they only choose the basic ones. This allows the learners to utilize various ways of interpreting the texts. Van (2009) presented a basic review of six different approaches to the literary analysis used to evaluate and teach literature in the EFL (English as a Foreign Language) classroom in Vietnam, based on the colleagues' feedback. These approaches are New Criticism, Structuralism, Reader Response, Stylistics, Language Based and Critical Literacy. The study found that students' motivation in the learning process is determined by their interest and enthusiasm for the materials used by the teacher in the class, their level of persistence with the learning tasks, and their concentration as well.
The known literary lenses among the key informants were mentioned in the following statements.
“Yeah, you have to use the four major critical orientations, ah, the mimesis, expressionism, the formalism, and another one, effectivism. All of these are the four major critical orientations, that you need to introduce, Only the four I usually introduce; and with the use of these four major critical orientations, I analyze the literary piece; and as far as possible, I use the four major critical orientations in analyzing the text (PA 159 167).”
The Impact. The use of literary lenses gives a huge impact to the literature instruction of senior high school teachers. It provides clear and better ways of understanding the text. Literary lenses are foundations in literature. Applying these lenses in class is effective; as they simplify the concepts; and this helps the students in analyzing the literary pieces. Moreover, it guides students when they study literature. Teachers believe that students learn best when they use literary lenses in class. Favoring the use of these lenses, the teachers also believe that there is a need to be selective; since there are several literary lenses that range from the basic to the most complex ones. Bay (2013) made mention that the success of any teaching strategy would depend on the frequency of its use in the classroom. Therefore, the use of literary lenses must be consistent in all the lessons of the teachers, when discussing the literary works and the literary lenses. There should be a routine for students when they study texts in literature subjects. These findings coincide with the following responses of the key informants: “There is a need to give clear ways and strategies for the students in analyzing texts because we cannot just give them the text and let them understand it on their own. That is why literary lenses as foundations in teaching literature provide a better way and a strategy that guides them in analyzing the texts (PA 178 182, 195 202, 208 214).”
“When I applied some theories in my classes, they were really effective. Just like ahh the reader's response would be the most common reader's response: what could be the impact of the
literature on the student, upon studying again theories, I realized that maybe this might be very helpful in understanding more about literature because this could be very effective in finding meaning in what you are reading (PB 108 111, 119 122).”
The testimonies of the key informants expressed the view that the use of these literary lenses should be the steppingstone in every literature class in senior high school. These literary lenses or approaches would ignite critical analysis among the students; and they would guide them properly in reading different literary pieces. Moreover, the inclusion of literary lenses in the reference books for literature in senior high school could be a great help for both the teachers and the students as well.
Upon evaluating the teachers' familiarity with the different literary lenses in the light of teaching literature and exploring the lived experiences of teachers in teaching the core subject of 21st Century Literature of the Philippines and the World in Senior High School through descriptive phenomenological design and by an interview guide questionnaire, the significant themes that emerged after gathering the data were: Theme 1: I find ways, Theme 2: I feel Lit, Theme 3: I teach through lenses. This study is limited to five Literature teachers in the province of Cebu; and it only based the data on their responses.
The findings of this study will be used as a basis for crafting instructional materials for literature in senior high schools. In conclusion, literature provides unlimited opportunities for students to express themselves and to learn best with appreciation and critical analysis. Furthermore, the use of literary lenses in senior high school is necessary for the references, and in the instruction, in order to be efficient in analyzing literary works.
The voices of the literature teachers emphasized that literary lenses are to be used in their instruction. Consequently, it implies that integrating the basic literary lenses in the literature references, learning modules, and books, would be meaningful for the senior high school learners. Findings also revealed that literary lenses imbibe critical activities among the learners as well. They lead the students to discover the relationship between the text and the author, and to develop a wider horizon of consciousness of the culture and social issues both from the reader and the presence of the texts. This constitutes improving the teaching of literature as an evolving discipline in senior high school. This study recommends for future researchers to investigate whether literary lenses would be applicable in teaching literature to the level of younger learners, such as junior high school and elementary students; since literature, as a subject, is also taught to these learners in school.
Bay Jr, B. E. (2013). Integration of technology driven teaching strategies for enhancing Photojournalism Course. Educational Research International, 2(2), 155 164. http://erint.savap.org.pk/PDF/Vol.2(2)/ERInt.2013(2.2 19).pdf
Bustamante,J.(2019).SeniorHighSchoolWorkImmersionPioneers.APhenomenological Study. Journal of International Academic Research for Multidisciplinary, 7(2), 66 75 https://www.jiarm.com/March2019/paper33082.pdf
Bustamante,J.(2019).ChunkingLanguageinthePerspectiveofEFLLearners. International Journal of English and Education, 8(2), 154 163 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354126273_Chunking_Language_in _the_ Perspective_of_EFL_Learners
Chun, Y. (2015). Application of Literary Theory in Teaching Literature A Case Study From “Approaching Fiction” in China Youth University of Political studies. Sino US English Teaching, 2015, 12(9), 730 735. http://doi.org/10.17265/1539 8072/2015.09.012
Cuddon, J. A. (2012). ADictionaryofLiteraryTermsandLiteraryTheories. Literary Criticism and Collections. http://doi.org/10.1002/9781118325988
Gillespie,T.(2010). DoingLiteraryCriticism:HelpingStudentsEngagewithChallengingTexts Stenhouse Publishers.
Herlina, N. (2016). Teaching Literature Through Poetry: A Shifting Reading Orientation fromEfferenttoAesthetic. JournalofEnglishEducation,Literature,andCulture,1(2), 225 238 http://doi.org/10.30659/e.1.2.225 238
Idris, F., Hassan, Z., Ya'acob, A., Gill, S., & Awal, N. (2012). The role of education in shaping youth’s national identity. Procedia SocialandBehavioralSciences,59(2012) 443 450. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.299
Knapp, J. V. (2004). Current Conversations in the Teaching of College Level Literature. Style,38(1), 50 91. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/style.38.1.50
Mustakim, S., Mustapha, R., & Lebar O. (2014). Teacher’s Approaches in Teaching Literature:ObservationsofESLClassroom. MalaysianOnlineJournalofEducational Science,2(4), 35 44 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1086201.pdf
Nieto, S. (2000). Affirmingdiversity:Thesocio politicalcontextofmulticulturaleducation (3rd ed.). New York: Longman.
Paolini,A.(2016).EnhancingTeachingEffectivenessandStudentLearningOutcomes. The Journal of Effective Teaching, 15(1), 20 33 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1060429.pdf
Rosslyn. F. (2005). Literature for the Masses: The English Literature Degree in 2004.The CambridgeQuarterly,2005,34(1), 313 322. http://camqtly.oxfordjournals.org
San Jose, A. (2015). Strategies in Teaching Literature: Students in Focus. International Journal of Education and Research, 3, 41 50. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317688529_Strategies_in_Teaching_ Literat ure_Students_in_Focus
Tondrow, P., & Kwek, D. B. K. (2017). The teaching of literature in a Singapore secondary school: Disciplinarity, curriculum coverage and the opportunity costs involved. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 37(3), 389 402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2017.1302923
Van, T. (2009). The Relevance of Literary Analysis to Teaching Literature in the EFL Classroom. EnglishTeachingForum,47(3), 2 9. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ923454
Wagner, M. (2005). Teaching Humanities in New Ways and Teaching New Humanities: Humanist. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1374/is_365/ai_n14835/447
Wilson,B.(2014).TeachtheHow:CriticalLensesandCriticalLiteracy. TheEnglishJournal, 103(4), 68 75. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24484223
Wolf, S., Coats, K., Enciso, P. A., & Jenkins, C. (2011). HandbookofResearchon Children's andYoungAdultLiterature. Taylor and Francis. Routledge.
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Wu, R., Tu, Y., Wu, R. Le, Q., & Reynolds, B. (2012). An Action Research Case Study on Students' Diversity in the Classroom: Focus on Students' Diverse Learning Progress.InternationalJournalofInnovativeInterdisciplinaryResearch,1, 142 150. Yaqoob, M. (2011). ReaderandText:LiteraryTheoryandTeachingofLiteratureintheTwenty First Century 2011 International Conference on Languages, Literature, and Linguistics (IPEDR), (Vol. 26). IACSIT Press, Singapore.
Preliminaries: The following questions will be put to the research participants after the consent has been granted.
Introductory Question
1. How is Senior High School Teaching nowadays?
2. How are your students doing in your class?
1. How do your students behave in your class, especially in literature?
2. What literary lenses/theories do you usually apply in your literature classes?
3. Why do you apply these lenses/theories?
4. Do your students learn best when you use these lenses?
5. Does this practice give an impact to the students learning literature?
6. Can you give me some experiences of this impact?
7. Do you favor literary lenses/theories as a tool in teaching literature?
1. Would you recommend the use of literary lenses in teaching literature? Why?
2. Is there anything more you would like to share about the use of literary lenses in teaching literature?
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 220 239, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.13
Received Jan 17, 2022; Revised Mar 20, 2022; Accepted Apr 25, 2022
Nur Ika Sari Rakhmawati
Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia Melia Dwi Widayanti
Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia
Awalia Nor Ramadan
Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
Rachma Hasibuan
Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia
Abstract. Recently, the question of gender has become a popular topic of discussion. Gender issues are also found in early childhood education, where male students are considered to be more active, and to dominate the class, and female students are considered to be more passive and to tend to be shy. Teachers and administrators are mostly female, and non text materials children's activity books that are used in early childhood education contain material that reflects gender bias. As a result, this study aimed to produce a textbook that reflects gender equality The study aimed to 1) develop and design early childhood education textbooks that promote the notion of gender equality, and 2) examine the suitability of early childhood education book designs that promote gender equality. The ADDIE model was used in this study, and the output was a children's activity book comprising eight themes that emphasize gender equality, and which was subjected to a feasibility test The research participants were children of 5 6 years old who attended kindergarten in Indonesia, media experts, content experts, and other stakeholders We collected data through interview, observations, and surveys. We analyzed data both qualitatively and quantitatively. The research instrument was an observation sheet. The results of data analysis show that textbooks with content that promotes gender equality are suitable for early childhood education learning processes This finding is based on material and learning tool validation, as well as on implementing the textbook with kindergarten students Thus, a children's activity book that has a clear, direct, and explicit theme of gender equality was developed for use in early childhood education. The developed activity book is expected to become an early childhood
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education reference book that does not emphasize gender roles, and promotes gender equality
Keywords: textbook; gender equality; early childhood education
Gender discourse has recently become a popular topic of discussion, not just in Indonesia, but around the world. Though the word gender has been in use for some time, there are still misconceptions about the differences between gender and sex Gender refers to characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed (WHO, 2002) Social scientists use gender discourse to examine, construct, and disseminate information about issues relating to inequalities between men and women. Discussions of gender have exposed inequalities in roles, functions, responsibilities, and even human activity areas (Hasnah, 2017) Gender is not the same as sex, as sex refers to the biological differences between men and women, whereas gender refers to “socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions and identities of girls, women, boys, men, and gender diverse people” (Congly & Brownfield, 2020) The concept of gender is defined as social sex, which means that there are differences in roles, functions and responsibilities of men and women as a result of social construction (Adriana, 2009). Gender refers to psychological, cultural and social differences between men and women, which are not based on their biological characteristics (Lindsey, 2016) Gender refers to the self identity and/or social representation of an individual, and is often aligned with being feminine, masculine, elements of both, or neither (Rushton et al., 2019; Torgrimson & Minson, 2005) In turn, sex is an objective category, or an objective biological phenomenon (Van Anders et al., 2014) Gender is a social rather than a biological construct, and varies with the roles, norms and values of a given society or era (Phillips, 2005). Being able to bear a child is, fundamentally, a function of biology, while expectations about the imperative to bear children, the nature of parenting, or the status associated with being a mother, are more closely linked to gender roles and expectations. Consequently, according to Khusen (2017), the responsibilities traditionally allocated to women (especially in Indonesia) are generally related to working at home, caring for children, and anticipating their husbands’ requirements. Men, on the other hand, are required to work outside the house to meet society’ s needs
In many ways, women ’ s status is generally lower than that of men; women may even be considered inferior to men (Putra, 2014). In some societies, among which Indonesia, women's career opportunities have remained limited, their workloads extreme, and their educational attainment poor It is this unequal situation that stimulated us to develop a children activity book that avoids gender bias and which investigates the relationships between men and women in society.
At the Millennium Summit that was held in New York in September 2000, United Nations members agreed on eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), of which the second relates to achieving universal primary education.
The summit followed the Dakar Framework for Action, on Education for All, which had, in April 2000, proposed (1) achieving universal primary education and ensuring that all boys and girls complete primary education; and (2) promoting gender equality and empowerment, and eliminating gender differences at the primary, secondary, and higher education levels (Wahyuningsih, 2018)
In the coastal regions of Indonesia, accessibility to schooling and the gender gap disparities between genders are two examples of education inequity. The failure to create meaningful and equitable learning opportunities has an impact on the relevance of education in this region (Masri, 2017). Gender also has an unmistakable influence on early childhood education. One of the gender issues in early childhood education identified by Sukesi et al. (2020) in a study in East Java is that male students tended to be more active and to dominate the class, while female students tended to be more passive and shy.
In early childhood education, educators and administrators are mainly female; there are few men This is one example of the way occupation can be ‘filtered’ by gender The societal assumption is that young children are the responsibility of women, so it is uncommon to find male educators and administrators in early childhood education. At school, gender values and norms are taught both explicitly and implicitly: through the content, through the teachers’ questions, through information supplied directly, and in behaviors that reflect the values and norms that apply to a particular society's culture. According to Khusen (2017), many textbooks used at elementary and high school levels in Indonesia distort the image of women Some of these textbooks, which are issued by the Ministry of National Education or independent publishers, contain themes that illustrate gender bias. Children's activity books that are commonly used in early childhood education also contain gender bias.
This paper reports on a preliminary study that involved 20 teachers from East Java province, Nusa Tenggara Barat province, Jambi city, Bengkulu city, and Demak city, who were participating in teacher professional education presented by Universitas Negeri Surabaya. The study found that the content of children's activity books and information offered by teachers often have themes related to the family. Thus, early childhood education emphasizes that the mother's function in the family is to cook, clean, and care for the children, while the father's responsibility is to earn a livelihood by working in an office When the subject of occupations is raised, content is often illustrated with pictures of men, and not women, in any career. These materials have an effect on the behavior of boys at home, who do not want to do housework, such as cleaning their own dishes, putting their clothing away, or putting their shoes on, because they see it as women ’s work.
The results of this preliminary study show that early childhood learning media emphasize gender roles Books that emphasize the role of gender will help children to internalize gender based values, and children will maintain male and female social roles into adulthood. In fact, if children truly fulfil their social roles as advocated by educational content, they will believe that one gender is superior to the other. Superiority means that men will tend to have more
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opportunities than women, which means men have a greater impact and salaries Boys do not feel obligated to help with housework, because they believe they do not have to; women will not feel the need to do physical labor, as this is considered to be the responsibility of men
Based on this explanation, we believe that teaching material should reflect gender equality, so that children understand gender and social relations. With the aid of teaching material, teachers can guide children’ s conceptions of gender equality. Therefore, this study aimed to (1) develop a design for a children's activity book based on gender equality, and (2) test the feasibility of a children's activity book that promotes gender equality.
2.1 Textbooks and Other Books Used for Teaching and Learning Textbooks are important in the teaching and learning process. Textbooks are books that provide descriptions of subjects or specific fields of study. Content is organized systematically, and selected according to specific objectives and learning orientations, and aim to achieve student development (Westbury, 1999). Furthermore, textbooks are books created by experts in their fields to achieve instructional purposes and objectives, consist of the materials needed for the teaching learning process, are provided with sufficient teaching facilities, and are easily understood by the intended users (Tomlinson, 2012) Teaching facilities that we intended to provide in the activity book were clear pictures and instructions the pictures would represent gender equality. Textbooks that are organized in a systematic manner will make it easier for students to comprehend the information and will promote the achievement of learning objectives. Therefore, textbooks must be arranged in a systematic and attractive way, possess high readability, be easy to understand, and comply with applicable writing conventions
Textbooks do not only influence what and how students learn, but also what and how teachers teach (Mahmood, 2011). The textbook is important in the learning process, because the information included in a textbook has the potential to improve the quality of learning. Books may be studied at any time and from any location, and they do not need any specific equipment to be used.
According to a Regulation of the Minister of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia No. 8 of 2016, article 1, there are two types of books that may be used in the learning process: textbooks and non textbooks (Kebudayaan, 2016). The regulation explains that non textbooks are enrichment books that enhance the learning implementation process and are not intended to be the main reference book. Non textbooks could be (1) Textbooks used in schools or educational institutions, but which are not mandatory reference textbooks for learning activities; 2) Texts that provide content that supplements content contained in textbooks; (3) Books that are not published in a series based on grade level or education level; (4) Publications of which the presentation is loose, creative, and innovative, so that the content is not bound by a learning process or system determined by the science of education and teaching standards; (5) Books not equipped with an evaluation instrument; or (6) Books that can be used
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as enrichment tools and teacher guidebooks (Widayanti & Abidin, 2020; Widyaningrum et al., 2015)
The non textbooks used in early childhood education are children's activity books, which are conventional teaching materials that contribute to teaching and learning and help teachers to achieve learning goals.
Textbooks are important in teaching and learning, as they influence much of the learning process in the classroom. Textbooks have to fit in with the curriculum, a school’s syllabus and also the aim and goals of teaching (Cahyani & Perdana, 2019) Furthermore, if textbooks are to contribute to achieving the learning objectives, they must align with the needs of students
Numerous aspects must be considered when designing a textbook, including ensuring that a textbook (1) is aligned with students’ needs (there should be a fit between material, the curriculum, students, and the teacher), (2) facilitates meeting students’ needs and the goals of the learning process, and (3) has a clear role as a support for learning (Suryani et al , 2018)
Textbooks must have a clear point of view, particularly in terms of the concepts, approach, methodology, and teaching strategies to be employed. A textbook must be interesting for students, in addition to being arranged in an orderly, methodical, diversified, and information rich way, because these traits will influence students' interest in the textbook. A textbook should assess, stimulate, and encourage students' motivation and creativity. A good textbook considers content, value forming aspects, motivational elements, accessibility, illustrations, and study guides In short, textbooks must stimulate a thirst for knowledge (Okeeffe, 2013).
The textbook for kindergarten teachers that was developed by this study is a textbook that has no gender bias in any of its material. The material in the textbook does not allocate tasks to a particular gender all tasks are performed by both genders and the material provided is universal. Even though the textbook was developed for early childhood learning and is able to stand on its own, this textbook is not a main reference source in the learning process. Thus, teachers may continue to use a variety of other sources of information during the teaching and learning process
Gender discourse and the concept of the equality of men and women continue to be topics of discussion and interest. The notion that a certain gender is superior is the primary cause of gender prejudice. In some countries, including Indonesia, men are seen as superior to women by society. Occasionally, this worldview is also ingrained in youngsters (Trianton, 2017). Gender based disparities in the treatment of students continue throughout the educational process, and, in social life in Indonesia, little progress has been made to achieve equality for women (Larasati, 2021).
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The term bias is defined as prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair. Additionally, according to an Indonesian dictionary, bias is a kind of prejudice, essentially an opinion formed without justification; bias may creep into scientific study during the observation or interpretation of experimental results (Suharnanik & Mahayani, 2017)
According to Hasnah (2017), gender is often confused with sex, while it is different from sex. Nasarudin Umar (1999) argues that gender is a cultural term that is used to describe the differences in roles, behavior, and other matters relating to men and women that evolve in society as a result of social engineering. Thus, gender relations, such as differential status, rights, responsibilities, and tasks in society, are traditionally determined by biological differences between men and women. According to this concept, gender bias refers to difference and prejudice created even before children can be ‘functioning’ as social creatures in society.
The quality of schools in Indonesia vary. Differences continue to exist at the level of popular or favorite, and marginal schools, and there is unequal access to education for particular social classes; there are also differences between boys and girls based on teacher assumptions (Sudarso et al., 2019). The assumption is that boys are more active and dominating in class compared to girls Studies of gender equality in education have found that an education system could grow despite its lack of gender equality (Subrahmanian, 2005), because society, especially in Indonesia, has not considered that gender equality is important in education Gender equality in education may be taken to mean, simply, that boys and girls attend school in equal numbers (Unterhalter, 2005), whereas gender equality actually encompasses not only the numbers of students, but also roles and social interactions. Men and women should have equal access to job roles and opportunities. Furthermore, good social interactions must be developed regardless of gender. Boys and girls must have equal rights to be socially active
Gender bias, that is, preference for one gender over another in social life or public policy, is widespread (Warliah, 2017). Individuals adopt social roles based on their gender men are seen as manly and powerful beings, and women are viewed as frail and in need of men's assistance. Several analyses have interpreted gender from a variety of social, economic, political, and even religious viewpoints (Tifferet, 2020; Utomo, 2020; Van der Pas & Aaldering, 2020).
Gender prejudice can be fostered in children by their immediate environment, and gender bias can be reinforced in children through parental influence. Parenting refers to the overall interaction between parents and children, through which parents stimulate their children by instilling the behavior, knowledge and values parents consider to be the most appropriate, so that children can be independent, and can grow and develop in a healthy and optimal manner (Hidayati, 2014)
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Sofiani et al. (2020) claim that gender bias in parenting could have the following effects on children's growth and development: (1) There can be jealousy between children, who compare themselves with their siblings; (2) Children can lack confidence; (3) Children can experience emotional disturbances (bad moods); (4) Children can be rebellious (difficult to manage); and (5) Children can exhibit behavioral disorders (be aggressive, hyperactive)
On a conscious level, gender influences childhood education. Gender equality as an educational basis means that girls and boys are considered equal intellectually and emotionally, and that co education is a well established principle (Heikkilä, 2020).
Education is a systematic effort that has a greater purpose than just teaching. Education may be defined as the transmission of information, the change of values, and the creation of individuals in all of their aspects. The global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the UN aim to achieve ten targets with regard to education. Of the ten targets, the government of Indonesia found seven that are in line with the Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah Nasional (RPJMN, or National Mid Term Development Plan) 2015 2019. The targets involve ensuring that all girls and boys have equal opportunities. SDG 4 (inclusive and equitable quality education for all) goes beyond access to education. It urges education policymakers to forgo gender differences relating to school enrollment, and to prioritize gender equality in education through gender responsive strategies and policies (Global Partnership for Education & UN Girls’ Education Initiative, 2019). Gender responsive education sector planning and policy is critical for promoting educational equality.
This developmental research used the Analyze Design Development ImplementationEvaluation (ADDIE) model. Branch (2010) explains the ADDIE model as follows:
ADDIEisaproductdevelopmentconcept.TheADDIEconceptisbeingapplied here for constructing performance based learning. The educational philosophy for this application of ADDIE is that intentional learning should be student centered,innovative,authentic,andinspirational
The development team of this study worked to develop a design for and test the feasibility of a gender equality based children's activity book for early childhood education The ADDIE model was chosen because it involves simple and systematic development steps, and because it is suitable for the development of media products or textbooks. Furthermore, by using the ADDIE model, the effectiveness of the book's contents and advantages were ensured
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The analysis phase consisted of two activities, namely doing a needs analysis and determining the components of the children's activity book by conducting focus group discussions for the development team and colleagues, and education practitioners and stakeholders of early childhood education Discussions were conducted to determine what early childhood education practitioners and stakeholders needed in relation to themes that would be included in the activity book. Furthermore, we also identified the needs of education practitioners and stakeholders in relation to content to promote gender equality.
The design phase started by determining the selected core/basic competences, determining learning objectives, determining themes, planning material that supported gender equality in accordance with the themes, and determining evaluation plans, and culminated in designing a children's activity book that is suitable and interesting for children.
At the develop stage, the material was compiled according to the basic competencies/core competencies, learning objectives, and the chosen themes, by inserting images/animated designs relating to the material, and doing the layout of the non textbook. In addition, material validation was carried out to determine whether the selected material could achieve the learning objectives, and whether the material supported gender equality. The material included in the textbook was evaluated to determine whether it was in accordance with the characteristics of early childhood and gender equality The next stage was implementation. At this stage, the books were tested through trials in small groups and in one on one trials with children. The evaluation was carried out at each level of ADDIE, to identify the problems and to correct them based on expert and user feedback.
To obtain the required data, three methods of data collection were used
3.1.2
Interviews were used to collect data for the needs and content analysis. Discussions and interviews took place in the context of focus group discussions
The focus group discussions were conducted once, and involved 20 participants, including members of the development team, teachers who participated in Program Profesi Guru (Teacher Competence Development Program), teachers from partner institutions, and early childhood education academics.
A survey was used to test the validity of the children's activity book that had been developed The survey was conducted with seven experts (five teachers and two lecturers) The two lecturers served as material and media experts, while the five teachers assessed whether the book was appropriate for early childhood education. The survey used Google forms to disseminate questions to the respondents
3.1.4
Observations were used to collect data during the trial implementation of the children's activity book that had been developed. The subjects were five teachers and 30 students, and the instrument used was an observation sheet that was used to report on activities while teachers and students used the children's activity books.
Several data analysis techniques were used in this study, depending on the assessment process and research equipment employed. The following data analysis techniques were used in this study
3.2.1
Preliminary study: A preliminary study was conducted to produce a field needs analysis. Data were collected through open interviews during a focus group discussion process. The qualitative data that had been collected from the interviews were analysed with qualitative analysis techniques
3.2.2
Product development: The validity results obtained from media and content experts were used to conduct a feasibility analysis of the children’ s activity book
3.2.3
Research subject: (1) Validation: A validation process by experts was required before the resulting product could be considered suitable for use in teaching and learning. Material experts and media professionals validated the children’ s activity book this study developed. (2) Implementation trial: Students at three kindergartens that had an agreement with the researcher participated in the study Five children of Idhata Kindergarten UNESA Surabaya, aged 5 6 years, participated in one on one trials of the children’s activity book that had been developed. A small group test involved 30 children from the three kindergartens in Surabaya, Indonesia
The results of this stage are based on interviews and conversations that took place in focus group discussions with educators and academics, which provided data for the analysis of the components of the children's activity book that was being planned. The participants also identified the fundamental skills and learning objectives that had to form the foundation of the gender equality based children's activity book that was to be developed The content included in the children's activity book is based on HOTS activities: high order thinking skills, the ability to apply knowledge, skills and values related to making sense and reflecting on ways to solve problems, decision making, and innovating and creating something (Nachiappan et al., 2018) Table 1 lists the components suggested for inclusion in the anticipated book
Table 1: Components of Children's Activity Book to Promote Gender Equality Display Component Description
Front and back covers 1. Paper 2. Text 3. Pictures 4. Color
1. The cover is produced on folio sized art paper with a glossy finish. 2. The cover text is formatted in Comic Sans, font size 12 14. 3. The front cover has an animated graphic design (schools, toys and boys and girls) 4. On the cover, primary, secondary, and tertiary colors are used in conjunction with solid coloring methods.
Contents 1. Core/basic competencies
2. Learning objectives 3. Use of books
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1. Core/basic competencies selected according to the characteristics of children aged 5 6 years in each development area.
2. General description to be achieved in each development scope.
(year/semester)
4. Theme
5. Material
6. Language
7. Evaluation plan
3. Children's activity books are prepared for learning activities for one year or two semesters
4. Four themes chosen for each semester
5. The material is adapted to the learning objectives and is based on gender equality.
6. The language used must be easy to understand, communicative and appropriate for the age of the child.
7. An evaluation plan must be provided to help teachers evaluate children's work.
The analysis step included soliciting recommendations for the visual appearance and formatting of the book. Core or basic competencies for inclusion were modified to involve six factors of child development, which are cognitive, language, physical, norms and religious values, art, and social emotional development The book that was developed includes a short explanation of the objectives of the book, materials and pictures that suitable for gender equality themed activity books, and instructions for working on questions, all in child friendly language.
These findings are consistent with Mintowati's (2003) advice that textbooks must be organized in a methodical and appealing way and should be highly readable, with the language employed being simple to understand and compliant with relevant writing principles.
After collecting the data at the analysis stage, a prototype children's activity book was designed according to the needs that had been identified. Figures 3 and 4 show prototype pages of the children's activity book
Figure 4 Prototype of Activity Book Content Page
The initial design or prototype of the children's activity book was developed using a MS Word application that incorporated the results of the needs analysis. Each semester of the prototype activity book for children aged 5–6 years covered four topics: Semester 1 themes are Me, My family, My environment, and Animals; Semester 2 comprises four themes: Plants, Cars, My country and The universe. Content is intended to develop social emotional, verbal, physical motor, cognitive, and creative aspects of growth. The content of the activity book is adapted to the research purpose, namely the development of a textbook that reflects gender equality. This initial design step was then taken forward to the development stage, when product validity tests were conducted using material experts and learning tools, as well as one on one and small group user testing.
At this stage, a development company developed and evaluated the product's validity A developer created a product with the appearance and substance of a children's activity book. The finished book product has an ISBN number, and has the purpose of being used by the larger community. Figures 5 to 7 show final pages after product development
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Based on observations at early childhood education institutions and interviews with early childhood education teachers, content that displays gender inequities often relates to the themes of Me and My family. On the activity sheets given to children to work on, the theme of Me generally shows a male person, while the theme My family explains that the role of a father is to earn a living while the mother works at home to take care of the house, husband and children. This finding is aligned with the opinion of Khusen (2017), that the duties allocated to women are more suitable for working at home, caring for children, and meeting their husbands' needs. Meanwhile, the duties allocated to men involve working outside the home to provide for the family's needs. To counteract this bias, the children’s activity book this study developed provides a balanced picture of women and men, and, in the My family theme, the sub theme of family members' occupations integrates an image of a woman working as a doctor.
At this stage, the product validity test was also carried out, by conducting validation with two lecturers who served as material experts. The results obtained at the expert validation stage are given in Table 2.
Core/basic competence selected for children's activity books
Selection of themes for Semester 1
Selection of materials based on gender equality
Materials with learning objectives
Material with characteristics of children aged 5 6 years
Materials compiled at the HOTS level
The material of several themes needs to be
Suggestion improved, for example in the activity of the theme My environment, the two pictures of houses must be quite different.
Based on the results of expert validation, it was concluded that all the components contained in the children's activity book were suitable for use, though the aspects of the material compiled at the HOTS level needed to be improved. In addition to validation by experts, two lecturers and five early childhood education teachers also validated the textbook, and their feedback is given in Table 3.
28% 42% 28% 0%
Aspect of assessment 4 3 2 1 Description Front and back covers include attractive drawings and colors
The illustrations relate to the learning objectives 0% 56% 28% 14% Need to improve the illustration to match learning objectives.
The language is simple and easy to comprehend 42% 42% 14% 0%
Instructions are easily to understand 28% 42% 28% 0% Book can be used for self study 28% 42% 14% 0%
Book is suitable for children between the ages of 5 and 6 years
70% 28% 0% 0%
Layout, typography, and graphics are all appropriate 0% 56% 42% 0% The layout and illustration need to be adjusted. Typography needs to be fixed.
Content is structured and systematic 42% 56% 0% 0% There is a component of evaluation 98% 0% 0% 0%
The data in Table 3 shows the percentage of answers on each item. The experts assessed the feasibility of the textbook at Each item gets above 50% categorized as good and very good 71% or each item, though two items related to layout, typography and illustrations need to be improved
The implementation was carried out twice, namely in one on one and small group trials First, the participants in the one on one trial were five children
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aged 5 6 years and their teacher. The teacher observed the activities of children, one by one, while the children used the children's activity book. The teacher's task was to complete a checklist on an observation sheet. The results of the observations during the one on one trial are given in Figure 8
The one to one trial found that 32% of the activity books was suitable for use by children, 27% was easy to understand, 23% was suitable for self study and 18% of the materials were about gender equality It is clear that some children need the teacher to guide them, and could not do the work themselves. It was found that the material about gender needed to be repeated, so that children understand the concept of role division within the concept of gender. Therefore, the researcher revised the product based on the problems identified and suggestions made by the teacher, and tested the book again in a small group trial. The subjects in the small group trial were 30 children at an early childhood education institution The test results are shown in Figure 9
The results of the small group trial show a slight increase in each item from the one-on-one trial of the children’ s activity book, and the increase is significant
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For this reason, the children’s activity book that was piloted in small groups need to be revised and then retested with a larger scale field test to finalize the gender equality based activity book
The development of a gender equality based children's activity book was done according to the ADDIE model, because ADDIE is suited for developing educational products, such as media and textbooks, and the model has only a few development phases. Furthermore, the ADDIE model is useful because the stages are clearly defined, which facilitates implementation of effective training tools (Kurt, 2018). In the first step of the project, the development team focused on determining the textbook's reliability if a product. According to the results of the initial study, gender inequality is rife in the world of education, including early childhood education
These results are supported by Westbury (1999), who explains that textbooks are books that contain descriptions of material about a given subject or field of study; the content is organized systematically and selected according to specific objectives, learning orientations, and students' development to be assimilated Widayanti and Abidin (2020) elaborate that textbooks must meet the following criteria: (1) The material contained in the textbook must be capable of guiding and facilitating the learning process; (2) The material must be presented in a coherent, systematic, straightforward, and easy to understand manner; (3) The language used must be clear, meaningful, and legible; and (4) The typography and illustrations must reflect the textbook's contents. The non textbook must be adapted to the user; for example, if the users are children aged 5 6 years, the language used should be suitable for their age and readily understandable to them
Gender inequality occurs in society as a result of people's prior assumptions about natural and non natural human characteristics (gender). Gender differences are, therefore, associated with a community's perspective, as though they have become as permanent as the biological characteristics possessed by all humans. Women are traditionally assigned housework, whilst men are expected to work outside the house. This occurs as a result of the perception that women are physically weak, and possess sensitivity and patience. Men, on the other hand, are thought to be physically stronger and more resilient. On the basis of these ideas, stereotypes (negative labelling) about particular genders have developed, which has led to discrimination against women (Fakih, 2008). Furthermore, this assumption restricts women's ability to work outside the home, as they are not permitted to so
Due to the perception that women are better suited to working at home, there is an imbalance in the distribution of duties within families or other social settings This causes a double burden. As it is women's gender role to manage the household, many women must shoulder the domestic workload alone, and if women work outside the house, their burden will be doubled (Fakih, 2008).
The content of the children’s activity book developed by this study focuses on the themes of Me, My family, My environment, Animals, Plants, Cars, My
country and The universe. The exercises in the textbook illustrate the equality of men and women, in order to instill in children the principles of gender equality. This textbook can be used by both boys and girls.
This research resulted in the development of a textbook without gender bias in its learning contents. Material experts and media experts agreed that the textbook's content is realistic. This is consistent with the opinion of Suryani et al. (2018), namely that non textbooks must meet a number of criteria, namely, they must (1) Correspond with student needs (there should be a fit between material, the curriculum, students, and teachers), (2) Reflect the usage of the non textbook (present or future), (3) Facilitate student needs and learning processes, and (4) Have a clear role as a support for learning.
Therefore, it is expected that the children’s activity book that resulted from this study and which is based on gender equality would become one of the reference books in early childhood education that prioritizes gender equality from an early age.
Children up to 8 years old are in a golden age, so called because, at this age, children can absorb a great deal of information and stimulation from their surroundings. Consequently, they must receive the best possible stimulation for their developmental aspects. All the developmental aspects of children must be handled, including children’ s perceptions of gender bias and social equality. Children have to understand that, regardless of gender, they have equal opportunities. Gender bias and social inequality are issues that need to be understood by children. Problems related to gender inequality in education must be counteracted, therefore, the concept of gender must be addressed during play activities in early childhood education, and in children's activity books. We conclude that the activities in the textbook, which are presented through a number of themes (Me, My family, My surroundings, Animals, Plants, Cars, My country and The universe, are feasible for use in early childhood education
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 240 254, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.14
Received Feb 11, 2022; Revised Apr 15, 2022; Accepted Apr 25, 2022
Abstract. Covid 19 has presented many challenges within various sectors. The education sector, for instance, was forced to re evaluate learning, moving from interactive face to face learning to remote learning The selected Higher Education Institution (HEI) students appeared unprepared for the sudden move toEmergency Remote Learning. The aim of this paper is to examine students’ perceptions and experiences of engaging remotely to provide academics with insight into the management of remote learning from now on. Connectivity issues were a serious concern. These logistical constraints had a huge part to play in student engagement when connectivity was lost during online sessions. Whilst under the restraint of the pandemic and remote learning, examining the level of student engagement under the social constructivism framework would prove valuable in determining the extent to which the students engage in learning accounting related subjects that are practiced under the ERL A qualitative approach was employed to conduct the study A sample of 20 students was randomly selected for the interviews. Some participants found that ERL was convenient and that they engaged more with their learning while other students felt that because of the practical nature of accounting related subjects, face to face learning was a more suitable approach. The study recommends that the institution has to carry on providing the students with the learning tools. Full utilisation of the LMS is used to close the gap encountered by those who prefer face to face learning The study was limitedtoLevel2studentswithintheAccountingand Finance Department of the selected HEI.
Keywords: Constructivism; COVID 19 pandemic; Emergency Remote Learning (ERL); Face to face learning; Student engagement
The Covid 19 pandemic has spread worldwide Lockdown and online teaching and learning have been put in place in South Africa to flatten the curve and control the transmission of the disease (Pokhrel & Chhetri, 2021; du Plessis, 2020)
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The declaration of a state of disaster by the president of South Africa in the middle of March 2020 led to academic institution closures, which meant that face to face teaching and learning could not continue. Universities have suspended all face to face sessions including laboratories and other learning activities and have obliged students to study remotely from home (Rahiem, 2020). Universities had to adapt to virtual and digital techniques because of the unexpected shift from classrooms in many parts of the world.
The gap between the rich and poor seems to have widened during virtual and digital teaching due to the following factors: (i) a lack of resources such as access to educational technologies and the internet and (ii) insufficient physical spaces to conduct home based learning among poorer families (Ferri et al., 2020) Many believe that after the pandemic, the adoption of online distance learning will continue. A new hybrid educational paradigm is predicted to emerge and given the digital divide, new educational approaches may worsen inequality gaps (El Said, 2021)
The selected HEI had to find various temporary ways of delivering content to cover the syllabus to save the academic year The researchers who are lecturers collaborated to assess the effect of ERL on students within their second year of study within the Accounting Department of HEI The HEI students appeared unprepared for the sudden move to ERL required by the Covid 19 pandemic (hereafter referred to as the pandemic). Because of the pandemic, Level 2 students within the Accounting department seemed to use a surface approach to learning. Students may have experienced connectivity issues; devices used to access online material may limit its content and/or a conducive learning environment may be impossible. The selected HEI students appeared unprepared for the sudden move to ERL (Parker et al.,2021). Academics were equally apprehensive: ensuring student engagement in a remote setting is a challenge and cannot be taken for granted. Connectivity issues are a serious concern, and they are logistical in nature. If connectivity is lost during an online session, this can have a significant impact on student engagement. (Czerniewicz et al., 2020) We cannot assume that online facilitation, assessments, and participation are successful. Under the constraints of the pandemic and remote learning, examining the level of student engagement would prove valuable in determining whether or not students are engaged Students’ perceptions and experiences with remote engagement will now provide academics with insight into the management of remote learning.
The goal of this research is to establish the learning approach of students at the HEI whether Level 2 students within the Accounting Department use a surface level approach or a deep level learning approach under ERL. This research will take into account the students' experiences with the ERL to see how the change affected their learning. Before the pandemic, the teaching strategy was for lecturers to discuss the theory behind the study before illustrating it with practical examples. This technique aided lecturers in determining if students had grasped the theory or not as well as identifying areas of concentration to aid learners in gaining a better comprehension (Moon, 2013). Students were also asked to do formative assessment tasks to help them better understand the subjects taught to them (Carless, 2018).
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In this study, we attempt to answer the following questions to understand the students’ approaches to learning:
• What were students’ perceptions of ERL?
• To what extent have students engaged in ERL?
• How has student engagement changed during ERL?
In the past, accounting lecturers (at the selected HEI) used face to face lectures where they would perform step by step practical activities for students to grasp the concepts of the topics taught. Thereafter, accounting lecturers performed face to face formative assessments, which allowed students feedback for lecturers and students to understand the concepts that needed more practice, concepts that students performed well in and it allowed for lecturers to understand whether they have achieved their goal of encouraging a deep learning approach. As a temporary metric, the ERL is described as a shift from face to face and hybrid instruction to a remote approach without deliberation or planned for recurriculation (Rahiem, 2020). Hence, the study will review the literature on ERL, student engagement, and challenges faced by students under ERL to understand the impact of ERL on accounting related subjects.
Hodges et al. (2020) define ERL as a temporary change of instructional delivery to a new mode in responding to a crisis During the pandemic, e learning tools were critical in assisting schools and universities in facilitating student learning during the shutdown (Subedi et al., 2020). Staff and student readiness must be assessed and supported while adapting to the new adjustments. This is in line with Gonzalez Ramirez and Mulqueen, (2020) who noted that students need to conform to the adjustment of ERL The context of the study by the above authors was at a College in the USA where students’ main mode of learning was traditional face to face learning. These students faced challenges during ERL such as the quality of the internet connection and finding a quiet space and finances Learners with a fixed mind set had a hard time adapting and adjusting to new situations but learners with a growth mind set did so effortlessly.
Learning Management Systems (LMS), online video communication and social media platforms are some of the most commonly used Information and Communication Technology (ICT) platforms for ERL (Jena, 2020; Rahiem, 2020). As an effect of the pandemic, the selected HEI has adopted a Learning Management System (LMS) known as WiseUp as its main vehicle to conduct assessments. Other web based and social media platforms were used to facilitate teaching and learning.
2.2
Student engagement is defined as the student’s psychological investment in an effort directed towards learning, understanding, or mastering the knowledge, skills, or crafts that academic work should promote (Castro and George, 2021) The literature reveals that students find some difficulties to meet the mentioned student engagement definition as their homes are unaccommodative for ERL (Parker et al., 2021),. The social economic issues with online learning are the
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difficulty in self regulating work, study, and time, as well as the unclear instructions for navigating the online learning environment. (Gonzalez Ramirez, et al. 2021). Such social economic problems have been seen in many studies on students’ engagement with learning while studying from home (JISC, 2021; Kaisara and Bwalya, 2020). Most of the students at the selected institution are from financially poor backgrounds where they do not have a dedicated area to study and at times they share their bedrooms, which is an inconvenience. That then necessitates the investigation of this study to find out the student engagement in the selected institution.
Students at the chosen HEI are largely from rural villages, and they are accustomed to conventional face to face learning because they are classed as quintiles 1 to 3 (Mestry, 2020) Quantile 1 to 3 represents schools from the lower quantiles. These schools obtain most of their funding from the government as these are schools that accommodate students with a poor financial background (Hompashe, 2018) Under ERL, students are required to have a device such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops. The selected HEI, like many other institutions in South Africa, made provisions for laptops for all students who could not purchase them. Arthur Nyarko et al. (2020) measured the skills readiness in Ghana through the activities performed with mobile devices and this is also relevant to South Africa. This has shifted the attention to eLearning technologies and platforms for effective student participation, which may be out of reach and out of budget for many students. Electricity challenges experienced in the rural areas from which the selected HEI students are from led to less student engagement with the lecturer and the course content The existing literature covers challenges experienced in urban areas where conditions are different from those of people living in rural under developed cities. These are unique challenges faced by students at the selected HEI. Furthermore, there is a small amount of accounting related literature. Because of the practical nature of financial accounting, we focused on students' engagement with the lecturer and course content during the pandemic.
Technology, connectivity, and accessibility depending on synchronous attendance during remote teaching are very difficult even in America a so called 1st world country (Schlesselman, 2020). It is pertinent for the institutions of higher learning to take great care in how they prepare this generation for the 21st century as Generation Z (Gen.Z) influences the workplace as well (Seemiller & Grace, 2018) Most participants in the target population fell within this generation. Therefore, it was assumed that if they are provided with the necessary resources, they will engage with their learning without the major training needed. With students at the selected HEI, this was not the case The students at the selected institution arrived from schools where computers were inaccessible, so, even when they were provided with them, they required training and experience to operate them effectively.
Constructivism emphasises that students construct their knowledge According to Fry, Ketteridge and Marshall (2009) through constructivism, students can fit
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new understanding and knowledge into and with, old understanding, thus, extending and supplementing their knowledge. Constructivist perspectives commonly emphasise how students’ prior knowledge and understanding shape their interactions with new learning and the understandings which they construct. Learners are not passive but active learners. The way students learn is influenced by their emotional, social, environmental, physical, and historical context The curriculum of accounting related subjects in level 2 builds from the knowledge of level 1. Using constructivism is unintended to change with the move to ERL. The difference between traditional face to face learning and ERL is within the emotional, social, environmental, and physical context of social constructivism. As the study's aim is to evaluate student engagement under ERL, this framework allows the study to have a base for assessing how the student engages and its extent.
The study intended to understand the impact of ERL on second year Accounting and Finance students to understand their perceptions, challenges, and possible solutions they developed. This was deemed required because of the COVID 19 pandemic; the selected institution transitioned from traditional face to face teaching to ERL, which focuses on teaching and learning through the use of technology (Hodges et al., 2020)
To accomplish the study objectives, a qualitative method was selected and interviews were done with 20 students. This method allowed the participants to express themselves on the objectives of the study. The study finds this method useful because participants could express their opinions, the challenges they faced while using ERL, and suggest what would work best for them as Biggs and Tang(2011) suggested that to capture students' attention, we must teach in the way they learn.
Following the homogenous sampling method, the study randomly selects twenty participants from Accounting 2 students. Homogenous sampling minimises the sampling error as the chosen participants are equally affected in their learning by the pandemic. Literature suggests that this method is more relevant to the participants who are the practitioners (Suri, 2011). For this study, accounting 2 students are the practitioners as they are actively involved through ERL due to the pandemic.
The study developed three main questions with two sub questions for each. The interview questions were sent to the participants and given a deadline date to send back their responses. The interview was initially planned to be done verbally using the Microsoft Teams application, however, due to connectivity issues, sending the questions to the participants was the best option and it allowed easy access to the participants (Taherdoost, 2016)
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Data collected from the participants was then captured in a tabular format on an excel spreadsheet according to the nine questions that were sent to participants. It was then coded in order to classify it and be able to interpret the participant’s views on each question.
5.1
The study developed the following three interview sub questions to understand the respondent’s views on the first objective of the study: (1) Can you describe your experience of ERL? (2) How have you adapted to ERL? (3) How has your experience differed from face to face? Then, the study developed three coding when interpreting the data collected from the participants of the three questions: (a) Good/effective, (b) Convenient and (c) Difficult. The research findings are presented below:
5.1.1
5.1.1.1 Results
“My experience with ERL has been good so far as I am already used to how it is going” (P1). While other participants indicated that their experiences with ERL were difficult, “my experience with ERL was difficult at first because I didn’t understand how to make use of blackboard” (P2). (P7) stated, “My life is pretty routine now, got used to everything.” A similar view was shared by (P12) who mentioned that they were “happy with the ERL because it’s been something I’ve always wanted.”
5.1.1.2
Most participants provided a mixed view on ERL being good or difficult. This is consistent with the study conducted by Gonzalez Ramirez & Mulqueen (2021) who noted that there were varied emotions towards ERL. ERL has proved convenient for most participants as they learned at their pace and at their convenient time. A study conducted by El Said (2021) confirmed the experiences portrayed at the selected HEI, as in the study conducted where students praised the mobility of the portal used to conduct ERL, allowing them to access material on different devices and from different locations.
5.1.2.1
(P8) stated that “I adapted very easily. (P10) stated, “I fully adapted to it because I did not struggle with how to log in and how to join meetings”. (P13) indicated that “this pandemic put unprecedented stress on students, for the first time using ERL, they did not know how to use it, but now students know how to use it”. (P4) stated, “In the beginning, it was difficult because we were used to face to face class but now, I’m used to ERL and I enjoy it”.
5.1.2.2
Based on the above results, it was noted that for most students, the adaption to ERL was smooth sailing.” This resonated well with the definition of Generation
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Z provided by Grace Bridges (2019). This generation group worked well with technology Other participants found the adaptation to ERL to be challenging because of the connectivity issues experienced coupled with the fear of the change from conventional face to face learning to ERL. In a study conducted by Grether et al. (2020), students found the switch to an online course format challenging as the study was performed at a small university in a small state in the USA. The study conducted by this author explored the personal and academic challenges of students because of ERL.
5.1.3
5.1.3.1 Results
(P5) stated that when “it's face to face, you will hear silly remarks when you ask a question.” (P5) further noted that “when it comes to tests, still, you are rarely disrupted because you are in a quiet place all by yourself unlike having someone mumbling next to you in an exam room.” (P9) stated “like financial accounting is not the type of module that can be taught online because it needs a lot of questioning and clarity from the lecturer Taxation also needs face to face learning because we don’t afford the textbook, so it makes it hard for us to understand the examples online.”
5.1.3.2 Discussion
Most of the participants embraced the change to ERL compared to traditional face to face learning. Many participants have noted that they had fewer distractions during ERL According to the study by Castro & George (2021), although students were impacted by the pandemic, students enrolled in more courses This study was conducted in the USA where students had quiet spaces during ERL. This resonates with students at the selected HEI who have found similar areas to work in. On the other hand, there were a few participants who noted that their experiences related to ERL were more difficult According to Rashid & Yadav (2020), educators need to re imagine modes of curriculum planning, development of e content assessment, and reporting, which may have been developed without proper planning considering the ERL. This was consistent with the views of participants as if the curriculum planning for accounting related subjects were carefully developed, participants would not have experienced these challenges.
The general perceptions of the students with ERL are a mix. Some participants felt good and found that ERL was convenient for them. Even those participants who perceive ERL to be difficult because they felt that accounting related subjects needed to be taught face to face. It would be interesting to have the academic's view of how their online lessons were conducted to accommodate the practical nature of the modules.
5.2
In data interpretation relating to student engagement, the researchers came up with the following coding of the data collected: (a) better engagement, (b) same engagement as face to face, and (c) worse engagement. Below are the findings according to the sub questions developed:
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5.2.1
5.2.1.1 Results (P4) has indicated that ERL “makes things better when it comes to understanding because we have recorded class. We also got used to technology. We are now able to also download textbooks from our laptops so that we don’t have to buy textbooks. Our lecturers also provide slides, which are very helpful for preparing for tests and exams.” (P9) said that “I have not fully engaged with it because we have not been trained for it”.
5.2.1.2
Participants have indicated that they have engaged with ERL to the extent of class attendance and online assessments. Many participants have noted that their engagement with ERL has been better than face to face as it allows students to learn at their pace. This is supported by a study conducted by Castro & George (2021) who have noted that students prefer the more balanced approach to learning that the pandemic provides. Due to the practical nature of accounting related subjects, it is comforting to find that students engage effectively with their learning in ERL. Other participants have stated that they have engaged with learning to the extent that is required to complete the course. According to Affouneh et al., (2020), because of the unforeseen nature of ERL, students confronted many obstacles preventing them from embracing the change. This is in line with the research conducted in the USA where students also had obstacles to overcome even though it is a more developed country. Not being able to use technology well is an obstacle that many of the students at the selected HEI mentioned.
5.2.2.1
(P2) has noted that “I have been watching videos more and more, practising and attending every class. Asking questions where I don’t understand”. (P11) stated that they “make notes, participate in class whenever the lecturer is asking questions and make sure that I listen attentively” (P14) stated that “ERL is a bit challenging because sometimes we find ourselves in very stressful situations whereby the laptop automatically submits the exam while we have not even started writing.”
5.2.2.2
Most participants have remained engaged in class by isolating themselves in a quiet place where there is a good internet connection during the attendance of online lecturers. Participants have also listened to lecture recordings and ensured that they have practised study questions to be prepared for class and to ask questions in class. This is confirmed by a study conducted by Khlaif et al. (2021) that these technologies have shaped the students’ engagement with learning through new features that have enabled instructors and learners to communicate synchronously and asynchronously. Other participants have found it difficult to remain engaged in class as the internet connection was unstable or where the system has kicked them out. That alone was a distraction to students as it causes them to panic. Load shedding and network problems were also some challenges
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they faced. Some students received data (from the university) later than others, which made other students fall behind in terms of their academics.
5.2.3 How would you describe your engagement with ERL?
5.2.3.1 Results
(P3) mentioned that ERL is “efficient since you can attend class from anywhere if you have access to the internet” (P13) has stated that “students working online in groups may use discussion boards to post responses to an in class activity and solicit peer review and feedback.” Others have experienced no changes in their student engagement as (P1) has indicated that “my engagement has always been good” and “regarding this ERL, we still see no challenges faced” as stated by (P15). (P10) said that “When the lecturers are lecturing, the ones that are joining late disturb the lecture”.
5.2.3.2
The participants have experienced a mixed view related to their student engagement under ERL. Some participants described their engagement to be better than face to face learning. This is consistent with the study by Gonzalez Ramirez & Mulqueen (2021)who noted that students worked more effectively during ERL because of technologies. Some participants described student engagement as more difficult under ERL because of disturbances experienced.
The second research question has concluded that the participants displayed an adequate extent with their learning under ERL. They are used technological tools used for online sessions. Although they had to purchase data for connection, which is costly in South Africa (Naidoo, 2020; Rossouw, 2018), they have saved, on the other hand, as they have used downloaded textbooks. Electricity and other technological glitches affected them negatively if the participants engaged with their learning. It is understood that in some areas where the participants resided, there was no electricity and the connectivity was a challenge.
5.3
In understanding changes in student engagement, the study coded the data collected from participants as follows: (a) Being patient with the connection and other means to have better connectivity, (b) communication, (c) self study and (d) not yet resolved. Below is the presentation of the findings:
5.3.1.1
On a positive note (P2) noted that “It has changed because I've been participating more and putting more effort and co operation.” (P5) was congruent with this as the participant said, “I had to learn to be independent when it comes to checking on regular basis whether when to attend classes and when it came group assessments, I had to spend more time communicating with my groupmates over the phone to get the work done on time, whereas when we were on campus, we would just meet after hours and threw whatever we were tasked to do as a group.”
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5.3.1.2
The responses from the participants were mixed as they indicated that ERL brought significant change while others reported the opposite. As some of the participants noted that ERL advances their engagement in learning, Parker et al. (2021) disagrees as the authors state that ERL has isolated and limited the engagements amongst the peers. As 2021 was the second year since the introduction of ERL, the participants adjusted to it hence they point out some positives outcomes Participation was key in accounting related subjects as their practical nature required participation to have a better understanding. Independency is another indirect skill that was encouraged by ERL as students learned to push themselves.
5.3.2
5.3.2.1 Results (P3) said “The system occasionally freezes in the middle of a test or submits an incomplete test. Compared to a face to face setting, some lecturers do not offer us adequate time to address questions.” (P13) noted, “Sometimes its network problems. Sometimes the test kicks you out while you are writing.” (P18) states that “A lecturer was being too fast when lecturing”. (P5) confessed the following challenge “There was a time when people were renovating where we reside; that was very disruptive because they were using machines that were very noisy.”
5.3.2.2
Some participants claimed that ERL brought more challenges for them to learn well. One inhibitor mentioned by the participants was connectivity issues. This was captured well by various authors as the obstacle to learning in the ERL (Ahmadon et al., 2020; Czerniewicz et al., 2020). Sadly, these challenges could be costly to the participants, especially when they were writing assessments.
Connectivity was the leading challenge for most of the participants. Understandably so, some of them were residing in rural areas where the signal was poor. They could pick up the frustration, especially when the assessment was conducted. What was concerning was the connectivity more than the subject they were about to be assessed on. The home environment was another impediment for some participants. Shin &Hickey (2021) agreed that at times, the home environment was unsuitable for learning online. Interestingly, the participants raised something that the instructors were unaware of the pace of the lecturers. During online lectures, the instructors rushed the lecture as they were familiar with the content of the lecture material.
5.3.3
5.3.3.1 Results (P1) said, “By making sure I am patient, also try to always find the good connection because that's always the problem. Without a network, there is absolutely nothing I can do. I stay calm trying to find a good connection and also before I write, I make sure that all things I am going to use are good.” (P10) reported that “We kindly communicate with those lecturers we have difficulties with through our class reps. I download the files uploaded by the lecturers to be on my device so that I can use them whenever I require them.”
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The participants suggested several possible solutions to the challenges that were encountered under ERL. Patience was one of them. Recording the live sessions was a fruitful exercise as the recorded sessions were meant for those students who failed to join mainly, they could catch up afterward as they can download or view the recorded session. Besides the data provided by the institution, they made means to have a back up in case it is used up. As the lockdown restriction levels were reduced, the management in the selected institution allowed students back to their residences. This may serve as one possible solution to the connectivity challenges. Several participants appreciated that move as it was stressful for them to be isolated in their homes with unstable internet (Shim & Lee, 2020) It was also suggested that moving back to traditional face to face would be a solution.
The study’s conclusion on this question was that ERL increased the participants’ independence, communication, and time management. Participants followed proper channels of communicating their challenges to ERL. The management's decision to allow students back to their respective residences minimises the connectivity issues. No solution was suggested when connection glitches occurred during assessments and understandably so because this issue was mainly on the management side to guide on what needed to be done in such cases.
Before the Covid 19 pandemic, the mode of teaching and learning used by the selected HEI was traditional face to face with a fraction of blended learning. The constructivism theory of learning was monitored well by the facilitators as they facilitate their sessions face to face. Students could construct knowledge on their own and the instructor took them through the new concepts at the second year level. The move to ERL detached the interaction that was enjoyed by all participants before, hence, the study was necessary to establish the effectiveness of the constructivism theory by assessing the students' learning approach under ERL. Some participants felt that ERL was convenient while others perceived it to be difficult and felt that face to face learning is more appropriate for accounting related subjects. Participants have displayed adequate use of technological tools used for online sessions although some participants were negatively affected by the lack of electricity and connectivity. ERL increased the participant’s independence, communication, and time management. Furthermore, the study reveals that constructivism is still effective under ERL. Students could still engage with their learning and peers effectively
The study was limited to the perceptions of level 2 students within the Accounting and Finance Department at one Campus of the selected HEI The study was not extended to all registered students and/or academics at the selected HEI and therefore, provides a glimpse into the students’ experiences.
This study deploys a qualitative method to collect data from participants. In the future, some studies may make use of quantitative or mixed method to broaden the scope of participation. The study targeted the major subject of accounting
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qualification, which is the most practical. It is then recommended that an exploration of all modules by accounting students, including those who are theoretical, be conducted to understand students’ engagements, the extent, and challenges that might be experienced. Covid 19 also impacted how the instructors facilitate their teaching and this study was not extended to that. Therefore, a future study can be conducted to understand the facilitator’ s side. Further research on both facilitators and students may be undertaken. A new methodology may determine whether the outcomes will be the same as they were using the method used in this study.
Because of the study, it has been noted that although some participants enjoy ERL, other participants prefer traditional face to face learning. To accommodate both modes of learning, it is recommended that when a new topic is introduced, it is done face to face and further engagement with the topic is done online. This encourages a more blended learning approach as we are unaware of when the pandemic will end.
It is also recommended that management produces a detailed guideline for teaching, learning and assessments conducted online due to the unstable internet connection experienced by participants.
The following individuals are acknowledged for their contribution to the completion of this paper: Prof. Moyra Keane, Dr Jenika Gobind, Mr Danie De Klerk, and Dr RajohaneMatshedisho.
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Appendix 1
Research Topic:
The influence of the Covid 19 pandemic Emergency Remote Learning (ERL) on Level 2 students in the Accounting department.
Interview:
This interview is intended to serve, as a data collection tool for the intended research titled The influence of the Covid 19 pandemic Emergency Remote Learning (ERL) on Level 2 students in the Accounting department undertaken by Accounting and Finance lecturers.
The information shared will be treated with confidentiality and will only be used for the purposes of this study. Your participation in this study will assist the researchers in meeting the research objectives. To achieve the research objectives, this study will address the following research questions:
• What were students’ perceptions of ERL?
• To what extent have students engage in ERL?
• How has student engagement changed during ERL?
Thank you so much for your participation.
A. Bobo, F. Jurie, L. Mlawu, and O. Gqokonqana
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Can you describe your experience of ERL?
How have you adapted to ERL?
How has your experience differed from face to face?
In your view to what extent have you engaged in ERL?
What have you done to ensure that you remain engaged in class?
How would you describe your student engagement with ERL?
How has your engagement changed during ERL?
What are some of the challenges you have faced?
How have you worked around these challenges?
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 255 275, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.15
Received Feb 26, 2022; Revised Apr 20, 2022; Accepted Apr 25, 2022
Abstract. Nowadays, as Nature and Biology online learning evolves towards Internet technologies, questions arise as to how students with different general intelligence factors cope with online learning and how students with disabilities respond to challenges including adaptation to online learning. A study was conducted to examine the challenges that students with disabilities faced during Nature and Biology online classes. The research was carried out through a combination of quantitative (N=162 students; Grades 5, 6, 7, and 8 of primary school) and qualitative approaches (N=12 teachers). Using the Mann Whitney U test, it was clearly shown that the g factor of students’ intelligence was not identified as a significant predictor (p>0.05) for successful online learning. Furthermore, teachers of students with disabilities were interviewed extensively to identify how students with disabilities respond to the challenges of online learning. Consequently, it has been shown that students with disabilities can progress as well as other students when working in an online environment. Similarly, teachers’ responses indicate that while being supported by the environment (involvement from parents and teachers), students with disabilities successfully respond to the challenges of online learning.
Keywords: Biology classes; g factor; Nature classes; online learning; students with disabilities
Students with disabilities are those students who show certain developmental difficulties and who are unlikely to reach or maintain a satisfactory level of health and development. Therefore, they need additional support from the environment, education, and care alongside suitable instruction (Bouillet, 2010). There are three categories of students with disabilities in the Croatian education system: 1. students with developmental difficulties
* Corresponding author: MilaBulić,mbulic@ffst.hr
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
1.1. students with physical, mental, intellectual, and sensory impairments
1.2. students with a combination of several types of listed impairments and disorders
2. students with learning difficulties, behavioral and emotional problems
3. students with disabilities due to educational, social, economic, cultural, and linguistic factors (MZO, 2021).
The transition to online learning presented a special challenge for all, especially for students with disabilities and their teachers. Online learning differs from f2f instruction in its structure, environment, teaching methods, content presentation, communication, and cooperation among all stakeholders in the educational process (Serdyukov, 2015). Developed digital competence of students and teachers is necessary for successful work in the online environment. In addition to digital competence, other factors are important for the success of online learning, such as the students’ g factor, measured by intelligence tests (Gottfredson, 1998). The general factor of intelligence, the g factor, stands behind all intellectual tasks (Spearman, 1904) and thus explains the connection between performance on intelligence tests and school success. Gottfredson (1998) states that IQ test results strongly correlate with educational success, so it can be said that intelligence is a major predictor of success (Karbach et al., 2013; Weber et al., 2013). Working with students with disabilities is a challenge for teachers in all areas of education, especially in STEM subjects, and this is the foundation of society's development today. The teacher should help students develop scientific competence and a conceptual understanding of teaching content in the field of science, which is a demanding task in regular f2f teaching, and even more so in the online environment.
Therefore, the purpose of this research was to see whether students with disabilities and with various general g factors of intelligence can successfully participate in online classes of Nature and Biology. The experiences of the interviewed teachers, who had the chance to monitor the students' work directly through a series of activities in the online environment, also contributed to a better understanding of the researched issue.
This comparative study will hopefully contribute to the limited existing knowledge of challenges faced by students with disabilities in the online learning of Nature and Biology.
2.1. Students with developmental difficulties in the educational process
Working with students with disabilities is a special challenge for teachers in the classroom, and in recent years in the online environment as well. When adapting to online learning, a supportive environment is extremely important, which includes the support of the family, expert staff, and above all, the support of teachers. An appropriate supportive environment helps students with disabilities to achieve educational outcomes, increases their motivation to work, and raises their self confidence. Research confirms that students who receive this type of support find it easier to fulfill their school obligations and develop work habits
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and organizational skills (Hebebci et al., 2020). In addition to the above modes of support, the intelligence of students proved to be a significant predictor of success in an educational setting. Intelligence is used to denote a standardized set of cognitive abilities as defined by Charles Spearman (Sternberg, 2019). In his Two Factor Theory of Intelligence, in addition to the general g factor, Spearman (1904) proposes a specific s factor of intelligence that refers to a certain area (Sari et al., 2020). The general or g factor of intelligence, which includes multiple cognitive abilities, describes the ability to think and learn. Almeida et al. (2021) state that research on a sample of Portuguese students (n = 4899) aged 5 12 showed that the general or g factor of intelligence affects students' school success, with the impact of this decreasing during schooling. Although the g factor is a predictor of academic performance, other cognitive components can also act as contributors Other research also shows that a person’s intelligence is a predictor of achievement and success, and not vice versa (Deary et al., 2007). General intelligence explains 50 60% of total achievement, and the rest consists of other elements such as self engagement, motivation, conscientious work, a supportive environment, self confidence, learning methods, work habits, motivation, and the quality of teaching (Gottschling et al., 2012).
A commonly found outcome in all research on traditional and online teaching is that teachers are an important factor (Lathifah et al., 2020). Modern teachers implement integration and inclusion in their work and competence is expected when working with students with disabilities. They contribute to inclusion if they become acquainted in advance with a students' strengths and weaknesses and prepare a supportive classroom atmosphere. High quality teachers should also possess the skills to work with students with disabilities in the online environment; regularly monitor their online work; intervene, if necessary (Rice & Carter, 2015); implement appropriate individualized educational programs (Marteney & Bernadowski, 2016); help them develop social skills in the online environment; and adapt the curriculum to students with different special characteristics (Crouse & Rice, 2018). Therefore, special attention should be paid to the education of future teachers so that they can support their students with disabilities in the virtual environment.
The COVID 19 pandemic has changed lives and education around the world, and the need for ICT in education has come to the fore when traditional teaching, with its typical face to face (f2f) contact, has moved from the classroom to an online environment in many countries (Basilaia & Kvavadze, 2020; Dozhdikov, 2020) Bozkurt and Sharma (2020) state that online teaching is characterized by “distance in time and/or space” and allows teachers to teach and interact with students. The Carrillo and Flores (2020) study highlighted the need for a pedagogical aspect of online education that integrates ICT as support in teaching and learning. During the COVID 19 pandemic, teachers used ICT support in various ways in online teaching, such as a communication channel, as a teaching aid, and for the evaluation and organization of teaching. Several platforms for working with students have also been designed (Stenhoff et al., 2020) as the introduction of
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digital technology in teaching facilitates the learning and teaching process for students and teachers.
Online learning has its advantages and disadvantages (Lapitan et al., 2021). The advantages include access to online classrooms 24 hours a day, the possibility of synchronous and asynchronous communication, and access to Internet information that can be used to help achieve desired educational outcomes (Fatonia et al., 2020). The disadvantages of online learning can be seen in the insufficient digital competence of students or teachers; without computer literacy, posted e content becomes useless. Technical problems may also occur related to the technology used, such as Internet access, computer availability, and use of certain applications (Yazcayir & Gurgur, 2021; Varela Gonzalez, 2021), as well as students’ lack of self responsibility where responsibility should be taken on (Bulić et al., 2019). Alongside teachers, it is important to involve expert staff in working with students with disabilities in the online environment to achieve students' full potential (Thomson, 2016; Stenhoff et al., 2020), as evidenced by research (Börnert Ringleb et al., 2021). Solely online teaching can be as successful as traditional teaching and can be used when students for various reasons cannot attend classes (Bulić et al., 2017).
2.3.
Today, the world recognizes the exceptional importance of scientific education because the role of world scientists has been crucial in finding answers to the problems caused by the COVID 19 pandemic. Therefore, it is important to encourage science competence in the STEM area (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) from the earliest age (European Commission, 2020; Nistor et al. 2019). Science is often taught as a single subject that, by integrating the contents of Biology, Chemistry and Physics, helps students to reason logically, think critically (Patonah & Rahardjo, 2021), and understand natural science concepts.
In Croatia, student competence in natural science develops in the school subject Nature and Social Sciences in grades 1 4 of primary school, in Nature in grades 5 and 6, and in Biology, Chemistry, and Physics in grades 7 and 8, when students have two hours per week for each subject. On the subject of Nature, students are introduced to the research and knowledge of nature, and on the subject of Biology, they learn about living beings. A constructivist model with active research learning is important in these classes, along with the proper use of information and communication technologies (ICT). As research shows that students’ interest in the natural sciences is declining (Foppoli et al., 2018), it is necessary to find new ways and methods in schools to teach science. Several studies suggest that science education can be improved through the use of technology, personal computers, smartphones, tablets, and various software and mobile applications (Kalogiannakis et al., 2021; Ekici & Erdem, 2020). This is also confirmed by the OECD report on innovation in education (Vincent Lancrin et al., 2019). This is essential when working with students with disabilities who require special adjustments
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During the COVID 19 pandemic, in an online environment, all Croatian students used computers and accessed the online content which indicates that they had a sufficiently developed digital competence. The research by Bulić and Blažević (2020) indicates the high motivation of primary school students to work in an online environment, confirming that students consider learning Nature and Biology important. Studies on the impact of ICT on students with difficulties (Tassé et al., 2016) show there is a need for research that monitors students with disabilities in their online activities.
The integration of students with disabilities into regular classes takes place through cooperation between teachers and expert staff in the educational rehabilitation profile. To investigate the factors that affect e inclusion, the University of Genoa (Italy) designed a qualitative study involving 785 teachers. Effective e inclusion has been shown to depend on technology, family teacher collaboration, online teaching strategies, and individualization of working with students with disabilities (Parmigiani et al., 2021). The results of the Indonesian survey on working with students with disabilities, conducted among teachers of educational and rehabilitation profiles, parents, and students, indicate the challenges encountered in online teaching. Parents were hampered by a lack of coordination and communication and limited time in which to monitor students. Students point out boredom and a lack of their own abilities. Teachers mention difficulties in adapting materials, evaluating student progress, and a lack of school support (Supratiwi et al., 2021). The results of a study by Schuck et al. (2021) conducted among the expert staff of the educational-rehabilitation profile also emphasize the importance of partnership between the school and family. The partnership is manifested in mutual socio emotional support, the provision of feedback to parents, the implementation of educational content, and the importance of mutual understanding.
The present study aims to provide and integrate quantitative and qualitative approaches to investigate how students with disabilities respond to online learning challenges. To achieve this, a g factor of intelligence was determined for 162 students who took part in traditional and fully online classes in Nature and Biology, while their success in achieving educational outcomes was monitored. It was hypothesized that there was no statistically significant difference in the achievement of educational outcomes concerning the g factor of student intelligence and the applied methods of teaching both traditional and online classes.
Twelve teachers of Nature and Biology were interviewed, who shared their experiences of working with students with disabilities in the online environment. In a semi structured interview with teachers, the four research questions were asked:
1. How have students with disabilities adapted to Nature and Biology classes in an online environment, with respect to their age, gender, and school success?
2. How much has the supportive environment affected students’ school success?
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3. How much have the work habits and organizational skills of students with disabilities changed during online classes?
4. How have online classes affected students’ self confidence and motivation?
A mixed method approach is used to answer the research questions.
4.1. Quantitative part of the research
4.1.1. Sample of respondents
A total of 162 students in grades 5 8 of the primary school participated in the quantitative part of the research.
Table 1: Sample of respondents
Grade Total number of students 5 38 6 42 7 44 8 38 Total 162
4.1.2. Sample of instruments
To realize the quantitative part of the research and obtain answers to the posed hypothesis, the following instruments were used: pretest of knowledge, a written test of knowledge I, a written test of knowledge II, and Standard Progressive Matrices.
A pretest was given to all students to establish the initial level of their knowledge on selected topics in Nature and Biology and to determine student success after traditional and online learning. The research (the present study) was conducted by working on two lessons, and a total of eight lessons were uploaded on the Moodle learning platform. After the first unit, students wrote the written test of knowledge I, and after the second unit, they wrote the written test of knowledge II, and eight different written tests were posted on Moodle. Tasks in written tests were formulated in such a way as to examine the required educational outcomes of these lessons. Crooks (1988) distinguishes three levels of cognitive achievement: 1st level reproductive knowledge; 2nd level understanding and application; and 3rd level problem solving. Therefore, these written tests of
knowledge included questions of all cognitive levels. During online classes, students wrote tests in an e form in the IT classroom, and during traditional classes in the regular classroom.
The Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) or Raven’s Progressive Matrices is the name of a test designed by John Raven (Raven et al., 1994). SPM is considered one of the best measures of g factor or general intellectual ability factor (Gardner et al., 1999). For children aged 6 to 17, Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) are used, which contain tasks progressively grouped by difficulty, hence their name. The SPM results are most often presented in centiles. The scale consists of 60 tasks, where problems are divided into five series (A, B, C, D, and E) and each series contains 12 problems (one part is missing, and the respondent needs to find the right part among several offered parts). The five series also provide five options for capturing the ways of thinking needed to solve the problems posed and to provide five progressive measurements of the respondent’s ability for intellectual activity. To keep the interest of the respondents at the required level and to avoid exhaustion during the test, each problem is printed on the page in bolded letters, which are precisely drawn and pleasant to observe (Raven et al., 1994).
“All respondents, regardless of their age, are given the same series of problems, in the same order, and they are told to work at their speed, without interruption, from the beginning to the end of the scale. The overall result of the respondents is an indicator of her/his intellectual ability” (Raven et al., 1994). During the SPM test, there is a psychologist in the room with the students where they work quietly and individually. In the introductory section, the psychologist provides instructions and explains that one part of the illustration is cut, and that each of the patterns fits into the space, but only one offers the correct solution. A psychologist then shows participants the exact part and solves the first 5 patterns together with the respondents. If the respondent is unable to solve these first 5 patterns, the test is stopped. If the respondent solves the first five tasks, they continue to solve 60 tasks in silence for 60 minutes. In the case of this research, the overall SPM testing procedure lasted 16 hours. The tests were reviewed by a school psychologist who tested the students. She distributed, corrected, and interpreted the tests. The test had a total of 60 points, with one point for each task. Then she grouped the students according to the test results into one of the following categories: intellectually superior, clearly above average intellectual abilities, average intelligence, clearly below average intellectual abilities, and reduced intelligence (Table 2). Two students with an individualized approach were assisted at all stages of the research.
Degree Intellectual abilities
Result I Intellectually superior 95 centiles and above II Clearly above average intellectual abilities 75 centiles and above III Average intelligence Between 25 and 74 centiles
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IV Clearly below average intellectual abilities 24 centiles and below
Centiles indicate the position of an individual test result on the normal distribution curve (Gaussian curve)
Degree I or “Intellectually superior” if the result is positioned in 95 centiles and above for persons from the same age group.
Degree II or “Clearly above average intellectual abilities” if the result is positioned in 75 centiles and above.
Degree III or “Average intelligence” if the result is between 25 and 74 centiles.
Degree IV or “Clearly below average intellectual abilities” if the result is positioned in 24 centiles and below.
Degree V or “Reduced intelligence” if the result is positioned in 5 centiles and below (Raven et al., 1994).
4.1.3. Description of the experimental procedure
In the context of the quantitative section of the research, which was conducted before the COVID 19 pandemic, the g factor of intelligence was determined for 162 students in higher grades of primary school (subject teaching). According to the g factor of intelligence, students were divided into 5 qualitative groups: intellectually superior, clearly above average intellectual abilities, average intelligence, clearly below average intellectual abilities, reduced intelligence. Students of each class learned one lesson traditionally in a classroom with a teacher, and the other unit, Nature and Biology, was carried out online, without face to face contact with a teacher. After each unit, the students wrote an exam Prior to the quantitative part of the research that used the ADDIE model of instructional design, teaching contents of the teaching units were designed, developed, and implemented/posted on the Moodle platform. All the necessary research measurement instruments and lesson plans for each individual lesson and each teaching unit in all grades were made. With the aim of testing the measurement instruments, a pilot study was conducted in two classes, which showed that the instruments are reliable and valid. During the online classes, the students followed the lessons of Nature and Biology in an IT classroom and did not have face to face (f2f) contact with a teacher. The students accessed the teaching contents posted on Moodle, both in school and at home, when and for how long they wanted. They created passwords and were instructed on the basics of working in Moodle for two school hours for each class group, which lasted for 16 school hours in total. Throughout the research, students were able to contact the teacher by email, Moodle messages, or by asking questions on the Forum.
4.1.4.
The students were divided into 5 groups according to the g factor of intelligence measured by the SPM test. Intellectually superior students and students with clearly above average intellectual abilities were considered as one group (ABVAVRG) while students with clearly below average intellectual abilities, students with reduced intelligence, and students with average intelligence were in another group (BLWAAVRG). We calculated the variable of difference between
the results of the respondent as a member of the control group (when participating in traditional classroom teaching) and the results of the respondent as a member of the experimental group (when participating in fully online classes) in the written test. Using the Mann Whitney U test, we examined the difference between the defined groups of respondents in the calculated variable of differences. The analysis was carried out separately for grades 5, 6, 7, and 8. The data were considered significant if p<0.05. All results were calculated using Statistica 12.0 software (StatSoft, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA).
4.2.1.
For the qualitative section of the research, 12 Nature and Biology teachers of primary school students with disabilities were selected. The research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. All parents were informed about the research and signed an agreement that the child was able to stop participating in the research if required, without consequences. Equally, each teacher who participated in the qualitative section of the research signed the participation agreement.
4.2.2.
The data collection technique in the qualitative section included a semi structured interview with 12 randomly selected teachers from different primary schools in the Republic of Croatia during distance learning in 2020. An interview is a structured and purposeful conversation in which the researcher collects data for further analysis and interpretation (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009). Yin (2016) argues that a qualitative interview can be semi structured or unstructured. The researcher only determines in advance the topics or issues to be discussed to get a detailed respondents' perspective.The interviewing technique was chosen to obtain the data appropriate to the research questions. The data collected by the interview served as the material for the analysis based on which the conclusions were made. After listening to recorded interviews, word for word transcripts were made and prepared for the data analysis. Next, the transcript was read to thoroughly ascertain the teachers’ comments. This was followed by open coding of the transcript and the organization of a formal database the transcribed data from the interview were divided into four categories, each of which related to one research question. The analysis of the collected material helped determine the connections and relationships between the obtained data.
4.2.3.
In the context of the qualitative section of the research, individual interviews were arranged with twelve teachers of Nature and Biology employed in primary schools in Croatia. The interview with the teachers was conducted at the faculty. For the purposes of the semi structured interview, questions were prepared in accordance with the research questions. The interviews were recorded and lasted an average of 60 minutes per participant.
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4.2.4. Research data processing methods Transcripts of interviews were made for the qualitative part of the research. In the conducted research, open coding of data was used through the organization of a formal database and the division of data according to the research questions.
In the quantitative section of the research, the final Nature and Biology grades of 162 participants were analyzed. It was established that 35.2% of students achieved excellent success, 36.4% very good, 23.5% good, and 4.9% sufficient. None of the students had an insufficient final grade in these subjects. Students with an individualized approach due to various difficulties in work also achieved satisfactory success in Nature and Biology.
The research aimed to check whether there is a statistically significant difference in the achievement of educational outcomes regarding the g factor and applied teaching procedures, and whether all students can progress in an online environment. Using the Mann Whitney U test, the difference between the defined groups of respondents in the calculated variable of differences was investigated. The analysis was carried out separately for grades 5, 6, 7, and 8. Table 3 shows the results of descriptive statistics of the variable of differences in student performance when participating in traditional teaching and online learning in grades 5, 6, 7, and 8, along with the results of the Mann Whitney U test of comparison of two student groups in the difference variable. It was to be expected that the students of the ABVAVRG group (intellectually superior and students with clearly above average intellectual abilities) would cope better in the new situation compared to the BLWAAVRG group. However, the results of their written tests show that online learning in grades 5 and 6 is also suitable for students of average and reduced intelligence, because they also show progress. Very similar results were obtained with students in grades 7 and 8 because students of both groups progressed or regressed equally; it can be said that all students achieved equally well in online classes.
Table 3: Results of descriptive statistics and Mann Whitney U test for the variable of differences in the results of the student as a member of the control group and as a member of the experimental group for all grades
Grade Group
5
6
Descriptive indicators Mann-Whitney U test AS med min max U Z p
ABVAVRG 1.06 1.00 1.00 3.00 158.50 0.50 0.62 BLWAAVRG 0.86 1.00 1.00 2.00
ABVAVRG 1.09 1.00 1.00 3.00 168.50 0.04 0.97 BLWAAVRG 1.07 1.00 1.00 4.00
7
8
ABVAVRG 0.30 0.00 2.00 2.00 162.00 0.21 0.83 BLWAAVRG 0.44 0.50 1.00 3.00
ABVAVRG 0.30 0.50 2.00 2.00 110.00 0.98 0.33 BLWAAVRG 0.14 0.00 2.00 2.00
Index of variables: ABVAVRG (intellectually superior students and students with clearly above average intellectual abilities); BLWAAVRG (students with reduced intelligence, students with clearly below average intellectual abilities, and students with average intelligence)
From Table 3, it can be seen that the level of significance (p level) for all grades is higher than 0.05 (p> 0.05), which indicates that there is no statistically significant difference in the progress of students in the ABVAVRG group compared to the BLWAAVRG group, and they progressed or regressed equally. It can be said that online learning of Nature and Biology provides all students an equal opportunity to progress in their work and achieve the educational outcomes clearly stated in the subject curriculum. The results of the research showed that students of a lower g factor (categories of reduced intelligence and below average intelligence) and students of average intelligence can progress as well as intellectually superior and clearly above average intelligent students upon full participation in online classes of Nature and Biology.
The results of the research showed that students with different g factors can successfully complete online tasks in a virtual environment if they have the support of teachers who apply an appropriate individualized approach in the online environment, as was the case in this research. Students with appropriate content adjustments and an individualized program in traditional classes were offered the same individualized program in online classes along with constant support from teachers and parents. The obtained results also correlate with research that indicates that a person’s intelligence is a predictor for success and achievement (Deary et al., 2007).
This aligns with the requirements of the school, so it is quite understandable that IQ is positively correlated with school success (Almeida et al., 2021). However,
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intelligence is only one of the factors influencing school success. This research also shows that the impact of students’ characteristics is important because some students, despite being of average intelligence, achieve excellent success due to conscientious and regular work on tasks and supportive parents. Putri et al. (2020) emphasize that the attitude of parents is an important prerequisite for the success of online learning (Lathifah et al., 2020), which proved important in this study as parents of students in all eight grades were thoroughly acquainted with the planned research and the expectations placed upon students. They provided help and support to their children. Contrary to this, research has shown that there are students with above average intelligence who achieve minimal educational outcomes because they do not work hard, do not complete homework, are often careless during class. Bao (2020) believes the possible lack of digital literacy is a negative effect of online learning. As such, this research was preceded by detailed two hour instructions for all students that taught how to work effectively in Moodle. For students with disabilities, all instructions for working in the Moodle system were written in detail. We can thus stress the importance of the organization of teaching, which should enable the progress of all students in accordance with their abilities. Research by Latifah et al. (2020) shows that teachers are an important factor in traditional and online teaching and that they need to train students for independent work and the active acquisition of knowledge. The teacher formulates different types of tasks for all students, especially for those with individualized approaches, creates different types of tasks, monitors their progress, helps them if they encounter ambiguities by providing them with the necessary assistance and support in their work, and provides regular and timely information on their work and progress (Bulić & Kostović Vranješ, 2019).
Moreover, we integrated a qualitative approach to determine how students with disabilities respond to the challenges of online classes of Nature and Biology. We therefore conducted a semi structured interview with teachers about their experiences during online learning.
Following the research questions, four thematic categories based on the obtained data were studied: a) the impact of age, gender, and school success of students with disabilities on adaptation to the online environment of Nature and Biology classes, b) the impact of a supportive environment on the success of students with disabilities in an online environment, c) work habits and organizational skills of students with disabilities in an online environment, d) self confidence and motivation of students with disabilities in an online environment.
The impact of age, gender, and school success of students with disabilities on adaptation to Nature and Biology online classes
Regarding student age, the analysis of the obtained data on the adaptation of students with disabilities shows how eight teachers stated that older students (in grades 7 and 8) adapted to online learning better than younger students (in grades 5 and 6). Teachers see the reason for better adaptation in “... more developed digital competences of older students compared to younger ones.” Other teachers did not notice any differences. Regarding gender, seven teachers believe that there is no difference in the adaptation to online learning of students with disabilities,
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and others indicate that girls have adapted better than boys because “... girls are more successful, more regular and more specific, and boys generally do not follow given instructions ” Teachers’ observations are also confirmed by studies that reveal how female students achieve better results than male students in the field of digital literacy (Gebhardt et al., 2019; Fraillon et al., 2020). In addition to age and gender, it was important to examine how students with disabilities and with different school success adapted to the online environment. In working with such students, it is important to know the individual differences that led to difficulties in the digital environment (Rocha et al., 2012). Seven teachers state that the school success of most students with disabilities was better than in classes where they had f2f contact due to “... the recommendation of the Ministry of Science and Education that students be not examined in writing but only orally in addition to evaluation of student activities and projects.” During the oral examination, the teachers did not see any differences in school success because “... students answer via video call...” so the grades remained the same. Teachers who conducted written tests, however, state that “…written tests in the form of a quiz yielded much better results than the written knowledge tests in regular school environment...”, but some teachers point out that the success was “unrealistically better because the parents helped them, but for the wrong reasons...” so the students “.... copied or solved tasks, which could be seen from the handwriting, but also wrote projects and essays, which is evident from vocabulary that was not appropriate for students of this age.” Teachers’ perceptions are consistent with research showing that ICT improves school performance if used properly to support active learning (Kalamković et al., 2013)
The impact of a supportive environment on the success of students with disabilities in the online environment
The supportive environment during the online classes was related to family support during learning, as well as support by expert staff and teachers. Many scientists highlight the importance of cooperation between family and school for student success, especially when it comes to students with disabilities (Vrkić Dimić et al., 2017), and particularly in an online environment (Börnert Ringleb et al., 2021). Ten participants in the study stated that parental support at home had a great impact on the work and success of students with disabilities because “... parents often asked for an explanation of work instructions when they were not clear to their children...” but added that sometimes it was inappropriate because “...according to the formation of sentences and the structure of the papers, I conclude that parents did homework instead of students.” Two teachers point out that “...some parents did not support students in working in an online environment, so such students joined virtual classes very rarely ” On the other hand, research by Kolak et al. (2021) shows how parents are satisfied with online learning, but that their involvement is higher with younger students and in the case of more children in the family, although more children in the family leads to a greater independence of students (Hebebci et al., 2020). The teachers also state that “Students who could not attend distance learning because they could not cope with it, visited a school speech therapist who helped them with the necessary tasks.” However, it is worrying when teachers say that they did not have the support of the expert staff in adapting their classes to the online environment for students with disabilities. The support of expert staff in working with students
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with disabilities in the online environment is important, as well as students’ education (Börnert Ringleb et al., 2021) and cooperation between educational workers and family (Stenhoff et al , 2020; Thompson, 2016). This places additional demands on teachers to adapt to the online environment, especially when adapting materials at the level of the needs and cognitive abilities of students with disabilities (Varela Gonzalez, 2021). Adjustments require additional time and commitment on the part of teachers (Sablić et al., 2020), and those teachers who had a higher level of technical knowledge were able to provide more effective individual support to their students (Aarnos et al., 2021). The teachers interviewed expressed their support for students with disabilities in different ways: “... using digital tools, video lessons, recording experiments, quizzes, worksheets with fewer questions, PPT presentations, adjusted practical motivating works .... “; “... additional time out of class to further clarify unclear content (via ZOOM, with parental agreement), extended time for writing a test, giving instructions via WhatsApp...”; “... more frequent use of the drawing method than the writing method, introducing work in pairs, joining the student with his/her better peer (so called instructional work) who lives near or in a virtual environment depending on the situation.” They also state that students rarely asked for additional help from teachers as they were provided with clear instructions. Students only mention asking for help related to the use of technology: “... how to join online classes via ZOOM ...” or “... how to hand in a task, for example ” Research participants cited a number of technology related problems, which correlates with other studies on disruptive factors in the implementation of online teaching (Varela Gonzalez, 2021; Yazcayir & Gurgur, 2021). All the above requires teachers to have a developed digital competence, as Batarelo Kokić (2020) points out, stating that the COVID 19 crisis has developed new perspectives for teacher training.
Work habits and organizational skills of students with disabilities in an online environment
According to teachers, the impact of online learning on the development of work habits and organizational skills of students with disabilities was different. Some students who were active during traditional classes remained active in the online environment, some became more regular, while others became less regular. The teachers state that there were also “... students who were left to fend for themselves, so it was necessary to invite them many times in private to complete the task and seek the help of homeroom teachers and pedagogues.” Here, we can see the importance of engaging parents in helping with homework writing (Vrkić Dimić et al., 2017). They also assume that the students were more persistent because they received a grade for class attendance and accuracy but note that “...their work habits were better, but I hope this refers to the students, not the parents...”. The students’ organizational skills also improved in different ways: “... some were encouraged by distance learning to work more regularly, motivated by grades for activities”, while others point out that “... some of them were really on vacation, happy to have parental help they can rely on in learning.”
In order to further motivate students to complete their homework, especially in the online environment, it is important that teachers help students with external control difficulties given that they lack the “living word” of teachers in online
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classes (Aarnos et al., 2021). The guidance and support of teachers is vital in the education of students with special needs (Yazcayir & Gurgur, 2021)
Self confidence and motivation of students with disabilities in an online environment
The motivation and self confidence of students with disabilities in an online environment are essential for a smoother adjustment to the teaching process. The use of ICT will help the students increase their self confidence and motivation if technology is adapted to the students, but other research suggests that an inappropriate use of ICT can cause countereffects (Saad et al., 2015). Primary school students show a high motivation to work in an online environment and consider learning Nature and Biology as important (Bulić & Blažević, 2020). Some teachers state that students were more motivated because of their teaching methods, and some of them think that they were less motivated because they had a hard time coping with learning in an online environment, but also because “… with this kind of work students are quickly satiated”. They state that some students “... got the impression that online learning is a game without rules, obligations, and consequences and this makes them more relaxed in the implementation...”. However, the following answer is certainly encouraging: “... better teacher student communication created a closer relationship and that therefore students do not have brakes, which reduces the uncertainty and fear of mistakes.” To further motivate students with disabilities, it is recommended to use as many materials that stimulate the senses such as image, sound, and video, as well as computer games (Matijević, 2017). The online environment has affected the self confidence of students with disabilities in different ways. Half of the teachers think that it has increased students’ self confidence, some believe that it has remained the same, and some do not notice the differences. They see an increase in self confidence in “... self effacing and insecure students in the classroom, who pleasantly surprised them with more open communication, regularity, and work habits in online learning, which resulted in a successful grade and higher self confidence.” They see the reason for lower self confidence in insufficiently developed digital competences, i.e., “...failure in coping with the digital surrounding ”
Students with lower g factor (category of reduced intelligence and below average intelligence) and students with average intelligence equally progress and regress in online classes in Nature and Biology compared to intellectually superior students and those with above average intelligence. It can be concluded that online classes provide equal opportunities to all students, regardless of their level of intelligence, allowing room for improvement for students of lower intelligence
The experience of teachers who taught online Nature and Biology to students with disabilities shows that older students fared better due to better digital competences, as well as girls compared to boys. They note that the academic performance of some students with disabilities has improved mainly due to oral examinations and assessments of student activity, and even point to unrealistically high grades as parents completed homework instead of students.
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However, it can also be seen that a supportive environment facilitated by family and teachers ultimately played a key role in students’ adaptation to online learning. Teachers implemented individualization and content adjustments in different ways using different teaching methods and strategies. The result of such an approach was manifested in good organizational skills as well as the appropriate work habits of students with disabilities in the online environment. All the above motivated the students to perform their duties, and some even developed a stronger self confidence.
There are multiple implications of the research as the results obtained can be used to improve future work surrounding students with disabilities in the online environment. Based on the obtained results, teacher practitioners gained insight into the importance of a supportive environment for working with students with disabilities, cooperation with expert staff, and having well designed didactic methodological individualized materials for students. In addition to a supportive environment, it is important to find different methods and strategies enriched with different sources of knowledge to enable students to achieve learning outcomes. Although family support in the online environment is essential, parents should be made aware of the differentiation between helping students with disabilities with their homework and completing students’ homework on their behalf. When completing work on behalf of children, parents ultimately reduce a child’s learning opportunity, despite believing this may be of help. This presents a challenge for teachers as they need to develop evaluation competencies in the online environment in order to objectively assess what students have actually done; overinvolvement from parents in this manner undermines the teaching structure.
The advantage of the research is that teachers and scholars have received a better introduction to the state of educational practice in working with students with disabilities in the online environment. The advantage is that as the g factor of intelligence was determined for all students before the research, there is additional objectivity to the research results. The quantitative and qualitative sections also provided a better insight into the researched issues. An additional advantage is that students and teachers participated in the research, and the topic of online learning of Nature and Biology was viewed from both perspectives. A characteristic of this research is that all the teaching contents posted to Moodle were designed by a biology teacher and followed the curriculum and the required educational learning outcomes.
It should be noted that there are some limitations to this study. A limitation of the research, and what also acts as a recommendation, is that parents could be included in the survey to allow for an analysis of their perspectives on the work of students with disabilities in the online environment. Expert staff should also be included due to their role in working with students with disabilities, and it should be investigated how they provided help and support to these students during online teaching. It is recommended that similar research be conducted in areas other than science to assess what impact the s factor of intelligence has on student outcomes in the online environment.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 276 291, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.16
Received Feb 6, 2022; Revised Apr 12, 2022; Accepted Apr 30, 2022
Abstract. The current context on virtual education has provided a plethora of studies investigating educational institutions’ response strategies to remote and online learning formats. However, to provide a much grounded description of the realities in the field, this study exploredtheroleofteachersinthevirtuallearningenvironmentthrough their narratives reflective of their experiences. Furthermore, it employed a qualitative narrative and descriptive research method anchored on the tenets of Husserlian descriptive phenomenology Six higher education professors from different colleges and universities in Central Visayas, Philippines served as the participants of the study. Data were collected from in depth interviews done virtually via Zoom. Based on participant narratives, the following emerged as themes: changes, challenges, and chances, respectively, in all the teaching learning phases, from preparationandimplementationtoassessment.These changes, challenges, and chances shared by the participants have shed light on teaching being a multifaceted profession, putting emphasis onteachers as innovators of change. Thus, it is recommended that colleges and universities should establish an institutional based framework for emergency remote teaching. The framework should highlight policies on virtual education, upscale and upskill teachers, address learning losses, and promote strategies to build resilience in students and teachers.
Keywords: glimpses of teaching; teacher experiences; teacher roles; virtual learning environment; virtual teaching
The unprecedented shift made by educational institutions from face to face instructional delivery to virtual teaching and technology enhanced learning has left school administrators, faculty, parents, and students in a quandary as to how this will impact the worldwide educational arena. The current context has caused
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
the frantic and abrupt launching of policy initiatives since schools have been closed and people instructed to stay at home. Higher education institutions (HEIs) in the Philippines have implemented proactive measures to ensure that learning still takes place despite the situation.
When COVID 19 resulted in the closure of schools worldwide, the education sector made a great leap from face to face teaching and learning to remote teaching and digital learning. The changes brought by the pandemic have been observed not only in the use of technology in education but also in pedagogical aspects. Academic institutions have been compelled to respond to the challenges by implementing appropriate and timely restructuring to continue to provide education and sustain the continuation of student academic progress (Amir et al., 2020). There are four memorandum orders (MOs) for HEIs in the Philippines related to the current situation, one of which is MO no. 4, series of 2020. MO no. 4 contains guidelines on the implementation of flexible learning and teaching options, approaches, strategies, systems, pedagogies, and modalities in higher education programs by all private and public Philippine HEIs (Republic of the Philippines. Commission on Higher Education [CHED], 2020). The government has initiated certain measures for alternative teaching and learning to still take place. For instance, the Commission on Higher Education (Republic of the Philippines. CHED, 2020) through CHED MO no. 4, series 2020 stipulated the guidelines on the implementation of flexible learning. It calls for HEIs to explore various innovative learning modalities that are customized, flexible, and responsive to the different needs and current situation of the learners.
Online learning includes synchronous sessions, where lectures are delivered in real time virtually. There are also asynchronous sessions, which may include but are not limited to pre recorded video lectures, tasks for skills reinforcement, and other assessments which are time independent (Oztok et al , 2013, in Joaquin et al., 2020). In some schools, students are categorized based on the availability of devices and internet access. Students are given the opporunity to choose their mode of learning or mode of instructional delivery used the teachers. Students may opt for either solely online or offline or where modules are used. However, catering to all the three groups may be challenging for teachers with regard to conducting synchronous classes, designing asynchronous activities, and creating the module.
During the pandemic, teachers resorted to virtual teaching almost immediately. Virtual teaching is teaching that happens in a virtual classroom, which refers to an online learning environment, with the use of technological tools such as computers, laptops, tablets, cellphones, and the internet. There is one common denominator which links the terms (online learning, open learning, web based learning, computer mediated learning, blended learning, m learning), and that is the use of a computer or electronic device and being able to connect via the internet This provides opportunity to continue learning despite the absence of a physical classroom and synchronized time (Cojocariu et al., 2014, in Dhawan, 2020). Online learning is defined as learning encounters in both synchronous and asynchronous environments utilizing the internet with mobile phones, laptops,
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etc. (Singh & Thurman, 2019). This provides students opportunities to learn and interact with their teachers anywhere and anytime. Virtual teaching has become a necessity and not an option for most schools, especially in higher education institutions in the country.
The abrupt change to deliver instruction online has compelled everyone in the academic environment, including teachers and students, to welcome and adjust to the virtual academic endeavors. Teachers have had to, almost overnight, become designers of digital tools and writers of books/modules, aspects with which they have limited to no experience at all. Although faculty have undergone technology trainings and have had access to a plethora of online resources and digital tools, no one was prepared for the sudden new experiences of online education and challenges related to technology.
Both teachers and students have reported challenges in virtual teaching. The availability of appropriate tools as well as strong internet connectivity is just one. Online teaching and learning require teachers to have certain technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge (TPACK) when designing their lessons incorporating varied technologies. Teachers and students also must reflect on their capacity of navigating through various digital tools. Usually in a technology workshop, teachers are introduced to new tools and are trained on how to use these tools. However, teachers prefer using readily available materials online mainly to save time. Considering the new shift from the physical classroom to online teaching, teachers must go beyond the task of teaching to designing materials and technology to accomplish the teaching objectives (Koehler et al., 2004). Teachers most especially are prompted to reimagine education and find ways to humanize the learning process by focusing on students’ needs first to the best extent possible (Dhawan, 2020).
Moreover, the abrupt transitioning of courses from the traditional physical class to a virtual one has also added to teachers’ stress and workload. The preparation that is entailed for teachers to write the modules to cater to those who have limitations in terms of gadgets and internet connectivity is also overwhelming. Added to that is their personal time allotted for practice in navigating the different digital tools and learning how to design activities using the different software. Teachers are also managing their online classrooms and conducting synchronous classes. The top issues expressed by teachers concerning virtual classes include access to the appropriate tools required for learning, exposure and training aside from the lack of instructional materials, and lack of exposure to online curricula (Navarosa & Fernando, 2020). These issues are also affected by the problems and concerns brought about by the pandemic and teachers being detained at home.
However, despite this, the study of Miyagawa and Perdue (2020) revealed that many instructors found teaching in the new normal not just challenging but also rewarding since the situation has made them become more creative. It has also made them evaluate the curricula and reflect on what is essential. In addition, they have been able to explore and challenge their own capabilities in using varied digital tools. This has made teachers realize that they are not mere users of
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technology but also designers this time (Koehler et al., 2004). In HEIs, teachers are encouraged to write up research, develop utility models, and be frontliners of innovation. With the current situation, teachers not only learn significantly how to use existing hardware and software in creative, novel, and situation specific ways; they also learn to develop their own materials to accomplish their teaching goals Considering the heavy task to balance teaching, research, and other obligations, designing materials and other tasks related to the novel environment of online teaching has added to the stress and workload of faculty (Joaquin et al., 2020).
It is in this context that we would like to get a glimpse through teachers’ narratives of their transition from face to face teaching to virtual teaching, and how this scenario has changed their role as technology users and creators in the new teaching environment. Teachers’ pedagogical role has also been challenged as they are compelled to reflect on the general nature of education. Thus, this study aimed to explore the role of teachers in HEIs in the current context. It further sought to provide a clearer picture of teacher experiences as they embrace their role in the new normal. It is hoped that learning institutions would be able to craft and plan policies to support the emerging roles of teachers in the virtual learning environment.
This study takes glimpses of the role of teachers in the virtual learning environment through their narratives reflective of their experiences as they embrace their role in the new normal.
This study employed the qualitative narrative and descriptive research method. The goal was to comprehensively describe and summarize the narratives of the participating teachers on their experiences in the virtual learning environment The method is anchored on the tenets of Husserlian descriptive phenomenology, whose philosophical underpinning is that of the human lived experience. The qualitative descriptive method drew emphasis from naturalistic inquiry, which elicits participants’ experiences in their natural state (Lambert & Lambert, 2012). The varied perspectives were considered in studying participant narratives. Following the principles of data saturation, six higher education professors from different state universities and local colleges in region 7, Central Visayas were selected as research participants
In depth interviews were conducted virtually using open ended exploratory and interpretive questions to facilitate the sharing of experiences on the phenomenon being studied. Trough ethical practice, their identities were protected using the principle of anonymity. The study was also subjected under the scrutiny of the Research Ethics Board of the Cebu Normal University, Cebu City, Philippines. The collected data were transcribed and analyzed using thematic steps developed by Colaizzi (1978), which is consistent with Husserl’s descriptive phenomenology.
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After participant interviews had been conducted, their interviews were transcribed and the data analyzed and clustered into themes. The following emerged as themes: changes, challenges, and chances, respectively, in all levels of teaching and learning, from preparation and implementation to assessment.
4.1
Change means to undergo transformation, to substitute or make a shift from one to another (Merriam Webster, n.d.). In order to keep up with the demands of the abrupt shift from face to face classes to virtual teaching, it is imperative to make changes to the usual way of preparing, delivering, and assessing students’ learning.
The preparation of instruction requires modifications to syllabi, trainings for technology use, and mind setting for the new normal. Teachers need all the support in transitioning teaching from the physical to the virtual learning environment (Griffin, 2020).
The interviews revealed that the participants were provided with avenues for upskilling, such as webinars, workshops, and trainings, to prepare them for the online platform environment. Regarding this, participants commented: “We had a lot of meetings and webinars. Our university organized seminars because we are facing a different kind of setup now with our education.” (P5)
“We were taught how to use the different applications, especially that we have veteran teachers. We were taught how to navigate these applications and other tools in teaching using technology. … The administrators conducted a college wide webinar on module making and design, like how to craft interactive modules, etc.” (P3)
Participants also mentioned that the preparation of the faculty has changed with the time required being doubled to include setting up of the virtual classroom “We had revisions done for our syllabus to enhance and fit for the virtual classroom setup. We need to change some activities that will not be applicable anymore. Time really is not enough for the preparation of the opening for the new semester.” (P5)
“There are many things to be done, yet so little time.” (P2)
“While preparing the printed modules, we also prepare for the virtual classrooms. We are not ready and time was running fast.” (P1)
Participants have had to modify their ways of preparing for instruction since it is a key element of success and there has been a great change in the teaching learning landscape
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Participants acknowledged the need to tailor their usual teaching classroom practices to suit the current need for distance learning. They highlighted three major changes when it comes to the implementation of virtual teaching. These are changes in teachers’ roles, strategies, and use of technology. The participants claimed that they now perform other roles due to the learning shift from a public space (classroom) to a personal space (online). Teachers are no longer mere conduits of knowledge, but contributors to it. Other than being a facilitator, guide, mentor, and guidance counsellor, they are also designers, content creators, and content coaches. Participants said that: “It’s something beyond teaching, because you will be like a creator; aside from being a facilitator, you will be something more beyond resourceful.” (P5)
“I’m not just a consumer but a creator. I study some applications; I go over it and then I try to see how it works. And then I do trial and error before I introduce it to my students. And I also asked my colleagues to try the applications if it works. I learned so many things from that since I just don’t use but I also create something, and it is a nice experience and fulfilment on my part.” (P3)
“It’s different right now that I am really the one creating the Google Classroom, navigating it; I post, I assign, I develop the topics, etc , etc.” (P4)
Aside from changes in the teacher’s role are changes in teaching strategies. With online teaching, the usual lecture method may not be very appealing to students anymore Research has shown that for student satisfaction and retention, interaction between students and teachers and among students is critically important both for face to face and virtual learning environments (King & Doerfert, 1996, in Lewis & Abdul Hamid, 2006). Teachers are prompted to use more creative ways of engagement and receptivity. Concerning this, participants shared: “I make use of Canva in my presentations since PowerPoint presentation sometimes may appear boring for them. Sometimes reading would take time, so I do audio reading or the audio recording, and then they also do the same. Students also do video character portrayals so that they can better appreciate the literary piece.” (P1)
“I do video recordings and demonstrations aside from the live classes online.” (P3)
“I use songs as motivation, eBooks, and YouTube videos to supplement my discussion.” (P4)
These participants also supplement their synchronous classes with informal consultations using other online platforms that students can easily access. Social media plays an important role, especially in the new normal. In this digital age, it is impossible to deny the impact of social media (Mananay, 2018), as echoed by some participants:
“I want to interact with my students more, but the time in synchronous class is limited. So, what we did is that students will just chat about their questions and concerns after our synchronous class, and I will answer them one by one.” (P1)
“Aside from the LMS [learning management system], I also do interactions with my students in (Facebook) Messenger. ” (P2, P5)
“I provide them with pre recorded materials and whatever supplementary materials are provided for those in print; I also upload them in Messenger and Google Classroom.” (P4)
Participants reinforced their teaching by using technology. All participants claimed that there is really a big change in how they regard and integrate technology before and after the transition to online learning. Most of them were not so familiar with the use of digital tools before the pandemic. The current setup has “forced” them to explore these tools and to learn how to navigate them. “During pre pandemic, my self evaluation is that I was just a consumer of technology and materials. So, pre pandemic, I did not really integrate much technology, so I regret it that I did not use technology more when we had face to face classes.” (P3)
“I learned how to apply add ons in Google Docs. I use Adobe Spark aside from Canva; I produce posters, banners for the Google Classroom. I use PowerPoint to produce an mpeg video form. I adopt some content, some I create. I get from the internet, I develop, I edit, I read the content.” (P4)
“I am both the consumer and the creator of technology. During the pre pandemic, I was expected as a teacher to make use of technology. But now in the pandemic, I have observed that not only me but most teachers have optimized the use of that technology.” (P6)
Educators have had to change from being facilitators of learning to innovators (Saxena, 2020). With the current changes in education, teachers are expected to meet not only the academic needs of students but also their social and emotional needs (Bacus & Alda, 2022). Teachers have to be versatile in implementing significant strategies and classroom practices and confront the structural changes in the learning environments. Moreover, to attain effective and successful lesson delivery, teachers must be able to actualize and apply technology with content and relevant pedagogy (Izhar et al., 2021). The TPACK model highlights the importance of this knowledge and skills among teachers where teachers must create more engaging, relevant, and enduring teaching learning experiences. Participant 6 even specifically mentioned that: “The TPACK has been materialized. It appeared to some that it was something difficult to do, but with the pandemic, we are left with no choice but to optimize the use of technology, and I can say that it’s really helpful.”
With a lot of changes going on, teachers are expected to revisit and recalibrate teaching practices and innovate to address the diversity and current needs of students.
Participants became more flexible in the different aspects of the teaching learning process and embraced the importance of gradual and consistent integration of technology in education regardless of the situation. Some willingly shared: “… feedbacking happens in Messenger, private conversations between me and my students.” (P4)
“Formative assessments are uploaded ahead of time for the students to read and then I give them time to answer. … I upload the midterm, or tests, 15 mins before the time and then they can take it, 1 hour.” (P5)
Different forms of assessment with approved content, including product based assessment, are employed to address differentiated learning. Participant 1 shared: “Aside from my activity sheets, we have what we call extension of learning. Usually, there is a performance task, which is a differentiated situation analysis based on their program. We don’t usually give a summative test like multiple choice or a paper and pencil test or supply type. What we give is a situation analysis for the major exam.
According to participants, the teacher has become a lover of technology, which comes in handy in terms of giving assessment to the students. Some participants shared their experiences in the use of technology to deliver assessment. “… with technology, I can give formative and summative assessments aside from the Google Class.” (P2)
“For summative assessment, I usually let them access QuizStar.com. It’s an online quiz where my students register. That is my formative assessment.” (P4)
Student are assessed holistically through an array of varied assessments of learning. This is to ensure the authenticity, validity, and reliability of the answers of the students. Assessment comes in both authentic and non authentic forms and is differentiated for the two learning modalities. Participant 1 shared their experience as follows: “Aside from attendance, sa module itself nakasudnadidto ang iyahang [there is also the inclusion of the students’ written output]. … So, the projects is the extension of learning.”
Besides attendance of the module itself, the module contains the written outputs and projects. The projects serve as an extension of learning, as explained by Participant 3: “So, this is a combination of, like, a video that I will show to them and then I have guide questions, maybe five of them. Then there are also multiple choice and I also ask for a brief explanation for each question, maybe two questions.”
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The process of change is painful. In addition to the changes made by the participants in their roles during virtual teaching, they also encountered challenges during the course of the changes
4.2
With all the changes happening during the transition to online learning, challenges and anxieties beset teachers in terms of addressing their teaching role in the new normal. In this study, challenges refer to the difficulties encountered by teachers in the delivery of lessons and classes during the pandemic. Teachers encountered varied challenges, from preparation of instruction to implementation and assessment. Education programs rarely prepare teachers for a virtual teaching environment (Archambault, 2011).
Not all participants were very adept at the online setup and so they felt it a burden to prepare their virtual classrooms and conduct the classes. They felt they were not ready for this setup.
“Using the technology is really a challenge on my part, especially since I am not very young like the other modern teachers.” (P5)
“When it comes to technology, I am an immigrant, I am not native. No, it’ s not easy. We are not ready, to be honest.” (P1)
Teachers need to ensure that materials and activities are engaging, and doing this on the online platform is challenging since there are no benchmarking experiences. Everything is new and always in the experimental stage. The fastest growing phenomenon in the use of technology in education is online learning (West et al., 2012). Thus, teachers are challenged regarding the kind of activities that will engage students and to ensure that learning occurs.
As teachers assume varied roles such as facilitator, guide, mentor, counsellor, friend, and confidante, they are also expected to realign teaching practices vis à vis online learning platforms. Many teachers have reported that they have limited experience in online teaching, and this causes the lack of online teaching skills among them (Izhar et al., 2021). Thus, they have difficulty not just in preparing the materials but also in creating suitable teaching methods for students, especially during synchronous classes. Regarding this, participants shared:
“I’m not used to virtual classes and the interaction is minimal. I got used to hearing them one by one, so I did that at first. But it was very time consuming, especially in a one hour synchronous class.” (P1)
“But then, during the virtual session, it was really difficult at the very start; it’s a struggle. Students don’t want to talk, so I have to find activities that would make them talk. They are sometimes passive and distracted by household chores” (P2)
“There are challenges, yes, especially the internet connection. And when you have that very high momentum when you discuss and then suddenly
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the computer or the internet stops working and students have left the meeting. So, the challenge is you cannot make sure if students are learning.” (P4)
“It’s something beyond teaching, because you will be like a creator; aside from being a facilitator, you will be something more, beyond resourceful. The patience that you need to have, it’s because there are internet issues.” (P5)
“So, one is, isolation in this time is a challenge, because there is no physical presence. You know, in real work, it’s different when you face on screen, so we can feel the person in that sense. You know the energy, there is more life when we are in person. Sometimes we feel lonely. I can maximize the interaction, but the energy level, the power, the liveliness is still different.” (P6)
During the pandemic, there is no other option for continuing education, especially higher education, besides online learning (Mahyoob, 2020). To ensure continuity and delivery of academic services, universities across the Philippines embraced innovative educational delivery means, such as distance education, modular remote learning, blended education, online teaching, and/or mobile learning (Rotas & Cahapay, 2020).
The greatest challenge encountered by the participants in conducting online classes when it comes to assessment was the authenticity, validity, and reliability of the answers given by the students. Guangul et al. (2020) identified the main challenges in remote assessment as academic dishonesty, infrastructure, coverage of learning outcomes, and commitment of students to submit assessments.
Some of the participants expressed concern over dishonesty and cheating during exams, be it synchronous or asynchronous. The following utterance proves such claim: “But what I have noticed with my students when it comes to essays or brief explanation, it seems that they really copy answers from each other.” (P2)
Additionally, assessment results do not give teachers the assurance that learning has taken place. Even if the teacher makes an effort to measure higher order critical thinking and maximize the validity of student answers, still the students’ output does not guarantee learning. Participants shared the following: “I’m not very satisfied … they are really not that responsive. … I would not say that I’m using the right nets [assessments].” (P4)
“Most serious the formative assessment from time to time to make sure that they really learned. Like making sure that students really have learned, that’s really a big challenge in assessment.” (P3)
Another challenge was the type of learning management system used and unstable internet connection. Participants struggled to get connected:
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“Yes, and the students really had difficulty in accessing the online platforms.” (P1)
“As to the challenges, especially online is the challenge of connectivity, both for my students and me.” (P6)
Students’ prompt and appropriate responses to the given tasks and expectations were not satisfying. Participant 3 shared regarding this: “There were instances where students don’t attach anything to the course material.”
The assessment process requires feedback. Student achievement is also dependent upon teachers’ feedbacking (Hattie, 1999). One of the main objectives of feedback is for students to develop their capability to monitor, evaluate, and regulate their own learning (Nicol, 2010). Assessment and feedbacking are limited and untimely.
According to Nicol (2010), feedback needs to be constructive, timely, and meaningful in order to benefit student learning. This is challenging to attain, especially in this time of the pandemic where people are struggling to survive and cope in the new normal. In addition to changes and challenges, participants also experienced chances.
With change comes challenges, and between all these teachers are trying to survive with all educational and psychological demands. As such, participants also acknowledged the opportunities or chances that surfaced amidst the challenges.
Left with no choice, teachers consult and benchmark with colleagues, family, and other stakeholders. There is a need for teachers to collaborate, as well as to be resourceful and creative. Teachers have become team players in these trying times as they work closely together with their professional learning community.
Participants shared that they have become resourceful in finding ways to cope with the demands and to do something to mitigate stress with the hope of producing positive outcomes. They uttered: “We really have to deliver what needs to be delivered. We have to push and carry on.” (P3)
“I had to optimize the available resources; you just had to be resourceful in this time of pandemic even in the teaching and learning.” (P6)
“I have to ask my husband who is more knowledgeable and even my son to help me in my preparation of the Google Classroom And also my other co teachers in the department; they are very willing to help as well. And for this I am very thankful.” (P5)
Participants’ creativity and problem solving skills developed a lot. With everyone’s support and cooperation, participants concerted all efforts in the
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creation of self learning modules and activities for online classes. In this regard, they said:
“I learned how to become a technician, fixing problems.” (P3)
“Teachers are now focused to extract and create content. Before and during the pre pandemic, I just assigned topics for reporting, but now I reflect on how else to present the lesson creatively.” (P4)
“My role as a teacher has improved. But technically and primarily as a facilitator of learning, it has to stay. But the approaches, the attack, attached to the learning process has improved.” (P6)
Participants narrated embracing the changes and accepting that they have to adjust their practices, as the current setup has become the new normal. “There is so much collaboration, then we looked for resources. We asked for help. The younger generation teachers were also challenged to assist other faculty members who have difficulty, especially in technology.” (P3)
“My students are very creative and hardworking. And sometimes they go beyond my expectations. I partner and collaborate with my students I prefer to collaborate with my students, because I have really proven that they are more advanced compared to me when it comes to technology.” (P6)
From this perspective, participants saw the opportunities that come with their struggles in navigating the different tools online. Instead of concentrating on the problem, they tried to find ways to do something about the problem. As the time for synchronous classes is limited, they extended their help and assistance to their students through informal consultations and chats. Where students complained about their internet connection and “choppy” discussions, participants would upload pre recorded and recorded live lectures for their students. These recorded lectures allow students to watch and listen to the lectures at any time. Lastly, participants mentioned that during the second year of implementation of distance learning, they embraced a positive mindset and devised strategies that would make things better for them and their students. Looking forward to things getting better has also helped them develop a more positive attitude towards the current situation.
“And the good thing is that students although you provide applications that they can use, will also try their best to look for another application which is somehow better than what you’ve introduced. So, it challenges me more to do better as well and learn more.” (P3)
“I decided to take a risk in trusting technology. I took it as a learning. And together with my students, we try to learn how to do things.” (P4)
“As long as I can see the student being able to learn; as long as I can see the student’s thirst to learn, I am ready to take the challenge. I just look at it as if I just consider myself as if I am a fresh graduate and trying to cope with the new environment. I guess my role in the new setup is that I
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became more alive. I become more oriented with technology and apply it in all my lessons. I get amazed at how technology works. Every day is learning with technology for me.” (P1)
Participants were indeed resilient and robust in taking the challenges head on, and were also able to transform these challenges into opportunities for learning, collaboration, and improvement.
Considering that the authenticity and validity of the answers of the students was the greatest challenge for participants, they created assessments with different dynamics. Participants determined different ways and means in order to ensure the validity of the answers of the students and, if not, to eliminate, or at least minimize, the occurrence of cheating.
“Summative tests are usually done non authentically. I follow the more structured and formal way, but the formative is more authentic. ” (P6)
“That is why I combine varied test types.” (P2)
Participants would make sure that the design and content of the assessment are relevant to the course and discipline of the students. “… if my students are coming from the Education Department, I will use board exam questions. But when I’m teaching students from other degree programs, I also use different test types.” (P1)
Participants saw the need to embrace technology as aids in assessment. In so doing, they have become experts and masters of these technological applications. “It is already now thanks to the Quillbot app. So, in checking the output online, the teacher is more on reading [assessing and clarifying] the idea ” (P1)
“ with technology, I can give formative and summative assessments
Aside from the G Class that I am using, there are also websites they will access. What is good in the QuizStar is that it can give the results right away.” (P2)
Participants indicated that the roles played by the teacher in terms of assessment in case of dishonesty during assessment are that of a guidance counsellor, judge, and jury. The teacher also exerts an effort to correct the acts of the student/s for the purpose of realization, remorse, and reformation, as indicated by participants: “But what I did is that I asked the student to come to school to talk with me about what happened, so I need to know the scenario. Still, the guidance counselling is a part of it.” (P1)
Participants acknowledged that there are points to improve and were willing to act on them. One participant observed proper time management and tried her utmost in order to address the issue of meeting deadlines. This is what she said: “But I try my best so that I can measure … evaluate the performance of my students. … I would try to reach out to them and ask them what made it difficult. I can find a solution … We try to reconsider as well if everything.” (P4)
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Even with the difficulties, students still manage to submit their assessments on time. Participant 2 shared: “They can submit right away due to the time limit, especially in the formative … the same with the summative.”
Participants shared that there is a lot of room for improvement when it comes to assessments. They embraced the importance of gradual and consistent integration of technology in education regardless of the situation. Participant 3 shared: “Teachers made a tutorial video on what students will do in case they encounter problems.” (P3)
Participant 5 rated their overall experience in terms of assessment of learning: “I am giving it an 8 for the tool, because I still need to find resources/sources, then my assessment will be very fitting. In terms of competencies, I rate myself 7 in a virtual setup, although it is very difficult to compare, since face to face is more tangible than virtual. Unlike in the classroom, we see them eye to eye.”
In the final part of the interview, participants were asked about their satisfaction in terms of the right kinds of assessment tools used and the right competencies that they were able to measure. They shared: “Yes, I am quite satisfied with the results, even with the limitations of online tools for assessment ” (P1)
“I can claim that I have succeeded very satisfactorily. The proofs of that claim are the immediate feedback, the performance of the students, the evaluation of the students.” (P6)
“… maybe somehow, I did it well, because I can see that my students learned something and that they were able to elicit the skill that I want them to see, that I wanted to see from them after the term … perhaps not really perfect, but I just tried my best.” (P3)
With the proper guidance and mentoring, participants tried their best so that no student would be left behind. Teachers are thus reinventing themselves and their occupation to better serve schools and students.
In the parlance of teaching and learning in the new normal, the role of teachers has been greatly emphasized to be more that of innovators of change. The changes and challenges prompted by the virtual learning environment shed light on teaching being a multifaceted profession. Teachers are not only expected to be experts in curriculum and pedagogy. They are also expected to meet the social and emotional needs of a diverse learner population, implement ever evolving pedagogical practices, deal with major structural changes in the new learning environments, and promote digital collaboration. In terms of technology use, teachers have become content creators and designers with the emergence of the online learning space.
This research is based only on qualitative research methods and not on statistical results. Additional research on this topic may support the key findings of the
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study on the emerging themes of changes, challenges, and chances, respectively, on the role of teachers in a virtual learning environment We thus recommend that local colleges and state universities encourage research on this topic and establish institutional based frameworks for emergency remote teaching environments In addition, we recommend that local colleges and state universities create policy on how to conduct virtual education encompassing preparation, implementation, and assessment; and continuously upscale and upskill teachers
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 292 315, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.17
Received Jan 31, 2022; Revised Apr 26, 2022; Accepted Apr 30, 2022
Abstract This article contributes to the literature on teacher identities by exploring how the pandemic affected the professional identities of final year student teachers at a South African university. The researchers collected journals and interviews from seven participants, and analysed the data through thematic analysis. The findings show that the participants’ professional identities were enhanced or negatively affected by teaching in a pandemic. The participants whose professional identities were strengthened became more caring and hard working to support learners who had missed several months of school. Other participants, whose professional identities had been negatively affected by the lack of teaching practice, felt less confident and prepared to become teachers. While all the participants struggled with a heavy teaching load, one participant felt that the sheer amount of work prevented him from becoming a “relational” teacher. Schools and universities might strengthen pre service teachers’ professional identities development by discussing what support student teachers require to enact their preferred professional identities during the COVID 19 pandemic.
Keywords: professional identities; teacher identities; teacher education; teaching practice
When teacher education programmes relied on remote teaching during the pandemic, student teachers were unable to teach in schools and had to conduct virtual, or in many cases, simulated teaching, online (Delamarter & Ewart, 2020; Nasri et al., 2020; O’Brien et al., 2020; Varea & González Calvo, 2021). Research shows that teaching practice is not only important for professional development, but that it is also crucial for professional identities formation (Beijaard et al., 2000; Bullough, 1997; Makovec, 2018). In this study, professional identities are understood as the particular understandings that student teachers have about themselves as teachers, and their visions for the kinds of teachers that they want
* Corresponding author: LauraArnold;laura.arnold@spu.ac.za
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
to become (Hsieh, 2016; Romylos, 2018; Timoštšuk & Ugaste, 2010). Teaching practice allows student teachers to gain an understanding of themselves that is grounded in a realistic understanding of their ability to manage the duties of a schoolteacher (Lamote & Engels 2010; Ma & Cavanagh, 2018).
Without these experiences, it is hard for pre service teachers to judge their abilities, which could be why student teachers in one institution in Malaysia felt that they needed to spend more time teaching in schools to improve their ability (Nasri et al., 2020). Virtual teaching was particularly difficult for student teachers in courses with experiential components, such as Art, Physical Education and Science, who had previously used physical spaces, such as sports fields, classrooms and laboratories, to teach learners (O’Brien et al., 2020; Payne, 2020; Varea & González Calvo, 2021). Future Physical Education (PE) teachers in one study felt saddened that they could no longer teach the subject using their body in person (Varea & González Calvo, 2021) Student teachers studying PE felt a sense of anxiety around the COVID 19 restrictions that left them feeling uncertain about the place of Physical Education in schools and their future careers (Varea & González Calvo, 2021; Varea et al., 2022). Since practicum in a school is essential to teacher development and professional identities formation, a lack of opportunities to teach in schools may make student teachers feel insecure and unprepared for the profession.
Apart from teaching practice, learning how to be a teacher in a global pandemic was challenging, and often times created uncertainties for pre-service teachers. In one study, student teachers became increasingly anxious about what the job market and prospective employment opportunities would be in the future (Delamarter & Ewart, 2020). The return to schools led to fears for some of contracting COVID 19 and worry about what teaching would be like with the new restrictions in place (Delamarter & Ewart, 2020). Research suggests that educators are able to respond to learners’ needs by continuing to care for and provide them with academic and emotional support online (Delamarter & Ewart, 2020; Kidd & Murray, 2020)
Research on teacher education tends to focus on how student teachers develop subject knowledge, contextual knowledge, and pedagogical knowledge during initial teacher education (Goodson, 2014; Romylos, 2018). There is a general lack of research on the professional identities development of student teachers from Africa (Izadinia, 2012). At present, the few articles exploring how the global pandemic affects student teachers’ professional identities have largely been conducted in Europe, the United States of America, Asia and Israel (Dvir & Schatz-Oppenheimer, 2020; Hadar et al., 2020; O’Brien et al., 2020; Nasri et al., 2020). Thus, there is little research exploring how the pandemic has affected the professional identities of student teachers from Africa. The article addresses this lack of research by discussing how the pandemic has shaped the professional identities of seven fourth-year student teachers from one South African university. In order to contribute to the body of knowledge, the researchers ask the following research question: “How have the professional identities of student teachers at a South African university been shaped by the COVID 19 pandemic?”
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While it is important to consider how student teachers’ professional development may have been impacted by the pandemic, it is also critical to explore the impact of this disruption on student teachers’ developing professional identities. Since professional identities are fluid and dynamic viewpoints, subject to continual revisions by individuals (Morison 2013), disruptions, such as the pandemic, could cause individual student teachers in specific contexts to re examine and re shape their own professional identities.
By April 2020, schools and universities closed for approximately 1.6 billion students worldwide due to the COVID 19 pandemic (UNESCO, 2020). In South Africa, all universities were closed from 18 March 2020, and even when students returned to university later in the year, teaching was still conducted online due to the threat of the coronavirus (BusinessTech, 2020; Crouch, 2020; Pretorius, 2020). When the universities closed, lecturers and students had to quickly transition from face to face learning to emergency remote teaching (ERT) (Agormedah et al., 2020; Aguilera Hermida, 2020; Hodges et al., 2020).
In this paper, we used the term ‘emergency remote teaching’ (ERT) as most universities were focused on delivering content in the absence of face to face classes, instead of offering students well planned and resourced online learning (Hodges et al., 2020). ERT was challenging for African students who were less able to access reliable internet connections and printers than their peers from Eurasia, the Americas, and Australia (Aristovnik et al., 2020). The closure of the universities was disruptive for students, and caused many of them to experience negative emotions, including boredom, frustration and anxiety (Aristovnik et al., 2020). While learning remotely, students missed their normal routines and socialisation on campus, and the support that they received from the library or tutors (Aguilera Hermida, 2020). The students found it stressful to study while being at home, because of cramped, noisy home environments, and being expected to contribute to housework (Aguilera Hermida, 2020; Aristovnik et al., 2020). While some students coped with this situation by spending more time with family or on hobbies, others experienced mental health problems and increased substance abuse (Aguilera Hermida, 2020; Chandra, 2020; Hellemans et al., 2020). Mseleku (2020) found that university students in developing countries with unreliable internet connections are more likely to be forced to study in cramped, noisy environments, which may strain their mental health.
University students from African countries found it difficult to learn online, as they were often less knowledgeable about their university’s learning management system, and less able to operate computer software, compared to their peers from higher income countries (Agormedah et al., 2020; Mark, 2020; Mulenga & Marbán, 2020). It is possible that a lack of preparedness and resources is why university students from Africa were the least satisfied with their universities’ response to the pandemic (Aristovnik et al., 2020). This suggests that staff members from universities in lower and middle income countries could prepare students for ERT
by providing them with the necessary resources and knowledge to take part in online learning.
Though some students enjoyed learning online at their own pace, and were able to improve their grades, (Gonzalez et al., 2020), 24 million learners across the globe, mainly in Asia and sub Saharan Africa, are at risk of discontinuing their education (UNESCO, 2020). South African students from rural areas or the socio economic lower classes are at risk of dropping out of university during the pandemic, because they need to earn money when family members become unemployed, and they lack laptops and access to reliable internet (Azevedo et al., 2020; Sehoole & Adeyemo, 2016). An increased drop out rate due to COVID 19 is a concern in South Africa, where approximately 47% of students do not graduate from their initial degrees (Council on Higher Education, 2013; Department of Higher Education and Training, 2019). First year students from developing countries who are unfamiliar with the technology and learning platforms are particularly likely to drop out of university (Mseleku, 2020). A decline in the number of university entrants and an increased dropout rate in first year in South Africa would increase the high teacher turnover rates, which tend to be worse in rural schools (du Plessis & Mestry, 2019; Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015b)
The pandemic had an effect on student teachers, and perhaps even more so on teachers who had to learn to teach remotely in a short space of time. In the first few months of the pandemic, teachers felt uncertain about how to teach, and reported that learning new ways of teaching online was very time consuming (Kaden, 2020). Beginner teachers in Israel also found that it was difficult to: operate Zoom, find a quiet place at home for teaching learners, manage late comers and rude learners, and balance the education of their own children while teaching learners (Dvir & Schatz Oppenheimer, 2020). ERT was challenging for teachers, because they do not receive the same cues that indicate level of comprehension and interest in a subject, which include non verbal feedback, sense of energy or lack thereof, and silences in class (Christensen et al., 2022).
Despite the challenges associated with teaching online, teachers in several studies reported spending more time reflecting on their work and feeling a sense of excitement regarding the use of new pedagogies and the opportunities to work with learners in smaller groups (Dvir & Schatz Oppenheimer, 2020, Kim & Asburn, 2020). Teachers supported each other emotionally and academically with online teaching as they co taught or co planed lessons, or divided the preparation of new material amongst themselves (Busuttil & Rosienne, 2020; Román, 2021). However, teachers who experienced ‘technostress’ felt demotivated due to a lack of belief in their abilities to use technology and in their institution to support them during the transition to online learning (Panisoara, 2020). While teachers found ERT challenging, when supported by their institutions and colleagues they were more likely to see the changes as an opportunity to reflect on and to implement new pedagogical practices online.
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The authors used symbolic interactionism to explore how the professional identities of the participants were shaped by learning to be teachers during a global pandemic The tenants of symbolic interactionism as articulated by Blumer (2004; 1969) are that: 1) the actions of people are based on the meanings that objects, including people, have for them; 2) people derive meanings from social interactions; and 3) through thoughts and actions, meanings are negotiated, transformed and enacted
According to symbolic interactionism (Blumer, 1969), individuals ascribe meaning to people and objects based on social interactions, and they use thoughts, actions, and symbols to negotiate these meanings in particular contexts. A summarised version of the theory is presented in Figure 1 below:
Actions of people (as actors) in specific situations influenced by prior and current Interpretations and meanings negotiated using Symbols, including language with Objects (abstract, social, and visible) & social interactions
Figure 1: Symbolic interactionism based on the work of Blumer (1969)
When we apply this theory to the school context, objects are categorised as abstract (a view about someone), social (learners) or visible (resources). When a teacher or student teacher interacts with abstract, social or visible objects, the concept of being a teacher becomes personal and enacted (Vloet & van Swet, 2010). While actions may become routinised (Jones & Somekhm, 2006), subjective meanings given to social interactions are open to re interpretation (Snow, 2001). The theory acknowledges that people reflect on their social interactions and revise the meanings these interactions have for them, which makes it suitable for studying professional identities as dynamic and continually re negotiated phenomena. The participating student teachers reflected upon their enacted professional identities and then interpreted and communicated their thoughts to the researcher through the use of symbols when writing in journals or speaking in interviews.
5.1
Interpretivism, with its focus on subjective meanings, was chosen as the research paradigm (Babbie, 2021; Kivunja & Kuyini, 2017) as we were interested in how the participants understood and constructed their professional identities in particular social contests.
This was the study of a unique case, as this was the first time that the participants experienced a disruption to the teacher education programme that resulted in a delay in graduation. This is a descriptive case study where we aim to understand and share the experiences of participants located in real world settings using multiple sources of data (Creswell, 2009; Yin, 2012). There were seven separate cases in the study, which enabled us to compare the experiences and identities of the different participants.
The participants were selected to participate in the study using the stratified sampling technique. The 42 students in the programme code studying to teach languages and history to learners were divided into different groups. The participants were divided into groups according to gender and their subject combinations. If the initial 12 participants had taken part in the study, there would have been four male and eight female participants, representing the programme’s population, which was 70% female and 30% male. Of the initial participants, there would have been an equal number of participants, four each, studying one of the following subject combinations: English and Afrikaans, English and Setswana, and English and History.
Unfortunately, not all 12 student teachers participated in the study as five potential participants decided to withdraw from the study due to workload. This resulted in a sample where only one of the remaining participants was male and the subject combinations were not equally represented. The small number and uneven gender and subject combination representation among participants should not pose a problem since previous symbolic interactionist studies generated rich accounts of the lives of diverse participants using one to seven participants (Barton & Hardesty, 2010; Carter & Montes Alvarado, 2019; Curry, 1993; Day, 1985). More information about the participants can be found in the table on the next page:
Name Sex Age Subject 1 Subject 2 Subject 3 Place School type Status
Participant A F 26 English HL FET English HL SEN Afrikaans HL FET
Participant B M 25 English HL FET English HL SEN History
Participant C F 28 English HL FET English HL SEN History
Participant D F 24 English HL SEN Setswana HL FET Setswana HL SEN
Participant E F 25 English HL FET English HL SEN Afrikaans HL FET
Kimberley Ex Model C School Temp
Delportshoop Ex Model C School Temp
Kuruman Rural School SGB post
Heuningvle Rural School Temp
Kimberley No fee school Not yet appointed
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Participant
At the time of the research, four participants were studying to be English and Afrikaans teachers, one was studying to teach Setswana and English, and two were studying to be teachers of English and History. The participants taught the languages as a ‘Home Language’ (HL) meaning that their learners are expected to display a high level of proficiency in the language (Department of Basic Education, 2011). All participants taught learners in the Senior Phase (SEN), which includes Grades 7 to 9, and the Further Education and Training Phase (FET), which includes Grades 10 to 12.
Teaching practice at this particular university takes place across all four years of the students’ Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degrees. The fourth year B.Ed. students have two teaching practice (TP) blocks. The first block is organised by the staff in the Teaching Practice Office who place students in schools. While the block is typically three weeks long, in 2020, due to student protests around the lack of funding, accommodation and internet access, the TP block was shortened to two weeks (Hoo, 2020a; Hoo, 2020b). The first TP block took place in mid March in 2020, before the schools and universities closed during the COVID 19 lockdowns (UNESCO, 2020).
The second TP block of six weeks was cancelled due to the COVID 19 lockdowns Though the students recorded themselves delivering lessons using PowerPoint, which the lectures assessed, they fell short of the minimum number of weeks the government requires student teachers to complete (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015a). In order to graduate, the 2020 cohort spent an additional three weeks teaching in schools in February and March of 2021, after which they could obtain their degree and register as teachers with the South African Council for Educators. Since the student teachers were no longer based on campus, they had to arrange teaching practice placements for themselves.
The data sources were journal entries and online interviews. The student teachers wrote journals during two teaching practice periods, in March of 2020, and in February and March of 2021. The reflective journals of the student teachers are a rich source of data as they provide opportunities for student teachers to question and develop their daily practice and professional identities (Casanave 2011; Khanjani et al., 2018; Körkkö et al., 2016; Shadi & Soodman Afshar, 2019). The online semi structured interviews, conducted during the second teaching practice block in March, provided participants with opportunities to share their teaching practice experiences, and how these experiences had shaped their professional identities.
Primary data was collected through reflective journals and semi structured interviews. Semi structured interviews are useful as they provide researchers with opportunities to ask similar questions to participants to provide a basis for comparison, and individualised questions for specific participants based on their personal circumstances (Wilson, 2014). The student teachers in the study had to write daily journals during teaching practice in 2020 and 2021.† The participants’ journal entries varied in length from a few lines to half a page. After completing the daily journals, the participants wrote a reflection, which varied in length from half a page to a page and a half, on their teaching practice experience.
Each online interview lasted between 45 minutes to one hour. Though we tailored some of the research questions to each participant based on their journal entries and school context, typical questions asked can be found in Appendix 1. We recorded the interviews with the participants’ permission. Each interview was transcribed and stored in a password protected online folder. Ethical clearance to conduct the research was granted by the university, and each participant gave written consent to participate in the study. To protect the identity of each participant, we used pseudonyms when referring to them in this article.
To formulate the interview questions, we read participants’ journals and conducted internet research on the participants’ teaching contexts. As journals are rich artefacts of daily encounters (Khanjani et al., 2018), by reading the entries we gained an overview of the student teachers’ experiences, and prepared a set of questions for the interviews. We also developed the interview questions through internet research, which was necessary as travel was restricted during the research due to lockdown.
To ensure that we understood the participants’ contexts, we did internet research on the towns where the student teachers conducted teaching practice in 2021 through Google Maps and Google Earth. Google Maps was used as the satellite imagery available covers 98% of the world and it is trusted by over one billion users a month while Google Earth allows for a much more in depth view of an area (Banerjee, 2020; Black, 2020; Martonik, 2015; Wadowsky, 2020). We used Google Maps and Google Earth to view the towns where each student teacher lived during the teaching practice block in 2021. While viewing the towns, we made notes about the town’s services and amenities, size, and housing type, i.e. rural, suburban or peri urban. These notes helped us to pose relevant questions about the schooling context to the student teachers during the interviews. We were thus able to obtain information regarding the possible challenges and support available to the participants at the different schools.
We analysed the data using inductive thematic analysis as described in articles by Braun et al. (2015) and Terry et al. (2017). Firstly, we familiarised ourselves with the data by transcribing and reading the interview transcripts. Secondly, we generated codes through a systematic process of adding labels to data segments.
† More information on why the fourth year students conducted teaching practice in the following year can be found in the background section of the study.
Thirdly, we developed themes by clustering the codes into meaningful patterns. Fourthly, to clarify our understanding of the data, we created a visual map to illustrate the connections between the different themes. We discovered that the majority of the sub themes could be grouped around the two main themes, positive changes to the student teachers’ professional identities and negative changes to the student teachers’ professional identities. In the fifth and final stage of the data analysis, we reviewed the themes to ensure each theme was clearly defined and named.
As suggested by Noble and Heale (2019) we used triangulation to increase the overall trustworthiness of the research, which includes the credibility and generalisability of the study. We used three of the four possible triangulation methods described by Fusch et al. Firstly, the data was triangulated through collection in different time periods and places. We collected data from the students’ journals, which were written during teaching practice in March 2020 and in February and March in 2021. Then we conducted during interviews via Microsoft Teams with participants towards the end of the second six week practicum. Collecting data over different time periods and spaces, through written journals and spoken interviews online, enabled us to track, engage with, and re present the participants’ shifting professional identities. Secondly, methodological triangulation was used as we collected data through three methods: internet research, student journals, and interviews. We prepared for the interviews by researching the participants’ context and reading the journals. During the interviews participants had an opportunity to expand on the perspectives presented in the journals. Through examining the data in multiple ways, we deepened our understanding of the participants’ identities and enhanced the depth of findings presented in the study. Thirdly, the researchers triangulated the analysis of the data. The two researchers analysed different participants’ data, but met in person and conversed over email to discuss and formulate the research themes. This iterative and multi perspective process enhanced the credibility, and possibly the generalisability, of the findings. As suggested by Kim (2016), researchers, wherever possible, presented the findings in the participants own words, to ensure that their reflections were presented in in their unique voices.
The chapter is divided into two sections. The first section shows how the findings are similar and different to previous research about how university students’ attitudes to learning online. In the second section, the researchers provide the answers to the question, “How have the professional identities of student teachers at a South African university been shaped by the COVID 19 pandemic?” This discussion highlights the ways in which the pandemic positively and negatively affects the student teachers’ professional identities.
6.1. Student teachers’ responses to learning online Research shows that that university students find studying in small and noisy home environments stressful (Aguilera Hermida, 2020; Aristovnik et al., 2020). Participants C and D found it distracting to study at home in a small noisy space
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with frequent requests from their children or families. The participants, like their international peers, reported feelings of boredom, frustration and anxiety (Aristovnik et al., 2020). The uncertainties created by the pandemic made Participant A feel unsure about her ability to do well in her studies
Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT) is particularly challenging for students in Africa where the internet is not as reliable (Aristovnik et al., 2020). Several participants (A, B and D) commented on how poor signal made it difficult to learn and submit work online. Participants A, B and F found it difficult to participate in ERT when monthly mobile data from the university was not sent on time or was depleted before the end of the month Participant A and F also found it challenging to study off campus when their areas had power cuts
Previous research suggests that university students in Africa may be less prepared than their peers for ERT, because they are not as familiar with computer software and the university’s learning management system (Agormedah et al., 2020; Aristovnik et al., 2020; Mark, 2020; Mulenga & Marbán, 2020). While Participants E and F had felt unprepared to learn online, Participant B felt the lecturers’ use of the learning management system had prepared him to learn online prior to the pandemic This suggests that African students studying the same degree may feel more or less prepared for online learning.
While university students in Africa are the least satisfied with their universities’ response to the pandemic (Aristovnik et al., 2020), the participants in this study appreciated the support for ERT provided by their lecturers. Despite this support, Participant E found learning on her own difficult as she was “in an environment where you have to solve things yourself”. This shows that the asynchronous online learning required the students to be more self reliant than with face to face classes. Even though lecturers were available over calls on Microsoft Teams or emails, Participant C chose not to approach her lecturers and said she tended to solve problems on her own. This suggests that some students may need to be reminded or encouraged to make use of the available support.
6.2.1 Becoming a reflexive teacher Similar to the findings in the study by Kim and Asburn, where teachers became more reflective in response to teaching in a pandemic, four of the seven participants reported that they had become more reflexive. During the final teaching practice block, Participant A realised the importance of reflection for the first time.
“I think I did it because, it [reflection] was one of the things that.. was required for the TP file, but looking back I do reflection every day when I, get from work […] I [did] not really reflect until now! […] I’ve seen that reflection is quite important, because you can see how you grow from one point. So I wish I could have taken it more seriously.”
Whereas before, the participant only reflected to fulfil a requirement for teaching practice, she now reflected each day in order to improve her practice.
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Participants D, E and F also used reflection to improve their practice. Participant E used reflection to “improve the things that didn’t work in class”, and Participant D asked her learners to reflect on her classes each day to “try to come up with different ways to improve my teaching skills” She believed that “reflecting has helped me in a way, because now my learners get to understand me better, I get to teach them, in a better way”. Her learners’ reflections showed her what content she should focus on during the limited class time she had with alternative groups of learners. After reflecting, Participant F could “see the process as you grow as a teacher”. She enjoyed seeing how much she had gown as a teacher during her final TP block.
6.2.2 Becoming a more caring teacher. While an ethic of care has always been important to the teaching profession (Delamarter & Ewart, 2020; Kidd & Murray, 2020), three of the participants found teaching in a school in a pandemic made them more caring as teachers. Participant A found it challenging to teach “demotivated” learners with ill or unemployed family members. She said that she had become more “compassionate” towards learners with challenging home environments. Despite teaching in challenging circumstances, the participant remained committed to assisting learners, stating that, “I always just try to push my learners to do the best that they can, and that’s the kind of teacher that I really hope…that I portray to them as well”. She worked hard in order to help her learners succeed in life, and found that aspects of her job were rewarding “So it makes me happy that they excited to come to my class and they excited to work. And I wish that, that is something that I can carry with me in this long, very long journey that I am that I am about to embark”.
This shows that while teaching in a pandemic is challenging, the participant tried to maintain her motivation by focusing on the positive impact that she had on learners.
Participant B, the only male participant in the study, said that as he became more aware of the struggles that his learners encountered due to COVID 19, he became a more caring teacher.
“There’s other factors also where you find that some learners don’t come to school based on, certain family issues… So now you have to.. be considerate of, those learners”.
He mentioned that learners whose parents lost their jobs found it more difficult to concentrate on their schoolwork, and tried to support them by covering as much of the work as possible at school.
Participant G realised that the pandemic placed enormous stress on her learners’ mental health. To ensure that her learners could reach their full potential she became more patient when explaining the content, and spent more time after school explaining the work to them She became aware of the importance of mental health, after a course on teenage suicide prevention, and wanted to be “someone they [her learners] can talk to”. Teaching in a pandemic had helped her became more attuned to learners’ needs, and more willing to help them with academic and personal issues.
6.2.3 Being a parent to the learners. In a literature review study, Sabbe & Aelterman show that teachers identify with and try to adopt the role of a caring and nurturing parental figure in learners’ lives Participant D, realised that she should be “a parent to the learners” in her reflection on the 2020 practicum In her interview, she said that being a parent to learners is necessary for them “to be able to feel free around you”. To help the learners open up to her as they would to a parent, she offered the following advice: “[…] so as a teacher you need to sit down with the learner, and, really, ask her questions, be, make her be open, her or him, be open to you, and as a teacher, you need to be open as well, so that learners can feel free to talk to you.”
She felt pleased when learners felt comfortable enough to approach her when they were struggling with the material. She was able to learn which learners in her class were not working “because of the circumstances at home, or, maybe the problems in their lives”. As a parental figure she was able to balance having fun and being serious with learners. “I’m very friendly to learners, but they know when I mean business, I mean business, we have our time of joking and we have our time of getting serious”.
As someone who feels that “I treat them as my children”, she wanted learners to be able to share their problems with her, to have fun in her class, and to be able to concentrate on their work.
6.2.4 Being a hard worker Teachers faced increased workloads during the pandemic (Kaden, 2021). Participants D, E and F realised that they needed to become hard workers to cope with the workload of a teacher in the pandemic. Participant D said that the teachers in her school taught the final year learners every day, and then had to spend time teaching learners in other grades after school and on the weekend. Participant E’s mentor encouraged her to do her best, and she started to teach extra classes, which she felt had helped her to develop “endurance” as a teacher. With less contact time, Participant E had been “forced” to be well prepared to ensure that the shorter periods with cohorts of learners were productive.
6.2.5 Learning to adapt. In the literature, the term ‘practice shock’ refers to the serious adjustments that first year teachers have tomake as they assume theduties and responsibilities of a teacher for the first time (Kaçaniku, 2022). Participant C has to adapt to a very different home and school environment in 2021. In 2020, her family took care of her first child, and she was pregnant with her second child. While she enjoyed the convenience of learning online when she fell ill and could learn in the hospital, she found being pregnant during TP to be an emotional experience: “I was pregnant last year, so I was experiencing a bit of my own personal emotions […]”. Despite the difficulties she faced, she enjoyed teaching practice at the well resourced and diverse school where she was placed by the TP Office. She explained how her enjoyment of the school environment increased her motivation: “My experience […] of the school really contributed to my passion for teaching as it demonstrates a workplace where one is able to grow and become a life long learner”.
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While the TP Office had organised that the previous school visit take place in the same city as the university, the students organised their own practicum to ‘catch up’ on the weeks missed due to the pandemic. When the participant could not find a post in her city, she began teaching in a disadvantaged rural school in a different town. Though she found it challenging to teach in a school with few resources, she felt that she could use what she had learnt from lecturers about the different teaching strategies and media, such as chalkboards and overhead projectors to “accommodate learners”. As a single mother, it was difficult for her to find affordable childcare and fulfil the teaching practice requirements at the same time, and she began the final TP block a week later than her peers.
6.2.6 Feeling prepared to teach online. Participants A and D, like the teachers in the study by Dvir and Schatz Oppenheimer (2020), enjoyed learning to teach online. Participant A felt prepared to teach online, because she had learnt online during the pandemic.
“So, the fact that we had, we had that year, where we had to be trained to do the whole teams situation and also submitting all your assignments online and your file online. It really prepared me […]” .
Participant D felt able to teach online, because of the online teaching the students completed when they could not go to schools “[…] so it’s only my last year where I go to do everything online, of which I think it, helped me, because now we don’t know what the circumstances might be, and, we can’t predict now, but, I think it also prepared me for the unforeseen circumstances, whereby now my learners will be good if ever we have to, go online and teach learners online”.
Since both participants felt prepared to teach online, they stated that the final three weeks of TP, which were mandated by the government, were “ unnecessary ” .
Participants D and F felt that the additional teaching practice was unnecessary because of their appointments at the schools As Participant D explained: “I mean we are teaching every day, we are learning every day, it’s more like we are doing our practicals every day, so this teaching practice was really unnecessary, for me”.
The student felt that her current experiences had already prepared her to teach, and that she should not need to submit her journal and lessons to the TP Office in order to obtain her qualification. Participant F, the only student teacher permanently appointed at a school, felt even more strongly that the additional TP block was unnecessary, as she was already fully responsible for her own classes and learners.
6.3.1 Feeling uncertain about my role. Several studies have spoken about the anxieties that student teachers and teacher faced during the pandemic (Delamarter & Ewart, 2020; Varea & González Calvo, 2021; Varea et al., 2022). In
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this study, two participants felt uncertainty due to their performance of the role of a university student and a class teacher.
Participants A and F felt that it was harder as temporary teachers to fulfil their obligations as students. Meeting these obligations made Participant A feel “… far more anxious, than I would have been [if she had completed the practicum as a student teacher without performing the duties of a temporary teacher]”. Participant A said that performing the roles of teacher and student made her feel uncertain about her identity as a teacher.
“…this has really been.. it’s really tough, it’s really stressful. Because now we expected to be, adults again, but also then again we’re students, so so, we haven't really made the transition yet. It’s still one foot in one foot out”.
Fulfilling the roles of a student and a teacher at the same time added to the uncertainty and stress that participants felt while living and working in a pandemic.
6.3.2 Feeling less confident about my teaching In the study by Nasri, et al., the student teachers felt that they would have been more prepared to teach if they had conducted teaching practice in a school. Participants B, E and G also felt that submitting pre recorded lessons was less effective than going to schools. Participant B felt that he was less prepared at the start of his post as a temporary teacher because of his lack of experience.
“I would have loved it to do more practice, being in the real environment, and an authentic environment. […] So I think if I had more opportunities, to be in a teaching environment I wouldn’t have, been confused like I was, for the past [...] week I experienced the confusion.”
He strongly felt that teaching in a school would have prepared him more for teaching than submitting pre recorded lessons online.
Similar to teachers who relied on physical cues and bonds with learners to teach (Christensen et al., 2022; Varea & González Calvo, 2021; Varea et al., 2022), participants E and G missed face to face interactions with learners, as Participant E explained: “[…] there wasn’t interaction with learners, where I say that the learners would grasp the information I am trying to get across to them with the lessons”. Participant E felt like she could not determine from the written feedback given by the lecturers whether the learners would have understood her lesson.
6.3.3 Feeling under pressure as a new teacher. Besides the usual ‘practice shock’ that first year teachers experience (Kaçaniku, 2022), participants B, D and F experienced additional pressure as new teachers teaching in a pandemic Participant F was appointed as to teach ‘English Home Language’ to final year students, the majority of whom speak English as an additional language. As she had to prepare and teach lessons for classes split into cohorts while completing her degree, she felt as if the spotlight was on her, and described this as “the magnifying glass is on me”.
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Participant B also felt that he was “under pressure” as a new teacher.
“
It’s just that, now, at the moment that I am actually doing the job myself and the responsibility is mine of the administration and so on, I think I’m feeling the pressure now, because now.. I am not just here for a day or a week. I have to do everything on my own, unlike the first time”.
While the participant was learning from the subject advisors, his mentor and the other teachers, he admitted that teaching is more challenging in a pandemic. As he taught cohorts on different days, he had less time with each class, and fell behind on his work. It is likely that the pressure of being a new teacher was worsened by teaching in a school environment which he described as having too few teachers and textbooks for the amount of learners
Previous studies have shown that teachers supported one another during the transition to online learning (Busuttil & Rosienne, 2020; Román, 2021). During the transition from student teacher to educator in a pandemic the support that Participant D received helped her to deal with the heavy workload. While the participant pressure from being a new teacher in a pandemic, the support she received from her mentor and subject advisor helped her to mitigate some of the negative emotions she felt.
“Yes, during the first week I was really worried about that, because now, I… I was worried that maybe I am going to fall behind, with regards to […] completing the syllabus on time and giving the learners the formal tasks, but then, […] with the mentoring of teachers and the help of teachers, I can say now, it’s difficult yes, because now you don’t get to see learners every week as you are supposed to, but now it’s better, I don’t stress much as a I was stressing before, because of their help.”
The support from others helped her to cope with worry and other negative emotions caused by having to finish the syllabus by the end of the term while having to teach her learners on alternate days.
6.3.4 Unable to be the teacher I wanted to be By the end of the previous practicum, Participant B said he felt more prepared to become a teacher, “I am not as anxious to go to the teaching and learning environment now”. In spite of initially feeling more prepared to teach, the pressures he was experiencing as a teacher due to COVID 19, possibly combined with the reduced amount of TP, created a situation where he was unable to be the teacher that he wanted to be.
“I would like them to see me as an individual […]. So at the moment I’m only like a vessel that is trying to do my job, based on how the learners react or how the learners, behave around me. But I would like to, give learners more opportunities to realise that they can, just, be learners around me.”
He had wanted to be a “relational” teacher, but due to the additional workload in the pandemic, he felt he had to focus on delivering to content in class and that he had no time to develop relationships with the learners.
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6.3.5 Stalled professional growth and development. Participants C, D and F thought that their professional development had been negatively impacted by learning to be a teacher in a pandemic. Participant F felt as if she was rushing to teach according to tight timeframes, and explained that “I think I would thrive more under normal circumstances”. Participant B’s career was negatively impacted by the additional teaching practice block. While he felt that this block was necessary, he could not qualify as a teacher and had to take a temporary post with a lower salary, and he was unable to enrol in a postgraduate degree in 2021.
Participant C had a particularly challenging situation at her school where she had to cover for colleagues teaching different classes “[…] the schools are really short of staff, so most of the time, you couldn’t even focus on your own classes, or [… ] what you were really there for, because most of the time you were then placed in a class just to supervise a class, because there’s no teacher there. And like I said with my personal growth and milestones that I took now, it’s really, become very, very complicated.”
The challenges the participant experienced made her feel less confident in her abilities.
“[…] with the job hunting, that’s not going so well, the new milestone in my life, the teaching practice and everything at hand, I wouldn’t say that I’m the ideal teacher that I see myself to be, uhm, in the sense that, I do still lack confidence in some areas”.
She remained confident that with more teaching and life experience she would become the teacher she wanted to be.
[…] I think once, [I] fully get, enough experience of the classroom environment the learners the context, the expectations and responsibilities of the school, and, how to juggle your own life and school responsibility,, I think I would be able, to become the ideal teacher that I see myself to be.”
She described this “ideal teacher”, as someone “that leaves learners with some type of legacy”, and ultimately prepares them to be “better citizens in the society or even the world at large” and enables them to “take with them what they have learned at school into the workplace or even into the future.” Despite her passion for the profession, she felt that the current circumstances had a negative impact on her future and career. “[…] the thing that really, frustrates me about everything is that, I think that I could have got the job or position by this time already […], but because everything was still so incomplete, it blocked a lot of opportunities for me, where I’m still, sitting without a job and job hunting ”
This was a very disappointing situation for the then 28 year old participant, who had waited many years to gain access to funding to allow her to fulfil her dream of becoming a teacher. As she had a School Governing Body (SGB) position, with a lower salary and fewer benefits, she was still searching for a better paying public school post.
This study sought to uncover how the professional identities of student teachers at a South African university have been shaped by the COVID 19 pandemic. Fortunately, most of the participants felt that their professional identities had developed in positive ways by teaching in a pandemic. Some participants said that they were more caring toward learners as they knew that they were experiencing challenges at home due to the pandemic. A few participants mentioned that they had become hard workers to ensure that they taught learners in cohorts with less time at school the same amount of content.
Despite these positive experiences, the participants found it challenging to perform in their temporary, or in one case, permanent post, while completing the last three weeks of practicum in order to obtain their degree. They also reported that balancing the duties of a teacher in a pandemic and those of a student teacher was very stressful.
Not all the participants’ professional identities were affected positively by the pandemic. Three of the seven participants felt that their professional identities had been negatively affected by becoming a teacher in a pandemic. The participants mentioned that they would have learnt more and felt more confident as teachers if they had been able to go to schools. One participant felt that teaching different cohorts of learners in less time meant that he had no time to enact his preferred processional identities.
Three of the participants’ professional identities were negatively affected by becoming teachers in a pandemic. This suggests that support for new graduates entering the profession in a pandemic may be insufficient. In increasingly busy school environments, teacher professional identities development may be neglected. While resources are stretched in education institutions, more attention needs to be paid to teacher professional identities. Discussions with beginner teachers could provide much needed opportunities to identify what support they need from their university and school to realise their preferred professional identities. Without this support, it is possible that struggling beginner teachers will decide to leave teaching, contributing to the already high teacher turnover rate in the profession.
Due to the pandemic, student teachers may be unable to complete the amount of days to fulfil work integrated learning requirements specified by the government. If teachers need to spend additional days at schools to obtain their degree after their finishing their coursework, the authors of the study recommend that the amount of paperwork, assignments, and submissions be drastically reduced. This would assist student teachers entering into the profession under difficult circumstances to complete their final practicum placement. The second recommendation is that the work of the TP Office should be properly capacitated. At the university, the few staff members working in the TP Office were unable to individually follow up with the student teachers in the large cohort while handling school placements and virtual teaching platforms. Since the Office does
not have a discretionary budget, they were unable to financially support students with small purchases, such as data. The participants were no longer eligible for financial aid from the government or bursary funders and had to cover living costs, which was particularly if they had children, without the salaries of teachers in full time posts.
When five potential participants withdrew from the study, there was only one male participant remaining, which meant that the data was not representative of the population where 30% of the student teachers were male. Future studies could ensure that the sample is representative of the population in terms of gender.
The small sample size prevents complete data saturation, which is most likely to occur when there are between eight and twelve participants in a study (Hennink et al., 2017). However, the sample of seven is large enough for an initial piece of research, as studies show that most themes can be identified after five or six interviews (Francis et al., 2009; Guest et al., 2006; Morgan et al., 2002). Thus, this study presents the majority of the themes and sub themes in the findings; future studies with a larger number of participants could produce a richer account of how COVID 19 affects the professional identities of student teachers in developing countries.
The researchers were unable to visit the schools where the students conducted teaching practice in 2021 as these schools were located across the Northern Cape province when travel was restricted in order to reduce the spread of COVID 19. Through the use of internet research and focused interview questions about the school context, the researchers attempted to understand the participants’ experiences. In future, researchers could visit the schools where students conduct teaching practice to gain first hand experiences of the schooling context.
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• Why did you decide to become a teacher?
• How do you feel about the subject or subjects that you teach?
• What did you learn during the TP block in March at … school?
o What positive or negative experiences did you have at the school?
o Did these experiences change the way you think of yourself as a teacher?
• What kind of teacher do you see yourself as and why?
• When and how often did you write your reflective journals?
o How useful was writing in the journal for you?
• How much did you know about learning online before the pandemic, did you feel prepared to learn through Moodle and MS Teams before COVID 19?
• How effective did you find preparing and submitting lessons instead of going to schools for TP
• Could tell me a little bit more about that school that you are teaching in?
o The school is a large/small school in a suburban/rural/peri urban area, how does this affect this affect you as a future teacher?
• Did COVID 19 affect how you see yourself as a teacher, why or why not?
o How did the pandemic affect your teacher development?
o How does pandemic affect how you teach?
o How did you find coping with the pandemic while studying to be a teacher?
• How has COVID 19 affected the learners that you teach?
• How effectively did the university handle your teacher development during the pandemic?
o What more could the university have done to support you as a future teacher during the pandemic?
• How do you feel about the current compulsory TP block?
o Was it necessary for you to gain the knowledge and skills to teach in the future?
• What have you learned from teaching at … school during these last three weeks?
o What are the biggest challenges and successes that you have faced as a teacher at this school?
o How much a part of the school have you managed to become during this TP block?
• If you have a mentor teacher, how much have they supported you during this teaching practice block?
• What are your future plans regarding your career?
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 316 336, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.18
Received Feb 25, 2022; Revised Apr 19, 2022; Accepted Apr 25, 2022
Abstract. The aim of the present descriptive research study is to determine the students’ reading and writing achievement level according to their learning styles, as well as their preferences regarding the reading and writing strategies in English, as a Foreign Language (EFL) course. This work is a contribution to the debate on the controversial issue about the influence of learning styles on EFL reading and writing skills. The sample for this research was a group of 120 distance university students (45 males and 75 females) enrolled in an English program. The data collection instruments used comprised a perceptual learning style preference questionnaire, reading and writing of online tasks, and a preference questionnaire related to reading and writing strategies, which were planned for the course. The data from the questionnaires and the students’ scores were analyzed statistically. The findings revealed that there is a minimal difference in the EFL students’ reading and writing achievement across four learning styles. In addition, students prefer reading strategies, such as multiple choice questions, matching exercises, filling the blanks, and answering open questions. As for writing, the learners preferred strategies that include brainstorming, answering multiple choice questions, matching, filling in the blanks, and answering open questions.
Future researchers are encouraged to conduct studies on the relation of learning styles and EFL reading and writing skills with different levels of EFL proficiency, in order to see whether there are any differences in academic achievementsor preferences, regarding the readingand writing strategies in students’ learning styles.
Keywords: English learners; higher education; learning styles; reading strategies; writing strategies
According to Ajideh et al. (2018), students apply their own individual experiences, learning styles and strategies to their own learning process. Indeed, learning
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
styles and strategies help learners to explore their skills and to enhance their learning experiences. Moreover, learners can employ a variety of learning styles, which include an essential element in creating effective learning environments. Considering that each student has his/her own way of learning, their needs must be addressed in the teaching learning process (Adnan & Marlina, 2017). In this sense, appropriate environments should be provided by teachers, in order to meet students’ academic needs (Becker et al., 2007). Similarly, learners’ diversity is a crucial factor to bear in mind, when teachers choose the activities to incorporate in the language classroom. This decision is crucial because an appropriate planning of the lessons would allow teachers to adapt their teaching and to provide suitable activities, in order to meet a particular learner group’s needs (Zhou, 2011). In the field of EFL, learning styles are also of paramount importance to teach the four fundamental skills of speaking, listening, reading, and writing.
From the four fundamental skills mentioned above, we can highlight the crucial role of reading and writing skills. As for reading skills, they are essential to process information (Yan, 2017) and an important element for consolidating and spreading knowledge of the language (Rivers, 1981). Reading also leads to the improvement of grammar, vocabulary and writing (Kim & Krashen, 1997). Furthermore, through reading, critical thinking skills and effective communication can be enhanced. With respect to writing skills, they are a central tool for learners to develop literacy and to express themselves in a way that could not be done in spoken language.
Both reading and writing help learners to acquire and to develop vocabulary, grammar and critical thinking skills (Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador [Ecuadorian Ministry of Education], 2016). Considering the relevance of the aforementioned skills for EFL teaching, Hao and Sivell (2002) highlighted that reading and writing need to be taught together, in order that the knowledge and skills of reading can be transferred to the writing.
The teaching of the EFL reading and writing skills may require the consideration of students’ learning styles, in order to meet their needs and preferences. In this way, teachers should facilitate an ideal environment that meets these needs, integrating a variety of learning experiences, including different learning styles (Becker et al., 2007). Over the last few years, researchers in the field of EFL have widely discussed the influence of learning styles on EFL reading and writing skills separately; thus, being a controversial issue with varied results (e.g. Srijongjai, 2011; Balcı, 2017; Ajideh et al., 2018; Aliakbari & Tazik, 2019; Foroozandehfar & Khalili, 2019; Sabarun et al., 2020).
Based on the points above, our research study attempts to contribute to the debate on the influence of learning styles on the development of EFL reading and writing skills, integrating these two abilities. We will also examine the students’ EFL reading and writing achievement level, according to their learning styles. Another contribution of our research is the study of the learners’ preferences regarding the strategies in an EFL reading and writing course, which will provide a new
perspective in this controversy. Therefore, the following research questions will be addressed in the present study:
What is the students’ achievement in reading and writing skills, according to their learning styles?
What are the students' preferences regarding the reading strategies, which need to be addressed in the course?
What are the students' preferences regarding the writing strategies addressed in the course?
Nunan (2003) states that writing involves a physical and mental effort. At its elemental level, writing is a physical activity that binds words or ideas to some medium. In this regard, as a mental work, writing comprises creating ideas and thinking about ways to express these activities, and to bring them together into larger portions of texts, which are understandable to the audience. By the same token, writing is a process that the writer undertakes, in order to obtain a final written product. This process contains four main steps: planning, drafting, editing and a final draft (Harmer, 1998; Richard & Schmidt, 2002).
Recently, the social notion of writing has been included in the afore mentioned perspectives. In this context, Shokrpour and Fallahzadeh (2007) explained that writing is both a cognitive process and a complex social act; since it is the reflection of the writer's capability via his/her communication abilities.
In addition, writing in English, as a foreign language in the classroom, according to Darus and Ching (2009), is a complex activity, which is an essential skill for the learners to master in a foreign language, in order to communicate their thoughts effectively. On the other hand, the teaching of writing to EFL students includes reinforcement, language development, learning style, and especially, writing as a skill in itself (Harmer, 1998).
Reading is one of the most significant skills that determine success in the educational and professional fields (Alderson, 1984). In addition, reading is an essential activity in the language classroom from, through which students can obtain information, undertake enjoyable tasks, as well as to consolidate and increase their knowledge of the language (Rivers, 1981). As Kim and Krashen (1997) stated, learners who read more, acquire more vocabulary, and improve their grammar and writing skills.
Moreover, Nunan (2003) posited that reading is an activity in which readers associate information of the text that they are reading with their previous knowledge, in order to acquire meaning. He also believed that when the readers identify the topic of reading, this would result in the acquisition of a positive attitude towards reading; and thereby, the process of combining the information from the text with their background knowledge should become easier.
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Likewise, Mikulecky (2008) explained that reading is a thinking process that can be performed both consciously andunconsciously. It is conscious; because readers can apply different strategies to construct the meaning that the writer wishes to convey. On the other hand, reading is unconscious; because readers undertake reading tasks by contrasting information in the passage with their previous experience. Furthermore, Bayless (2010) believed that reading is a habit that leads people to success in academic endeavors and in life. In this regard, Mikulecky (2008) argued that reading instruction is an essential component in any second and foreign language curriculum.
2.3
Regarding the term strategy, it has been said that it includes a number of comprehensible sets of actions that have been planned, in order to acquire a specific objective (Bell, 2002). In addition, Brown (2007) defined this term as a set of procedures planned, with the aim of addressing a problem or a task. He adds that a strategy is a kind of detailed procedure for tackling a problem or task that allows us to work, in order to attain various goals. Moreover, Oxford and Ehrman (1995) mentioned that second language learning strategies are those sets of activities, manners, phases, or techniques, which students employ, in order to improve their learning skills
In the context of learning a foreign language, a strategy is seen as two central processes. The first of these is the learning strategy related to what the student receives, retains, and communicates. The second one comprises communication strategies, which are related to what the student produces, the way learners communicate meaning, and how messages are delivered to others (Selinker 1972).
In the field of EFL reading and writing, some researchers have investigated the implications of the use of the learning strategies, in order to support the teaching of these skills. In the following lines, some of the most common ones will be described.
2.3.1 Predicting the content before reading
Readers use this strategy to guess what will happen next, based on their previous experiences and knowledge (Block & Israel, 2005). In addition, Oczkus (2003) states that prediction helps students to set a purpose for their reading; and it promotes their interaction, which increases students’ interest and improves their comprehension of the text.
2.3.2 Inferring the meaning of words, ideas and the intentions of the writer Küçükoğlu (2013) states that inferring means to read between the lines. It allows readers to guess what is currently happening, based on the hints in the text and what they already know about the text. Inference is an important strategy; because it helps readers to draw conclusions, to predict, and to create meaning from the text.
2.3.3 Identifying the main idea and the supporting ideas
Main ideas allow the readers to know what the writer wishes to communicate about a topic. The main idea is usually in the first paragraph of the text; and it is
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often expressed directly. Identifying main ideas is important because it helps readers to have a better understanding of the text, to summarize the information of the text in their own words, and to build their confidence to read longer texts.
On the other hand, supporting ideas are the sentences that support or explain the main idea of the whole text, or of a paragraph. Identifying details is important because they help readers to understand specific information that the writer is attempting to express. Examples, facts, comparisons and statements, among others, are used as supporting sentences, in order to explain the main idea (Hartmann & Mentel, 2007).
2.3.4
This strategy improves students’ understanding and retention from reading; because it allows them to take notes of the most relevant ideas from the text, instead of copying a great deal of the information. To take good notes, students should maintain their focus, while reading, analyze the text, and think critically about what they are reading (The Learning Center, 2021).
This strategy helps students to clarify their doubts about what they have read and to monitor their level of reading comprehension. In this context, Harvey and Goudvis (2000) stated that asking questions is a useful strategy that allows readers to construct meaning, to increase their understanding, and to find information and solutions. In addition, questioning can be used to assist the students at any stage of the reading process (before, during, and after reading).
2.3.6
The most common graphic organizers used in reading and writing activities include Venn diagrams, concept maps, and timelines. Comparing the ideas of reading by using Venn diagrams
This strategy helps readers to compare and check their comprehension through a visual presentation. A Venn diagram has overlapping circles, which contain the similarities and differences between two facts. Differences are included in the parts of the circles that do not overlap; meanwhile, similarities are included in the parts that do overlap (Pavlik & Keenan, 2007).
A concept map is a visual representation of the main idea and the supporting details in the text. In addition, writers use concept maps to generate and to organize their ideas for writing (Pavlik & Keenan, 2007)
This strategy is used by writers to organize the events in chronological order; it indicates, the order in which those events happen (Pavlik & Keenan, 2007).
Research on learning styles has been a subject of interest and controversy over the recent years, due to the diversity of definitions and classifications (Coffield et al., 2004). In this respect, some authors provide different definitions of learning styles,
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even though they are somehow oriented to the same idea. For instance, one early definition of learning styles was that they are related to behaviors that indicate the way someone learns from their environment and adapts to it (Gregorc, 1979).
Learning styles can also reflect preferences for one mode of learning or adaptation; although these preferences may vary, depending on the situation (Kolb, 1981). Similarly, a student’s preferred way of learning can be determined by the person’s attitudes and behavior (Honey & Mumford, 1992).
Moreover, Vermunt (1996) considers learning styles as activities that are often employed by students along with their learning orientation and their mental model of learning. This author also asserts that learning styles are neither mutually exclusive, nor are they conceived as a personality attribute that cannot vary; but they are rather the results of a temporary interaction between individual and environmental factors. Likewise, Reid (1995) states that learning styles are the internal features that are often used unconsciously by the learners for receiving and processing new information.
Generally, it can be seen that learning styles can be associated with the way methods in the learning process are used (Othman & Amiruddin, 2010). Therefore, based on the definitions above, learning styles become a crucial factor in the learning process.
Individual differences have been an essential point of debate, when learning a language. Thus, learning styles are among the most discussed factors in research on language learning (Ehrman et al., 2003; Oxford, 2001). In addition, the learning process is meant to bring about cognitive changes to a person’s behavior (Othman & Amiruddin, 2010). For this reason, as stated by Becker et al. (2007), it is essential to consider students’ learning styles and to combine teaching methods and strategies in the classroom. In this sense, any teaching method even the traditional ones should be considered necessary in the classroom, in order to cope with students’ needs. Therefore, teachers should create an appropriate environment that meets students’ academic needs in such a way that diverse learning experiences are integrated, including a variety of learning styles.
The information on students’ learning styles is beneficial when the learner takes the necessary action, as part of a reflection on their learning process (Fleming & Baume, 2006). Due to the importance of learning styles in the classroom, it is necessary to address their classification. Some authors classify them by considering the dimensions that result in four styles: divergent, convergent, assimilating, and accommodating (Kolb, 2014). In this respect, Honey and Mumford (2006) adapted Kolb’s model; and they came up with four learning styles: activist, reflector, theorist, and pragmatist.
More popular classifications that have been used in language learning research have common points that deal with the physical and perceptual learning means with which students feel more comfortable (i.e. sensory preferences). These
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classifications consider visual, auditory and kinesthetic students as common points (Dunn & Dunn, 1978; Reid, 1995; Oxford, 2003; Fleming, 2006). From all these scholars, Reid (1995) is considered as one of the most relevant researchers in the field In this respect, she classifies learning styles based on the sensory preferences, as follows: visual, auditory, kinesthetic (movement oriented), and tactile (touch oriented).
She mentions the following characteristics of these learning styles. For example, visual learners like to learn by reading and working with pictures, graphs, charts, or diagrams. They will retain knowledge from what they observe; and they would prefer written instructions. Auditory learners prefer lectures, conversations, and oral instructions; consequently, they learn by listening and speaking. They feel comfortable in activities that involve interactions, and they are introduced to new knowledge by hearing it. As for kinesthetic and tactile students, they prefer movement, so they like to move around the classroom. They like to learn by manipulating objects and involving their whole body in the process of learning.In recent years, EFL scholars have widely discussed the influence of learning styles on EFL reading and writing through various studies.
Srijongjai (2011) studied the learning styles of English major students in the EFL writing classroom. A group of 88 second year English majors were monitored by considering two instruments: the Memletics Learning Style Inventory and a semi structured interview. The results showed that the predominant students’ learning styles were social and aural. They also found that no there were no significant differences in the students’ learning styles, based on their achievement levels in the writing class.
Balcı (2017) determined the effects of learning style based activities on students’ reading comprehension skills in a quasi experimental study. The sample included 78 freshmen university students, 39 students in the control group, and 39 in the experimental group. The experimental group worked with learning style based activities; while the control group continued with traditional classes without any change. Both groups received three sessions of one hour a week for eight weeks. The findings revealed that reading comprehension post test scores and the Self Efficacy Scale for English post test scores of the experimental group were higher.
It was also determined that there was a significant correlation between English reading comprehension achievement and English self efficacy. In conclusion, learning style based activities improved reading comprehension skills and the English self efficacy perceptions.
Ajideh et al. (2018) determined the relationship between students' learning styles and their ESP reading strategies in an academic setting of an Art and Sciences program. For this purpose, 313 undergraduate students participated in this study by completing two questionnaires: The Perceptual learning style preference questionnaire by Reid (1984) and a survey of various reading strategies. Through the use of the Pearson correlation coefficient, it was concluded that Art students
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prefer kinesthetic, auditory, visual and tactile learning styles. On the other hand, Science students favored the kinesthetic, as their major learning style. As for the reading strategies in ESP texts, the most preferred were the cognitive strategies for both Art and Science students.
Aliakbari and Tazik (2019) investigated the effects of accommodating writing assignments to the learning styles of EFL learners in their writing improvement. The participants were 22 EFL visual learners. To gather the data, pre and post tests were given to the students. During the intervention, the students worked on writing assignments on those topics that matched their styles. The means of pre and post tests were subjected to a matched t test. The results showed that those students who had completed tasks, according to their learning style improved their writing. They concluded that taking individual differences into account increased the number of writing students to be promoted. Foroozandehfar and Khalili (2019) explored the relationship between EFL students’ personality types, learning styles, and reading fluency. One hundred and thirty EFL learners participated in this study.
In order to complete this process, the data were gathered by administering the test of Nelson to determine students’ proficiency level, the Holland´s questionnaire to identify the participants’ personality types, and the Active Skills for the Reading approach, as proposed by Neil J. Anderson for measuring reading fluency. Finally, the researcher applied Reid’s Perceptual Learning Style Preference (PLSP) to determine the students’ learning style preferences. The findings revealed a significant relationship between individual personality types and learners’ reading fluency. Furthermore, it was found that personality types directly influenced students' reading fluency.
Sabarun et al. (2020) measured the interaction effects of gender and learning styles in EFL writing performance. This study applied an ex post facto research design by using questionnaires and tests as the research instruments. The participants were 80 L2 learners consisting of 38 males and 42 females, 23 visual, 33 auditory, and 24 kinesthetic learners. The results revealed that female students’ performance was higher. The visual students obtained the highest score, followed by the auditory and the kinesthetic learners. In addition, the learning style is just one variable that affects the students’ achievement; and there are many other variables that affect successful learning.
The participants included 120 students (45 males and 75 females) from a university TEFL distance program in the southern region of Ecuador. These students were enrolled in three different reading and writing courses, which lasted five months. Theirages ranged from 18 to 25 years old; and their proficiency level was B1, according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment (Council of Europe, 2001).
The instruments used were the following:
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The perceptual learning style preference questionnaire compiled by Reid (1984) was administered to the students to determine their learning styles. Visual, auditory, kinesthetic and tactile learning styles were identified for the purpose of this study; however, group and individual types were not included in the questionnaire; because the participants were distance students. This questionnaire comprised 20 items in the form of a Likert scale (See Appendix 1).
Reading and writing online
These tasks included synchronous (chats and video collaboration sessions) and asynchronous approaches (forums, online quizzes, and reading and writing assignments). All these activities were graded out of ten points, and an average was obtained, in order to determine the students' achievement level, according to their styles.
The Preference questionnaire related to reading and writing strategies
This questionnaire included 25 items (13 for reading and 12 for writing) that enquired about students’ preferences regarding the reading and writing strategies that they completed in the reading and writing courses. This questionnaire was appropriately piloted, in order to validate it before its application (See Appendix 2).
The present descriptive research study used a non probability sampling method, in which the participants were not randomly selected (Creswell, 2015). They were chosen, according to the course and class that the instructors were teaching. In order to determine the students' learning styles, we asked them to complete a perceptual learning style preference questionnaire, which was administered by email.
During the reading and writing course, the students completed some activities, such as forums, chats, online quizzes and reading and writing assignments. In the case of forums, the students wrote one summary paragraph and one opinion essay. As for chats, the students discussed two different topics, which wererelated to inference skills, mechanics and grammar in two chats. In four online quizzes, the learners responded to close ended questions that evaluated mostly reading comprehension. For the reading and writing assignments, the students completed four activities related to learning new vocabulary, reading comprehension, and writing different types of paragraphs and essays, which were graded on the basis of the rubrics detailed in the course planning. All the activities mentioned above were used to determine the students’ average grades, and their achievement levels, according to their learning styles. After finishing the course, a preference questionnaire was administered, in order to determine the reading and writing activities that the students liked the most in their learning process.
The data obtained were statistically analyzed in order to know students' preferences. Students’ learning styles were determined on the basis of the instructions and scales provided by Reid (1984) , in order to tally the students’ responses to the perceptual learning style preferences. As for the students reading
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and writing tasks, the scores of the different activities were averaged. Moreover, the students' preferences were determined by calculating the frequencies and percentages of the responses for the reading and writing strategies. The research process for this study is illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The Research Process
4.1 What were the students’ achievements in reading and writing skills, according to their learning styles?
Table 1: Percentage of students by learning styles and their average reading and writing scores
Learning style % Average reading and writing scores
Visual 13 8.32 / 10
Auditory 30 8.18 / 10 Kinesthetic 39 8.55 / 10
Tactile 18 8.29 / 10
TOTAL 100 Average: 8.33 / 10
Table 1 indicates the different students’ learning styles of the sample (visual, auditory, kinesthetic and tactile), which were determined after applying the adapted version of the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (Reid, 1984). According to this author, visual students learn when provided with pictures, graphs, charts or diagrams; likewise, they prefer written directions. On the other hand, auditory learners prefer lectures, conversations and oral interactions; since they learn by listening and speaking. As for the kinesthetic
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pupils, they learn by moving their whole body; while the tactile students prefer to learn by manipulating tangible objects.
The percentages displayed revealed that most of the students (39%) have a kinesthetic learning style, which means that they are good at using gestures and doing physical activities aligned with the physical memory. The students with an auditory learning style also occupy an important part of the sample (30%), together with a minor portion of tactile (18%) and visual learners (13%).
● The Table above also shows the students’ average scores for each learning style. Based on the average scores of each group of students, we can observe a slight difference in achievement among the students on the different learning styles. However, the kinesthetic group has an advantage over the rest of the group (8.55 / 10), whereas the auditory group has the lowest average (8.16 / 10).
The minimal difference among the four groups may indicate the inclusive nature of the activities performed throughout the reading and writing courses. In other words, the activities of the course were varied; and they addressed the four learning styles identified in this study.
4.2 What are the students' preferences regarding the reading strategies addressed in the course?
Table 2: Students’ preferences in reading strategies
Statements
High Average Low f % F % f %
1. Predicting the content before reading. 51 42.5 66 55 3 2.5
2. Inferring the meaning of words, ideasandthe intentionsofthewriter. 51 42.5 63 52.5 6 5
3. Identifying the main ideas. 54 45 54 45 12 10
4. Identifying the supporting ideas. 36 30 66 55 18 15
5. Guessing the meaning of words from the contexts. 42 35 66 55 12 10
6. Taking notes to identify the main ideas in a text. 45 37.5 60 50 15 12.5
7. Taking notes to identify the details in a text. 45 37.5 57 47.5 18 15
8. Contrasting the readings. 42 35 63 52.5 15 12.5
9. Comparing the ideas of readings by using the Venn diagrams. 33 27.5 72 60 15 12.5
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10. Answering the multiple choice questions. 69 57.5 48 40 3 2.5
11. Matching words to their definitions. 78 65 42 35 0 0
12. Filling in the blanks. 66 55 48 40 6 5
13. Answering open questions. 60 50 54 45 6 5
According to Table 2, the level of preference of most of the strategies was average; these strategies include predicting the content before reading, inferring the meaning of words, ideas and the intentions of the writer, identifying the main ideas, identifying supporting ideas, guessing the meaning of words from the contexts, taking notes to identify the main ideas in a text, taking notes , in order to identify the details in a text, contrasting the readings, and comparing the ideas of readings by using the Venn diagrams. As for the strategies of answering multiple choice questions, matching words to their definitions, filling in the blanks, and answering open questions, this table indicates that they have a high level of preference.
These results indicate that students are more familiar with reading strategies, such as answering multiple choice questions, matching words to their definitions, filling in the blanks, and answering open questions, which are the most preferred. Moreover, in the reading and writing course, the strategies proposed included motivating language activities, such as reflective reading.
4.3 What are the students' preferences regarding the writing strategies addressed in the course?
Table 3: Students’ preferences in writing strategies Statements
High Average Low f % f % f %
1. Brainstorm ideas about a topic. 57 47.5 57 47.5 6 5 2. Make concept maps. 33 27.5 63 52.5 24 20 3. List ideas before writing. 51 42.5 63 52.5 6 5 4. Make T charts. 24 20 57 47.5 39 32.5 5. Make timelines. 45 37.5 51 42.5 8 6.67 6. Answer Wh questions before writing a paragraph or essay 48 40 54 45 18 15 7. Answer multiple choice questions 66 55 54 45 0 0 8. Match words to their definitions 78 65 39 32.5 3 2.5
9. Fill in the blanks 66 18.33 51 14.16 3 0.83
10. Answer open questions 66 55 45 37.5 9 7.5
11. Write paragraphs or essays 48 40 66 55 6 5
12. Write comparative paragraphs or essays by using the Venn diagrams 33 27.5 72 60 15 12.5
Regarding Table 3, we can see that an equal number of students have an average and a high level of preference, when it comes to the brainstorming of ideas about a topic. In most of the strategies, the students have an average level of preference. These strategies are related to making concept maps, listing ideas before writing, making T charts, making timelines, answering Wh questions before writing a paragraph or essay, writing paragraphs or essays, and writing comparative paragraphs or essays by using the Venn diagrams.
Some of the strategies, such as answering multiple choice questions, matching words to their definitions, filling in the blanks and answering open questions, have a high level of preference. It is important to mention that strategies about graphic organizers, specifically making concept maps and T charts do not have a level of preference as high as those or the other strategies.
The results indicate that the strategies preferred by the students match their learning styles as well. As with the reading strategies, the students are more familiar with some writing strategies, such as brainstorming the ideas about a topic, answering multiple choice questions, matching words to their definitions, filling in the blanks, and answering open questions. These types of activities include hands on and visual tasks that benefited all the students’ learning styles.
5.1 What were the students’ achievement in reading and writing skills, according to their learning styles?
The predominant learning styles in the sample studied were kinesthetic and auditory. The differences in the average reading and writing scores of the four student groups, divided per learning styles, was minimal, with a slight advantage for the students with the kinesthetic learning style. The strategies proposed for the reading and writing course addressed a variety of learning styles. For instance, based on what Reid (1995) stated about the different types of learners and the tasks that they preferred, activities, such as video collaborations, audios of reading passages, videos, and reading aloud, could have been more useful for auditory learners to improve their achievement.
The strategies related to taking notes by using charts, using pictures to predict content, highlighting words or phrases, and reading passages, might be more suitable for visual learners. As for the kinesthetic learners, collaborative activities, hands on activities, as well as watching videos and pictures, could have been very useful for them. The tactile learners’ academic achievements were benefited by writing notes or instructions and hands on activities. These results were similar
to the ones found in Srijongjai (2011), who concluded that there were no significant differences in the students’ learning styles, based on their achievement levels in the writing class.
5.2 What are the students' preferences regarding the reading strategies addressed in the course?
Based on the results, the reading strategies preferred by the students were answering multiple choice questions, matching words to their definitions, filling in the blanks, and answering open questions. Apparently, the students were more familiar with these types of strategies; since they have been applied in other courses as well. In addition, the strategies proposed in the reading and writing course included various motivating language activities, such as reflective reading.
Consequently, students can learn in ways that best suit their styles (Kroonenberg, 1995). These preferred strategies seem to cover the preferences of the students’ different learning styles. In fact, learning style based strategies can improve reading comprehension skills (Balcı, 2017).
5.3 What are the students' preferences regarding the writing strategies addressed in the course?
The results indicate that the writing strategies preferred by the students are brainstorming ideas about a topic, answering multiple choice questions, matching words to their definitions, filling in the blanks and answering open questions. Such strategies matched the students’ learning preferences; because they included hands on and visual tasks, which benefited all the students’ learning styles. Likewise, students are used to working on these types of strategies in other courses of the English program. This means that the way a course is planned can be presented to students with different styles; and students should not be forced to follow any specific path. They should be given the freedom to explore the activities or material that is more aligned to their learning styles (Van Waes et al., 2014).
There was a minimal difference in the EFL students’ reading and writing achievement across the four learning styles. In this sense, the various activities carried out in the course taken by the students favored the four learning styles addressed in the present study.
The EFL reading strategies preferred by the students include answering multiple choice questions, matching words to their definitions, filling in the blanks, and answering open questions. Students seem to be more at ease with these types of strategies. This is beneficial because such strategies can suit their learning styles. The EFL writing strategies most used by the students involve brainstorming ideas about a topic, answering multiple choice questions, matching words to their definitions, filling in the blanks and answering open questions. In this respect, students are used to working with these types of strategies; since they have been implemented in other university courses. All in all, the writing strategies of the course have attempted to address students with all the different learning styles.
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In order to ensure the learning of EFL reading and writing skills, teachers should incorporate in their lesson plans strategies that address the different learning styles that students might have. One suggestion would be to make a diagnosis before planning the course, in order that the learning styles can be considered in the different activities.
It is important to include a variety of reading strategies in courses that involve this skill. In this way, students will feel more motivated and willing to work on activities that would actually contribute to the development of EFL reading skills. A variety of strategies should be considered when teaching writing skills to address the different EFL students’ learning styles, in addition to enhancing their motivation.
The findings of this study certainly contribute to understanding the students’ achievement levels, their learning styles, and their preferences regarding the strategies of an EFL reading and writing course. However, the limitation that can be noted in this research is that the participants in the study belonged to only one higher education institution; thus, larger scale research is suggested, in order to provide additional insights related to learning styles and other issues. Finally, future research should address the relation of learning styles and EFL reading and writing skills with different levels of EFL proficiency, in order to find out whether there are variations in the academic achievement or preferences regarding reading and writing strategies among the students’ learning styles.
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Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire by Reid (1984)
Directions:
This questionnaire has been designed to help you identify the way(s) you learn best the way(s) you prefer to learn.
Decide whether you agree or disagree with each statement. Then indicate whether you:
Strongly Agree (SA)
Agree (A)
Undecided (U)
Disagree (D)
Strongly Disagree (SD)
1. When the teacher tells me the instructions, I understand better.
2. I prefer to learn by doing something in class.
3. I learn better by reading what the teacher writes on the chalkboard.
4. When someone tells me how to do something in class, I learn it better.
5. When I do things in class, I learn better.
6. I remember things I have heard in class better than things I have read.
7. When I read instructions, I remember them better.
8. I learn more when I can make a model of something.
9. I understand better when I read instructions.
10. I learn more when I make something for a class project.
11. I enjoy learning in class by doing experiments.
12. I learn better when I make drawings, as I study.
13. I learn better in class when the teacher gives a lecture.
14. I understand things better in class when I participate in role playing.
15. I learn better in class when I listen to someone.
16. When I build something, I remember what I have learned better.
17. I learn better by reading than by listening to someone.
18. I enjoy making something for a class project.
19. I learn best in class when I can participate in related activities.
20. I learn more by reading textbooks than by listening to lectures.
How do you rate your preference of the following strategies in your textbook of the Reading and Writing course?
Reading Strategies
1. Predicting the content before reading. 2. Inferring the meaning of words, ideas and intentions of the writer. 3. Identifying main ideas. 4. Identifying supporting ideas. 5. Guessing the meaning of words from contexts. 6. Taking notes to identify the main ideas in a text. 7. Taking notes to identify the details in a text. 8. Contrasting readings. 9. Comparing the ideas of readings by using the Venn diagrams 10. Answering multiple choice questions 11. Matching words to their definitions 12. Filling in the blanks 13. Answering open questions.
Writing Strategies 14. Brainstorm ideas about a topic 15. Make concept maps 16. List ideas before writing 17. Make T charts 18. Make timelines
Low Average High
19. Answer Wh questions before writing a paragraph or essay 20. Answer multiple choice questions 21. Match words to their definitions 22. Fill in the blanks 23. Answer open questions 24. Write paragraphs or essays 25. Write comparative paragraphs or essays by using the Venn diagrams
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 337 354, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.19
Received Feb 3, 2022; Revised Apr 19, 2022; Accepted Apr 30, 2022
Reina Setiawan
Computer Science Department, School of Computer Science Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia
Elfindah Princes*
Management Department, Doctor of Research in Management Binus Business School, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia
Yovita Tunardi
Computer Science Department, School of Computer Science Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia
Alvin Chandra Computer Science Department, School of Computer Science Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia
Noerlina
Information Systems Department, School of Information Systems Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia
Tirta
International Relations Department, Faculty of Humanities Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia
Devinca Limto
Computer Science Department, School of Computer Science Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia
Abstract. The disruptive changes of technological advancements and the COVID 19 pandemic have pushed the education sector to leap into a new learning model, known as hybrid learning. Hybrid learning implements both onsite and online learning to students simultaneously. This research aims to display the impacts of information technology (IT) usage, IT adoption, and innovation
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
capabilities to increase learning process performance during hybrid learning. This research has used a quantitative approach by gathering survey data from 1,160 college students during a hybrid learning process. Hybrid learning had been conducted for four months before the survey was taken in December 2021. The findings show that IT usage, IT adoption, and innovation capabilities significantly affect the hybrid learning process performance. Moreover, IT adoption has the most robust beta coefficient, followed by innovation capabilities and IT usage. Therefore, this research posits that the hybrid learning process performance greatly depends on the adoption of IT, followed by the innovation capabilities of the lecturers. IT usage also supports the hybrid learning process performance. Thus, the three variables are essential in successfully maintaining the hybrid learning process.
Keywords: hybrid learning; IT usage; IT adoption; learning process performance; innovation capabilities
People's lives today cannot be readily separated from the world of technology. Information technology (IT) has been solidified as a critical component in sustaining corporate strategy and quickly adapting to changes in the competitive environment (Yoshikuni & Albertin, 2015). Anecdotal data and case studies show that effective and efficient IT utilization is a fundamental differentiator between successful and less successful businesses (Bharadwaj, 2000)
Digital transformation has been a massive disruption to all aspects of people's lives. This condition is further exacerbated by the COVID 19 pandemic that began at the beginning of 2020 (Hu et al., 2020; Koubaa, 2020; Untaru & Han, 2021). In Indonesia, and indeed internationally, people have been ‘forced’ to implement the ‘new normal’, and they are in dire need of technological support. This need is a result of all people's behavior directed to run digitally. Physical restrictions on movement, due to COVID 19 lockdowns, have made people rely on internet technology (internet of things) and innovative technology (smart technology) to continue their activities (Cho & Lee, 2020; Marinova et al., 2017)
The education sector is one of the most changing industrial sectors, besides the health sector. Education is a form of service to the community, especially the local community, who need to access education properly. The education sector is the most critical in improving the quality of human resources. The education sector determines the nation's future, so it needs serious attention.
With social restrictions and school closures in early 2020 (Clark et al., 2021), all educational institutions, formal and non formal, ranging from kindergarten to college, had to endeavor to keep the learning process going. Digital learning applications that previously felt unfamiliar appeared, such as Zoom for online meetings, Google Classroom, and other learning management systems (LMS), for classwork, assignments, problems, etc. (Chang & Tung, 2008; Graham, 2006; Q. Li et al., 2021). Teachers also became more creative in teaching and learning using interactive learning applications such as Quizizz, Kahoot, Flipgrid, and Padlet.
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The indicators of the success of the online learning process are primarily determined by the participatory and collaborative levels of the learners (Caskurlu et al., 2020; Irawan et al., 2020; Peerapolchaikul et al., 2019; Ruthmann & Hebert, 2012) Although flawed, after more than 1.5 years of the pandemic, all components incorporated in education have begun to adjust to this digital learning process.
At Indonesia's Merdeka Belajar Kampus Merdeka (MBKM) (Tohir, 2020), the role of students is very much concerned with the concept of student centered learning, where the learning process in Merdeka Campus is centered on students as the focus of learning. Crucial to learning in Merdeka Campus are the challenges and opportunities in self development, innovation, increasing creativity, capacity, personality, and independence in seeking and finding knowledge through reality and field dynamics, such as ability requirements, real problems, social interaction, collaboration, self management, performance demands and targets
Key performance indicators are the foundation of higher education transformation in implementing the Independent Campus program at MBKM. One of the key performance indicators (IKU) focuses on the collaborative learning process as essential in developing students' capacities and capabilities in terms of the ability to face the actual demands of society and the world of work. In IKU 7, collaborative and participatory classes are launched, where evaluation, based on group projects or case study methods, is the basis of the ability developed so that students can be independent and ready to face challenges.
Since September 2021, under the improvement of COVID 19 conditions, the Indonesian government lowered the level of the pandemic to level 1, and this allowed educational institutions to conduct hybrid learning by combining online learning (online) with face to face learning (onsite) (Li et al., 2021). Previous research has associated this learning with blended learning (Draper & Hitchcock, 2008; Graham, 2006; Wendy et al., 2020). This type of learning is known as limited face to face learning.
Most new educational institutions are starting to implement blended learning and hybrid learning. However, hybrid learning will be a challenge that eventually must be implemented. As stated by Snart (2010), significant usage of hybrid courses has followed a delayed development trajectory, with diverse (though related) economic, pedagogical, and technological reasons driving adoption across the country. Nevertheless, following the direction of the government, limited face to face learning is defined as a learning process that combines both online and face to face learning simultaneously so that all online and face to face learners get the same learning and treatment materials. In addition, hybrid learning provides its challenges, especially with increasing participation and collaboration from all onsite and online learning learners.
Chen and Chiou (2014) posited that students in a hybrid course had considerably greater learning scores and satisfaction than students in face to face classes. Students in hybrid learning classrooms also reported a better feeling of community than students in traditional classrooms. Learning style had a significant impact on learning outcomes in the study group. Likewise, multiple strategy learning systems may provide considerable advantages over single
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strategy learning systems. Such hybrid systems are employed to a wider range of situations since the type of input and learned knowledge are more versatile (Bala et al., 1995). On the contrary, some recent studies have shown a drastic decline in child development, both socially and intelligently (Clark et al., 2021; Irawan et al., 2020). The performance of learners tested through a value based assessment and evaluation process is no longer valid because of the difficulty of supervision when learners carry out exams.
The application of hybrid learning causes teachers to organize the teaching and learning process to two types of participants directly (Chen & Chiou, 2014; Mossavar rahmani & Larson daugherty, 2007): providing online teaching through online video conferencing such as Zoom, Google Meet, etc., and learners who present at the location. This situation challenges the learning process before being 100% online. Many educational institutions have difficulty adapting to this hybrid learning process (Snart, 2010) due to infrastructure limitations, overlapping technologies, and limited teaching staff ability, which confuses learners.
In this study, the authors took the example of educational institutions implementing hybrid learning with high end technology as an essential guide in applying technology in other educational institutions. This research hopes a clear understanding can be obtained about the minimum requirements that must be met and best practices in carrying out hybrid learning.
The main focus of this research, especially for educational institutions, is the learning process. The learning process during the COVID 19 pandemic period is precisely a benchmark for success in learning because the active participation that occurs during the learning process indicates the success of knowledge transferred to learners. A new learning modality, called hybrid learning or blended learning, has been established to deal with the loss of face to face contact between students and instructors that occurs in remote learning.
When compared to pure virtual e learning, Dodero et al. (2003) believed that hybrid learning fosters more student participation. Additionally, an educational institution's mastery of technology and innovation ability needs to receive special attention so that the skills possessed by all teaching staff are evenly distributed and that they can provide the same standards of academic quality to all learners. Mastery of technology may be a serious challenge because of possible generation gaps and adequate facilities and infrastructure. Furthermore, the opportunity to innovate, that requires creativity from teachers to make the learning process more interactive and fun, is often missed because teachers have not mastered the technology, have not adapted, or even felt comfortable enough with conventional learning systems. As the use of hybrid courses and institutional interest in expanding their usage grows, such challenges must be addressed (Snart, 2010).
Despite the difficulties, all studies are cautiously optimistic about synchronous hybrid learning, which provides a more flexible and engaging learning environment than purely online or fully on site education. Raes et al. (n.d.) concluded that most of the available literature is still exploratory and qualitative
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in nature, focusing mostly on the description of students' experiences, organizational implementation, and technology design.
From the background that has been discussed, the study formulated the following research questions:
1. Does IT usage significantly influence the learning process performance during the hybrid learning implementation?
2. Does IT adoption significantly influence the learning process performance during the hybrid learning implementation?
3. Do innovation capabilities significantly influence the learning process performance during the hybrid learning implementation?
Learning today is no longer a problem of one institution only. This problem is common because the learning going on during the COVID 19 pandemic proved to be ineffective and could not provide maximum results in learners' progress. Distance education, previously implemented online, has changed into hybrid learning. Many adjustments need to be made so that there is no imbalance in the quality of the learning process for learners who follow the learning process onsite and online. The combination of leading edge technology use, technological innovation, and technology adoption is expected to improve the effectiveness and performance of the limited face to face learning process currently widely adopted by local educational institutions.
While much progress has been made in understanding the factors that influence IT adoption and IT usage (Venkatesh et al., 2003), the low level of IT adoption and usage remains a fundamental difficulty (Overby, 2002; Gross, 2005). This research uses the TAM theory (technology acceptance model) as the leading theory to implement this research. Davis' TAM theory explains that the technology acceptance model (TAM) is a model for predicting and explaining how technology users receive and use technologies related to the users’ work. The TAM model comes from psychological theory to explain the behavior of information technology users based on belief, attitude, intention, and user behavior relationships (Venkatesh & Bala, 2008; Venkatesh & Davis, 2009). One factor that can influence users is their perception of the usefulness and ease of use of IT so that one's reasons for seeing the benefits and ease of use make the person's actions acceptable to the use of information technology (Loureiro et al., 2020; Scherer et al., 2019; Yoon & Kim, 2017). TAM theory explains the relationship among high end technology application variables, technology control, and the ability to innovate in improving the limited face to face learning process that focuses on improving active and collaborative participation.
A previous study on IT usage found a moderately substantial direct impact of information system (IS) utilization on performance (Gowan & Mathieu, 2005; Legris et al., 2003) Yoshikuni and Albertin (2015) posited that the use of information technology is a critical resource to support essential business
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processes. Several studies have shown that one of the most critical aspects of performance is the extensive usage of technology (Chan et al., 1997; Ju et al., 2013)
Likewise, Bharadwaj (2000) posited that organizations with high IT capability outperform a control sample of firms on a range of profit and cost based performance criteria. Dodero et al. (2003) demonstrated how information technology may motivate students to participate in traditional classroom based instruction, but that it cannot do so when the learning process is entirely virtual and not supplemented by regular classes.
Thus, the hypothesis can be formulated as follow: Hypothesis 1: IT usage has a significant influence on the hybrid learning process performance
Previously, scholars who used a resource based approach to IT stated that because IT investments are easily replicated by competitors, investments in IT do not deliver long term benefits. Instead, its effectiveness is determined by how well it uses its capital to develop unique IT resources and talents. (Clemons, 1986; Clemons & Row, 1991; Mata et al., 1995). Consequently, IT resources and skills are heterogeneously allocated across enterprises, despite highly technological investments, resulting in IT use and effectiveness disparities.
Previous studies showed that hybrid learning combines the best aspects of traditional face to face learning with technology based online learning (Dodero et al., 2003; Garrison & Kanuka, 2004; Graham, 2006; Olapiriyakul & Scher, 2006; Raes et al., n.d.)
Thus, this research formulates the second hypothesis as follows: Hypothesis 2: IT adoption has a significant influence on the hybrid learning process performance
Unlike innovation, innovation capabilities emphasize that such indigenous scientific capabilities entaile much more than research and development. Three different types of scientific and technological endeavor were highlighted in particular: testing, standards, surveying, and extension services; scientific and technological education and training; and activities concerned more directly with the application of science and technology in industrial and agricultural production, such as design, engineering, production control, and medical services (den Hertog et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2009; Bell, 2009)
In poor countries, the number of innovative capabilities developed and amassed has been quite restricted, and much of what has been accumulated has had little link to critical components of growth. As a result, developing and amassing such competencies must be given much higher emphasis. Unlike popular belief, boosting innovation capacity should not be viewed as a (questionably efficient) substitute for obtaining technology from international sources. Instead, it is required to develop a considerably higher volume and diversity of local innovation, which supplement the role of technology imports.
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Bell (2009) claimed that it is not just more innovation capabilities that are needed; the composition of innovative capability also needs to be massively shifted. Greater attention needs to be given to kinds of capability that are not just R&D capabilities. These include various forms of design and engineering capabilities, and other kinds of change generating knowledge and skill. At the same time, greater attention needs to be given to creating and accumulating those different kinds of innovation capabilities in organizational locations that differ sharply from those that have attracted policy priority in the past.
The six dynamic service innovation skills described are signaling user demands and technological possibilities; conceptualizing; (un )bundling; co producing and orchestrating; scaling and stretching; and learning and adapting. Successful service innovators, which could include manufacturing enterprises evolving into service solution providers, surpass their competition in at least some of these capabilities (den Hertog et al., 2010). Chen et al. (2020) found that the association between organizational innovation and business performance was primarily mediated by technological innovations, according to structural equation modeling (SEM) investigations. Similarly, organizational innovation reduced the link between technological innovation capabilities and firm performance to some extent.
Specific capabilities, such as organizational competencies, routines and processes, that businesses already have or are developing to manage the process of service innovation, are referred to as dynamic service innovation capabilities. In practice, this entails integrating existing resources and operational capabilities with the creation of new ones in order to achieve (temporary) competitive advantage and a current service offering (den Hertog et al., 2010)
Li et al. (2020) analyzed data connected to firms' research and development (R&D) related activities and performance in technological innovation using machine learning based experimental methodologies. In this era of rapid technological development, the proposed model allows accurate anticipation of firms' innovation efficiency, which aids business managers in making better decisions about their organizations' innovation performance.
Thus, the third hypothesis can be formulated as follows: Hypothesis 3: Innovation capabilities have a significant influence on the hybrid learning process performance
The three hypotheses formulated can be shown in the following research framework (Figure 1).
IT usage (ITU)
IT adoption (ITA) Innovation capabilities (INV)
Learning process performance (LPP) Figure 1. Research Framework
This research has used a quantitative approach by conducting hybrid learning for four months, from September 2021 to December 2021, in a private university in Indonesia. The private university has five branches spread all over Indonesia, namely Jakarta, Tangerang, Bekasi, Bandung, and Malang.
Figure 2 shows the steps of research conducted from the beginning until the drawing of conclusions.
Problem identification
Literature studies
Survey data collection
Collecting hybrid learning requirements
Hybrid Learning Implementation
Hypotheses testing
Draw Conclusions
This study takes the example of hybrid learning that has been applied by one of the private universities in Indonesia that prioritizes technology in campus operations and learning. This research may provide excellent benefits because it may guide other educational institutions in implementing hybrid learning in the learning process by integrating high end technology.
In addition, to support the research setting and validation, the following software and hardware technology were adjusted for hybrid learning (Table 1).
Learning management system (LMS) that has been integrated with video conference technology (video conference link information, host access automation, and attendance recording automation), thus accommodating both asynchronous and synchronous learning.
Contact tracing application that serves to record the health and movement of students and teaching staff.
Eligibility status application determines whether students and faculty are entitled to enter the campus area.
Pan tilt zoom Camera (PTZ) and document camera (lumens) display learning materials and lecturers.
Use Logitech speakers and a microphone table for audio tools during teaching and learning.
Mobile phone
This research takes students, lecturers, and assistants as the source of information. The total population of active students who participated in limited onsite teaching in the odd semester 2021/2022 at the university was 11,747 students, with an onsite student composition of 3,170 students andas many as online 8,577 students. Meanwhile, the entire sample to be used is as follows 1,160 students (9.87%). The parties involved in this research are students, lecturers, and assistants who carried out the hybrid learning process in odd semester 2021/2022.
The data collection was done using a questionnaire by scoring 0 for Not applicable, 1 for Strongly Disagree, 2 for Disagree, 3 for Somewhat Disagree, 4 for Somewhat Agree, 5 for Agree, and 6 for Strongly Agree. As the previous studies on hybrid learning are still limited, the instrument was newly made and validated by experts. The questionnaires were then distributed online using a Microsoft form to the five branches of Jakarta, Tangerang, Bekasi, Malang, and Bandung. A total sample of 1,160 students were taken for analysis.
Before the hypotheses testing, the items used in the research were tested for validity by using the extraction method in the principal component analysis (Table 2), resulting in eight valid items, and any items below 0.5 were extracted and not used. This method uses the dimension reduction analysis available in the SPSS Statistic tools.
Factor Analysis
ITU1 Lecturers/assistants can be seen clearly 0.687
ITU2 Lecturer's/assistant's voice can be heard clearly. 0.646
ITU3 Onsite student voices can be heard clearly by online students (and vice versa). 0.524
INV In class learning activities can be delivered effectively (presentation, discussion, quiz, etc.). 0.585
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ITA1 Practicum activities can be followed by onsite and online students well 0.513
ITA2 Shared teaching material by Lecturers/Assistants during ViCon/F2F sessions can be seen clearly 0.673
LPP1 Lecturers'/assistants' interaction with online and onsite students can run effectively. 0.607
LPP2 Teaching material can be easily understood 0.653
To assess the models' performance thoroughly and accurately, we used the SPSS Statistic tools to test the relationships between the variables. Table 3 shows the distribution of respondents based on the learning mode chosen by the students. As seen in the table, out of 1,160 students, the sample percentage of online students is 59,4%, and the percentage of onsite students is 40.6%. The onsite students are divided into two groups, A and B.
Table 3. Distribution of Respondents based on the Learning Mode
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
Online 689 59.4 59.4 59.4 Onsite Team A (Week 1 6) 342 29.5 29.5 88.9 Onsite Team B (Week 8 13) 129 11.1 11.1 100.0
Total 1,160 100.0 100.0
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy .889
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi Square 4,235.243 Df 36 Sig. .000
In the KMO and Bartlett's test table, the KMO measure of sampling adequacy (MSA) is 0.889 with (0.889 > 0.5). The result demonstrates the sample's adequacy. The KMO and Bartlett's test for Chi square is 4,235.243, with a significance value of 0.000. The value indicates a correlation between variables and that the process can be extended.
Dependent Variable: LPP F df1 df2 Sig. 2.961 318 841 .000
The Levene test tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is equal across groups.
a. Design: Intercept + ITU + ITA + INV + ITU * ITA + ITU * INV + ITA * INV + ITU * ITA * INV
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Levene’s test is an inferential statistic used in statistics to assess if the variances of two or more groups are identical. In several conventional statistical processes, the variances of the populations from which separate samples are obtained are considered equal. Levene's test is used to evaluate this assumption. According to Levene's test, the resulting p value of Levene's test is 0.000 less than 0.05. As a result, it is discovered that the population variances differ.
LPP ITU ITA INV
Sig.
N
LPP 1.000 .620 .695 .637 ITU .620 1.000 .596 .546 ITA .695 .596 1.000 .565 INV .637 .546 .565 1.000
LPP . .000 .000 .000 ITU .000 . .000 .000 ITA .000 .000 .000 INV .000 .000 .000
LPP 1,160 1,160 1,160 1,160 ITU 1,160 1,160 1,160 1,160 ITA 1,160 1,160 1,160 1,160 INV 1,160 1,160 1,160 1,160
Table 6 implies that there is a positive strong correlation between the variables to learning process performance. The increase in ITU shows an increase in LPP which means the more IT used in the hybrid learning process, the better the learning process performance, and the effect is strong. Likewise, the higher the IT adoption, the better the hybrid learning process performance, and the effect is strong. Moreover, the innovation capabilities have a positive strong correlation to LPP and, therefore, the better the innovation capabilities, the better the learning process performance.
Dependent Variable:
Source Type III Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta Squared Noncent. Parameter Obser ved Power
Corrected Model 4,688.440a 318 14.744 11.519 0.000 0.813 3,663.046 1.000 Intercept 6,118.569 1 6,118.569 4,780.395 0.000 0.850 4,780.395 1.000
ITU 72.686 16 4.543 3.549 0.000 0.063 56.789 1.000
ITA 283.773 12 23.648 18.476 0.000 0.209 221.710 1.000 INV 177.431 6 29.572 23.104 0.000 0.142 138.626 1.000
ITU * ITA 329.666 92 3.583 2.800 0.000 0.234 257.566 1.000
ITU * INV 140.363 48 2.924 2.285 0.000 0.115 109.665 1.000
ITA * INV 130.784 36 3.633 2.838 0.000 0.108 102.181 1.000
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ITU * ITA *
INV 212.055 90 2.356 1.841 0.000 0.165 165.677 1.000
Error 1,076.421 841 1.280
Total 103,341.000 1,160 Corrected Total 5,764.861 1,159
a. R Squared = .813 (Adjusted R Squared = .743)
b. Computed using alpha = .05
Evident in Table 7, the result shows that all tested hypotheses in this research are significant, with a p value of 0.000. Therefore, this research finds a significant influence between IT usage to learning process performance, and therefore the first hypothesis is accepted.
Likewise, the relationship between IT adoption and learning process performance is significant, with a p value of 0.000 less than 0.05. Thus, the second hypothesis is valid.
Moreover, the result shows a p value of 0.000 < 0.05 for the relationship between innovation capabilities and learning process performance, and therefore the third hypothesis is accepted.
Finally, the p value of 0.000 < 0.05 is obtained for the relationship between the interaction between the variables of IT usage, IT adoption, and innovation capabilities to learning process performance. Hence, this research found that the interaction between the applications of IT, adoption of IT, and innovation capabilities significantly influences the hybrid learning process performance.
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate
Change Statistics Durbin Watson R Square Change F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change 1 .774a .600 .599 1.413 .600 577.584 3 1,156 .000 1.971 a. Predictors: (Constant), INV, ITU, ITA b. Dependent Variable: LPP
Table 8 shows a value of adjusted R Square of 0.599, reflecting that the variables used in this research represent 60% of the learning process performance.
Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig.
95.0% Confidence Interval for B B Std. Error Beta Lower Bound Upper Bound 1
(Constant) 2.113 0.176 12.007 0 1.768 2.459 ITU 0.142 0.015 0.225 9.219 0 0.111 0.172 ITA 0.345 0.022 0.397 16.005 0 0.303 0.387 INV 0.472 0.039 0.29 12.199 0 0.396 0.547 a. Dependent Variable: LPP
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From the result in table 9, the mathematical model of this research can be written as:
LPP = 0.225*ITU + 0.397*ITA + 0.29*INV
The structural equation modeling shows that IT adoption holds the most significant beta coefficient value of 0.397 compared to IT usage and innovation capabilities. The next most substantial value affecting the learning process performance is innovation capabilities with a beta coefficient value of 0.29, followed by IT usage with a coefficient value of 0.225. Thus, this research found that educational institutions should focus on IT adoption first, then innovation capabilities and IT usage. The statement reflects the idea that educational institutions should ensure that the current IT tools have been adopted and mastered before implementing other innovations and newer IT tools.
The findings show that IT adoption has the most substantial effect on learning process performance from the theoretical perspective. This result can be explained using the TAM theory by Davis (2014), which states how technology users receive and use technology based on belief, attitude, intention, and user behavior relationship.
There is a clear relationship between the college and students in this research. By following all the requirements to join the hybrid learning process, the students' beliefs, attitudes, and intentions prove the TAM model correctly. Likewise, the student's perception of the usefulness and ease of use of IT technology supports IT adoption and IT usage. Due to the complexity of the hybrid learning process, the students need to experience the benefits of hybrid learning before the technology is adopted and used (Loureiro et al., 2020; Scherer et al., 2019; Yoon & Kim, 2017).
This research found a significant direct relationship between IT usage and learning process performance (LPP) with a beta coefficient value of 0.225. This result strengthened the previous study by Yoshikuni and Albertin (2015), which found a direct impact of IT utilization on performance. Likewise, the result confirms that IT usage is one of the most critical aspects of performance (Chan et al., 1997; Ju et al., 2013; Bharadwaj (2000).
Furthermore, before IT usage, IT adoption has been a great challenge for the organizations as they must allocate a high investment in adopting IT. Meanwhile, IT investments are easily replicated by the competitors, reflecting the need for the organization to adopt technology and develop the IT resources into something unique and practical (Clemons, 1986; Clemons & Row, 1991; Mata et al., 1995). Related to this research, nearly all educational institutions adopted the technology at the beginning of the COVID 19 pandemic from the lowest to the highest level. This is very important as it also shows the biggest significant effect on the relationship between IT adoption and learning process performance. IT tools such as websites, learning management systems (LMS), Zoom video conferencing tools, cameras, and audio tools, which can easily be bought online. IT adoption will be the most crucial step in making the hybrid learning process works.
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However, there will not be substantial differences between the previous learning process performance and the recent one without the proper IT usage. In this research, the IT usage has been evident as all the learning experiences are entirely integrated with IT usage. For example, the LMS does not stand alone; the LMS integrates the Zoom conferencing link and other devices into the system. When the learning begins, the lecturers and students need to log in to the LMS, where everything is well integrated. The lecturers and students can start the learning process by only clicking once. The supporting devices such as audio tools, TVs, and cameras have previously been connected to the LMS and can be controlled easily during the learning process. With such IT usage, the learning process becomes effective and not time consuming for the users, even new beginners.
This result supports the previous study by Chen and Chiou (2014) which shows that students in hybrid courses had much greater performance scores and satisfaction than students in face to face classes, according to the findings. These findings could be explained by the fact that online learning was more convenient to utilize and increased students' enthusiasm to learn.
Moreover, the ability to develop IT adoption to unique IT usage requires the innovation capabilities that represent the user demands and technological possibilities that must be considered during the development process. The successful innovation reflects the ability of the educational institution to surpass the other competitors (den Hertog et al., 2010), which in this research refers to better learning process performance. The IT adoption based on the TAM model is greatly affected by the perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU) of using the hybrid learning technology (Schepers & Wetzels, 2007; Scherer et al., 2019; Venkatesh & Bala, 2008), which implies that the willingness of the educational institutions to adopt hybrid learning technology depends on how they assume the performance after implementing the technology, and the efforts needed to implement the technology.
Thus, the findings of this research posit that the implementation of hybrid learning needs to focus on IT adoption first to ensure that the educational institutions have the adequate resources to conduct the hybrid learning. Next, the institutions need to use their innovation capabilities to find new ways, new ideas, or even modify existing methods to develop the IT adoption into unique IT usage
Olapiriyakul and Scher(2006) revealed that there was no significant difference in performance between students who took a hybrid course and those who did the same course via distant learning. Students provided some good feedback on the perceived value of the hybrid course instructor and course resources. The learning styles of the students were also investigated. They found that most students in the hybrid learning course are active, sensory, sequential, and visual learners. Visual presentations were chosen above verbal explanations by most of them. Hence, when done correctly, this will increase the learning process performance during the hybrid learning process.
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As explained previously, the learning process performance has become thecentral focus of this paper. The physical distancing and movement restrictions have made it impossible for the institutions to obtain reliable and valid results of students' evaluations. Therefore, learning process performance will be the most significant performance differentiator for successful hybrid learning performance.
Based on the findings, this research concluded that the performance of the hybrid learning process is greatly dependent on IT adoption, innovation capabilities, and IT usage. These three variables significantly increase the hybrid learning process performance and must be taken seriously. With the most substantial value in IT adoption, this research reflects the educational institutions need to conduct hybrid learning to ensure IT adoption and mastery before executing innovation capabilities and IT usage.
Theoretically, this research will enrich the theory by evaluating knowledge centered on one particular learning method. The study will also enrich the TAM (technology acceptance model) theory introduced by Fred Davis in 1985 (Davis, 1989; Venkatesh & Davis, 2009). Practically speaking, this research will benefit the managerial team of educational institutions to evaluate the effectiveness and performance of the limited face to face learning process with hybrid learning methods and high end technology integration that is already underway.
This study has provided an overview of the limited face to face learning conditions that have been ongoing and provided recommendations for improving the following learning process. This research further enhanced the quality of the learning process, which will eventually improve the quality of graduates or students to implement the knowledge obtained during a lecture in the lecture community. It is expected that this research may improve the quality of learning processes in the education sector in Indonesia. This research is fundamental because hybrid learning will not end anytime soon and needs quick action to immediately accelerate the adaptation process for a more quality learning process.
However, this research has some limitations. First, information technology usage and adoption are costly for most educational institutions. Therefore, this research might only be applicable to the educational institutions that have enough funds to implement the technology. Second, the research data were taken from a four month period but a more robust result may be found with a longer period.
This research is funded by the Indonesian Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology based on Indonesia's Merdeka Belajar Kampus Merdeka (MBKM) program to be socialized and disseminated to educational institutions worldwide.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 355 364, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.20
Received Feb 24, 2022; Revised Apr 20, 2022; Accepted Apr 24, 2022
Chiew Si Yan
INTI International University, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
Rajkumar Krishnan Vasanthi* INTI International University, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
Ambusam Subramaniam University Tunku Abdul Rahman, Selangor, Malaysia
Abstract The Movement Control Order (MCO) currently in effect in Malaysia was imposed in order to control the spread of the COVID 19 virus. This unfortunate circumstance has resulted in dramatic teaching and learning pedagogy shifts from traditional physical classes to online learning, including practical sessions. Therefore, this study aims to identify the Malaysian physiotherapy students' perceptions of e practical education in achieving learning outcomes. In this cross sectional study, 409 physiotherapy students from Malaysian universities participated voluntarily in the online Google Form survey, which was circulated through social media platforms from August 2021 to October 2021. Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS version 26.0 software. The results of the study demonstrate that students preferred traditional classes in comparison to online practical sessions in achieving the learning outcome of practical skills (p<.0.000) and social competencies (p<.0.000). Moreover, their activity level was also higher in physical classes (p<0.000). In a comparison of online and traditional practical (face to face) classes, the majority of students voted gaining theoretical knowledge as neutral or slightly effective but slightly ineffective in improving practical skills Students felt that more hands on practice through face to face classes would enhance the attainment of the learning outcome. In future, therefore, educational institutions can consider introducing other forms of interactive online mediums to simulate physical classes.
Keywords: COVID 19; pandemic; e learning; online learning; practical classes; practical skills; physiotherapy students
*Corresponding Author: RajkumarKrishnanVasanthi,rajkumar.krishnan@newinti.edu.my
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Electronic (e) learning is the use of electronic technology and media to deliver, support, and enhance learning and teaching through online content communication (Howlett et al., 2009). It refers to a method of teaching and learning in which teachers and students communicate and accomplish tasks via the Internet, as opposed to the traditional classroom (Li et al., 2014). In a survey reported in 2011, more than 6.1 million students were enrolled in at least one or more online courses in 2010, with 31 per cent of all students enrolled in higher education enrolled in at least one online course in the previous academic year in the United States (Allen et al., 2011). According to a more recent report, the number has climbed by approximately 570,000, bringing the total number of students enrolled in at least one online course to one million. The report also indicates that the number of students enrolled in at least one online course has reached a record high, with a current growth rate of 9.3 per cent; moreover, it anticipates that there is no indication that the trend will halt in the foreseeable future (Allen & Seaman, 2013). According to a recent study by Ng et al. (2021), 100 per cent virtual learning is a pedagogical approach with no face to face component and relies entirely on online based learning tools. Online learning or e learning is not a new concept and has been incorporated into modern 21st century education.
Since the outbreak of the coronavirus illness (COVID 19) in late December 2019, the disease has spread around the world Consequently, the World Health Organization (WHO) has declared COVID 19 to be a global pandemic, resulting in movement restrictions (Almomani et al., 2021). Education has been identified as one of the sectors most adversely affected by these constraints. In the new age of technology educational institutions have switched to e learning owing to the unforeseen global pandemic that forcibly changed the ways we currently conduct our lives. However, many universities have not fully grasped the concept of total online learning; therefore, the sudden change can lead to many disturbances in the efficient delivery of teaching.
As the MCO has been in place in Malaysia since March 2020, effective execution of online pedagogical design should be implemented so students' learning experience is engaging and not lacking. In light of this, most Malaysian universities have turned to online classes or e learning as a substitute for maintaining continuing education for students. The physiotherapy field is no exception, with half of all physical activity reduced for both practitioners and students (Quek & Alexanders, 2020). e Learning can be understood as an educational strategy that involves the application of blended computer science and communication to provide the students with access to all the required education programs (Regmi et al., 2020). In a study, educational institutions have responded by implementing online learning (e learning) using a virtual learning environment (VLE) and utilizing applications such as Blackboard, WebCT, or Moodle as a medium to re enact a classroom setting (Peacock & Hooper, 2007). It has been reported that learning outcomes were attained more effectively in e learning than in physical classes (Kemp, 2020), while another
study (Kemp & Grieve, 2014) reported remarkable insight reflecting students' academic performances indicating average to similar levels in both modes Their study results revealed that students prefer conducting written activities online while being able to discuss issues physically amongst peers and instructors. Therefore, it is essential to understand the students' perspective as it provides the necessary insight, especially when it comes to learning approaches for optimized learning This includes several aspects such as learning achievement, emotional and intellectual stimulation, and satisfaction (Van Wart et al., 2020).
As the initiation of an online learning system requires change, usability in e learning is considered a vital issue. Additionally, a coherent and efficient learning intervention includes the alignment of the technology, the learner and educational software where the needs of the user have to be the focus for usability to mitigate the high dropout rate as well as academic aspects (Rodrigues et al., 2019). According to a study conducted by Muthuprasad et al. (2021), 60 per cent of the students who participated in the survey deemed online classes to be less effective than face to face classes in terms of communication between students and lecturers. Another study (Kemp, 2020) analysing e learning and physical classes focused on two main aspects: perceived learning and perceived effort. It was found that though there was only a modest difference between the two, face to face learning was recorded as being favoured. The main reasons for this are physical classes fulfilling expectations and students participating in classes that are engaging (Kemp, 2020).
Despite this, students' perceptions of the quality and effectiveness of online classes for their education are highly subjective owing to the following factors: their learning objectives, course content, educational support satisfaction, technical accessibility, assessment criteria, and peer learning groups (Bączek et al., 2021; Van Wart et al., 2020). As a result, students and teachers both find it difficult to communicate and apply concepts in real world contexts while teaching behind a computer screen. An article published by Yu and Jee (2021) indicated that online physical education sessions do not assist students in terms of health, physical skills, collaboration among students or encouraging social interactions.
Furthermore, while e learning improves students’ theoretical knowledge, it may not be beneficial in terms of clinical skills and achieving learning outcomes (Olivier et al., 2020). Activities such as online discussions provide support, improve communication and deepen engagement with the learning materials. However, undergraduates in a study by Peacock and Hooper (2007) mentioned that the traditional face to face classes are necessary to understand the importance of certain information and particular knowledge in practice. Therefore, it is suggested that research be conducted to determine the effectiveness of e-practical learning in terms of achieving learning outcomes in physiotherapy students.
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With the developing dependency on online education, a pedagogically effective learning design model should be implemented to supplement the lack of face to face demonstration and correction to ensure an engaging learning environment despite being online A poorly designed class would lead to learners losing interest owing to the confusion (Almomani et al., 2021; Yu & Jee, 2021). In addition, e learning is efficient in terms of academic knowledge; however, the same cannot be said of the practical aspects (Olivier et al., 2020). Activities such as online discussions and quizzes provide support and improve communication; however, face to face demonstration and practice better enable the grasping of ideas (Peacock & Hooper, 2007).
A recent systematic review of 24 studies conducted by Regmi et al. (2020) has identified e learning as an educational strategy that facilitates learning through the utilization of information technology and communication, providing an opportunity for access to all the required education programs. There has to be a two way reciprocation between the students and educator for learning to take place. The students' self discipline and prioritization can also affect the effectiveness of e learning as the pedagogical system on which virtual classes are based provides everything. Therefore, the students are expected to be sufficiently responsible and mature to meet the deadlines provided and keep up with the scheduled subjects (Gorbunovs et al., 2016). Unlike traditional classes where a student is present when the lecture is given, online classes may not require the students to do so since the classes are recorded so that the students can refer back at a later date
As online classes are becoming the new norm, the feedback from students in e practical education is essential. This study garnered statistics on whether online students are achieving their learning objectives for their course compared to their classroom based course counterparts and vice versa (Almomani et al., 2021; Garratt Reed et al., 2016; Yu & Jee, 2021). There is not much research on web based physiotherapy education; more research is needed in this discipline (Mącznik et al., 2015). It was stated that there is a lack of systematic reviews available on e learning, especially in specific practice areas of medical education. Though e learning has been shown to have its drawbacks and there is justification for dissatisfaction, there are also students who are content with e learning, which results in better performance Gopal et al. (2021) identified the four distinct determinants for the students' satisfaction as course design, quality of the instructor, prompt feedback, and students' expectations. Primarily, consistency in course design and the interaction between the instructor and students promote and enhance critical thinking and even information processing.
Moreover, several studies have indicated that one of the highest rated key components in students' satisfaction with e learning is the quality of the instructor (Gopal et al., 2021; Muthuprasad et al., 2021; Rodrigues et al., 2019). This component includes everything an instructor does for the class such as explaining assignments, answering questions and structuring assignments (Van Wart et al., 2020). Additionally, Khlaif et al. (2021) suggest that instructors
engage with the students personally with mindful interventions and positive psychological approaches to improve the students’ satisfaction and performance. Furthermore, prompt feedback speaks of clear communication between the instructor and student. It is noted that prompt feedback aids in creating a strong bridge between students and instructors which can ultimately result in an improved learning performance (Gopal et al., 2021).
Therefore, this study focuses on the future generation of the physiotherapy discipline in Malaysia. To further build an online environment, it is necessary to better understand how students regard working and studying online (Hammarlund et al., 2015). It examines the self discipline factor in Malaysian students during online classes during the MCO period. Upon investigation, it was mentioned that students who are academically focused tend to perform better than those who prioritise their enjoyment and entertainment (Muksin & Makhsin, 2021). The maturity of the students also comes into effect when students understand the consequences of procrastination and practise self discipline to avoid falling behind.
There is much research from other countries about the effect of online education on their students (Armstrong Mensah et al., 2020; Gopal et al., 2021; Subarkah et al., 2020) However, there is no current research on Malaysian physiotherapy students. Therefore, this study aimed to compare e practical learning and traditional practical (face to face) classes in attaining the learning outcome in theoretical knowledge, clinical skills, social competencies and participation level
In addition, the advantages, disadvantages and satisfaction with e practical learning for physiotherapy students in Malaysia during the COVID 19 pandemic were also considered. This research aims to answer the following question: "What is the perception of e practical learning and traditional practical (face to face) classes of physiotherapy students in achieving their learning outcomes from a pandemic perspective?"
This is a non experimental and cross sectional approach study. A face validated adapted questionnaire developed by Bączek et al. (2021) was provided to the physiotherapy students pursuing diplomas and degree levels in Malaysia.
The current study purposively recruited 409 students pursuing their physiotherapy studies in Malaysian universities. Students who do not understand English were excluded from the study owing to the nature of the questionnaire. As the research is based on online practical classes, only diploma and undergraduate students were included in the study.
Upon informed consent, the participants were requested to complete an adapted questionnaire developed by Bączek et al. (2021). The questionnaire was created using an online Google Form and the link was distributed via social media
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(Facebook, WhatsApp and emails). The purpose, risks, benefits, confidentiality, and contact details of the researcher were included in the questionnaire, followed by the demographic profiles of the participants.
The main section of the questionnaire comprised the following areas, namely theoretical knowledge, clinical skills, social competencies and participation level. It compared e practical learning and traditional practical (face to face) classes and their advantages, disadvantages and satisfaction with e practical learning for physiotherapy students. Respondents were asked to rate face to face and online learning in terms of their ability to achieve learning objectives (knowledge, clinical skills, social competencies, and participation level) on a Likert scale (1 = ineffective to 5 = effective) (See Appendix 1).
Before collecting data, institutional ethical approval was obtained from the research ethics committee. Participation in the study was voluntary, and individuals could withdraw at any time during the study without providing a reason. In addition, informed permission was acquired from each participant during the administration of the questionnaire.
IBM SPSS version 26.0 software was used for statistical analysis in the current study. Demographic data and e practical learning versus traditional practical (face to face) data were represented using the frequencies and percentages. In contrast, the comparison between e practical learning and traditional practical (face to face) classes was analysed using the Wilcoxon signed rank test. The level was set at 0.05.
3.1
A total of 409 students (Age: 21.99 ± 1.74) were recruited in the current study. Table 1 represents the detailed demographic characteristics of the participants. Table 1: Demographic characteristics of the participants Variables Frequencies (n) Percentage (%)
Gender Male Female 172 237 42.1% 57.9% Age 19 and below 20 24 25 27
37 354 18
9% 86.6% 4.4%
Level of study Diploma Degree 33 376 8.1% 91.9%
Year of study Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
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59 85 112 153
14.4% 20.8% 27.4% 37.4%
IT skills
High Moderate Low
90 64 255
22.0% 15.7% 62 3%
Tables 2 and 3 compare e practical learning and traditional practical (face to face) learning during the Covid 19 pandemic among physiotherapy students. The majority of students answered neutral (n=177, 43.4%) on the stance on the effectiveness of e practical learning in improving theoretical knowledge. Besides, most students prefer traditional learning voted as slightly effective (n=177, 43.4%) and effective (n= 55, 13.4%) compared to e practical. There were significant differences between e practical and traditional practical learning (p=0.000).
Students found e practical learning slightly ineffective (n=186, 45.4%). Most students viewed traditional practical learning as more effective (n=229, 56%). In addition, the results also showed significant differences (p= 0.000) as students identified more improvement in traditional physical, practical classes than in online based learning (e practical). Most students found e practical learning slightly ineffective (n=163, 39.9%) in the social competencies component in comparison to traditional practical (face to face), where the majority students responded as either slightly effective (n=164, 40.1%) or effective (n=166, 40.6%). The Wilcoxon signed rank test showed a significant difference (p= 0.000) as students felt they were more sociable in traditional classes over virtual lectures.
Most students had a neutral (n=170, 41.6%) stance in terms of activity during online practical classes. In comparison to traditional practical (face to face) learning, students mainly responded as slightly active (n=182, 44.5%). The results also showed significant differences (p= 0.000). Thus, students were more active in traditional practical (face to face) as compared with e practical learning.
Table 2: Comparison between e practical learning and traditional practical (face to face) classes on theoretical knowledge and clinical skills
Traditional learning e Practical learning Traditional learning
Level of effectiveness Theoretical knowledge p value Clinical skills p value e Practical learning
Slightly ineffective 53 (13%) 20 (4.9%) 186 (45.5%) 12 (2.9%)
Neutral 177 (43.3%) 155 (37.9%) 39 (9.5%) 13 (3.2%)
Slightly effective 130 (31.8%) 177 (43.3%) 15 (3.7%) 151 (36.9%)
Ineffective 16 (3.9%) 2 (0.5%) 0.000
167 (40.8%) 4 (1%) 0.00
Effective 33 (8%) 55 (13.4%) 2 (0.5%) 229 (56%)
Table 3: Comparison between e practical learning and traditional practical (face to face) classes on social competencies and participation level
Level of effectiveness
Social competencies p value Participation level p value e Practical learning Traditional learning e Practical learning Traditional learning Ineffective 85 (20.8%) 3 (0.7%)
Slightly ineffective 163 (39.9%) 14 (3.4%) 153 (37.4%) 12 (2.9%)
0.000
38 (9.3%) 4 (1%) 0.000
Neutral 136 (33.2%) 62 (15.2%) 170 (41.6%) 144 (35.2%)
Slightly effective 24 (5.9%) 164 (40.1%) 42 (10.2%) 182 (44.5%)
Effective 1 (0.2%) 166 (40.6%) 6 (1.5%) 67 (16.4%)
The participants’ responses showed high percentages for both advantages and disadvantages of e practical learning (Table 4). The highest numbers of recorded benefits of e practical learning were watching the recorded lecture session and accessing online materials. The disadvantages faced by the students were the reduced interaction with the teacher, technical problems encountered during the online sessions and lack of interactions with patients. However, in terms of satisfaction, most of the students responded as being neutral or dissatisfied.
Table 4: Advantages, disadvantages and satisfaction towards e-practical learning for physiotherapy students
Variables Frequencies (n) Percentage (%)
Advantages
Access to online materials
Learning at your own pace
Ability to stay home Class interactivity
Ability to record a meeting Comfortable surroundings
Reduced interaction with teacher Technical problems
Lack of interactions with patients Poor learning conditions at home
Lack of self discipline
Social isolation
Overallsatisfaction
Ineffective Slightly ineffective
Neutral Slightly effective Effective
334 316 286 68 351 272
351 357 384 284 335 310
59 149 141 50 10
81.7% 77.3% 69.9% 16.6% 85.8% 66.5%
85.8% 87.3% 93.9% 69.4% 81.9% 75.8%
14.4% 36.4% 34.4% 12.2% 2.4%
The current study evaluated the perceptions of 409 physiotherapy students on the effectiveness of e practical in accomplishing learning objectives during the
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pandemic. It is thought to be the first of its kind in Malaysia. The current study revealed that the students preferred traditional practical classes to e practical in improve their theoretical knowledge. Even though 69.9 per cent of students think staying home to study is a benefit, an equal percentage, namely 69.4 per cent, consider the learning environment at home to be inferior to that at a university. Drašler et al. (2021) found that a poor home environment interferes with learning activities owing to distractions from other family members and the fact that they do not have a dedicated study space at home. Most students (81.7%) thought having access to online information would be useful because they could learn at their own pace (77.3%). The majority, however, suffer from a lack of discipline (81.9%), which contributes to the slow rate of learning, disengagement and lack of motivation. As noted in a previous study, the continual availability of the computer for leisure type activities may result in increased distraction and decreased efficiency among the students (Regalado & Smale, 2015).
In terms of clinical skills, students have a significant preference (p=0.000) for physical practice rather than virtually guided practice sessions. As discussed by Bączek et al. (2021), not having hands on experience in the clinical setting will compromise students' ability to grasp concepts that cannot be seen or pictured with purely wordy explanations. Even thorough demonstrations are not the same learning experience as applying hands on skills with modifications or corrections given by instructors (Van Wart et al., 2020). Moreover, when it comes to diagnosing a patient's condition, a lack of competencies, experience and practical skills might have long term consequences at a higher level of education or when entering the job market (Gamage et al., 2020). Furthermore, the majority of instructors who have never had any online teaching experience or obtained suitable training are unlikely to be able to offer an effective online learning experience. This could contribute to the lack of competencies among the physiotherapy students (Chiu, 2022).
Moreover, the current study confirmed that face to face practical learning is more effective than virtual online learning in improving social competencies (p=0.000). The 75.8 per cent of respondents selected social isolation as a disadvantage, and only a small percentage of 16.6 per cent felt that a virtual class was interactive. According to previous research, students who feel much more socially isolated and receive less social support may be at greater risk of experiencing negative social consequences such as anxiety, stress, and depression, leading to mental health problems (Elmer et al., 2020). Anxiety and stress exacerbated by the unusual public health crisis, social isolation, and economic slump could further aggravate students' pre-existing mental health problems (Singh et al., 2020). Therefore, student self regulation, motivation, and a positive learning disposition are emphasized and must be supported even more in the future.
Research shows that studying at home resulted in a loss of teamwork consistent with concerns about distance learning in pre COVID time (Choate et al., 2021). Similarly, students in face to face practical lessons are more engaged than those
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in online courses regarding activity levels. This is also related to why students felt the lack of interaction with teachers (n=351, 85.8%) and patients (n=384, 93.9%) was an issue. The lack of social support from the instructors and peers causes great student dissatisfaction with learning (Khlaif et al., 2021). Educators may boost student motivation in online or distance learning by supporting student autonomy, assuring education, and engaging interpersonally with the student (Chiu, 2022). In the long run, instructors who support autonomy will consider student perspectives, allow for alternatives in learning, provide reasoning when the choice is limited, minimize the use of controlling language, and reduce excessive pressure and expectations on students, enabling them to use their voices to seek help and, as a result, feel empowered in learning (Alamri et al., 2020).
According to the perception of the benefits of e learning, the most favoured benefits of e learning were the ability to record the session (85.8%), accessibility to online materials (81.7%) and the capability to learn at their own pace (77.3%). The readily available information makes it convenient for students to access any lecture notes or meetings as it is all placed in one space (Choate et al., 2021). The amount of information on the Internet is vast and readily available for use; thus, students can give a quicker response when asked questions (Hammarlund et al., 2015). In the other hand, 83.4 per cent of students identified class involvement as their least favourite benefit. Reduced interactivity has been identified in previous studies as a common cause of discontent with e learning because of the scarcity of electronic devices, technical issues, a lack of technical support, as well as the lack of access to a high speed Internet connection (Khlaif et al., 2021; Lapitan et al., 2021; Muthuprasad et al., 2021). Some students will be unable to participate in online courses because they do not have access to the Internet, and sluggish connections might make accessing course platforms and resources challenging (Muthuprasad et al., 2021). Thus, to ensure the success of online learning, Internet access should be made equitable and accessible to all.
Although a recent study has forecast the benefits of using e practical learning as a pandemic alternative, e practical learning is not without its drawbacks. More than 90 per cent of physiotherapy students highlighted insufficient engagement with patients as a major drawback. Students would have no hands on skills, even if clinical placements were conducted virtually. It is vitally essential and invaluable for students to apply their theoretical knowledge by having hands on experience with actual patients (Bączek et al., 2021; Khan et al., 2021).
Education is a two way process involving both the institution and the students. In the current study, 81.9 per cent of students reported lacking self-discipline. Students are assumed to be alert and ready to process information taught in physical classes. In contrast, everything is already provided online in e learning. Nevertheless, it is up to the students' self discipline, time management, and motivation to complete their coursework on time and keep up with the lectures (Gorbunovs et al., 2016).
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When physical classes abruptly change into fully online courses, students have to rely on good Internet connectivity, Internet availability and accessibility to computers or electronic devices (Almomani et al., 2021; Choate et al., 2021; Hammarlund et al., 2015). Lack of decent Internet accessibility can lead to discrepancies in video exchange by both educators and students, which is also an issue reported by Choate et al. (2021). Thus, user perception and their knowledge of and skills in computer use are all critical variables in the effective implementation of e learning tools.
The study's limitations include the possibility of decline bias and selection bias, as e learning is a relatively new concept introduced abruptly, and the study group may be reacting badly to something that is out of the ordinary. Owing to time and resource constraints, the focus of this study was only on students' perspectives; the instructors’ views were excluded.
The survey found that Malaysian physiotherapy students are generally dissatisfied with their e practical learning experiences. As for physiotherapy education where the emphasis is on hands on learning, it may not be viable to convert to an online learning model. A hybrid method is advocated for universities by means of which online lectures are supplemented by small group practicals in which social distancing is maintained.
When comparing online and traditional practical (face-to-face) classes, the majority of students are neutral and regard attaining the theoretical knowledge only as slightly effective. However, in terms of improving practical skills, students felt more hands on practice through face to face contact sessions would enhance the learning outcomes. The results thus showed that the students were enthusiastic about the novel teaching technique, yet believed traditional classes were required for practical sessions. Therefore, educational institutions can consider introducing other forms of interactive online mediums to simulate physical courses. The participants’ responses showed high percentages for both advantages and disadvantages of e practical learning. In contrast, in terms of the level of satisfaction, however, most of the students responded as neutral or dissatisfied.
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How old are you (in years)?
What is your gender?
What is your current level of studies?
What year of physiotherapy studies are you in?
How would you describe your IT skills?
Have you ever participated in any type of e practical learning before the pandemic?
What are the advantages of e practical learning?
What are the disadvantages of e practical learning?
Rate the effectiveness of e practical learning in terms of increasing theoretical knowledge.
Rate the effectiveness of e practical learning in terms of increasing clinical skills.
Rate the effectiveness of e practical learning in terms of increasing social competencies.
Rate the effectiveness of traditional face to face learning in terms of increasing theoretical knowledge.
Rate the effectiveness of traditional face to face learning in terms of increasing clinical skills.
Rate the effectiveness of traditional face to face learning in terms of increasing social competencies.
Rate your activity during e practical learning.
Rate your activity during traditional face to face learning.
Rate how much you enjoyed e practical learning classes during the pandemic.
*Ratings: 1Ineffective,2Slightlyineffective,3Neutral,4Slightlyeffective,5Effective
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 365 379, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.21
Received Feb 24, 2022; Revised Apr 22, 2022; Accepted Apr 30, 2022
Abstract. Attitudetowardcreativitymayplayacentralroleindeveloping creative abilities ingifted children with autismspectrumdisorder (ASD), so, examining attitudes toward creativity is important. This empirical research evaluated the effectiveness of a training program to develop attitudes toward creativity, that is, training that encourages the production of a wide range of ideas marked by freshness and originality in the realms of talent; these ideas should be practical and beneficial, and well received in the community in which these gifted children live). The sample involved six gifted children with ASD, aged between 8 and 12 years. A quasi experimental approach was used, the Scale of Attitude toward Creativity was applied, and the training program was presented by the researcher. The results show a statistically significant difference (p<0.05) between the mean ranks of participants on the Scale of Attitude toward Creativity before and after the application of the training program, in favor of the post test. After two months, a follow up application of the Scale of Attitude toward Creativity found no statistically significant difference between the mean ranks of participants between the second and third evaluation. In light of these findings, the researcher recommends that the necessary services and funds are provided to develop the talents of gifted children with ASD. Specialized programs should be pursued in the fields of the talents discovered in these children. Research in the field of giftedness and ASD should be strengthened and gifted children with ASD must participate and be included in various relevant programs and events.
Keywords: Attitudes toward creativity; Autism spectrum disorder; Gifted children
Neurodevelopmental disorders typically emerge in the early stages of development and are characterized by growth deficits that result in impairment
* Corresponding author: Sherif Adel Gaber; Email: sagahmed@kfu.edu.sa
©Author
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
in individuals’ social, academic, and occupational performance. This growth deficit may vary from specific difficulties in learning or controlling executive functions, to pervasive deficits and general complications relating to social skills or intelligence. The fifth edition of the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM 5), released on May 18, 2013, contains many changes and new diagnostic criteria for a number of disorders. The DSM 5 presents a comprehensive diagnosis for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) a neurodevelopmental disorder that includes a number of previously separate conditions, namely autistic disorder, Asperger’s syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (Sanchack & Thomas, 2016).
The term ASD describes a group of deficiencies in communication and social interaction that appear at an early age, together with the emergence of recurrent sensorimotor behaviors. These disorders are associated with a strong genetic component, in addition to other causes. Today, the outlook for many people with ASD is much brighter than it was 50 years ago. Many people with ASD are able to speak, read, and live in the community, and some will be largely asymptomatic by adulthood (Lord et al., 2018).
Prior to the publication of the DSM 5, it was believed that children with ASD could not possess any form of talent. An exception is those with Asperger’s syndrome, which Mohamed (2008) notes is rare in children with below average intelligence. While many children with Asperger’s syndrome have a high or very high level of intelligence, these children are not typically regarded as gifted. Some children with ASD may have high levels of abilities in certain domains that some might consider a talent; however, these abilities cannot be considered talents, for several reasons. First, criteria for considering a child as talented include that a child does not have an intellectual disability. Second, giftedness requires an IQ of at least average. Finally, talent requires innovation and a certain level of adaptive behavior (Mohamed, 2008).
Al Maaytah and Al Bawalis (2004) disagree that talents are special abilities of a formative origin and related to intelligence level. Rather, they view talent as the ability to reach a high level of performance in a field that is not related to intelligence; thus, they argue that some talents may be found among those diagnosed with intellectual disability.
Bennett and Heaton (2012) agree, and report that children with ASD often possess special skills that appear in three main areas: music, drawing, and data processing. The study did not view intelligence and adaptive behavior as two conditions for giftedness. Gifted individuals with ASD comprised 42% of the study sample, among them 5% had intellectual disabilities. Hughes et al. (2018) support the notion of the existence of special talents in those with ASD, specifically savant syndrome. However, it is unclear why some people with autism have these skills and others not
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Zhang and Han (2018) note that, while ASD is a pervasive developmental disorder, characterized by profound social and verbal communication deficits, stereotyped motor behaviors, specific interests, and abnormal cognitive aspects, one of the most distinctive and mysterious characteristics of this disorder is the superior talent of some children, who are called autistic savants. Suleiman (2012) points out that the talents of a child with ASD may appear in many forms, the most common of which are superior abilities in mathematics, memorization, architecture, drawing, and music. Additionally, some children have a superior ability for keeping calendars and others can remember facts and details such as dates of ancient historical events, names of presidents, geographic information, or dates of birth. Others have superior drawing ability or can remember small details, such as the number of trees on a street. Children may lose some of these talents, especially in drawing and music, during puberty. Clark (2017), similarly, observed that children and adults with ASD may demonstrate remarkable abilities or skills in one or several areas, namely art, music, mechanical or spatial skills, and calculations, among others. However, these talents often appear in the form of obsessive and repetitive behaviors.
The literature, thus, demonstrates that some children with ASD have superior abilities and capabilities in one or more specific fields. These children may benefit from research and programs aimed at developing their attitudes toward creativity, and nurturing their talents. Therefore, the current study sought to develop an attitude toward creativity among gifted children with ASD through the application of a training program. The training program also sought to encourage them to adapt and use their talents to serve their communities, to ensure their beneficial involvement with the society in which they live, which would have a positive reflection on their mental health.
The concept of giftedness refers to a child’s possession of extraordinary, innate potential in one or more areas, and that is appreciated in a particular place and time. From a linguistic point of view, talent is considered to be a child’s innate aptitude. However, defining some of the terms related to the concept of talent is more difficult from an educational and idiomatic point of view. Complex traits may predispose the child to high achievement in some skills and jobs. While the gifted child is perceived as having an innate aptitude, the appropriate environment may be necessary to develop the related skill, which could be music, poetry, or drawing (Al Assal, 2013). The term autistic savant syndrome is often used by researchers to refer to children with ASD who have superior talent. Mada (2021) reports that the term “double exceptional learners” may be used to refer to children who are in a gifted program and a special education program at the same time. Further, the American Psychological Association indicates that an autistic scientist is a gifted child with an intellectual disability or ASD who shows distinct abilities or talents in a field such as arithmetic, paranormal memory, or music (APA, 2015, p. 934).
Children with ASD may be doubly exceptional marked by the presence of both talent and disorder at the same time. The shortcomings that gifted children with
ASD suffer from, such as lack of communication and social interaction, and the practice of repetitive and restricted patterns of behavior, interests and activities, does not preclude their level of performance being distinctive, especially regarding excellence in scientific fields. It is suggested that guiding these children into a less restrictive educational environment gives them the opportunity to develop and enhance their giftedness, and enables them to achieve the highest level of efficiency (Wadani & Aboul Fotouh, 2019). Therefore, the researcher sought to develop a type of attitude toward creativity in these children, in order to train them to produce a variety of original ideas in the fields in which they are gifted, and to be appreciated for their contribution to society. Suleiman (2012) explains that, while theories have been put forward in this regard, none have received sufficient scientific support. Current educational efforts and practices are limited in the support or development it can offer for talents of children with ASD (Wadani & Aboul Fotouh, 2019). Some studies found that individuals with ASD demonstrate lower performance on creativity tasks, yet may have innovative output in some domains (Kasirer & Mashal, 2014; Kasirer et al., 2020; Pring et al., 2012). Mada (2021) recommends taking special care to provide an appropriate environment that is mentally stimulating for these exceptional children, so that they can develop further and learn how to apply their talents better. In this context, the following research question was investigated: Does the training program used in this study affect the development of an attitude toward creativity in gifted children with ASD? The following questions were used to evaluate the effectiveness of the training program:
1. What was the degree of difference between the mean ranks of the study sample on the Scale of Attitude toward Creativity before and after the application of the program?
2. What was the degree of difference between the mean ranks of the study sample on the Scale of Attitude toward Creativity after completing the program and at follow up after two months?
The theoretical and practical importance of the current research is as follows:
A Theoretical importance
1. Enriched theoretical frameworks that concern children with ASD in general, and gifted children with ASD in particular;
2. Enriched theoretical frameworks concerned with the importance of an attitude toward creativity in gifted children with ASD;
3. Contributed to increasing attention on gifted children with ASD, and developing their abilities; and
4. Added to the body of research aimed at developing an attitude toward creativity in gifted children with ASD. To the researcher’s knowledge, there is a lack of research generally, and Arab studies in particular, on this topic.
1. The results of this study can be used to prepare training programs to develop the talents and behavior of gifted children with ASD.
2 This study provides a scale to measure an attitude toward creativity in gifted children with ASD
3. A training program is proposed to develop an attitude toward creativity in gifted children with ASD.
The current study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a training program to develop an attitude toward creativity in gifted children with ASD and to test the effectiveness of this program in helping these children achieve the required procedural goals.
a. Training program: Procedurally defined as a set of integrated, interconnected, sequenced, planned activities presented to gifted children with ASD and between the ages of 8 and 12 years, in a specific period of time, with the aim of developing their attitudes toward creativity, in order to refine and develop their talents.
b. Attitude toward creativity: Procedurally defined as positive preparation that enables gifted children with ASD to produce a variety of ideas characterized by novelty and originality in the fields of talent that appear in these children, provided that these ideas are purposeful and useful and receive appreciation in the society in which they live.
c. Gifted children with ASD: Procedurally defined as children who were regularly enrolled in autism programs at special education schools or classes attached to institutions of intellectual education in Al Ahsa governorate, Saudi Arabia, and who have been diagnosed according to the criteria for ASD in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
The Saudi Ministry of Education (2015) definesASD as a persistent deficitin social communicationand social interaction across multiple contexts,through deficits in social and emotional exchange, deficits in nonverbal communication behaviors used in social communication, and deficits in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships (Saudi Ministry of Education, 2015, pp. 10 11). A 2018 report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on the Autism and Development Disabilities Monitoring Network shows that the prevalence of ASD has risen, to 1 of every 54 natural births, which is twice the average in 2004 (Autism Society, 2020). The report also indicates that males were 4.5 times more likely than females to have ASD. However, the report notes that recent research suggests that females may not display ASD in the same way as males and, thus, may not be diagnosed with it.
The symptoms that are used to diagnose ASD vary. Displayed behaviors encompass social, cognitive, linguistic and kinesthetic development. Symptoms can vary between mild and severe (Abu Al Nour et al., 2014). The new diagnostic criteria for ASD, according to the DSM 5, can be briefly described as follows:
1. Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts, as manifested by the following, currently or by history:
Limited and repetitive behavior, interests, or activities, whether current or prior.
3. Symptoms should appear in the early developmental period (but the symptoms may only appear completely when social needs exceed limited capabilities, or may be masked by learned strategies in later life.
4. The symptoms cause significant social or functional impairment, or significant current functional impairment.
5. These imbalances are not well explained by intellectual disability (mental developmentaldisorder) or total developmentaldelay, as intellectualdisability and ASD often go hand in hand. The expected level is relative to the general level of growth (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Yahya (2010) observed that, while psychologists and educators define a gifted child in multiple ways, these definitions fall into two categories. First, the traditional, classic definitions focus on the standard of mental ability, which is considered as the child’s level of intelligence. The second emerged as a result of criticisms leveled at the classical definitions, which do not measure children’s abilitiesandtraits, such as creativeabilitiesand specialtalents,in additionto other criticisms regarding the cultural, racial and class biases of some definitions. Similarly, Al Quraiti (2011) points out that scholars and researchers differ in their definition of creativity. Some focus on the creative process, such as how creativity is expressed within the individual, while others emphasize creativity as a lifestyle thatleads to self developmentand achievement.Stillothers regard creativityfrom the standpoint of the creative preparations and energies that qualify the person for creative performance later on, and some emphasize the creative person, by defining creativity in relation to an individual’s characteristics. Finally, some define creativity from the perspective of the outcome that results from an individual’s preparations and the process, that is, the particular psychology of the entire process. Likewise, Ibrahim and Sheikh (2010) note that defining talent is also problematic, as it is difficult to agree on a right and proper definition. Talent has been defined as both intelligenceand as the ability to solve problems or devise solutions,among other definitions.Finally, gifted people are defined as those who have extraordinary aptitudes and abilities, or who perform distinctly from their peers in one or more areas valued by society, especially in educational attainment, innovative thinking and special skills. Typically, gifted students need special educational care that is seldom available to them in an integrated manner.
Savant skills are a form of islands of abilities, which are unusual and noticeable abilities in certain areas in a small number of people with ASD. These remarkable abilities appear in approximately 10% of people with ASD, but in only 1% of people without ASD. Previously, people with these abilities were called “idiot savants” (brilliant idiots), but this designation has been replaced by the term autistic savant or high functioning autistic (Al Quraiti, 2011, p. 448; Suleiman, 2012).
Pring et al. (2012) evaluated nine talented artists with ASD, nine artistically gifted students with ASD, nine students with ASD who were not artistically gifted, and nine individuals with mild/medium learning difficulties within and outside their
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area of expertise. The study aimed to ascertain whether the artists’ performance was related to their artistic ability, their diagnosis of ASD, or their level of intellectual functioning. The results showed that, in a drawing task, artistically gifted students with ASD were more creative on fluency, originality, mastery, and flexibility than the other three groups. Although the first group provided more detailed responses than the third and fourth groups, no differences in other indicators of creativity in the non drawing task were observed between the four groups.
A study by Akl (2014) assessed the effectiveness of a play based training program in developing the visual perception of gifted children with ASD, and its impact on their verbal communication. The study sample consisted of eight children, ranging in age from 6 10 years. The results confirm the effectiveness of the play based training program for developing visual perception of gifted children with ASD, which the study achieved to varying degrees.
Kasirer and Mashal (2014) conducted a study of verbal creativity in adults with ASD, using tasks based on new figurative language. Seventeen adults with ASD (mean age 21.06 years), and 17 adults without ASD (mean age 22.71 years) completed a multiple choice questionnaire consisting of traditional and new tropes to test comprehension, and a sentence completion questionnaire to test creative language generation. The results showed similar performance in understanding traditional and new tropes in both groups. Furthermore, adults with ASD produced more creative tropes compared to the other group. Scores of both groups on the vocabulary and naming tests predicted understanding of traditional metaphors, while scores on tests of mental flexibility predicted new metaphors. Additionally, scores on a nonverbal intelligence test contributed to predicting metaphor generation. The study suggests that verbal creativity is unique in individuals with ASD.
Fairouz (2018) aimed to identify differences in type of giftedness according to the cognitive skills of gifted individuals with ASD. The study also sought to determine differences between individuals with ASD who were gifted with cognitive skills, and non gifted individuals with ASD. The study sample comprised 28 males with ASD, ranging in age from 8 20 years old, including eight people with talents. Eight mothers and 10 teachers were also included in the study sample. The study used a qualitative and descriptive approach The results suggest that gifted people with ASD are similar in cognitive skills, such as selective attention, distinct memory, attitude for detailed processing of information, and exhibition of stereotypical behavioral characteristics and special interests. Quantitative results for gifted individuals with ASD showed the highest averages for the two dimensions of memory and stereotyped behaviors, while the lowest average reflected social interaction. A statistically significant difference was found in the memory dimension, and the total questionnaire score, which favored gifted individuals with ASD.
Hughes et al. (2018) tested three groups. The first group consisted of gifted individuals with ASD, the second group consisted of non gifted adults with ASD,
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and the third group included adults without ASD who did not have superior skills. Cognitive and behavioral characteristics were measured with a self report battery and a number of scales that measured sensory overload, obsessive behaviors, cognitive patterns, and broader features related to ASD, such as social communication and organization. The study also evaluated the presence of superior skills in the three groups. Results showed increased sensory sensitivity, obsessive behaviors, technical/spatial abilities, and organizational ability for gifted individuals with ASD, in addition to a different approach to learning tasks. The results also showed rare cognitive and behavioral characteristics in adults with ASD who possessed superior skills, compared to adults with ASD without such skills.
A study by Hetzroni et al. (2019) compared the creative thinking abilities of 20 children with ASD and 20 children without ASD, ranging in age from 9 11 years. The study compared performance on four different tests of creativity: the Pictorial Multiple Solutions test, a general creativity test, and the Creating Equal Number test, and a mathematics creativity test. The relationships between general and mathematics creative thinking were investigated through cognitive scales, including nonverbal intelligence, verbal and nonverbal working memory, and attention. The results suggest that creativity can be found in people with ASD.
Wadani and Aboul Fotouh (2019) aimed to build and standardize an assessment scale for behavioral indicators predictive of talent. Their sample consisted of 98 randomly chosen students with ASD enrolled in 10 special education programs in the Jazan region, Saudi Arabia. Participants were from the same social, cultural and economic class, and ranged in age between 7 and 12 years. The construction and standardization procedures included several methods to verify the validity and reliability of the scale. The final scale consisted of three dimensions: metacognitive skills, visual motor skills, and psycho social skills A total of 66 items represented behavioral indicators that could be considered predictors of talent in students with ASD. These students require an effective supportive environment to manifest high performance.
A study by Kasirer et al. (2020) examined verbal and figurative creativity in a sample of 40 children with ASD, ranging in age between 11 and 14 years, and 39 children without ASD ranging in age between 11 and 15. A sentence completion questionnaire was used to test verbal creativity, while a non existent object drawing task was used to assess figurative abilities. Use of creative metaphors was also examined. The results showed that children with ASD showed greater use of a particular type of representational change in the metaphorical creativity task (e.g., drawing a house with a tail). While phonemic fluency contributed to the variance in the generation of new metaphors in the group of children with ASD, fluid intelligence, although only marginal, contributed to variance in the generation of new metaphors in the group of children without ASD. The results also indicate that verbal creativity and figurative creativity were two separate abilities that depended on different cognitive sources. Children with ASD and children without ASD differed in the cognitive abilities they used to perform the task of generating metaphors. The study also indicated a unique creative cognitive
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profile for children with ASD, namely the contribution of executive functions to creative performance.
3.1.
The researcher used the quasi experimental approach, as it relied on the design of a single group. Moreover, a training program that had been developed by the researcher was used as independent variable to verify its effect on the attitude towards creativity (dependent variable) in the sample.
3.2.
The originalpopulationof the study consistedof all gifted children with ASD who regularly enrolled at the Autism Institute, and inclusive integration in general education classes in Al Ahsa Governorate, Saudi Arabia; the total numbered 24 children. The sample consisted of six gifted male children with ASD enrolled in the Autism Institute The children were diagnosed according to the criteria of the Saudi Ministry of Education. Ages ranged between 8 and 12 years (mean 10.50, standard deviation 1.64). The researcher obtained permission from the Scientific Research Ethics Committee through the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Faisal University, and also obtained written consent from the participants’ parents. The research was conducted during the first semester of 2021/2022.
3.3.1.
This scale was developed by the researcher for gifted children with ASD, to evaluate their attitude toward creativity It consists of 18 items. A three point Likert scale is used to answer questions: from 1 (never), to 3 (always) The researcher calculatedthe externalcriterion validityfor the scores of the ATCS, and the Attitude Toward Creativity scale of Al Dakhil (2019) on a sample of nine children. The correlation coefficient value was found to be 0.794, and the test retest reliability after two weeks was 0.885 (p <0.01), which is statistically significant.
The researcher prepared a training program with the aim of developing an attitude toward creativity in gifted children with ASD. It is important to develop an attitude toward creativity in these children, so that their skills and superior abilities can be developed in the talent areas that distinguish them from their peers, as well as to enrich the Arab environment, especially the Saudi environment, with training programs for children with ASD in general and gifted children with ASD in particular. To verify the validity of the training program, the researcher presented the initial version of the program to a number of evaluators. Based on their consensus, the researcher divided the procedural objectives of the program into three sections: (1) cognitive objectives, (2) skill goals, and (3) emotional goals. Cognitive objectives are that the child concludes that creativity reflects a sophisticated social aspect of society; pays attention to new developments in the field of their talent; chooses to spend their free time in activities they find interesting; attends to the topics related in the field of talent;
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and recognizes that creativity is the highest achievement that they reach in their field of talent. Skill goals include that the child listens to creators in their field of talent;choosesactivitiesto acquireaccuracyin theirfieldof talent;adapts personal desires to the field of their talent; and watches educational programs focused on the field of talent. Emotional goals include that the child is excited when hearing about their field of talent; achieves success in their field of talent; is enthusiastic about continuing to explore their field of talent; continues their studies in their field of talent; feels valued by their peers’ recognition of their talent; and invites peers at school to join activities.
The program used a variety of techniques, such as dialogue and discussion, free play, emotional venting, cooperative learning, brainstorming, homework, and reinforcement. The training program was divided into 26 sessions of 40 minutes each, presented at a rate of three per week. Furthermore, the program was divided into three stages. The introductory stage consisted of two sessions. Next, the training stage consisted of 21 sessions. Finally, the evaluation stage consisted of three sessions. Table 1 depicts these sessions in terms of their number, stage, objectives, and techniques.
Table 1. Program stages, number of sessions, objectives and techniques Program stage Program objectives
Stage 1, Introduction (sessions 1 2)
The researcher should establish an emotional relationship between themself and the students. The researcher should talk about the goal and procedures of the program.
To conclude that creativity reflects a sophisticated social aspect in society.
To hear what is new in their field of talent.
To identify activities that will enable them to spend their free time on something enjoyable.
To be inclined to topics related to their field of talent.
Techniques used
Dialogue and discussion Free play Reinforcement
Stage 2, Training on the procedural objectives of the program (sessions 3 23)
Toknowthatcreativityisthehighest degreethat they can reach in their field of talent. Tolisten toexplanations bycreatorsintheir field of talent.
To selectactivities togainaccuracyinthefield of talent.
To adapt personal desires to the field of talent. To watch specialized educational programs in the field of talent.
To be excited to hearabout successin the field of talent.
To be enthusiastic to continue to be a scholar in the field of talent.
To accept to continue their studies in the field of talent.
To feel that they are valued by peers who recognize that they are gifted.
To invite peers at school to join activities.
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Cooperative learning Brainstorming Reinforcement Homework
Stage 3, Evaluation (sessions 24 26)
Students are evaluated on the procedural objectives of the program. Reinforcement
The Wilcoxon signed rank test was used to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between the mean ranks of participants on the ATCS before and after completion of the training program. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05 for all analyses. Referring to the average ranks of the two measurements, the results showed a difference in favor of the largest average, which was the dimensional measurement. This result indicates the training program was effective at developing an attitude toward creativity in the study sample. See Table 2.
Table 2. Results of Wilcoxon rank test for the difference between the mean ranks of participants on the ATCS before and after training program
Research Sample (Post Pre) N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks Z P Value
Negative Ranks 0 0 0 2.264 0.024* Positive Ranks 6 3.50 21 Ties 0 Note. * p <0.05
Table 2 shows that the value of Z for the total score of the scale was 2.264, and the significance value was 0.024, thus, a value less than 0.05.
The Wilcoxon signed rank test was also used to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between the mean ranks of participants on the ATCS after program completion, and at two months follow up. The results showed no statistically significant difference. This result indicates that participants maintained an attitude toward creativity after completing training. See Table 3.
Table 3. Results of Wilcoxon rank test for the difference between the mean ranks of participants on the ATCS after completing the program and at a two-month follow-up
Research Sample (Post-Follow-up)
N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks Z P Value
Negative Ranks 4 3.63 14.50 0.850 0.395 Positive Ranks 2 3.25 6.50 Ties 0
Table 3 shows that the value of Z for the total score of the scale was 0.850, and the significance value was 0.395 a value more than 0.05.
Talented people are the wealth of all societies. For this wealth to benefit societies, societies must invest in the talents of their children, by providing the necessary services and opportunities, by ameliorating the difficulties children face, and by caring for and nurturing the children. Specifically, gifted people who are considered to be members of “marginalized groups” need care, training, education, and rehabilitation; there is also a need for research to understand them better. Gifted people with ASD are one of these marginalized groups. Suleiman (2012) points out that gifted people with ASD have superior abilities and skills that are common to the ASD category, although they do not appear in all people with ASD. These individuals usually excel in these types of abilities and have better skills than their peers of similar age without ASD. Skills typically focus on drawing, music, and arithmetic, though other skills have been observed, such as recognizing geometric shapes and learning to read at an early age; a number of studies support this description (e.g. Clark, 2017; Mada, 2021; Zhang & Han, 2018) However, a number of descriptive studies, such as those by Pring et al. (2012), Kasirer and Mashal (2014), Kasirer et al. (2014), and Kasirer et al. (2020) found that, despite their superior and special talents in multiple and diverse fields, these individuals have a clear shortcoming in their attitude toward creativity. The current study aimed to evaluate whether application of a training program resulted in pre and post test differences in participants’ attitudes toward creativity.
Regarding the first research question, the results showed a statistically significant difference (p<0.05) between the participants’ mean ranks on the ATCS pre and post test. This finding is supported by Pring et al. (2012), who reports that the responses of gifted children with ASD who were artistically gifted were more creative Akl (2014) showed the effectiveness of a play based training program for developing skills (visual perception and verbal communication) in gifted children with ASD. Kasirer and Mashal (2014) provide evidence that creativity can be found in children with ASD, and refer to the unique verbal creativity of gifted children with ASD Hetzroni et al. (2019) also report that creativity can be found in children with ASD, and Kasirer et al. (2020) found that children with ASD generated more creative metaphors, and also showed greater use of a certain type of representational change on a creative metaphor task.
The training program in the current study included several diverse activities (including free play), on which participants were trained in order to develop their attitudes toward creativity and to adapt their talents to benefit themselves and society.
Regarding the second research question, no statistically significant difference was found between participants’ ATCS mean ranks at the end of the training program and at a two month follow up. This lack of difference was attributed to participants’ strength of memory for the training program. Similarly, Fairouz (2018) reports on the strength of memory of a sample of gifted individuals with ASD. Hughes et al. (2018) and Wadani and Aboul Fotouh (2019) found that adults with ASD have rare cognitive, metacognitive, and behavioral skills, in addition to
visual motor skills and psychosocial skills, that differ from that of others with ASD who do not possess these special skills. The researcher took these characteristics into account when preparing the training program, setting its procedural objectives, and choosing its techniques, so as to exploit and strengthen these distinct features while developing participants’ attitudes toward creativity. These features also ensured the continuation of training objectives after the end of the program. The effectiveness of the training program may also be attributed to the suitability of the procedural objectives to the mental ages and characteristics of participants; the appropriateness of the techniques used; the relatedness of the activities to the participants’ talents; and the proper implementation of techniques and activities. Furthermore, the provision of moral and material support in all sessions of the program led to participants maintaining their attitudes toward creativity in relation to their own talents, which indicates the continuing impact of the training beyond the end of the program application in this study.
Through the results of the study, it became clear that training programs can develop attitudes toward creativity of children with ASD. The researcher concludes from these results that not all programs for gifted children with ASD are effective; they must be subjected to careful planning, preparation, and actual execution. In addition, the programs of care for these children are not restricted to specific patterns and forms that cannot be modified, but are intrinsically scalable. There are individual differences between the creativity and strengths of gifted children with ASD. These children have somewhat different educational needs from children who have not been diagnosed with ASD; these needs are diverse and incorporate personal, social, and academic needs. It is anticipated that the findings of this study will motivate researchers to develop other training programs to help gifted children with ASD to develop creative abilities, and foster positive attitudes toward creativity.
In light of these findings, the researcher recommends that survey studies are undertaken to identify gifted children with ASD, so that their talents can be identified early on. An early start may contribute to refining their high capabilities and maintaining and applying those talents. Necessary services and funds must be provided to develop the talents of gifted children with ASD. Specialized programs should be presented in the fields of the talents discovered in children with ASD, and adapted to suit them. Further, the participation and inclusion of gifted children with ASD should be facilitated in programs and events for gifted children. Training courses should be held for teachers of children with ASD, to introduce them to the concept of creativity, how to identify the high capabilities of some of these children, and how to develop these abilities. Additionally, counselling programs should be developed for parents of gifted children with ASD, to introduce them to their children’s talents and the appropriate methods to develop their children’s attitudes toward creativity. Training programs should also be prepared for the families and teachers of gifted children with ASD to address behaviors that may, without appropriate intervention, lead to a decline in the level of talent, and failure to develop it. Scientific information should be
disseminated in various media about gifted children with ASD, to correct misconceptions about the disorder, such as the view that children with ASD are only characterized by deficiencies in communication and social and behavioral interactions. Research in the field of giftedness and ASD should be strengthened as well. Finally, the training program should be used with participants of different ages.
The author acknowledges the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Faisal University, for the financial support for this research, authorship, and for the publication of research Grant Nasher N. (NA00094).
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 380 394, April 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.4.22
Received Feb 28, 2022; Revised Apr 20, 2022; Accepted Apr 30, 2022
Nur Yuhainis Ab. Wahab
Department of Business Management & Entrepreneurship, Faculty of Management and Economics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia
Hanifah Mahat
Department of Geography and Environment, Faculty of Human Science, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia
Marshelayanti Mohamad Razali
Department of Moral, Civics and Character Building Studies, Faculty of Human Sciences, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia
Nurul’Ain Mohd Daud
Department of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Human Development, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia
Nur Hidayah Baharudin
Department of Moral, Civics and Character Building Studies, Faculty of Human Sciences, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjung Malim, Perak, Malaysia
Abstract. The study examined the level of technostress of teachers in secondary schools in Malaysia. The COVID 19 pandemic altered human life patterns, and the Movement Control Order restricted most community activities. Prior to the outbreak of COVID 19, the Ministry of Education had exposed teachers to online learning and encouraged them to use it. This study focused on five sub variables of technostress, that is orientation towards the learning teaching process, profession, technical issues, individual and social orientation. A total of 1,185 teachers from 13 states were selected as a study sample using a stratified sampling technique. Items for each variable were constructed, based on literature related to technostress and expert validation. Findings show that teachers’ technostress levels are high (M=3.670, SD=4.30), and the results of the t test analysis show that there were no significant differences in technostress of secondary school teachers in Malaysia in terms of gender (t (1185)=1.762, p>0.05) and location (t (1185)=1.962, p>0.05).
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Understanding technostress and how technology affects individuals may help to reduce the potential physical and psychological harm that could be caused by technostress
Keywords: technostress; learning teaching processes; professional orientation; technical issues; social focus
Technology has had a tremendous impact in all areas of life, particularly education. It has greatly changed the way teachers and students experience learning and teaching processes. The use of technology in schools has been influenced by various factors, such as knowledge, skills, facilities, and school constraints. Several studies have found that teachers’ beliefs regarding the use of technology in their daily work at school is a determining factor for their ability to integrate technology in their work. The use of technology in the community and the workplace environment may lead to technostress in educators who apply the latest technology during learning and teaching sessions. Thus, technostress could affect job satisfaction of teachers with heavy workloads.
The global COVID 19 outbreak caused the use of technology in education settings to be subjected to scrutiny. According to Penado Abilleira et al. (2021), teachers’ levels of technostress increased during the COVID 19 outbreak, and technology dependency for teaching and learning became a burden for teachers, who faced an additional workload of administrative tasks, especially when working from home, thus, increasing their stress levels. Online teaching and learning became the platform used by the Ministry of Education Malaysia during the period when the Movement Control Order was in force. Educational technology has, thus, become an increasingly significant component of improving students’ teaching and learning processes. The community entrusts to teachers the development of this targeted human capital (Hanifah et al., 2021).
Teachers must be equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary to integrate technology into their classroom instruction. However, for many teachers, using technology is overwhelming and distressing. Work fatigue of teachers also affects student productivity. Work fatigue is multidimensional, and it has psychological and physical symptoms. Psychological symptoms include emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and a decline in personal performance (Acker, 2010). Education in Malaysia has undergone dynamic changes to adapt to the current environment, and it will have to make further changes in the future to meet environmental demands. Several committees have been appointed to evaluate the national education system (Hanifah et al., 2019)
Research findings on technology in education have primarily focused on enhancing students’ learning processes. However, studies on how teachers have been affected by new technologies that enable improved student learning are limited. Technology can be responsible for changing people’s lives in ways that are not always appropriate, because the changes can disrupt personal and social connections, and affect health negatively. Adopting technology can become a
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source of stress and anxiety for teachers, and can affect their daily lives negatively, particularly when educational technology integration is sought despite the absence of technical resources and equipment required for proper application.
The increase of stress in the workplace is partly due to progress towards an era of globalisation, which involves societal change, technological advancement and shifts in the availability of resources and structure (Zafir & Fazilah, 2006). Individuals experience job stress because they have little or no control over their jobs, or when job demands exceed their capabilities (Steven & Kleiner, 1994). Stress can be experienced by anyone, at any level of an organisation. High levels of stress can interfere with the productivity of teachers and can lead to emotional and physical problems. This study examined technostress levels of secondary school teachers in Malaysia.
Technology related mental stress is now known as technostress, which encompasses excessive physiological and emotional reactivity (Weil & Rosen, 1997). According to more current definitions, dependency on information and communication technologies (ICT) is characterised by a physical and psychological toll and an increase in computational complexity and faster ICT driven job changes (Atanasoff & Venable, 2017). Models and classifications of stress fall into three major categories: transactional and perceived stress, biology, and occupational health. Technostress refers to a psychological relationship between humans and modern technologies (Sami & Iffat, 2010). It is a consequence of altered work and engagement behaviours due to the use of current information technologies at work and at home. Technostress is “modern disease of adaptation caused by an inability to cope with new computer technologies, affecting mental health in a manner which may manifest as a struggle to accept computer technology, or as over identification with computer technology” (Craig, 1984). A few of the early scholarly studies on technostress describe it as an undesirable phenomenon caused by using computing and communications equipment, such as computers, tablets and mobile phones (Sami & Iffat, 2010)
Technology has changed how individuals work, as technology is a support tool that enhances an individual’s work and personal activities, leading to a focus on individual efficiency. Technology allows individuals to work flexible hours, and leaves them with time to carry out other activities too. As a result, technology has been responsible for changes in people’s lives, though not all positive, such as the disruption of personal and interpersonal relationships, and effects on people’s health.
Technology education has become an essential element of improving student learning, and requires teachers to possess the skills needed to use technology as part of their teaching methods; both requirements are, to some extent, causing stress for teachers. According to a study by Jose and Mohd Matore (2021), the stress and anxiety levels of teachers are high due to technology in the classroom. Using technology as a tool in education has as its goal improving students’
learning processes, but research on how teachers have been influenced by the advent of technologies that enable student learning remains scarce.
Education often demands that technology is used, despite shortages of the technical resources and equipment needed for proper didactic use. This creates conflict between teachers, and disrupts relationships with colleagues or other people involved in the teaching environment Stress in the workplace refers to the response individuals present when faced with threatening situations, and being unable to use new technologies. Stress and anxiety are among the main adverse symptoms shown by teachers when they have to use technology in education. The demand for increased use of technology is also a source of anxiety, fear or distress.
Teachers need training in the use of technology (Çoklar & Bozyiğit, 2021; Şendurur & Arslan, 2017). Although training in the use of non digital materials is provided within the educational content framework, teachers must also know how to use the internet and digital technologies, for material creation, production and selection (Chase & Laufenberg, 2011).
Digital technology use for teaching is increasing particularly in light of the recent global outbreak of COVID 19. Education stakeholders from all walks of life are increasingly focused on using technology (Marinoni et al., 2020). Processes of distance education have forced both teachers and students to adapt rapidly, and integrating digital technology into education is becoming more and more important
Most teachers in secondary schools report significant stress levels due to heavy workloads, government mandates and the challenge of meeting the needs of their students (Herman et al., 2018; Herman et al., 2020). Teachers have been put in a position of having to comprehensively manage stress on their own (Ansley et al., 2021), and technostress, for example, can lead to burnout, which is characterised by emotional exhaustion or a loss of enthusiasm for teaching, depersonalisation, detachment from the profession and students, and a lack of personal relationships. According to systematic literature reviews, comprehensive reports and meta analyses, stress is dangerous for teachers, the education workforce and students. High stakes student examinations, extreme workloads and student behaviour have been highlighted as factors affecting teacher stress (Bettini et al., 2017; Owen, 2015; Richards, 2012). Teachers who report high levels of involvement in deliberate coping strategies, such as self care and social and leisure activities, had lower levels of burnout than teachers reporting low levels of coping engagement (Herman et al., 2018). However, according to Beltman et al. (2011), in most cases, teacher education programmes do not incorporate stress management training to prepare aspiring teachers.
Teachers cooperate with the school and community to realize its mission diligently and persistently, as outlined in the Code of Teaching Ethics. Hackman and Oldham (1974) explain that the task of a teacher is important, because it can significantly affect the lives or well being of others and interdependence in schools’ organization. In addition, one of the characteristics of professional
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teachers is extensive knowledge. This knowledge includes knowledge of education, psychology, communication and classroom management, and general knowledge. Knowledge of education and classroom management is fundamental for ensuring that students are managed adequately during the teaching and learning process. Knowledge of psychology and communication is needed by school teachers to ensure students are treated in a friendly manner, that any problems that exist are resolved, and conflict in the classroom are avoided Finally, teachers, as educators, are endowed with various responsibilities (Price & Mueller, 1986). Teachers can influence students, so that they change, learn, grow, become independent and responsible, and achieve goals.
The results of a study by Brooks and Califf (2017) show that feedback, task identity, task importance, and task diversity can reduce the influence of social media technostress on job performance. This suggests that technostress caused by social media can be controlled. Moreover, a study by Okolo et al. (2018) found that redesigning jobs did not reduce technostress, and there was a positive relationship between technostress and employees. The situation does not necessarily reduce employee stress engagement. Moderate stress levels can serve as a motivator, while high stress levels may harm individuals. Umair et al. (2019) investigated the influence of technostress on employee satisfaction in economy. The study found that workload is considered to cause stress, and job autonomy can reduce that stress. Also, if employees receive negative feedback, they will feel insecure because the likelihood of their future work assignments will be increases. Mahapatra and Pillai (2018) studied the causes of technostress and emotional, mental, and physical fatigue in relation to job resource demands. They found that the technostress exacerbates the negative effects of job demands, such as overwork, work stress and complexity. Alam (2016) studied technostress and productivity through survey evidence from the aviation industry, and found evidence that technostress strengthens existing organizations, as teachers become more productive when they are burdened with variety of job roles.
The need to use ICT often adds to the job stress experienced by employees (Tarafdar et al., 2015). It has a negative impact: it can increase fatigue and reduce work performance (Tarafdar et al., 2007). Furthermore, constant pressure to integrate technology in the field of education by institutions and society, and a lack of knowledge and support results in technostress for teachers (Longman, 2013). Among the factors influencing technostress levels are technological intrusion, excessive technology, technological complexity, technology insecurity, and uncertainty about a particular technology (Ragu Nathan et al., 2008; Tarafdar et al., 2015). Technological intrusion occurs when using ICT violates the limits of time and space, and cause teachers to continue doing their jobs at any time of the night and day. Excessive technology use is related to computers forcing employees to do a greater volume of work at a greater speed. Technology insecurity is stress caused by a lack of personal knowledge about ways to cope and adapt to the technology itself. Technology uncertainty means employees are afraid of wreaking havoc on new technology due to the misuse of technology, anxiety, ignorance, or incompetence.
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Stress is a risk factor for developing depression, which affects individual productivity. Depression is a health problem that is recognised for involving mood swings, decreased productivity, loss of initiative and general changes of interest (Desouky & Allam, 2017).
In this study, stress measurement was based on the development of technostress levels of secondary school teachers in Malaysia through indicators that were learning teaching process oriented, profession oriented, technical issue oriented, and personally and socially oriented. This study aimed to examine the level of technostress of secondary school teachers in Malaysia based on these variables.
This was a quantitative study that used a survey design. The survey method was selected because the study used a questionnaire instrument that was distributed online through Google Forms to assess the level of technostress of secondary school teachers throughout Malaysia. This method has the advantage that it can be administered directly to the respondents (Burns, 2000; Sabitha, 2006; Zainuddin, 2010). As explained in the next sections, the study sample included 1,185 secondary school teachers, who were asked to complete a questionnaire, so that the researchers could determine their levels of technostress based on five indicator categories: teaching and learning process, the profession, technical problems, and on personal and social levels.
The study was conducted with secondary school teachers throughout Malaysia. This diverse range of respondents was selected to ensure that dynamic information data distribution was achieved.
The study population was 149,108 teachers from 13 states and three federal territories in Malaysia. Through simple random strata sampling, 1,185 teachers were selected as the study sample. Sample calculations were based on Krejcie and Morgan (1970).
State Teacher population Sample
Johor 18,253 18,253/149,108 x 1,185= 141
Kedah 11,018 85 Kelantan 10,535 81 Melaka 4,961 38 Negeri Sembilan 5,896 45 Pahang 9,102 70 Perak 14,308 114 Perlis 1,706 36 Pulau Pinang 7,436 57 Sabah 14,207 109
Sarawak 13,283 102 Selangor 22,480 173 Terengganu 7,672 65
Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur 7,082 54
Wilayah Persekutuan Labuan 486 7 Wilayah Persekutuan Putrajaya 683 8
Total 149,108 1,185
A self developed questionnaire with items rated on a five point Likert scale was used to measure technostress indicators; demographic information was also collected. The questionnaire comprised two sections. Section A covered respondent background, including state, location, age, gender, race, marriage status, level of education, estimated monthly household income, number of household members, type of digital devices used and daily internet usage. Section B focused on technological variables, covering sub variables in five categories (learning teaching process, profession, technical issues, personal and social factors) adapted from Çoklar et al. (2017) to assess the technostress of teachers. The data were analysed descriptively using SPSS v. 21.
Table 2 shows the instrument reliability for teachers’ technostress, with Cronbach’s alpha values measuring the constructs’ internal consistency. According to Babbie (2007), Cronbach’s alpha values are classified based on the reliability index, where values of 0.90 1.00 indicate very high reliability, 0.70 0.89 high, 0.30 0.69 moderate and 0.00 0.30 low reliability. The analysis results show that the Cronbach’s Alpha value for the technology variable was 0.881, which indicates that the instrument has high reliability. Content experts also reviewed the instrument for content validity (Table 3), to assess the extent to which the set of items is relevant to the content domain to be measured (Bhattacherjee, 2012). After corrections and expert recommendations, a pilot study was conducted to assess the reliability value of the items.
Variables
Items Cronbach’s Alpha
Technostress 31 .881
Learning teaching process oriented 7 .902
Profession oriented 6 .783
Technical issue oriented 7 .757 Personal oriented 6 .889 Social oriented 5 .664
Expert 1 Education
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Expert 3 Language and Communication Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
Expert 2 Education
Expert 4 Education Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Expert 5 Language Universiti Teknologi Mara
Table 4 shows the demographic distribution of secondary school teachers in Malaysia. A total of 1,185 respondents were selected to complete the questionnaire, which was distributed online. Respondents originated from all 13 states and three federal territories in Malaysia; 609 respondents (51.4%) were from urban areas, and 576 respondents (48.6%) were from rural areas. Respondents can be divided into five age ranges: 41 50 years (39.2%), 31 40 years (29.3%), 51 60 years (25.5%), and 21–30 years (6.0%). There were 338 male respondents (28.5%) and 847 female respondents (71.5%). Most respondents were Malay (77%), followed by Chinese (9.9%), Bumiputera Sarawak (8.5%), Indian (2.2%), Sabah Bumiputera (1.9%) and Other (0.4%). A total percentage of 84.6% of respondents had Bachelor’s degrees, followed by Master’ s degrees (13.2%), diplomas (1.5%), Doctorates (0.6%) and Other qualifications (0.1%). A percentage of 70.9% of respondents had an estimated household income in the middle of M40, followed by 20.4% of respondents at T20 and 8.7% at B40. The results are that 98.1% of respondents used smartphones, 89.3% used laptops, 27.5% used tablets, 25.2% used desktop computers and 1.6% used other technological devices. A total of 311 respondents (26.2%) spent more than 10 hours per day using technology, followed by 23.1% at 4 6 hours, 18.8% at 6 8 hours, 15.5% at 8 10 hours, 14.4% at 2 4 hours and 1.9% (less than 2 hours per day).
N % States
Respondent Background
Johor 141 11.9 Kedah 85 7.2 Kelantan 81 6.8 Melaka 38 3.2 Negeri Sembilan 45 3.8 Pahang 70 5.9 Perak 114 9.6 Perlis 36 3.0
Pulau Pinang 57 4.8 Sabah 109 9.2 Sarawak 102 8.6 Selangor 173 14.6 Terengganu 65 5.5
Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur 54 4.6 Wilayah Persekutuan Labuan 7 .6 Wilayah Persekutuan Putrajaya 8 .7
Location
Age
Urban 609 51.4 Rural 576 48.6
21 30 73 6.0 31 40 347 29.3 41 50 464 39.2 51 60 301 25.5
Gender Male 338 28.5 Female 847 71.5
Races
Malay 913 77.0 Chinese 117 9.9 Indian 26 2.2 Bumiputera Sarawak 101 8.5 Bumiputera Sabah 23 1.9 Others 5 .4
Education level
Estimated household income
Digital devices
Diploma 18 1.5 Bachelor’s degree 1,002 84.6 Master’ s degree 157 13.2 Doctorate 7 .6 Others 1 .1
Lowest 40% (B40 <RM4,850) 103 8.7 Mid 40% (M40 RM4,850 RM10,959) 840 70.9 Highest 20% (T20 > RM10,959) 242 20.4
Smartphone 1,163 98.1 Laptop 1,058 89.3 Desktop 299 25.2 Tablet 326 27.5 Others 19 1.6
Daily internet usage
0 2 hours 22 1.9 2 4 hours 171 14.4 4 6 hours 274 23.1 6 8 hours 223 18.8 8 10 hours 184 15.5 More than 10 hours 311 26.2
The technostress levels of secondary school teachers in Malaysia were analysed through five variable categories: learning teaching process oriented, profession oriented, technical issue oriented, personal oriented, and social oriented. This study identified three technostress levels: low, moderate, and high (Best, 1997); the cut off points are shown in Table 5
Score 1.00 2.33 Low Score 2.34 3.66 Moderate Score 3.67 5.00 High
Variables
As shown in Table 6, the overall level of teachers’ technostress was high, with a mean (M) value of 3.67 (SD=0.43); similar high values were found for three of the five technostress sub variables, namely profession oriented (M=3.718, SD=0.619), technical issue oriented (M=3.823, SD=0.616) and personal oriented (M=3.708, SD=0.633), while moderate levels are found for two of the sub variables teaching learning process oriented (M=3.62, SD=0.714) and social oriented (M=3.421, SD=0.685).
Table 6. Level of Technostress of Secondary School Teachers in Malaysia
Low Moderate High Mean SD Level N % N % N %
Technostress 1 .1 594 50.1 590 49.8 3.670 .430 High
• Learning Teaching Process Oriented 51 4.3 516 43.5 618 52.2 3.621 .714 Moderate
• Profession Oriented 28 2.4 571 48.2 586 49.5 3.718 .619 High
• Technical Issue Oriented 16 1.4 418 35.3 751 63.4 3.823 .616 High
• Personal Oriented 25 2.1 578 48.8 582 49.1 3.708 .633 High
• Social Oriented 66 5.6 710 59.9 409 34.5 3.421 .685 Moderate
In order to examine the differences in technostress among secondary school teachers according to gender, a null hypothesis was created, which states that there is no difference in technostress among teachers according to gender. Table 7 shows the differences in technostress among teachers by gender. The findings show that the mean and standard deviations of technostress of male teachers is M=3.704, SD=.450, while the mean and standard deviation for female teachers is M=3.656, SD=.421. The mean difference between technostress of male and female teachers is only .048. The t test analysis found no significant difference between technostress of male and female teachers, with a value of t (1183)=1.762, p>.05. The significance level is .078, which is insignificant, because the value is more significant than 0.05. Statistically, the technostress of male teachers was almost the same as the technostress of female teachers.
Gender n Mean SD df t p
Technostress Level
Male 338 3.704 .4502 1185 1.762 .078 Female 847 3.656 .4214
To examine the differences in technostress among teachers according to location, a null hypothesis was formed that states that there is no difference between the technostress of teachers according to location; see Table 8. The findings show that the technostress mean and standard deviation for teachers living in urban areas is M=3.693, SD=.422, while the mean and standard deviation of technostress
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standards of teachers living in rural areas is M=3.645, SD=.437. The mean difference between technostress of teachers living in urban and rural areas is 0.050. The t test analysis shows no significant difference between technostress of teachers living in urban and rural areas, with a value of t (1183)=1.962, p>.05, which is significant. This means that the technostress of teachers living in urban and rural areas varies statistically. Thus, the null hypothesis is rejected.
Location n Mean SD df t p
Urban 609 3.6939 .422 1185 1.962 .050
Rural 576 3.6449 .436 1.961 .050
A study by Lee (2018) and Çoklar and Bozyiğit (2021) found that the technostress levels of teachers are moderate. However, the present study found that teacher technostress is high (Penado Abilleira et al., 2021), perhaps because teachers’ levels of technostress increased during the COVID 19 outbreak. The learning teaching process oriented factors cover teachers’ capability and comfort regarding teaching with the aid of technological tools. Including physical material oriented to digital technology as part of the education process could ensure that teachers are comfortable about using devices during sessions with students, while the use of technology could make teachers more productive regarding improving students’ skills.
The belief that using technology makes a teacher’s job easier is related to the profession oriented sub variable. Teachers know that using the latest technology enhances the value of the teaching profession. The existence of technology allows the exploration of knowledge without limitations while helping to increase students’ understanding of the topics taught. Teachers can become more effective in facilitating the delivery of information with technology. Nevertheless, it is clear that teachers believe that technology increases their workload. Three aspects are important for integrating technology into education: teachers’ technological skills, their ideas about technology, and perceived technology hurdles (Hew & Brush, 2007)
With regard to the technical issue oriented sub variable, teachers need to know that using technology involves issues such as the possibility of digital equipment being attacked by virtual viruses, the data stored on devices can be lost, and there can even be problems with the need to remember too much information, such as account usernames and passwords. Teachers are also burdened by the high cost of technology, for purchase, repair and maintenance, as well as paid websites and other costs. Finding stable internet access is another technical issue. The use of digital devices also has an impact in the long term, though experience in using technology plays an important role in reducing technostress (Li & Wang, 2021).
The personal oriented sub variable covers aspects of teachers’ ability to acquire digital technology skills and knowledge. They know they need to improve their skills through practical use. Education in the technology is essential to improve
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teachers’ skills, includingunderstanding of terms related to ICT. Technology must be used responsibly. Teachers’ technostress levels for this sub variable were moderate, possibly due to ability to measure instructional procedures and their skills in using the technology
Regarding the social oriented sub variable, the use of digital devices for an extended time may cause discomfort. Social interaction between students and teachers in the education process are affected by the use of technology. Technology overuse can lead to health problems, such as blurred vision, hearing loss and headaches. Being experienced in using technology effectively and indirectly helps reduce technostress (Çoklar & Bozyiğit, 2021; Lee, 2018; Li & Wang, 2021; Penado Abilleira et al., 2021). Teaching is a high stress job, particularly when it is combined with the need to use advanced technology. Teaching requires teachers to manage stress by developing healthy coping strategies and social emotional competencies related to positive learning environments, in order to de escalate high stress settings.
The main findings of this study are that technology use might have a negative psychological impact on teachers, particularly in terms of stress. Teachers have high levels of technostress, and it is critical to identify risk and health factors in technology related relationships to enable preventive and interventional approaches to reducing this stress. Administrators and school organisations must approach this issue with the necessary seriousness by providing teachers with technology related training.
This study examined the levels of technostress of teachers in Malaysia, and results may not be generalisable to other populations. Future studies could be designed for teacher populations with different characteristics. The use of an attitude scale regarding digital oriented ICTs would be warranted, based on prior research.
Teachers should receive more hands on technology training, so that they develop positive attitudes about the use of technology in the classroom, and to reduce their technostress. Understanding technostress and how technology affects individuals may help to reduce its potential physical and psychological harm.
This study was conducted with the help of the University Research Grant Education Based (GPUBP 2020 0082 107 01).Thanks go to Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris for providing the research funding, and to teachers involved in this study.
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