International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 7 (July 2022)
Print version: 1694 2493
Online version: 1694-2116
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 21, No. 7
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Determinants of High School Learners' Continuous Use of Mobile Learning during the Covid 19 A Phenomenon Based Learning Enquiry: University Students’ Self Leadership Actions on the Social Impact of Covid 19 1 Edwin Darrell De Klerk, June Monica Palmer, Alfred Modise
Defining Formative Electronic Assessment in Undergraduate Mathematics: A Reflective Approach ..................... 24 Benjamin Tatira, Israel Kariyana
Building Pupils’ Creativity at Lower Secondary School: Science Teachers’ Perspectives in Urban and Rural Areas 40
Rendi Restiana Sukardi, Wahyu Sopandi, Riandi ., Yuli Rahmawati, Syifahayu ., Meilinda ., Siti Maryam Rohimah, Yullys Helsa
Attitudes of Ecuadorian Secondary School Teaching Staff towards Online STEM Development in 2022 59 Derling Jose Mendoza Velazco, Elizeth Mayrene Flores Hinostroza, Janeth Elizabeth Salvador Moreno, Jose Fernando Paz Cerda, Mercedes Viviana Sánchez Barros
Teachers’ Viewpoint of Metacognitive Strategy Instruction in Listening during Remote Teaching in Oman: Challenges and Strategies 82 Surya Subrahmanyam Vellanki, Saadat Mond, Zahid Kamran Khan, Lekha Gopalakrishnan Nair
Perceptions of Teaching Approach and Academic Performance among Senior Two Students in Musanze: Mediating Role of Mathematics Anxiety and Career Aspiration 107 Emmanuel Iyamuremye, Irenee Ndayambaje, Charles Magoba Muwonge
Effect of Blended Learning Models and Self Efficacy on Mathematical Problem Solving Ability 127 Muhammad Jamaluddin, Mustaji Mustaji, Bachtiar S. Bahri
Awareness of Co Teaching Administration among Teachers of Resource Room Program 145 Suhail Mahmoud Al Zoubi, Mohammed Hadi Alfagih, Buthiana Elias Awais
"I Can Teach With My Videos": How Do Teachers Teach English to Young Learners in a Technology Limited Environment? 158
Yuli Astutik, Slamet Setiawan, Syafi'ul Anam, Suhartono
Applying Active Learning Strategies to Develop the Professional Teaching Competency of Chinese College Student Teachers in the Context of Geography Education 178 Xiuying Yang, Pengfei Chen
Academic Advising Policy and Procedure in a Selected Federal University in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) 197 Alanood Alshamsi, Laila Mohebi
A Call to Strengthen Instructional Leadership to Support Learner Achievement During and Post COVID 19: A Systematic Literature Review Approach 219 Lilian Ifunanya Nwosu, Martha Matashu, Assan Thomas Buabeng
Investigating the Extent of Training Needs of Teachers of Students with Learning Disabilities: A Survey of Teachers’ Perspectives 241 Nouf Rashdan Almutairi
Chinese College Students' Perceived Teacher Autonomy Support and Engagement: A Moderated Mediation Model.................................................................................................................................................................................... 269
Chen Han, Jian Hao Huang
Teaching in a Pandemic: An Exploratory Study into University Instructors’ Perceptions of Work from Home Opportunities and Challenges during the COVID 19 Lockdown in South Africa 286 Kazeem Ajasa Badaru, Kemi Olajumoke Adu, Emmanuel Olusola Adu, Ntombozuko Duku
The Influence of Policy Factors on the Quality of Secondary Education in the Rural Communities of South Western Nigeria 305 John Olayemi Okunlola, Winston Hendricks
Exploring Perceptions of Online Feedback in Teaching EFL Speaking and Writing Skills during the COVID 19 Pandemic 330 Paul Gonzalez Torres, Paola Cabrera Solano, Luz Castillo Cuesta
Academic Staff’s Motivation for Online Teaching in Nigerian Universities: Empirical Evidence from the University of Ibadan 345 Sunday A. Itasanmi, Mathew T. Oni, Violet O. Ekpenyong, Oluwatoyin A. Ajani, Oluwatosin G. Omorinkoba
Academic Performance before and during the State of Emergency due to Covid 19: Analysis from the Perspective of Distance Education......................................................................................................................................................... 366
Omar Chamorro Atalaya, Soledad Olivares Zegarra, Raquel Atoche Wong, Marco Anton De los Santos, Maritte Fierro Bravo, Kathy Ruiz Carrasco, Elio Huaman Flores, Madison Huarcaya Godoy, Carlos Chávez Herrera
Assessing Satisfaction of Science School Subject Teachers and Leaders in Rwanda on the Continuous Professional Development through Online Learning .......................................................................................................................... 379 Venuste Nsengimana, Opanga David, Alphonse Uworwabayeho, Evariste Minani, Leon Mugabo, Theophile Nsengimana
The Itinerant Curriculum as a Key to Responsiveness in the Era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution in Nigerian Higher Education 397 Kehdinga George Fomunyam
Self Explaining Photosynthesis to Achieve Conceptual Change: An Analysis of Explanation Content 410 Merrin Oliver, Virginia Troemel
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 1 23, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.1
Received Mar 30, 2022; Revised Jun 25, 2022; Accepted Jul 14, 2022
Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa
Alfred ModiseCentral University of Technology, Free State, South Africa
Abstract. The aim of this paper was to gain deeper insight into Bachelor of Education Honors (B.Ed. Hons) students’ self leadership actions in response to the social impact of COVID 19 on their academic lives. Notwithstanding the growing body of literature showing the impact of COVID 19 on education, the social influence of the pandemic on the academiclivesofstudentsinhighereducationinstitutions(HEIs)remains contentious. Since the implementation of lockdowns and social isolation internationally, COVID 19, asa socialphenomenon, hasrequired creative responses from students in HEIs to advance academically. Through a phenomenon based learning (PhenoBL) enquiry and applying narrative methodology, students’ responses were analyzed by means of McCormack’s (2000) four lenses, namely the lens of language, the lens of narrative processed, the lens of context and the lens of moments. Emails were sent to all B.Ed. Hons students to express their views and understanding of the influence of COVID 19 on their academic lives as postgraduate students. Five students responded and were afforded the opportunity to provide their insights and understanding of the phenomenon whilst exploring self leadership actions for change toward transformative practices in their learning spaces. The results revealed that, through engaging in PhenoBL activities, students were able to employ adaptive practices and inquiry based activities to enhance self leadership abilities through self influence and self trust. The paper recommends that HEIs should consider PhenoBL activities for self leadership as transformative practices of social justice to address the social complexities of the COVID 19 pandemic and its influence on the academic lives of university students.
* Corresponding author: EdwinDarrellDeKlerk,darrell.deklerk@nwu.ac.za
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Keywords: academic lives; COVID 19; higher education institutions; phenomenon based learning; self leadership
The occurrence of COVID 19 at the end of 2019 troubled higher education scholarship at an international level, caused considerable challenges for teaching and learning, whilst it threatened the loss of individuals’ lives (Mengistie, 2021). With the termination of academic activities at HEIs, the necessity for a speedy conversion from face to face learning to virtual platforms became unavoidable (Kapasia et al., 2020). Although virtual learning has been perceived as a promising substitute for conventional learning, an absence of outdoor activity, social distancing and uneasy sleeping patterns have negatively affected the psychological safety of many students (Adnan & Anwar 2020).
In South Africa, lockdowns due to the pandemic ensued on 26 March 2020. The need to establish tight limits on everyone’s access to and participation in their educational programs, at all levels, was unavoidable. Universities’ on campus activities were prohibited, and lecturers were instructed to deliver content using flexible learning designs. These constraints prompted all lectures for the Bachelor of Education Honors (B.Ed. Hons) course at a South African university of technology to be given online, primarily through the institution’s online learning management system (Blackboard) and Collaborate Ultra. The fact that online teaching and learning activities, owing to a pandemic, have little resemblance to purposefully organized online teaching and learning, relegated this unanticipated transition to remote teaching.
Di Pietro et al. (2020) identify important aspects that should be included in positive and flexible learning strategies, such as guaranteed internet access and availability of digital technology like computers, laptops, or tablets, and the use of appropriate Virtual Learning Environments (VLE). Such digital technology can provide students with access to educational resources and equitably connect them with lecturers to facilitate remote lessons and improve the availability of lecturers. Du Plessis et al. (2022), however, report that finding a quiet location at home to engage in studies, little engagement with family members as well as challenges with Internet connection were some of the concerns South African studentsvoiced during the COVID 19 pandemic. Interrupted electricity supply was also a concern, with certain places experiencing power outages even before load shedding was reinstated across the country. A rapid appraisal of virtual media regarding the status of student learning in South African HEIS as from the onset of the COVID 19 pandemic revealed, amongst others, the need for students to adapt to self leadership approaches to navigate their academic lives (Du Plessis et al., 2022).
In terms of the indicated studies (Di Pietro et al., 2020; Du Plessis, 2022), there seems to be a gap in research regarding students’ ability to apply self leadership actions to flourish in theiracademic lives. In this regard, Afridi et al. (2021) suggest that more research should be conducted to assist students to understand the
relationship between self leadership and their academic achievement. In answering the call for more research on self leadership, we hold the view that the academic challenges brought forward by COVID 19 requires that students’ abilities to lead themselves during the pandemic be investigated. Despite students’struggles tonavigate their academic lives and socialwell being, COVID 19 has exposed prospects for innovation and creativity with novel choices in terms of self leadership and learning in HEIs. Consequently, our intention was to draw from students’ creativity to unearth how they employed self leadership through an application of phenomenon based activities to address the social complexities of the COVID 19 pandemic and its influence on their academic lives. To analyze students’ responses, the following question guided our research: How did university students enact self leadership through phenomenon based activities in addressing the social complexities of COVID 19 and its influence on their academic lives? Complementary to the main research question, the sub questions were:
• What information could be obtained from B.Ed. Hons students regarding their application of self leadership to improve their academic lives during COVID 19? And
• How could PhenoBL activities be proposed for students’ self leadership abilities to address the social complexities of the COVID 19 pandemic and its influence on their academic lives?
To provide information with respect to our research questions, we first conducted a literature review on constructs relevant to self leadership, followed by an analysis of students’ responses and PhenoBL activities for their self leadership abilities during and beyond the pandemic.
2.1 Social complexities of COVID-19 on the academic lives of students in HEIs Students in HEIs are an exceptional social group with dynamic lifestyles founded on interactions and associations, university and physical activities, as well as attending meetings (Villani et al. 2021). COVID 19, however, significantly transformed students’ lives. While we are unaware of the exact impact of the virus, we are cognizant of the worsening of students’ academic lives in HEIs due to the influence of COVID 19. Alghamdi (2021) reports that social complexities like low online education infrastructure, absence from the social environment, social alienation and distancing, as well as burdens placed on learning time, were only a few examples of the discomfort students experienced in terms of their academic lives. The pressure to perform well academically in a progressively demanding setting, combined with a range of routine changes due to COVID 19, contributed to suboptimal academic and social wellbeing (Burns, Dagnall & Holt, 2020). Students’ sense ofindividual aptitude can contribute to suboptimal comfort and an apparent sense of reduced happiness if they experienced a loss of competence pertaining to academic lives.
Despite the crisis caused by COVID 19, students had to reconsider the ways in which learning usually took place. Teti, Schatz and Liebenberg (2020, p. 1) maintain that whilst pandemics like COVID 19 are, “revealing and reinforcing, they also catalyse new social and cultural relations; lay bare inequalities and
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anxieties, discrimination and division as well as solidarities and collective action”. Against this background, students were obliged to find alternative ways as to how to navigate their academic lives and consider adaptive responses to education challenges with which they were confronted (Reimers et al., 2020). Thus, to learn and develop to their full potential, students were required to implement inclusive academic practices themselves (Khanna & Kareem, 2021).
Arguably, HEIs should thus be open to the voices of students which can be regarded a more inclusive response to the COVID 19 pandemic and its consequential influence on their academic lives. Giving students a say in decision making to articulate their needs and ideas may improve their self leadership abilities so that they can autonomously contribute to developing themselves during times of crisis (International Labour Organisation, 2020).
Self leadership can be regarded as a practice through which individuals encourage themselves to attain the self motivation and self direction required to perform and behave in appropriate ways (Gharanfoli & Kemal, 2021). Individuals should realize that self leadership is about taking action to ascertain who one is, what one can do, and where one is going (Delport, Van Jaarsveld & Challens, 2021).Having taken cognizance of the afore mentioned actions, wewere intrigued by the notion that self leadership may be regarded as a way to “set goals for your life; lead by example; be fearless; embrace new ideas and opportunities; question everything; do what is right, not what is easy; be the change you want to see in the world” (Browning, 2018, p. 12) Words like “fearless”, “new”, “question everything” and “not what is easy” may be associated with self leadership in times of crisis. Firstly, “fearless” can be associated with behavioral awareness in that individuals position themselves such that they motivate the self to be successful (Schultz, 2021). Secondly, both “not what is easy” and “new” relate to individuals’ adaptive ability in leading the self, whilst engaging in naturally motivating tasks (Inam et al., 2021). Thirdly, “question everything” refers to an intolerance of accepting negative experiences as detrimental, whilst asking questions to the self in order to develop self trust and commitment, and embracing new ideas and opportunities (Campos et al., 2020).
The viewpoints regarding self leadership as discussed in this paper hold strong reference with PhenoBL in that it acknowledges that students can make decisions and contest unfavourable circumstances in an attempt to lead the self in an autonomous and meaningful manner.
2.3 The philosophy behind phenomenon based learning Symeonidis and Schwarz (2016) indicate that Finland transformed its domestic primary education syllabus for elementary education in 2014. During the transformation process, indigenous syllabi were established and steadily presented in schools as from August 2016. Finland’s domestic curriculum theorizes learning as a collective and directed practice in which students have a dynamic and autonomous role, setting their personal aims and solving challenges both collaboratively and self reliantly (Finnish National Board of Education
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[FNBE], 2016). During the process of learning, students become attentive to their individual learning and develop learning to learn abilities in that, they learn to set goals and to solve problems both independently and together with others. While acquiring new knowledge and skills, the pupils learn to reflect on their learning, experiences, and emotions. Positive emotional experiences, the joy of learning and creative activities promote learning and inspire the pupils to develop their competence (FNBE, 2016, Section 2.3).
Drawing on Nielsen and Davies (2018), the afore mentioned definition of phenomenon based learning may be useful to HEIs to assist students to deal with the social complexities of COVID 19 in several ways. Firstly, students were involved in the learning of the phenomenon because it came from their actual educational sphere and was applicable to their everyday existence. Secondly, students took accountability for their individual learning because they were able to interpret their own experiences regarding the social impact of COVID 19 on their academic lives. Thirdly, students develop 21st century abilities like communication, teamwork, creative and critical thinking during the practice of innovative learning.
Significantly, an application of PhenoBL implies that students would implement self leadership skills by taking actual world matters and develop solutions appropriate to themselves. In this regard, the relationship between PhenoBL and self leadership signifies that, “we can make use of the human readiness to wonder, investigate, and go beyond personal ideas” (Lonka, 2018, p. 178). The afore mentioned relationship between PhenoBL and self leadership is an indication of how students can affect their own cognition, behaviour and motivation (Schultz, 2021), whilst they position themselves such that they are able to tell their stories of personal engagement to improve their academic lives during COVID 19.
To understand university students’ personal and unique experiences within the social context they found themselves, this qualitative study applied a narrative methodology. Connelly and Clandinin (1990) assert that narrative researchers search for ways to understand and then present real life experiences through the stories of research participants. In this paper, we focused on the narratives of five B.Ed. Hons students regarding their experience of the social impact of COVID 19 on their academic lives. We sent emails to all students enrolled in the B.Ed. Hons course at a South African university and received responses from five students who expressed interest in the study. Hennick and Kaiser (2021) purports that small sizes in qualitative research should be regarded as adequate because they are effective in reaching data saturation.
Narratives are not simply stories that are told but are a technique of analysis that applies storytelling to reveal particular information through dialogue and reflection (Wang & Geale, 2015). Narratives can be regarded as individuals’ personal interpretations of their experiences (Holloway & Galvin, 2017). Thus, by allowing the B.Ed. Hons students to tell their stories, they were positioned to provide rich accounts of their experiences, whilst the researchers were positioned
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to make meaning of students’ narratives. We regarded this as important because the students’ voices (Trahar, 2013) regarding the social impact of COVID 19 on their academic lives might have remained silent. An understanding of their narratives was based on the presupposition that the students were already conscious of the content of their stories (Murmann & Avraamidou, 2014), and that such content was used by them to understand their own experiences, whilst they were able to tell their stories.
HEIs play a significant role as “future shapers” of students and are platforms for ethnic, societal, and financial transformation, rendering it as an ideal environment to address challenges that they might have encountered during the COVID 19 pandemic. In this paper, B.Ed. Hons students from a university of technology in South Africa were afforded an opportunity to provide their insights and understanding of the phenomenon whilst exploring self leadership actions for change. Such exploration had relevance to the social complexities of COVID 19 on their academic lives. Having requested the students to look back on their experiences, we were able to analyze their perspectives, applying transformative learning as theoretical lens.
Transformative learning theory, “has evolved into a comprehensive and complex description of how learners construe, validate, and reformulate the meaning of their experience" (Cranton, 1994, p. 22). Thus, when individuals are involved in serious thinking about their experiences, the possibilities exist that they might take action to change their perspectives of particular experiences (Mezirow, 1981; Fleming, 2022). Significantly, learning takes place when individuals provide evidence that they are willing to reconsider their orientation frames, abandon existing habits of mind and consider different appreciate options in an attempt to act differently instead of legitimating what they already know about their current situation (Mezirow, 2000).
We looked at the students’ experiences through the lenses of transformative learning, particularly how they implemented innovative strategies to navigate their academic lives during the COVID 19 pandemic. Mezirow (1991) reiterates that, when individuals understand how their beliefs and assumptions might have been dissimilar in the past, and when they are willing to change their ways of thinking, they would be able to plan a course of transformative action. Drawing on Spooner and John (2020), transformative learning during a pandemic is ideal as it empowers and frees students from disruptive thinking that may impede sound judgment and action with respect to their academic lives. This implies that they can contemplate the kinds of transformative learning strategies required to understand a situation or problem. The acquisition of new knowledge, adopting innovative viewpoints and interpretations of their experiences are significant to making meaning and advancing learning (Mezirow, 1991; Fleming, 2018). In this research, the students were afforded opportunities to share transformative perspectives that might have been muted, repressed, or possibly never been heard of before (De Klerk, 2014).
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Within the context of this paper, the narratives of five B.Ed. Hons students at a university of technology in South Africa were gathered to understand their experiences concerning the social impact of COVID 19 on their academic lives. The B.Ed. Hons students, in the department of educational management, usually study for a period of one year full time, whilst part time studies are for a period of two years. During the planning phase of the paper, the first author wrote an email to all B.Ed. Hons students to ascertain their availability to participate in this study. This was done because the students were preparing themselves for final assessment activities at the time. We, therefore, made use of voluntary response sampling to maximize the reaction ratio and reduce the likelihood of non response predispositions (Lehdonvirta et al., 2020). This form of communication was possible because all students have access to digital technology and the internet. Although the issue of internet coverage was not a problem at all, only five students responded. To ensure objectivity, trustworthiness, and honesty (Golafshani 2003), the same question was emailed to each of the participants. The students’ responses were emailed to us and in case of uncertainties, follow up questionswereprepared. Theresponseswerethencopiedandpastedonto aWord® document, the participants were de identified and pseudonyms were assigned (Fritz & Vandermause 2018). The scripts were then read and prepared for analysis.
Of significance is the argument that the five students who responded were adequate for this research becausequalitative research does notfocus onnumbers, but rather on the richness of the data provided by the participants (Kim, 2016). We requested the assistance of a colleague to verify the total number of responses.
When using narratives, “people make sense of their lived health and well being in their social context as they understand it, including their self belief oriented stories” (Ntinda, 2020, p. 1). To enable the students to tell their stories regarding the social impact of COVID 19 on their academic lives, we requested the students to write a personal narrative (story) based on the following: Write a narrative (maximum two pages) in which you express your views and understanding of the influence COVID 19 has exerted on your academic life as a postgraduate student. In your narrative, please indicate the specific challenges you experienced (such as social, emotional, academic) and what actions, behaviours, or transformational practices you implemented to cope with the pandemic to ensure that you are successful in your studies
We allowed the students to email their responses to us because, the responses from participants can result in well written, rich and informative accounts (Mann, 2016). Email responses were in order because all the students were technologically savvy and expressed their comfort to communicate their stories in written text (Dahlin, 2021). The students’ responses through email were valuable, particularly during the COVID 19 pandemic, because it provided them with adequate time to assemble and organize their views, while concomitantly guaranteeing the protection of both researchers and participants (Amri, Angelakis & Logan, 2021). On receipt of the students’ narratives, their names were removed, pseudonyms
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were allocated to each student, and the responses were saved in different word documents (with separate encryption codes) to guarantee protection of the data. The data was then organized before the analysis process commenced.
We employed McCormack’s (2000) four lenses to provide a malleable structure for the scrutiny of the narrative data because it enabled us to take fundamental stories and themes of experience in the original story and disclose these to the reader with honesty. It is important to note that, “each story would be unique, but there may also have been interconnecting themes between stories drawing these out may have added to the evidence that brings new understandings” (Dibley, 2011, p. 14). Firstly, the lens of language guided us to focus on the words used by the students, what influenced their selections of words, what they told and how they told it. Secondly, we then applied the lens of narrative processes in combination with the lens of language, focusing on the way the students structured their words to tell their unique stories. Thirdly, the lens of context provided us with an opportunity to understand the students’ stories about the social impact of COVID 19 on their academic lives. McCormack (2000) indicates that stories are not told in a void but are located within a particular context. Fourthly, the lens of moments focuses on the point in a story when the narrators come to a different understanding of issues, implying “a sudden leap of understanding that unexpectedly emerges as the storyteller addresses previously unrecognised issues” (Dibley, 2011, p. 17). It was during this lens that we derived self leadership actions which were based on PhenoBL activities which can be implemented by HEIs to address the social dynamics of COVID 19 with respect to students’ academic lives.
To apply McCormack’s (2000) lenses, we reread the students’ narratives and applied some techniques in identifying themes before conducting an analysis of their stories. Firstly, to apply the lens of language in connection with the lens of narrative processes (McCormack, 2000), we applied word repetition which enabled us to explain the emotional experience of students. Drawing on Jing (2015), words that are repeated or emphasized by participants can be regarded as evidence for a theme. Thus, the more frequent a concept occurs in texts, the more likely it is a theme. Evident from the students’ responses is the frequent use of the word “fear” which was indicative of their emotional experiences during the COVID 19 pandemic and which led to the formulation of the first theme: students’ emotional experiences as they learn. Secondly, to apply the lens of context, we focused on what was being told by the students, that is, what they were telling about the social impact of COVID 19 on their academic lives. This led to the formulation of the second theme: the social impact of COVID 19 on students’ academic lives. Thirdly, to apply the lens of moments, we reread the students’ narratives and found moments of epiphany moments where they unknowingly applied PhenoBL activities for self leadership to resist the social impact of COVID 19 on their academic lives. This led to the formulation of the third theme: PhenoBL activities for self leadership to improve academic lives.
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During the analysis and discussion, we remained true to the students’ original stories, and in so doing, we were able to demonstrate that the reported findings were situated in the original data.
To present the findings and discussion, we assigned the following pseudonyms to the students: Boikhutso, Lindiwe, Puseletso, Kgomotso and Babalwa. The findings and discussions are presented in the order the three identified themes were identified: students’ emotional experiences as they learn, the social impact of COVID 19 on students’ academic lives and self leadership actions for improved academic lives.
We focused on words that were repeated by all the participants and then analyzed the tone used by the students to describe their emotions during COVID 19 whilst busy with their B.Ed. Hons studies. Peterman (2020) describes tone as narrators’ attitude towards an event, considering how the language had been used. The tone in which “fear” was used, painted a gloomy picture of students’ emotional experiences whilst learning took place during the COVID 19 pandemic. The students expressed themselves in the following ways: What hurt me the most was that I had followed all the instructions we were told to follow in order to avoid getting infected. I was in denial that I was sick. My biggest fear was that I would infect my siblings as I spend a lot of time with them. [Boikhutso]
COVID 19 came into students’ lives at bad times. It was emotionally, socially, and academically draining. It was fearful. It was hard for me. [Puseletso]
I was living in great fear of contracting the virus and constantly worry about my future as well as how I am going to progress with studies since universities have been closed. What was hard for me was that we had to be in isolation which ultimately affected my emotional well being as well as my social life. [Kgomotso]
We as students faced challenges that our lecturers are unaware of. We feared failure and felt that we could not cope at times. [Lindiwe]
Although it was a fearful experience, COVID 19 had minimal impact on my postgraduate studies. Due to the fact that I am working while studying towards my B.Ed. Hons, COVID 19 changed everything for the best. [Babalwa]
The use of “fear” and “fearful” is indicative of a tone that feels heavy and serious. This supports the literature in this paper which indicates that the circumstances in which the students found themselves contributed to discomfort in their personal and academic lives (Alghamdi, 2021). To emphasize the emotional uneasiness that they experienced, the use of “fear” and “fearful” further found expression in phrases such as “I was going to die”, “scaring me” as well as
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“emotionally, socially and academically drained”. Arguably, the language used by the students created a sense of despair, sadness, and worthlessness. Such negative tones can be associated with a reduced confidence and a lack of belief that academic achievement would have been possible. Cherry (2021) holds the view that individuals with little confidence are usually more insecure about their abilities and may distrust the possibilities to thrive. They may not be interested in attempting innovative things because they are sceptical if they would achieve positive outcomes. Evidently, the “fear” that the students experienced initially raised concerns as to whether they would have been successful in their academic work whilst they were struggling with issues such as a loss of self worth and dignity (Abdel Khalek, 2016).
Interestingly, although Babalwa also used “fearful”, she regarded the whole experience with COVID 19 in a more positive light. Babalwa’s response is, however, not far fetched. In line with the literature review in this paper, when individuals find themselves amidst a crisis like COVID 19, some are able to apply intelligence to understand what is happening around them (Reimers et al., 2020), adapting again and again as situations change. Thus, although the student’s response is contradictory to language with a negative tone, Babalwa later indicated that “I do believe we should keep on adapting and changing the way we learn and teach.”
An unavailability of internet services, learning equipment (such as notebooks, smartphones, and tablets) as well as the speed and cost of the delivery of study materials are some of the social issues that negatively impacted students’ academic lives during COVID 19 (Mahdy, 2020). For instance, many students struggled to create opportunities for self study and lacked the ability to complete lessons that required a practical application of knowledge, greatly reducing the complete sense of scholarship which encompasses inclusion, inspiration and commitment (Zhao, 2021). The students told the following stories about the social impact of COVID 19 on their academic lives.
I adapted well to the new changes but when I had contracted Covid 19, it inconvenienced me a lot academically. Some of the tasks required students to do them in groups, online of course, and I couldn`t participate. This means that I was not gonna get marks because I did not give my input on the group formal task. Some students are old and are not familiar with learning online, so technology is not their thing. And I am one of them. [Boikhutso]
We were not allowed to access computer lab due to Covid 19 level 3. It was painful because we had a computer module, name Computer Practice. The module requires the student to have either a computer or a laptop to do activities and write tests. I had a problem with my laptop and that created a problem for me. [Puseletso]
I also experienced a great challenge of producing a work of poor quality because online learning was a new experience to most of us and as results I lacked basic principles of academic writing of assignments which
ultimately had negative impact on my assessment scores. I was discouraged throughout the course of the year because I had run out of ideas as how can I best improve my academic results. [Kgomotso]
One of the difficulties I encountered was that all of the question papers were in the same format. We are being wiped clean by the same cloth because of students who are not serious about their work, not realising that some of us desperately need help and support. Academic difficulties have arisen as a result of the pandemic. We don't get timely feedback on our performance, and we only realize we need help when it's too late. [Lindiwe]
Everything changed from doing things and attending classes on a preset time, to you yourself determining when to do what. The lectures where helpful and could be reached at any given time via WhatsApp. This made everything much easier whenever you had a problem you just asked, and an answer was given to you. You did not have to wait for the next lecture session to ask questions. [Babalwa]
Despite favourable conditions, that is the possible safe circumstances at home during COVID 19, Boikhutso’s remarks signify that students experienced slow academic achievement while learning from home, resulting in them suffering learning losses (Engzell, Frey & Verhagen, 2021). A study by Dorn et al. (2020) report that lockdowns and closure of higher education institutions in the United States experienced learning losses which, “exacerbate existing achievement gaps” and the resulting “hurt could last a lifetime” (p. 1). Boikhutso’s experience of a lack of participation as well as a fear of failure can, therefore, directly be related to learning losses. Considering the notion that learning is an active practice that builds on previous learning, learning losses contributed to a possible loss of previously attained skills on which supplementary learning could have built (Kuhfeld et al., 2020).
Puseletso’s viewpoint indicate that digital tools like laptops and computers can be aligned with the notion that, not only does digital marginalization lead to a division of knowledge, but it also limits opportunities for intercultural communication, understanding and networking (Resta & Laferrière, 2015). Although challenges with the use of digital tools are not new, the students’ experiences during COVID 19 indicated an increased lack of meaningful access to a computer or the Internet. Consequently, a lack of access translated into missed lessons, the inability to find useful learning materials, and difficulties completing assignments. Evident from Puseletso’s response as well as information from the academic literature is that the digital divide during COVID 19 had made it almost impossible for many students to enjoy meaningful academic lives. Consequently, many of the studentswho struggled thehardest tothrive academically might have found it even harder during COVID 19, having experienced interruptions in their academic endeavours which might not be easy to rectify (Garcia & Weiss, 2020).
Although virtual learning, remote learning and persistent education became a remedy for this unparalleled international pandemic, many students found it
hard to adapt to the new circumstances in which they found themselves (Pokhrel & Chhetri, 2021). The struggle to adapt and to deliver work of quality is emphasised by Kgomotso and Lindiwe. Challenges such as accessibility, affordability, flexibility, and a lack of support can be interpreted as Kgomotso and Lindiwe’s experiences of education in a crisis. Such crisis finds meaning in the difficulty students experience in terms of adapting from onsite teaching to an online setting, as well as the challenge for students to rethink and redesign the ways in which they used to work (Jandrić et al., 2020).
Babalwa’s response is an indication that she did not believe that COVID 19 had an adverse effect on her academic live. Although she was not specific regarding the exact reason for her seemingly positive experience, particular characteristics such as consideration, autonomy, motivation and encouraging learning behaviours usually contribute to resilience during difficult situations like COVID 19 (Singaram, Naidoo & Singh, 2022). Resilience involves the ability of individuals to plan for, adjust and react to a crisis and in this regard Babalwa seemed to have found alternative ways of learning, whilst creating flexible pathways to pursue her academic life (Martin & Furiv, 2020).
7.3 Phenomenon-based learning activities for self-leadership to improve academic lives
Through phenomenon based learning, “students have an active and self regulatory role, setting their own goals and solving problems both independently and collaboratively” (FNBE, 2016, Section 2.3). During the processes of learning, students become attentive to their particular self leadership abilities by, “leading oneself toward performance of naturally motivating tasks as well as managing oneself to do work that must be done but is not naturally motivating” (Neuhaus, 2021, p. 1). The latter views align with McCormack’s (2000) lens of moments in that the students’ responses reveal that they found themselves at moments where they had to implement innovative activities to autonomously lead themselves toward academic success. The students shared their epiphany moments in the following ways:
I then decided …[Boikhutso]
Then at midnight…Puseletso]
I got the idea… [Kgomotso]
I realised that… [Lindiwe]
I became cognizant…[Babalwa]
The above phrases are indicative of those particular moments the students realised that they were capable to enact self leadership through PhenoBL activities to address their own academic needs. According to Dweck (2016), such moments of realisation refer to the development of a growing mindset a belief of individuals’ ability to develop and change things themselves. In terms of the development of their mindsets to change things for themselves, we were able to dervive PhenoBL learning activities from the students’ responses which could be aligned with self leadership for the improvement of academic lives amid challenges students may encounter.
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It should be reiterated that PhenoBL presupposes that students can set their own goals, thus work independently or they can engage with others to solve problems collaboratively (FNBE, 2016, Section 2.3). Gleaned from their responses, three students (60%) indicated that they implemented authentic learning, whilst the remaining two (40%) indicated that they implemented inquiry based learning for self leadership.
Firstly, authentic learning, as a feature of phenomenon based learning presupposes that individuals are in a position to use approaches, materials and tools which are indispensable in everyday circumstances to solve difficulties (Symeonidis & Schwartz, 2016). Boikhutso, Babalwa and Puseletso’s responses signify how they implemented authentic learning for self leadership during the COVID 19 pandemic:
I decided to teach myself how to do things online instead of relying on my group of students. I decided to push myself with the notes and study material. [Boikhutso]
For me, it was a time to determine for myself when to do what. We have technology at our fingertips, let’s use it to our advantage. [Babalwa]
I would take photos of the chapters required for assignments. I would transfer those photos that has chapters to my laptop so that I can be able to write my assignments. [Puseletso]
Authentic learning emerges in the use of “to teach myself”, “to determine for myself” and “to write my assignments” and is associated with the way in which individuals direct their own learning. It is that moment when individuals “take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes” (Gresham, 2019, p. 1). When related to PhenoBL, authentic learning, in the form of “with the notes and study material”, “technology” and “take photos of the chapters” brings genuine practices and processes into the learning situation. In this way, the students managed to lead themselves to take responsibility for what they learned, when they learned, where they learned, and the method in which they learned (Gresham, 2019). It is evident that the students’ authentic PhenoBL activities contributed to the development of self leadership during COVID 19. In this regard, self leadership emerges in the way the student implemented learning practices to intentionally influence their thinking, feelings, and actions in a bid to achieve specific objectives (Warren, 2021) in this instance, to achieve success in terms of their academic lives. When students discover such inner strength, that is, placing emphasis on self leadership through active engagement with everyday circumstances to solve difficulties that are relevant to their academic lives (Symeonidis & Schwartz, 2016), they may be in a position to know themselves, whilst developing their strengths, aspirations and interests.
Secondly, inquiry based learning, as a feature of phenomenon based learning assumes that students formulate individual questions and collaboratively
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construct knowledge during the learning process (Silander, 2015a). Kgomotso and Lindiwe’s responses signify how they implemented inquiry based learning for self leadership during the COVID 19 pandemic:
I got the idea to join postgraduate groups on social media platforms in which we encourage each other thorughout the course of our study. [Kgomotso]
I realised that I found it helpful to interact with my fellow classmates in order to cope with the challenges. I’ve also realised that I’ve learned a lot about technology. [Lindiwe]
When phenomenon based learning transpires in a collaborative setting, “it supports the socio constructivist and sociocultural learning theories, in which information is not seen only as an internal element of an individual; instead, information is seen as being formed in a social context” (Silander, 2015b, p. 19). Phrases like “join postgraduate groups on social media platforms” and “to interact with my fellow classmates” are indicative of the creation of social platforms in which learning took place. It seems that whilst working collaboratively, the students changed their frames of references regarding the way they lead themselves to enjoy successful academic moments. In so doing, the students became lively scholars who accepted accountability for their learning, whilst developing a flexible understanding of their academic tasks. In this instance, inquiry based learning emerges in the form of active learning that gives students the agency to lead themselves in such a way that they acquire ownership and agency of their learning (Lonka, 2018). When students take on self leadership in online learning, they intentionally influence their own thinking, feelings, and actions to ensure that they enjoy positive academic lives. Thus, whilst applying inquiry based learning, the students’ self leadership abilities surfaced as skills “for leading oneself across challenging and performing situations towards goal achievement and necessitated goal setting and goal striving” (Eseryel, 2020, p. 125). Despite the difficult situation brought about by COVID 19, the students exercised self leadership in the way they applied processes (social media platforms and technology) that seemingly contributed to their optimal functioning as leaders, having combined individual and collaborative efforts (Goldsby et al., 2021). A summary of findings is provided in Table 1.
Finding 1
When individuals find themselves amid a crisis like COVID 19, some can apply intelligence to understand what is happening around them, whilst adapting multiple times as situations change.
Finding 2
Students found it difficult to thrive academically during the COVID 19 pandemicbecauseof the enormous interruptions in their academic endeavours which might not be easily rectifiable.
Finding 3 Finding 4
PhenoBL activities can assist students with self leadership so that they might be in a position to set their own goals, thus working independently or while engaging with others to solve problems collaboratively.
As students engage in self leadership actions, they intentionally influence their own thinking, and approaches to ensure that they influence their academic lives positively.
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The findings in Table 1 are supported by the transformative learning theory because students are encouraged to act differently instead of legitimating what they already know about their current situation (Mezirow, 2000). In so doing, students have the opportunity to engage in serious thinking about their experience where possibilities exist that they might change their perspectives and take action to transform their academic lives. The findings, aligned with the transformative learning theory, also speak to our research questions.
The first sub researched was answered by means of students’ willingness to share information about their application of self leadership during COVID 19. Students identified moments where they experienced an epiphany about their academic lives and indicated how they might have developed a mindset to change their perspectives. Additionally, students indicated how they frequently explored solutions autonomously to address challenges they experienced and how they developed constructive thought strategies which enabled them to positively influence their own cognition, feelings, motivation, and behaviour. An application of authentic learning may contribute to students discovering who they are and what they are capable of in terms of their learning. Finally, when students realised that they could lead themselves amid difficult situations, they applauded the prospect of being self leaders of their own learning whilst also helping others.
The second sub research question was answered by discussing possible PhenoBL activities which may be applied by HEIs to train students in using self leadership. Firstly, we recommend that HEIs apply more advanced technologies so that students can adapt easier; constantly observe students’ progress; and create innovative teaching and learning strategies so that they achieve success in their academic lives. These technologies may include, amongst others, Universal Design of Learning (UDL), more expressive presentations of new academic content using multimedia and more self directed learning activities. Secondly, HEIs should put communication platforms in place so that students are enabled to share experiences and emotions whilst they are not on campus. Thirdly, HEIs should consider students’ active participation in their academic endeavours as a means to ensure that they can become independent thinkers, discussants, and responsible learners within a challenging environment.
The findings revealed that students’ attempts to use PhenoBL activities for self leadership have implications for HEIs. Drawing on Khanna and Kareem (2021), HEIs should be open to hearing the voices of students which can be regarded as a more inclusive response to the COVID 19 pandemic and its consequential influence on their academic lives.
The analysis of students’ responses holds transformative social justice implications for HEIs. Considering the literature review in this paper (Reimers et al., 2020; Khanna & Kareem, 2021) as well as the analysis of students’ responses, HEIs should consider PhenoBL activities for self leadership as transformative practice for social justice to address the social complexities of the COVID 19 pandemic and its influence on students’ academic lives (Figure 1).
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•Adaptive learning
•Inquiry based learning
Activities
•influence the self
•develop self trust and commitment
•innovative ways of leading the self
• adaptive roles
• dialogue spaces
• active participation
We recommend that HEIs should play an adaptive role by applying technologies that would constantly observe student progress and use data to unceasingly transform learning opportunities that will speak to the needs and behaviours of individuals. For instance, HEIs may implement more vigorous self learning programmes to advance students’ innovation abilities through autonomous learning (Ziyu & Jing, 2019). In so doing, students may be in a position to find engaging and interesting real world solutions to solve academic challenges (Mathewson, 2019). Such positioning may be regarded as a transformative social justice act in that HEIs would provide enabling spaces in which students are able to lead themselves, whilst developing a sense of their own agency for academic success (De Klerk & Palmer, 2020; De Klerk & Smith, 2021).
Furthermore, HEIs must create dialogue spaces for meaning construction, focusing on students’ experiences, emotions, and abilities whilst they are not on campus. Dialogue spaces should become shared spaces where manifold interpretations can be explored and advanced (Jesson, Fontich & Myhill, 2016) as well as spaces for reflection and critical thinking (Palmgren Neuvonen, Littleton & Hirvonen, 2021). From a transformative social justice perspective, dialogue spaces may advance opportunities to build collaboration where constructive transformation can be planned and endorsed. Students are thus afforded an opportunity to take on significant self leadership roles with the potential to endure any noteworthy impact that goes beyond their academic programme (Rodriquez et al., 2021).
HEIs must consider active participation as a means to ensure that studentsbecome independent thinkers, discussants and responsible learners amidst a challenging environment. In an active participatory environment, students play key roles in knowledge development, concept application to their daily lives, question design, data collection and sharing their own views while connecting with and being involved in real world situations (Al Mamun, Lawrie & Wright, 2020). When
aligned with PhenoBL and self leadership, active participation may empower students to take ownership of their learning through diversification of learning objectives and working approaches to achieve success in their academic lives (Symeonidis & Schwartz, 2016).
We contend that transformative social justice practices in HEIs may assist students to engage in a deeper, richer, more textured, and nuanced understanding of themselves and their world. Moreover, HEIs will be able to empower students and “have them realize that they, as a collective, have the power to make positive changes in their lived realities” (Orlowski, 2019, p. 31). One way of accomplishing transformative social justice actions would be to help students understand that they have the potential to be conscious actors in the social relations that affect them in terms of their academic lives (Orlowski, 2015).
This paper answered the research question: How can university students enact self leadership through phenomenon based activities in addressing the social complexities of COVID 19 and its influence on their academic lives? Having employed McCormack’s (2000) lenses to analyse the students’ responses, this paper contributes to the knowledge corpus by having highlighted significant information with regards to self leadership through an application of PhenoBL.
Our paper supports previous outcomes in the academic literature. Afridi et al. (2021) tested the correlation between students’ self leadership abilities, performance outcomes and self efficacy in the virtual academic milieu. Their findings revealed that when students demonstrate a high level of self leadership, they are able to experience improved levels of performance satisfaction and self efficacy. Complementary to their study, our paper found that a higher level of self leadership is possible through an application of phenomenon based learning.
Only five students from a university of technology in South Africa were willing to participate in this study. It thus excludes the voices of a larger student corpus who might have had different opinions of self leadership through phenomenon based learning during COVID 19.
This paper recommends that similar and comparative studies be conducted at different higher education institutions to elicit the voices of more students regarding their self leadership competence during times of crisis, but also during a post COVID 19 era. Issues such as self influence, self efficacy, self directed learning, and self achievement may be regarded as significant aspects to be considered when a comparative study regarding students’ self leadership competence is conducted.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 24 39, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.2
Received Apr 9, 2022; Revised Jun 20, 2022; Accepted Jul 10, 2022
Abstract. Formative electronic assessment of mathematics on the Learning Management System is unique. The purpose of this study was to delineate the process of formative assessment in mathematics through the students’ experiences during remote online learning. Formative assessment is part of learning and helps students to monitor their progress. Data were analysed by identifying themes from the narratives. It emerged that the e assessments that are manually written and graded by the instructor were the best mode of assessment for undergraduate mathematics. With timely feedback, formative electronic assessment placed students in a position whereby they took more responsibility for their learning. As such, students had positive perceptions towards formative electronic assessment during remote e learning and were prepared to proceed with it in future. The study concluded that while some students proclaimed to have the expertise in the use of e assessments, most students did not have the expertise in using e assessment tools, as formative e assessments were not generally offered in other modules. Participants echoed the sentiments that instructor expertise in formative electronic assessment design should be unquestionable to promote enhanced mathematics assessments that should enable presenting the steps taken to arrive at the answers.
Keywords: formative assessment; electronic assessment; undergraduate students; e learning; mathematics
Teaching and learning in higher education focus on developing an individual student into an independent learner. To achieve this, teaching and learning are in constant transformation as new players, pedagogies and paradigms constantly re define higher education (Oliver, 2018). This state of affairs has been stimulated by the exponential growth of digital technologies, increasing globalisation, and calls
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
to bring about social justice in higher education. Humanity is at the threshold of rapid technological advancements that have the potential to change the way people work, live and learn. Higher education globally is evolving, witnessing recent increases in the number of blended courses. and of late, fully online courses (Xu & Mahenthiran, 2016).
Electronic learning (e learning) is learning that is facilitated by digital technologies. It encompasses multiple activities that include the use of the learning management system (LMS) platform like Moodle or Blackboard (Buzzetto More & Alade, 2006). LMSs have been implemented widely in higher education for a long time (Stone & Zheng, 2014). They are highly interactive interfaces that are student centred and accessible to many students with internet connection anytime, and from anywhere. The downside of LMSs is that they require familiarisation by both students and instructors (Bradford & Porciello, 2007) and incur huge running costs. LMSs support all kinds of assessment in higher education (Koneru, 2017), which involves the introduction of test builders and authorising tools which make it possible for tests, quizzes and assignments to be created by course instructors (Timmis et al., 2016). However, being web based, LMSs are unfavourable to users with limited internet access.
Starting in 2020, the COVID 19 pandemic caused worldwide disruptions to all levels of education, which necessitated several tertiary education institutions to migrate entirely to full e learning (Elzainy et al., 2020; Camilleri, 2021). These e learning platforms took the form of (a)synchronous online instruction using Microsoft Teams, Google Meet, Zoom and others, in efforts to ensure that learning continued during the times of compulsory school closures (Chen et al., 2021). The proliferation of full online instruction necessitates new and complementary tools for assessment (Prieto et al., 2012). The absence of physical contact between students and instructors necessitated innovative techniques of assessment of students’ learning (Baleni, 2015). Assessment is one of the factors that promote a student centred educational model, thus, it becomes a key factor in promoting effective learning. According to Timmis et al (2016), the way institutions create and use assessment encapsulates their conceptualisation of teaching and learning.
Kundu and Bej (2021) define e assessment as the use of the computer and/or the internet to create, deploy, grade and deliver feedback to students on any of the three forms of assessment, namely prior to learning (diagnostic), of learning (summative), and for learning (formative). This study was limited to formative assessment as a driving force for teaching and learning in higher education. Buzzetto More and Alade (2005, p. 251) define formative as “an ongoing process that involves planning, discussion, consensus building, reflection, measuring, analysing, and improving, based on the data and artefacts gathered about a learning objective.” Formative assessment is the bedrock for the ongoing process of learning and teaching (Buzzetto More & Alade, 2006). This culminates in formative electronic assessment (FEA), which is the focus of this study.
The Blackboard LMS offers two key types of assessment, which are tests and assignments. These two constitute e assessment in this study. Blackboard tests refer to instructor created assessment where the deployment and marking are
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automated (Boitshwarelo et al., 2017). Online tests (OTs) have objective questions the responses to which are pre determined, and take the form of multiple choice, true or false, matching and fill in blank. On the other hand, online assignments (OAs) accommodate longer subjective questions that are deployed and submitted electronically, but are manually marked by the instructor. The decision to use OTs or OAs depends on the learning outcomes and the discipline. In mathematics, most questions require step by step solution processes that make online tests undesirable, especially from the students’ perspective.
The COVID 19 pandemic compelled higher education institutions to engage in novel teaching methodologies to continue delivering their curricula (Camilleri, 2021). This necessitated e assessment in sync with the expanded programmes in e learning. FEA plays a crucial intermediate role of reinforcing e learning and prepares students for summative e assessment (Boitshwarelo et al., 2017). Whereas e learning has been adopted firmly in the higher education spaces, FEA still is used sporadically and discretionally by individual instructors. Despite increasing technologies in people’s daily lives, instructors have been slow to adapt e assessment modes and practices (Timmis et al., 2016). These assessments require time, special skills and technical knowhow, which some instructors lack, to ensure e assessment of high quality. Based on the response to mathematics courses that were assessed online, this study pursued the delineation of the process of formative assessment through students’ experiences during remote online learning. The research questions for this study were, (i) “To what extent do undergraduate mathematics students deal with Blackboard FEA in mathematics?” ; (ii) “How do students perceive formative electronic assessment practices in undergraduate mathematics during full online learning?” and (iii) “What are the online assessment modes that are preferable in mathematics?” This study focused on formative assessment that occurs during learning, in contrast to summative assessment that comes after learning. A literature search revealed no studies on formative assessment as a bridge to e learning and online summative assessment.
By its very nature, formative assessment plays a key role in learning. A study by Sosibo (2019) examined the possibilities of students’ active engagement with content, using self assessment to broaden the horizon of autonomous learning. However, the formative self assessments were not online, in contrast to thisstudy The traditional pen and paper self assessment tasks were administered to a case of 30 preservice teachers. Interview transcriptions were coded, and emergent themes were identified in the analysis of data. Data in the form of instructor scores were analysed statistically. The results highlighted the need to increase selfassessment opportunities across all courses as a way of promoting student centred assessment approaches. The contribution of Sosibo’s (2019) study was to boost students’ autonomous learning, thereby overcoming feelings of dissatisfaction and anxiety associated with formal assessment. Furthermore, Prieto et al. (2012) integrated a locally made online test as an alternative to self assessment in mathematics for computer science students. Both instructors and students had a positive attitude towards the practical use of the tool. Prieto et al.
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(2012) introduced complementary testing software for mathematics, composed of multiple choice questions (MCQs). The present study harboured the same sentiments, but shifted the focus to instructor made FEA to help students interact with content meaningfully.
Fontanillas et al. (2016) conducted a study to analyse students’ perceptions about the e assessment approach to pursue the advantages of students’ active role in e assessment This was done towards the end of a course in an online open university. An online questionnaire was administered to students to elicit their perceptions and roles in e assessment. Fontanillas et al. (2016) revealed that students were highly satisfied participating in e assessment activities, which resulted in some improvements in the learning process. In all, students’ active involvement in learning is envisaged, which leads to huge student benefits. Similarly, Chen et al. (2021) took further the idea of students’ active engagement with content through FEA. Students were subjected to frequent tasks, quizzes and tests in a fully online English course. Thereafter, they sought students’ perceptions on the engagements using oral records and a questionnaire. The results indicated that students had positive perceptions regarding FEA and were actively engaged in all the online activities, which led to an improvement in the scores gained in the activities. The significance of this study is the vital link of a synchronous instruction to asynchronous assessment, which grants instructors opportunities to design frequent and progressively challenging formative assessment activities geared at improving achievement of learning outcomes.
In another study, Baleni (2015) investigated how FEA facilitates teaching, learning, and the manner wherein both instructors and students benefit therefrom. An online questionnaire was used to gather students and instructors’ experiences on how FEA operates. The results revealed that FEA could nurture and enrich students’ commitment through perceived students and assessment centred approaches. Baleni (2015) highlighted the significance of instructor made e assessment activities which are tailored to the needs of the course and the students. Studies by Boitshwarelo et al. (2017) and Buzzetto More and Alade (2006) also illustrated the tremendous capacity of digital technologies to be catalysts to drive and assess students’ learning to prepare them for twenty first century learning. The results revealed that assessment requires planning and foresight so that FEAs are valuable tools that optimise assessment in the digital age in which we are living. It can be deduced that online tests are best suited for formative purposes, thereby making technology play a significant role in delivering and evaluating learning outcomes.
This study was structured on the e-learning theoretical framework proposed by Apricio et al. (2016). The goal of the e learning systems theoretical framework is to determine the participants, the technology used and the services offered related to e learning in a study. These pillars guided this study to identify the stakeholder groups and their interaction with the e-learning systems. Firstly, the stakeholders consisted of instructors and students who provided and received the service rendered. Secondly, the technologies used in e learning provided support in integrating content, communicating and collaborating. However, in this study
students were individuals interacting with e assessment tasks that had no collaboration involved. The LMS was the technology used to deliver service and focus on students’ interaction with mathematics. The LMS tracked and delivered content to students, assessed students ’learning and reported student progress. Finally, e learning services encourage instructor made learning activities that support learning that corresponds with the content and instructional strategies. Instructional strategies for FEA are facilitation and individualised learning. The activities entail pre tests and main tests as part of FEA. Pedagogical models for FEA are autonomous learning.
A case of one South African university was considered to give an in depth exploration of undergraduate mathematics students’ experiences in FEA. According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), a case study is a detailed description of phenomena in natural settings. Two year long undergraduate mathematics courses were considered at a time when all instructions and assessments were fully online and remote. The enrolment for two courses was 37 Level 2 and 180 Level 3 students in 2021, but not all these had sat for e assessment in a mathematics content. Mathematics was chosen due to its multi step computational nature and the first author was the instructor of the two courses. For students to learn through assessment, the instructor administered four formal tests to each group. The researchers devised pre tests for each of the formal tests that they sat for prior to the main tests. Pre tests were meant to familiarise students with the dynamics of e assessment as they worked towards formal formative and summative assessments. Initially, all the assessments were OTs and later OAs.
Eleven students responded to an online open ended questionnaire distributed in Google form. The questionnaire briefly sought participants’ perceptions to online assessment, for example, “Which topics in mathematics are not suitable for online assessment?” A preliminary data analysis of the questionnaire responses was done to identify aspects that needed further inquiry. Thereafter, telephonic semi structured interviews were conducted to probe students’ deeper experiences in FEA The interview questions were higher order so that the interviewer could ask probing questions after initial responses where necessary. One of the questions was, “How do you see the future of online assessment in mathematics in the post pandemic era?” The use of two instruments was part of triangulation of data to ensure data trustworthiness. The researchers undertook a narrative inquiry into the experiences of 23 conveniently selected students. The sample, thus, comprised 10 second year and 13 third year students. The participants were selected through convenient sampling. The narrative approach allows for a rich description of these experiences and an exploration of the meanings that the participants derive from their experiences. Data were analysed qualitatively by identifying themes emerging from students’ narrations. The analysis of the data to identify themes followed on the case study research (Creswell andCreswell, 2018).As the students told their stories, the researchers were able to construct meaning. Narratives, seemingly, are the best way for participants to relate their experiences (Merriam, 2009).
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To execute FEAs in OT mode, diverse items were used as illustrated in Figures 1 to 4. MCQs were the most commonly used (Boitshwarelo et al., 2017) and an example is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: An MCQ item in the OTs
Fill in items were popular too in OTs, which can be single or multiple, as shown in Figures 2 and 3 respectively.
Figure 2: A single fill in item
Figure 3: A multiple fill-in item
Finally, OTs had True/False items (shown in Figure 4).
A mixture of these items was used in the OTs. The examples were drawn from an OT on Matrices under Linear Algebra. We did not put the sample items for OAs since these take ordinary long questions, typical of a mathematics test.
The researchers analysed the narratives of the participants in both the questionnaires and interview transcriptions, and the themes which emerged ranged from general online digital resource concerns to mathematics specific deliberations. For purposes of anonymity, the participants were coded ‘T1’, ‘T2’ and so on until ‘T23’, where the ordering did not carry any significance. The emergent themes are presented in the ensuing section.
The sustainability of the institution (U1) to provide digital resources was key to e learning. Respondent T13 indicated in the questionnaire that even though U1’s provision was rudimentary, it was sufficient, “U1 is one of the underprivileged institutions but they are trying their level best to meet the standard”. In support of this, T12 posited that U1 managed to have made available the basic tools for online learning and assessment, that is, laptops and data for students, “Yes, but we do have laptops and smart phones”. The LMS and Microsoft Teams’ applications were in place as an institutional provision. Moreover, all students monthly received data from the institution and for those who were based on campus; the institutional Wi Fi provided a robust network to work on. T12 cited the availability of smart phones in e learning. These were not supplied by U1 but proved to be very popular with the participants. Acquisition and ownership of smart phones did not put too much pressure on U1. In fact, the availability of personal smart phones broadened the base of accessibility to online resources, despite their small screen sizes.
Digital resources may not be sufficient owing to the rapid push that drove institutions into full online education. All students agreed that it was the COVID 19 pandemic that caused U1 to adopt full e learning. According to T21 and T16, e learning was never implemented during the pre COVID 19 era, even though the LMS was there:
T21: Online learning was never used before in our institution.
T16: Though we already had Blackboard, we did not use it for almost all the assessments, but now we use it even for our final examination.
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According to T16, e assessment was absent too, which may be due to contact teaching and learning in the pre pandemic era. The instructors during that time used the LMS as a repository for lecture notes and related course information. T17 corroborated, “For example, we were using Blackboard to get notes and assignment questions sometimes, but we were not writing tests over there.” Some students, like T6, said U1 planned to adopt e assessment; “We were going to use but not now. Maybe some time later. The process was not going to be fast as it is now.” Thus, COVID 19 forced U1 and other institutions to switch to full e learning with such rapidity that provision of resources could not keep pace. Hence, some of the challenges, including inadequate provision of tools of trade to students that were highlighted.
4.2.
Having experienced the devastating effects of the COVID 19 pandemic, institutions must be cautious in their future approaches to teaching, learning and assessment, as no one knows for certain what the future might hold for humanity. This sentiment was confirmed by T6 who commented that even if humanity wakes up and finds COVID 19 is gone, e learning must proceed all the same, “I think let us continue with Microsoft Teams and Blackboard because we will never know what will happen tomorrow”. T13 supported proceeding with e learning in future due to the large capital outlay that has already been put in place, “We can continue because we already have Teams and Blackboard”. Some students were undecided on whether to proceed with e assessment, as shown in the dialogue with T3 below where R represents the researcher:
R: For 2022, do you think we must continue using Teams and Blackboard?
T3: I am not sure. But, yes, all I can say is we are not 100% perfect in using Blackboard. Some they complain even if it’s not problem of network. But for next year, I think we will have gotten used to it, so we may use Blackboard.
The lack of a clear cut decision was due to the lack of skills in using online tools. Students’ skills in using online tools are discussed in the next sub section. At U1, teaching and assessment took place on Teams and Blackboard respectively.
Use of online tools for assessment entails logging in to the LMS and navigating to the assessment location. Thereafter, students should be able to open, and give responses to test items within the given time and submit the test solutions. That it was easy to use the online tools was confirmed by 15 students and the dialogue with T4 went as follows:
R: Any problems with Blackboard?
T4: I didn’t have any problem with Blackboard.
R: Some students complain that the computer submitted their work. Is it possible?
T4: It’s not possible because it depends on the network connection that you have.
Participants like T7 hadno problems because theyhad written OTs in the previous year(s). To some participants like T6, the skills grew with practice: “For now I am OK. But at the beginning it was difficult.” Finally, T13 said, “It is indeed one of the easiest things”. Quite expectedly, modern day students are dextrous at using technological devices, the skills of which appeal more to the young generation.
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The remaining eight participants admitted to having some difficulties with online tools. T14 had challenges with logging in and for T23, it was the absence of technical support when students encountered problems, as shown in the hand written questionnaire response in Figure 5.
In some cases, students were left alone without any technical support, especially if the problems were encountered during odd hours.
If students sat for FEAs in other courses, it would obviously alleviate their challenges with online tools in mathematics. However, it was not the case with most of the participants. T3 indicated mathematics was the only course where they sat for FEA. On the other extreme, T19 and T20 said they wrote FEAs in all the courses they were studying. FEA, thus, was offered in some subjects, the most common being physical sciences and life sciences. In reality, it is common practice for mathematics and sciences instructors to share and collaborate as a community of practice on issues like assessment. Other general teacher education courses were not cited, except psychology that was mentioned by T8. The mathematics curriculum course was also cited by T14, T15, T17 and T22. The other courses, like geography and accounting had two participants each, while business studies registered only one. Nonetheless, only a few students studied mathematics and the latter subjects It turned out that the choice to administer FEAs was the prerogative of the course instructor due to a lack of policy, hence huge disparities in FEA administrations. All the assessment policies were for the pre pandemic era. Expertise in test creation and deploying plays a key role in motivating instructors to engage in FEA, which is described in the next sub section.
The computational nature of mathematics and the unique answering process of questions in mathematics justify further inquiry into FEA. Answers must be precise, accommodative to alternative responses and the method used by the student should be explicit. To achieve this in FEA requires diligence and skill, which requires due training. It was not the case at U1 since the entire e Learning move was hurried through, in response to the state lockdown measures. T22 was quick to point out that mark allocation should start on the steps to the answer: “Allocate the marks for the calculations and not for the final answer only”. Pertaining to fill in objective questions, T10 said, “I don’t know if I should put only the answer or the whole thing. I am not sure”. T3 explained his concerns about the format of the answers, over and above the correctness and wrongness of the answer in the dialogue below:
T3: It’s like when you write �� =13 but then the only thing I wrote is 13. Then I get it incorrect by just leaving out ��.
R: Yes, I agree with you. The way you write may cause you to lose marks.
T3: It’s only the way you write but the answer is correct!
R: As a lecturer I try to accommodate all the possible answers for example, accepting both 2 or two.
To guard against the concerns above, instructor expertise in information and communication technology (ICT) are required to incorporate all possible answers and to guide students on how to write the answers. These were some of the inescapable dynamics of e assessment in mathematics faced by the course instructor. Most of the concerns were related to OTs, so a shift to OAs alleviated the dissents. After introducing OAs, no more concerns were raised by students as the assessment type yielded results that were a true reflection of the students’ understanding of the concepts taught. In light of this, participants had little to say concerning improvements needed to be effected to FEA. This is explained in the next sub section.
When FEA started, students were introduced to OTs, of which some had prior experience from other courses. These auto scored assessments proved to be so unpopular with students that their calls for improvements were centred on what T21 said, “At least, there must be something for calculating steps to see where you went wrong rather than just a final answer”. “Allocate the marks for the calculations and not for the final answer only”, is what T22 suggested. Precisely, T3 reiterated the issue of objective questions when he said, “Improve answering options for fill in”. Indeed, the instructor made efforts to address that by including multiple fill in questions that bore partial crediting. Nevertheless, seemingly, it was not enough.
Other calls for improvements of both OTs and OAs had to do with the need for familiarisation with online test taking in mathematics. The instructor knew about this need and made provision for pre tests before each formal assessment task. But T23 wanted more pre tests, as shown in Figure 6.
Moreover, T1 confirmed the call for mock tests by saying, “You should send videos on how to write a test on Blackboard because most of us cannot do”.
Some students also called for increasing the duration of the tests, which applied to both OTs and OAs, both of which had the same time allocation. T15 said the instructor should, “Maximize the time and attempts he allocates for each test”. In addition, T11 said, “Give us enough time to write”. However, these wishes for improvements were incompatible with efforts to reduce possible cheating as students sit for FEAs remotely. Minimising duration and granting only a single
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attempt are some of the techniques advisable to counter cheating, which is not easy to eradicate entirely in remote FEA. Finally, six participants commented that they were content, so there was no need for improvements concerning FEAs under OAs mode. For instance, T13 said, “According to my personal view everything is in order, nothing needs to be improved”.
4.7.
Students were also faced with the decision to choose between OTs and OAs as a mode of assessment in mathematics. This centred on the type of topics, responses and marker. Questions with pre determined responses are not suitable for all topics in mathematics since they reward marks for the final answer only. According to T21, mark allocation should include steps in the solution process. Moreover, T14 said, “Some of the modules like Mathematics are not good for online assessment because it deals with proofs and calculations. It should be manually written”. In addition, marking of long and subjective responses requires a human marker, which was supported by T3: “It’s better for you to mark Sir, that’s why I said assignment is best. This thing of computer; I don’t trust it at all”. The dialogue with T3 below sums it up:
T3: Even if you make it a test for me ... there is no problem.
R: But a test is marked by a computer but an assignment is marked by a human being.
T3: Yahh, I think assignment is the best because last time we were complaining about online test I remember.
R: And after online assignment, were there complains from students?
T3: No. I didn’t hear anything.
At first T3 was indecisive but later supported OAs after witnessing many complaints from students. Moreover, T7 said, “It has to do with issues like 0.5 and ½. The computer may mark it wrong.” The computer scoring is as good as the instructor who designs the test, hence T8 said, “ but the computer marks according to what it is fed”. The fact is that accurate coding of instructions to the computer is another skill that most instructors do not possess.
With the limited resources at U1, it was advantageous for students to sit for OAs because they could also use smart phones as a medium to write. The phone was only used to download the question paper and to upload the files containing responses. However, for OTs, a laptop or desktop with a sizeable screen and a constant internet connection are required for the duration of the test. Any disruption in internet connectivity terminates the test and the system auto submits the students’ responses completed up to the time of disturbance. T11 said, “… online tests give us problems when we face network problems and they submit while you [are] not finished writing and end up failing”. Hence, in the context of disadvantaged institutions, OAs relatively promote learning.
4.8.
The participants were cognisant of the trade offs between cooperative and independent learning in the e learning environment. By the nature of remote e learning, students were confined to their personal spaces with limited opportunities for peer and instructor interaction. This makes learning clumsy, as
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corroborated by T16, “Mathematics needs to be learnt in pairs or even groups; you cannot just study alone and write, I believe the module is very hard and complicated to me”. As the campus was not entirely closed to students in 2022, some students managed to form micro groups to assist one another. To this effect, T3 commented, “I am already in right now because there are some of my classmates with whom we study as a group”. To students who could not congregate physically or electronically, some explored prospects of independent learning. T7 and T8, respectively, said, “I practise alone if I am preparing for a test and I create my own solutions before going to the original solutions and correct myself. It’s easy to remember when you were corrected by yourself; not by someone else. It’s easy to remember a mistake that you have done before” , and “ … it is preparing us for postgrad studies. I like the idea Sir. With postgrad we won’t be attending classes”. To foster independent learning through FEAs, the researchers created more opportunities that are individual through pre tests. Students took these as mock tests before the main formal test. All students praised pre tests as a way to familiarise with FEA and improve grades, as indicated by T10: … gives us a clue on the kind of questions that we may expect. Sometimes we study and we are not sure in which format the question will be. It also helps us to know how much we know and how much we don’t know. If you get a low mark, then you know you are not ready. I have to study more. If there is no pre test, you study and think that you are ready when in actual fact you may not be. I also need to see my mistakes so that on the day of the test I don’t have to repeat those mistakes.
Having not written FEAs in mathematics previously, pre tests also proved to be very useful
Humanity stands at the brink of a technological revolution called the fourth industrial revolution (4IR). This fundamentally changes the way people live, work and relate to one another. When compared to previous industrial revolutions, the 4IR is evolving at an exponential rate. Even though ICT skills are prevalent in the digital age we are living in, special skills to sit for the FEAs grew with experience for most participants. Students in higher education easily embraced internet mediated assessment in mathematics. E assessment is fast becoming a standard mode of formative and summative assessment in higher education institutions around the world (Sangwin, 2013). With the rapid effects of the digital transformations and the COVID 19 pandemic, it is likely that remote internet mediated resources are bound to take core position in the delivery of education (Marpa, 2021) In that regard, students did not resent e assessment upon realising that that was the only way for them to complete their studies.
Furthermore, students were motivated to learn mathematics, which is generally known to be unpopular with students (Alrabai, 2017). When students are actively engaged in learning, they become motivated to learn. FEAs are naturally individualistic; thus, instructors should strive to actively engage students. Students need to be made aware of the crucial role that autonomy plays in the learning process (Alrabai, 2017). When students realise this role, they can use FEA to guide, regulate and monitor their own learning (Dann, 2014). Moreover, FEA is
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designed to inform both student and course instructor about the progress of the students. When designed well, the administration of FEA should reduce students’ dependence on the instructor. Students benefitted from accessing the assessment synchronously from any geographical location and receiving immediate feedback (Sikurajapathi et al., 2020).
The students indeed disapproved OTs based on practice, specifically due to the nature of mathematics. The focus is not on the final answer in mathematics. However, MCQs were very useful tools to support students’ learning in Accounting and Business modules (Einig, 2013). Regarding mathematics topics, students were comfortable with OAs for both formative and summative assessments. This is more natural to the development of mathematics concepts in lessons and textbooks; if examples posed during the lesson are not objective, in what way can they be so in FEA? That would be superfluous.
The administration of FEAs was not uniform, with some courses still resorting to traditional contact assessment. Frequently, instructors’ lack of expertise and experience inhibit the use of new and appropriate assessment tools to facilitate learning (Prieto et al., 2012). FEAs on Blackboard require instructors to design and deploy tests themselves, more especially OTs. The instructor still plays a significant role in teaching, learning and assessment (Charteris et al., 2018).
Mathematics assessment traditionally is closed book and controlled (Iannone, 2020). However, with remote and full e learning, this is not bound to be the case. This gave rise to FEA, which is a technology mediated open book assessment that inevitably enables students’ unfair practice tendencies. However, instead of worrying about cheating, instructors should devise questions that may not be straight forward which cannot be easily searchable on Google or in texts during time for assessment (ibid.). Thus, if the items are designed well, FEAs can be a cornerstone for enhanced student engagement with content.
This study focused on formative assessment, because it was designed to inform both instructors and students about the progress of the student during a course of study. Students’ use of FEA is intended to create awareness of their own weaknesses to formulate plans to address them (Charteris et al., 2018). Moreover, the computational nature of mathematics lends itself well to FEA and the performance was normally distributed as expected. Students had positive perceptions of FEAs and had no problem to continue with them in the post pandemic era. This resonates with the goal of this study, which was to explore students’ e assessment experiences in mathematics. FEAs have earned themselves a place in higher education since the gloomy days of the COVID-19 pandemic. Students did admit that even though digital technologies have infiltrated every facet of human life (with positive results), effective teaching would always require a teacher in front of the class. Digital technologies will not replace the instruction and grading skills of a teacher, but be complementary (Rapanta et al., 2020).
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The study concluded that trade offs between cooperative learning and independent learning are inevitable through e learning. Despite that, the provision of e resources at the institution under study was not comparable to better resourced institutions; students appreciated the effort made in 2020 by the institution. The study also concluded that most students prefer long and subjective assessments for mathematics where students can show the steps followed to arrive at a solution. This mode of assessment did not require typesetting and was graded by the course instructor. Moreover, students welcomed online assessment upon realising that it was not just for the sake of COVID 19, but it was something that was here to stay. Future uses of online assessment for both formative and summative assessment in mathematics and other courses are guaranteed. The findings of this study have practical significance for the researchers since they are still teaching the same courses under full online learning in subsequent years. Due to expansion of digital transformation, results from this study are relevant to other instructors if they wish to adopt FEA in their courses. This study served as evidence of what worked in a single course, which can be expanded to similar courses like the science, technology and engineering. This study recommends that more practical and research based evidence is needed to inform online instructional and assessment decisions for mathematics (Marpa, 2021). This study attempted to document the FEA in mathematics as conducted by the first researcher and reflected by students. According to Caspari Sadeghi et al. (2021), the goal of this research is to ensure that any adopted involvement is supported by evidence that is gathered and analysed by practitioners themselves. This study was limited to a small sample size. It is recommended that instructors and researchers develop versatile and credible assessment strategies in both formative and summative assessment using large sample sizes. This is imperative because some instructors lack the requisite expertise to design, create, deploy and grade assessment on the LMS. When COVID 19 first struck, the shift to online teaching and learning was not very difficult but there was a steep learning curve for lecturers and students (Rudman, 2021). In addition, investigating South African students’ readiness for independent learning and autonomy in learning mathematics using digital resources are issues that future research might investigate.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 40 58, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.3
Received Apr 5, 2022; Revised Jun 27, 2022; Accepted Jul 13, 2022
Rendi Restiana Sukardi , Wahyu Sopandi , Riandi
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia
Yuli Rahmawati
Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Indonesia
Syifahayu
SMP Negeri 1 Sungkai Barat, Lampung, Indonesia
Meilinda
Universitas Sriwijaya Palembang, Indonesia
Siti Maryam Rohimah
Universitas Pasundan Bandung, Indonesia
Yullys Helsa
Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia
Abstract. This study aims to investigate lower secondary science teachers’ perspectives of teaching strategies for developing pupils’ creativity as one of the 21st century skills in rural and urban areas. This descriptive research consisted of 110 participants who are lower secondary school science teachers in rural and urban areas from 22 provinces in Indonesia. A survey technique was employed as the method. The instruments used in this study were questionnaires, unstructured interviews, and lesson plan analyses that were validated by two experts in science education. The results showed that 33.30% of teachers prioritize the acquisition of creativity in learning They mention science skills as the basis for gaining knowledge of concepts from learning experiences. Furthermore, lesson plans of teachers in rural and urban areas show that there is no significant difference between the number of divergent questions and the number of convergent questions in order to develop pupils’ creativity. The numbers of divergent and convergent questions are 50.90% and 49.10%, respectively. Only 2.80% of Indonesian lower secondary science teachers have the initiative to implement teaching strategies that are suitable for the circumstances of their pupils so that learning is more progressive. In conclusion, most
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
teachers from rural and urban areas apply teaching methods from abroad without adapting these to the pupils’ circumstances. This study indicates the importance of developing a new teaching strategy that is able to raise pupils’ levels of creativity based on their conditions and the Indonesian curriculum.
Keywords: creativity; lower secondary school; urban and rural area
In science education, creativity can be understood as the skill to produce new ideas or products that have correlation to the context and have scientific uses (Prahani, 2021). The interest in developing pupils’ creativity in the world of education has continued to grow, increasing exponentially in the past decade (Huang et al., 2019; Snyder et al., 2019). The trend in this research domain is also predicted to grow faster in the future. Hernández Torrano and Ibrayeva (2020) and Davies et al. (2013) who analysed research reports published in various journals stated that in the period of 1975-2019, the practice of pupils’ creativity in classroom instruction became an urgent issue since it was proven to have a positive impact on pupils' cognitive development. Moreover, creativity is a key to facing the diverse and complex global problems (Karwowski. et al., 2020). The skills framework published by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21), the Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills (ATCS), and guidelines developed by the Organization for Economic Co operation and Development (OECD) also indicates that amongst the capabilities that pupils must have in the 21st century are creativity and innovation (Chu et al., 2017). Within the framework of Global Citizenship Education (GCE) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), creativity is a skill that pupils need to foster awareness of global problems (Marshall, 2019). One of the visions of education with the principle of ESD (Education for Sustainable Development) is to shape pupils who are able to think creatively, critically, and analytically. Even the MEXT (Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology) in Japan launched a programme called SGH (Super Global High School) where pupils are directed towards achieving one of the goals, i.e. solving problems that implicitly require creative problem solving (Fredriksson et al., 2020) In addition, there is general agreement in the international ESD discourse that strategic competence is important in developing and implementing innovative actions that advance sustainability at various levels (Jegstad et al., 2017; Rieckmann, 2018). Research on the instruction of pupils’ creativity was first published in 1967 in the Journal of Creativity Behavior (Pope, 2005; Treffinger, 2007) The previous information revealed that developing pupils’ creativity was very important. However, the bibliometric data presented by Hernández Torrano and Ibrayeva (2020) show that research studies on instruction of pupils’ creativity in Indonesia published in several reputable creativity journals number fewer than twenty.
Zubaidah et al. (2017) revealed that the creativity of elementary and middle school pupils in Indonesia must be improved because the emphasis in science teaching is still on the process of remembering facts. Onwu and Kyle (2011) also revealed that one of the failures of the science curriculum is that the subject is
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taught as an activity to memorize complex facts and meaningless abstract data that does not interact directly with pupils' learning environments. It does not train the pupils’ specific skills, such as creativity or critical thinking. Some OECD countries such as South Korea, Finland, and Canada explicitly state that creativity must be taught to elementary and secondary school pupils where ICT (information and communication technology) is a supplement (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009; Schauss & Sprenger, 2019; Zubaidah et al., 2017). Bialik and Fadel (2015) clearly map the meeting point between creativity and technology based science subjects. Creativity is also a key factor of the digital revolution and innovation where life is global, diverse, borderless, and complex (Qian et al., 2019) It is also believed that creativity has a vital role in education (Benedek et al., 2016; Cropley et al., 2019) Owing to this important value, various researchers have implemented various innovative teaching models to enhance pupils’ creativity. It is not surprising that creativity has become one of the main goals in education for several countries today as mentioned by Craft et al. (Gralewski & Karwowski, 2019a) and Piaget (Wang & Kokotsaki, 2018) Even Vygotsky (Hernández Torrano & Ibrayeva, 2020) argues that if the main goal of education is to prepare pupils for a bright future, then cultivating pupils’ creativity must be one of the main strategies employed to achieve this goal. Unfortunately, some researchers (Jankowska et al., 2019; Lucchiari et al., 2019; RA, 2007; Soh, 2000) reported that there were teachers who had an understanding that teaching creativity was an enrichment and not a main goal in education.
Some research studies emphasize that the concept of teaching creativity needs to be adapted to a country's cultural conditions that have many differences (Gupta & Sharma, 2019; Kim et al., 2019; So & Hu, 2019). The differences are in terms of curriculum content and pupils’ conditions. Moreover, teachers in elementary school, middle school, and high school have different perceptions about the development of creativity (Kaçan, 2015; Trnova & Trna, 2014) Moreover, they do not have strong beliefs related to the coherence of creative concepts and innovation (Erdem & Adiguzel, 2019; Mullet et al., 2016). The key to teaching creativity that applies the principles of ESD is inquiry learning (Jegstad et al., 2017) However, based on the findings of Zubaidah et al. (2017), the creativity of inquiry teaching strategies for pupils in Indonesia needs to be adjusted because pupils in Indonesia have different speeds of learning so that inquiry learning needs to be adapted to different levels is needed. This implies that the teacher needs to make adjustments in the teaching steps so that pupils' creativity can be developed
Indonesian teachers agree that creativity is a compulsory skill for pupils because it is one of 21st century skills. Various studies have also been conducted to increase pupils’ creativity. However, the implementation of these strategies is difficult for teachers to apply in the classroom. When teachers choose a teaching strategy, they do not consider anything except the innovative learning models from abroad. They sometimes do not consider the pupils’ learning styles or curriculum demands. Moreover, researchers offer solutions without considering the teachers’ point of view regarding creativity development. As a front man who has taught in the classroom for more than a decade, the researcher
understands and is aware of the learning patterns that pupils need to build their creativity. This is because the teacher's perspective on teaching that stimulates pupil creativity plays an important role in classroom implementation (Glăveanu, 2018; Gralewski & Karwowski, 2019b)
Mullet et al. (2016) reported that there were some research studies on teachers’ perspectives about creativity. However, there has not been much research on how to investigate the perceptions of science teachers in Indonesia related to the strategies for developing lower secondary pupils’ creativity and the assessment based on pupils’ location.
Their perspectives influence the planning, implementation, and evaluation of teaching. Those perspectives might be different because their schools are situated in different areas. Pupils in rural and urban areas have different support systems. Teachers in rural areas might be the single source of knowledge because of limited access to information. On the other hand, they may be more creative than teachers in urban areas where they are spoiled by instant solutions. Both teachers in rural and urban areas should have the same perspectives in developing pupils’ creativity in their science classes. Those perspectives are going to influence their classroom instructions.
Based on this explanation and recent literature, research on students’ creativity does not address teachers’ perspective in the implementation of the strategy. Moreover, the teaching location may also impact on teachers’ decisions on developing certain strategies. To address this matter, this study aims to determine the perspective of science teachers in both the rural and urban areas as well as the strategies and assessment used by the teachers to develop and practise pupils’ creativity in 21st century. To the end, this study reveals the criteria of effective and creative teaching strategies that should be implemented in Indonesian secondary schools in both urban and rural areas.
The purpose of this study is to investigate lower secondary science teachers’ perspectives regarding teaching strategies that develop pupils’ creativity as one of the 21st century skills in rural and urban areas. Some specific research aims are mentioned as follows:
1) Describe how teaching pupils’ mastery of concepts was prioritized over teaching them creativity in both urban and rural areas, and
2) Analyse lesson plans and learning scripts
This research was a survey study that investigated the perceptions of science teachers in Indonesia related to the strategies of developing lower secondary school pupils' creativity. Data collection was carried out on the subject twice at different times. The first data collection was carried out on a group of teachers who had already completed the programme to increase teaching competency. Meanwhile, the second data collection was carried out on a group of teachers who had completed one of the training sessions and workshops at the Centre for the Development and Empowerment of Educators and Education Personnel
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This research involved 110 lower secondary school science teachers from 22 of the 34 provinces in Indonesia as participants. The proportion is 19.40% of teachers who have teaching experience of less than five years, 16.70% of teachers who have 5 10 years of teaching experience, 26.90% of teachers with 10 15 years of teaching experience, and 37% of teachers with more than 15 years of teaching experience. This research employed purposive sampling whereby the participants were chosen to provide information that might not have been obtained through other sampling techniques (Fraenkel et al., 2011). Teachers who were involved in the study had an understanding of how to develop and build pupils’ creativity. Based on their teaching sites, they were further classified into rural and urban areas as shown in Table 1. The classification was based on the availability of adequate ICT facilities and the pupils’ and parents’ ICT literacy. Based on Table 1, almost all of the teachers are in urban areas.
No.
Teaching Locations
1 Sumatra Island, Bangka Belitung Archipelago, and Riau Archipelago
2 Java, Bali, and Nusa Tenggara Archipelago
Area Types Number of Teachers SD
Rural 10 10.61 Urban 25
Rural 11 21.21 Urban 41
3 Borneo Islands Rural 5 5.66 Urban 13
4 Celebes Island and Molluca Archipelago Rural 1 2.12
The instruments used included a questionnaire, an interview guide, and a rubric. The content of the instrument were validated by two experts in science education and elementary education. The study started with the distribution of questionnaires, followed by interviews. To obtain clearer information, a rubric was used to investigate the steps followed in the teaching to develop pupil creativity.
This research could not be carried out completely in person because it was constrained by the rules of staying at home during the COVID 19 pandemic. Research that had originally been designed to observe classroom teaching directly was not able to be carried out. Instead, interviews were conducted with teachers by optimizing the WhatsApp application. The distribution of questionnaires was also done in two ways, i.e. directly and via Google Forms
The participants of this study were members of a WhatsApp chat group that consisted of science teachers who had once taken part in a workshop.
There were ten questions in the questionnaire. These questions had been validated by two experts in order to develop the right indicators. Readability tests were also carried out so that teachers were able to understand the message contained in those questions. The questions investigated several items of information e.g., teachers’ priority in teaching, instructional strategy, and assessment. The open ended questions were to gain detailed information on
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teaching strategies such as the kinds of questions or probing questions. They provide better opportunities to acquire data in detail than questionnaires do The data are presented through graphs (in the percentages) to show the priorities of teachers in teaching and the teaching strategies chosen to develop pupils’ creativity. There were three open ended questions. The data from the open ended questions and lesson plan were transcripted, coded, and then presented in narrative form. They were then classified into rubric indicators (Al Balushi & Al Abdali, 2014). The findings from the questionnaire, open ended interviews, and lesson plans were subsequently triangulated to obtain comprehensive results.
Besides questionnaires and open ended questions, lesson plans were also analyzed. There were only 23 urban teachers out of 110 teachers who had collected a lesson plan or teaching scenario. Therefore, the analysis of lesson plan was used as complementary data in the triangulation process. The rubric was adopted and modified from the work of Al Balushi and Al Abdali (2014) that captured (1) teachers’ questioning strategy, (2) teachers’ reaction to the pupils’ ideas, (3) teachers’ performance in classroom activities to support creativity, and (4) teachers’ performance on all the lesson methods that foster pupils’ creativity.
Generally, the data analysis comprised (1) data collected through various kinds of instruments, (2) analysis of qualitative and quantitative data, (3) data triangulation, and finally, (4) a conclusion of the findings.
What
The data in general show that teaching experience, teaching location, and area type do not distinguish teachers’ choices in developing pupils’ creativity. There are 66.70% of the teachers who reveal that they prioritize teaching that provides pupils with the knowledge of concepts. They argue that the conceptual knowledge is a prerequisite for the acquisition of skills in science, including pupils’ creativity. In addition, teachers have pragmatic reasons why concepts must be taught in advance such as time constraints, pupil conditions, and evaluation demands such as mid semester, final, and even national examinations which tend to measure pupils' mastery of concepts. Meanwhile, the 33.30% of teachers who prioritize the acquisition of creativity in learning briefly mention that science skills are the basis for gaining knowledge of concepts from learning experiences in the laboratory and nature so that the students are able to discover science concepts independently or by collaborating with their peers. An interesting finding through interviews is additional information that teaching steps which prioritize creativity are only possible if pupils have good literacy and reading comprehension skills. Thus, it is clear that this teaching strategy only applies in ideal conditions.
Lesson plans of teachers in rural and urban areas show that there is no significant difference between the number of divergent questions and the number of convergent questions in order to develop pupils’ creativity. The numbers of divergent and convergent questions are 50.90% and 49.10%,
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respectively. Table 2 presents several examples of divergent and convergent questions in the lesson plans on the topic of simple aircraft and conductor properties of materials. The teachers also have high levels of flexibility in asking questions. They adapt the types of questions appropriately according to pupils' circumstances. If pupils have mastered the basic concepts of an issue, the teachers can easily ask divergent questions that are expected to be able to explore pupils’ creativity. However, if pupils do not understand the basic concept of an issue or phenomenon, the teachers tend to provide convergent questions as a stimulus for pupils' thinking abilities. These findings indicate that teachers in both rural and urban areas have to deal with high levels of flexibility.
No. Kinds of Question
1 Convergent
Plan
a. What is the mechanical advantage of a fixed pulley?
b. What is the mechanical advantage of free pulley?
c. Which makes it most convenient for human work, fixed pulleys or free pulleys?
d. Which has the best transmission, iron or copper?
2 Divergent a. How do you increase the mechanical advantage of a pulley?
b. Why is the surface of the tire made jagged and uneven?
c. Can all types of metal be conductors contained in cables?
Teachers in the rural areas try to connect the pupils’ learning experience such as observing natural phenomenon with a scientific concept in order to build scientific understanding. Nevertheless, teachers often become a single information source for pupils. They can trigger creativity but it takes time. They mention explicitly that they want to build the conceptual understanding before building creativity. Moreover, teachers in the urban areas often optimize the online sources of information from search engines. Pupils easily search for information or the answers for a test from Google. Teachers’ role as the builder of creativity seems easy because pupils can enrich their conceptual understanding at home, but this is not the case in practice. Teachers must still ensure all of the pupils’ conceptual understanding was constructed properly. Some pupils do not like reading if they are not given assignment. Teachers need to give a set of questions that contain constructive and guided conceptual questions to build their understanding. These findings indicate that both teachers in rural and urban areas need a set of questions as a guide for pupils to explore the fundamental concepts before learning can commence
Creativity is one of four skills that are essential for pupils in the 21st century. However, the result of the questionnaire analysis shows that creativity is not the teachers’ main priority to be taught to pupils among other 21st century skills, as they mainly choose to teach critical thinking skills, with a percentage of 64.80%. Creativity, collaboration, and communication were ranked 2nd, 3rd and 4th as shown in Figure 1. They believe that building critical thinking skills could be done by means of divergent and convergent questions posed to pupils before or
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while teaching. Teachers in rural areas are able to introduce world wide knowledge to pupils. They connect indigenous knowledge with the topic materials. In addition, they optimize the hands on and mind on activities seamlessly. Their challenge is connecting indigeneous knowledge with critical thinking questions and creativity. They claim the key is sets of questions that contain many convergent and divergent questions. Nevertheless, teachers in urban areas also need to ensure their pupils have mastered the critical thinking skills before creating a product. They argue that good ICT literacy helps pupils collect information, including the unintended knowledge. However, pupils need some sets of questions as a guide to stay focused on the relevant topic. These questions should contain critical thinking skills.
Collaboration, 8.30% Communication, 5.60%
Creativity, 21.30%
Critical Thinking, 64.80%
The results of further interviews with the teachers show that although creativity is not the first choice among the four other skills, it is believed to be part of critical thinking in problem solving. Based on the opinions of teachers who teach pupils in rural areas, their pupils are more creative in using natural materials to make toys. However, when they are asked questions related to concepts, they often cannot answer. The innovation regarding making toys is obtained through imitating existing toy forms. This is called indigeneous knowledge. Meanwhile, teachers in urban areas revealed that their pupils are presented with modern toys all too often. They only become users of these toys without knowing the underlying basic scientific concepts. Suppose a boy plays with a car using a battery, but when asked why the battery drives the toy, he cannot answer. When a boy creates a toy car, his creative product will be unable to compete with existing products. The boy's creative product does not seem attractive any more. This indicates that one of the factors needed to develop creativity apart from mastering concepts is creative thinking. Science teachers in urban and rural areas also believe this.
The results of further investigation show that teachers from both urban and rural schools have diverse strategies related to teaching that stimulate pupils’ creativity as presented by Figure 2. The majority of the teaching strategies chosen by teachers both in rural and urban areas are foreign innovative learning models that in the course of their creation certainly do not take into
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consideration the circumstances of pupils and requirements of curricula in Indonesia. The use of innovative strategies does not mean that they are not prone to obstacles in their implementation. The teaching steps that are written in the lesson plan often do not go as expected, therefore the teachers often adapt the teaching steps. This indicates that teachers need practical teaching strategies which are not theoretical but which help them to achieve the lesson objectives, one of which is stimulating pupils' creativity.
Inquiry, 12.00% Others , 2.80%
STEM, 11.10%
PjBL, 43.50%
STEAM, 16.70%
PBL, 13.90%
PjBL PBL STEAM STEM Inquiry Others
Figure 2 shows that only 2.80% of Indonesian lower secondary science teachers have the initiative to implement teaching strategies that are suitable for the circumstances of their pupils so that learning is more progressive. There are teachers in rural areas who face difficulties in teaching. They realize that they might be the single source of knowledge for their pupils, hence it will be difficult for pupils to find out about or learn fundamental concepts from the problems they encounter. Both teachers in rural and urban areas who choose project based learning (PjBL) as a strategy to teach creativity argue that the creative product should be a reflection of creative thinking skills and fundamental concept mastery as the procedural or technical knowledge. Sometimes, they are worried that their pupils cannot produce a product because of the limited time or the difficulty of the concepts. They sometimes prefer giving problem solving questions to introduce and explain a difficult concept. These findings indicate teachers in both urban and rural areas need a practical learning model that provides pupils with a fundamental concept of science before creating any products. Most importantly, the learning model should fit the allocated time in the curriculum.
Although creativity is often associated with products, it turns out that the majority of teachers both in rural and urban areas choose an essay as an assessment to measure pupils’ creativity as presented in Figure 3 below. They argue that an essay could also show pupils’ critical thinking skills. An essay is a universal assessment for teachers. Teachers in rural area prefer essays to product assessment because they need a scientific explanation from pupils who are accustomed to using indigenous knowledge in their lives. The interview with teachers from urban areas revealed that they prefer essay to product assessment
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because they believe the product would be an imitation of existing sources on the Internet. They need to assess the critical thinking skills of pupils.
Multiple Choice, 1.20%
Performance Assessment, 12.00%
Essay, 49.40%
Product Assessment, 37.40%
Figure 3: Teachers’ choices of creativity assessment
The results of interview transcripts and analysis of lesson plans indicate that teachers do not mention all of the aspects in developing pupils’ creativity. Only a few of them mentioned teaching for creativity based on Al Balushi and Al Abdali’s (2014) rubric as shown in Table 3
Table 3: The teaching for creativity observation form No. Aspect(s) %
Questioning Strategy Category
1
Asking divergent and open ended questions 37.27
2 Using follow up questions such as “Why?” “What if?” “What can you add to this idea?” 80.91
3 Encouraging pupils to think of all possible answers 20.92
4 Waiting after asking the question to allow pupils to think
5 Waiting after receiving a pupil’s response to encourage more participation
6 Asking higher order questions that challenge pupils’ thinking to generate novel solutions for real problems 10.00
Science Teachers’ Performance on the Pupils’ Ideas Category
1
Praising unique ideas
2 Encouraging pupils to record their own ideas in their own idea notebook 11.82
3 Encouraging pupils to implement their ideas when possible
4 Avoiding expressions that discourage pupils’ creative thinking such as “wrong answer” or “bad idea”
5 Encouraging sharing of ideas among pupils 35.45
6 Listening carefully to what pupils say, present, or ask
7 Accepting alternative techniques to solve problems or doing experiments 10.00
Teachers’ Performance on the Classroom Activities to Support Creativity Category
1
Asking pupils to suggest applications for the concepts, principles, or laws they study in the classroom
2 Asking pupils to design their own procedure to do experiments 17.27
3 Encouraging innovative methods for presenting their investigation data such as graphic organizers or sketches
4 Encouraging pupils to summarize the lesson in a creative form such as a story, comic, drama, or game
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No.
Aspect(s)
%
5 Encouraging pupils to present their project reports in creative ways such as movies, concepts maps, or mind maps 17.27
6 Asking pupils to design 3D models for studied concepts using everyday materials
7 Designing homework assignments to foster creative thinking 17.27
Teachers’ Performance on the Whole Lesson Methods that Foster Creativity Category
1 Modelling teaching around idea generation teaching methods such as brainstorming, problem solving, modelling, debating, inquiry based leaning, or project based learning that encourage different creative thinking skills
2 Using teaching methods that foster pupils’ imagination such as analogies, guided imagery, or submicroscopic modelling of matter
3 Implementing metacognitive teaching strategies that encourage reflection on pupils’ own ideas and the idea generation processes
Table 3 reflects the data from the teachers in rural areas in Java, Borneo, and Bali. They believe in asking “Why?” and “How?”questions related to the topic to trigger pupils’ creativity However, only 10% of them ask pupils to produce solutions. The deeper interviews show that they fear the pupils could not produce novelty as creativity. They believe that pupils need sharing in small or classical groups to trigger their ideas. Although they initially proposed many innovative learning models, the analysis of the teaching scripts and lesson plans did not reveal those strategies. When they were asked about this, they mentioned that they should have flexibility in changing the learning steps because it was unpredictable. This reflects that creative strategies to foster pupils’ creativity have not yet been developed.
Generally, teachers in both rural and urban areas have the same perspectives on how to promote 21st century skills. This could be seen from their choices of learning strategies and assessments. The results show that the majority of teachers both in rural and urban areas choose to teach the mastery of a concept in the beginning because it is a prerequisite for developing science skills, including creativity. This is because creativity is a skill that is not concept free. Pupils need to recall conceptual knowledge that forms the basis of a solution in creative problem solving (Birgili, 2015; Hamza & Griffith, 2006; Kim et al., 2019; Todd et al., 2019; Usta & Akkanat, 2015). The same observation is made by some researchers, namely that creativity requires understanding of concepts (Conradty & Bogner, 2019; Thompson, 2017; Tran et al., 2017; Zubaidah et al., 2017). The story of one of the teachers in the interview revealed this. One pupil who forgot to bring a cable in an electrical circuit experiment finally replaced the cable with a string of needles and safety pins. The pupil thought that needles and pins could conduct electricity because they were made of metal. The pupil's action is considered as a creative act, which still requires knowledge of the concept of the conductivity relationship and electrical resistance in various types of conductors. Actually, this shows the anxiety and concern of the teacher regarding the pupil’s mastery of concepts. Teachers are accustomed to explaining concepts explicitly in class (Anthony, 2019). They try to do their duty
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to deliver an explanation of the concepts. This is reasonable because some pupils do not have good reading habits. Even in today's digital era, some of them rely on teachers as their sole source of information.
Another reason why teachers prefer teaching mastery of concepts to creativity is a matter of time effectiveness. Teachers need a relatively longer time to teach and develop creativity because they have to prepare pupils to be actively involved in learning activities (Dewi & Mashami, 2019; Tican, 2019; Zubaidah et al., 2017). For example, the teacher stimulates pupils to generate solutions for air pollution by pollutants produced by factories, while pupils have not yet understood fundamental concepts such as the nature of pollutants and air movement by convection. In the end, the teacher must explain the fundamental concepts of science initially (Dewi & Ibrahim, 2019) Meanwhile the allotted time is inadequate for discussing pupils' arguments so the teacher finishes off the lesson in class.
The choices of innovative teaching strategies chosen by teachers are also largely strategies developed by foreign education experts. The teachers do not adapt the teaching Teachers should make adjustments to the teaching steps with consideration of pupils’ circumstances, curriculum content, and Indonesian ethno pedagogy (Nurmala et al., 2021). The teachers usually place pupils in ideal conditions, for example, pupils can find concepts from natural phenomena or socio scientific problems, armed with problem based learning steps or projects in class without conceptual explanation by the teacher. The facts show that not all pupils are able to generate creativity from these conditions because the abilities of pupils are not the same, according to Zubaidah et al.(2017)
The results of an investigation of 92 teachers from elementary and secondary schools in West Java also showed that teachers tend to experience difficulties in applying innovative learning models from abroad because of the syntax that is difficult to memorize and the circumstances of the pupils and curricula in Indonesia that are different from the creators of the syntax of the learning model (Sopandi et al., 2019). Innovative learning models implemented by teachers should be pupil centred and constructive so that they are able to equip pupils with the mastery of concepts and special skills, including creativity. Consequently, teachers must develop or adapt teaching strategies that are appropriate to the needs and circumstances of education in Indonesia. Pupils who are able to make decisions and take risks in solving problems, both in learning and social contexts, are produced by teachers who always stimulate and develop their creativity with appropriate strategies (Czarniecki, 2009) Meanwhile, the information contained in Figure 2 shows that only 2.80% of teachers design teaching strategies independently. Moreover, the almost equal percentage between convergent and divergent questions implicitly shows that teachers do not fully understand how creativity is taught by using both types of questions because there are still many inconsistencies in the lesson plans. In some of the lesson plans analyzed, it can be seen that the teachers still mix questions to stimulate creativity and test the mastery of concepts.
Apart from the various teaching strategies, the evaluation methods chosen by the teachers are also very diverse. However, what is important to note is the
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teachers’ interpretation that creativity can be measured not only by product but also by essay, performance appraisal, even multiple choice. This indicates that the teachers’ interpretations of creativity are also very diverse (Bereczki & Karpati, 2018) Teachers who choose essays and multiple choice options as an assessment tool think that the creativity that they develop is a thinking process so that what is produced are only ideas. However, teachers who choose performance and product assessments think that the intended creativity is the process of producing creative products. Moreover, they have not been able to determine the renewal of the products made by pupils in detail so that they adapt the assessment rubric from several sources. One teacher uses an assessment rubric from Bialik and Fadel (2015) which classifies pupil products based on their novelty into the categories of imitation, variation, combination, transformation, and original creation. However, most teachers judge pupils' creativity products based on their own rubrics which have not been empirically validated. The basis for making the rubric is the practical value of an instrument, not a comprehensive review (Briones et al., 2020) For performance appraisals, most teachers have not been able to explain the rubric they use in detail. The Catalina Foothills School District (Catalina Foothills School District, 2015) has developed a workshop to assess pupil performance in producing creative products by classifying pupils into novice, basic, professional, and advance categories. This rubric is good to use; however, it must be modified so that it is practical to use as conveyed by several teachers during the interview. Good instruments are practical, not just theoretical.
The results of Table 3 and the interview analysis with the teachers also revealed the fact that the teachers still view science as a knowledge that must be mastered by pupils with a variety of appropriate strategies. Meanwhile, only a few of the teachers understand that science is a scientific process in understanding natural phenomena. This has an impact on the priority of those teachers who always prioritize the mastery of concepts before developing other skills. Based on Table 3, it can be seen that there are only 10 out of 23 aspects of creativity teaching planned by the teachers. When examining these chosen aspects, there is a tendency for these steps to also be aimed at providing pupils with the mastery of concepts. There are high percentages of aspect No. 2 in the questioning strategy category, using follow up questions such as “Why?”, “What if…?”, or “What can you add to this idea?” because they are similar to questions teachers use to develop pupils’ conceptual knowledge. Moreover, only 17.27% of teachers ask and encourage pupils to design and present projects as shown in Table 3 None of the teachers implement metacognitive teaching strategies such as analogies, guided imagery, or submicroscopic modelling of matter as teaching methods. The various choices of teaching strategies shown in Figure 2 also do not affect the teaching steps planned by the teachers. It means teachers do not feel familiar with their chosen learning strategies. The learning strategies need to be adjusted initially before they are implemented in the class.
The most interesting finding from interviews with teachers is that lesson plans are never detailed because the steps that are carried out in the classroom are not always the same as the plan. These findings indicate at least two important factors. The first is that teachers have high levels of flexibility in teaching. The
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second is that the teaching strategy chosen by the teacher is not always suitable for the circumstances of the students during classroom instruction. Therefore, the teachers replace the steps for their learners with practical steps. This is done by the teachers to overcome the gaps between planning and implementation (Gonzáles & Deal, 2019). One teacher even mentions that the learning model chosen should not be just an exhibition that is presented when there is a performance appraisal but must be based on a grounded learning culture.
In conclusion, science teachers in rural and urban areas mostly prioritize their instruction that builds mastery of concepts on creativity. They argue that mastery of concepts is the main key to developing pupils’ creativity. This is because creativity is not a concept free skill. Furthermore, the majority of innovative teaching strategies used by teachers from both rural and urban areas are those created by education experts abroad and these still need to be adapted to the circumstancess of Indonesian pupils and curricula. Only a few teachers have the initiative to develop and modify teaching strategies to stimulate their pupils’ creativity. They are teachers from rural areas. Moreover, teachers from both rural and urban areas used a variety of assessment tools to assess pupils’ creativity, such as essays, performance appraisals, product assessments, and multiple choices. However, most of them choose essays as the assessment.
Seeing the pattern of teaching pupils’ creativity based on pupils’ circumstances, curricula, and general Indonesian education goals, research needs to be conducted on developing learning models that are able to accommodate these needs. There is the potential for teachers to plan, implement, and develop a learning model that is not only theoretical but can also be practically implemented. Teachers need a learning strategy that can be implemented practically based on the needs of pupils and the curricula in Indonesia, in both the rural and urban areas. These implicit findings are found from Table 3 and teachers’ interview results.
It is agreed that the process of developing pupils’ creativity is urgent and important to be implemented. The core essence of teaching nowadays is preparing and shaping critical, creative, communicative, and collaborative pupils to develop careers and be able to compete globally. The findings of the research reflect that teaching strategies which facilitate the development of these skills must be based on the circumstances of the pupils as well as the curricula in Indonesia. This condition is an opportunity and a challenge to reconstruct an innovative Indonesian teaching model that is able to accommodate the needs of Indonesian pupils. The innovative teaching model must be constructed by Indonesians because only Indonesians care about the future of the nation. Moreover, only Indonesians understand what the young generation of Indonesia needs in facing the real competitive world.
That fact that innovative teaching models are implemented which are created by education experts from abroad does not mean that they are not suitable in Indonesia. However, their implementation must be adjusted to the conditions and needs of pupils as well as the curricula in Indonesia. These findings reflect
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that the teaching model or strategy chosen and implemented by the teacher must be rational and practical, and must contribute positively to the development of pupils' conceptual knowledge and creativity. All science teachers in Indonesia need to be aware of this
Owing to the Covid 19 pandemic, the data were collected online which becomes one of the limitations of the study since the data were not collected in natural settings. In addition, it is necessary to observe the teaching process directly in the classroom because analyzing questionnaires, interview transcripts, and lesson plans is not enough. Thus, future research can investigate the teaching practices directly in science classes in determining how teachers develop pupils’ creativity. Another important point to note is that this study employed Al Balushi and Al Abdali’s (2014) rubric’s indicator; however, this indicator is used to analyze teaching progress, not learning lessons. Thus, future research can also endeavour to implement another methodology in examining the data of this research.
The authors express their gratitude to all secondary science teachers in twenty two provinces of Indonesia who, by their responses, have proven to be good and cooperative participants in this study. The authors specifically would like to thank contributors who distributed the questionnaires. They were Ibu Santi Setiani Hasanah and Mr. Indra Suhendra from Bandung West Java Province, Mr. Jaka Afriana from Sambas West Borneo Province, and Mr. Muh. Rizal Hardiansyah from Ambon, Molluccas Province
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 59 81, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.4
Received May 3, 2022; Revised Jul 6, 2022; Accepted Jul 14, 2022
Cámara Minera del Perú CAMIPER and Universidad Técnica de Manabí UTM, Peru and Ecuador
IMF Smart Education of Universidad Particular de San Gregorio Portoviejo and Universidad Nacional de educación UNAE, Spain and Ecuador
Janeth
IMF Smart Education of Universidad Particular de San Gregorio Portoviejo, Spain and Ecuador
José Fernando Paz Cerda
Universidad Particular de San Gregorio Portoviejo, Ecuador
Mercedes
IMF Smart Education of Universidad Particular de San Gregorio Portoviejo, Spain and Ecuador
Abstract Ecuadorian teachers lack experience in the process of teaching and learning science, technology, engineering and mathematics online (STEML). These limitations are evident in the low grades of students in the general unified baccalaureate (GUB) and in the low application of STEM majors in Ecuador. The study aims to describe, elucidate and understand the attitudes of Ecuadorian teachers towards STEM education in GUB using a multi method or mixed method approach study. The design was the DEXPLIS sequential explanatory type. The questionnaire was administered to 194 participants and ten teachers who responded to a semi structured interview The sampling technique was non probabilistic participatory sampling. The student's t test and ANOVA analysis were used for quantitative data analysis and the triangulation technique for qualitative data. Results showed the lack of materials and technological support hinders online activities. Significant differences were found in the attitudes between the teaching staff of
* Corresponding author: DerlingJoseMendozaVelazco,dmendoza@grupocamiper.org
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
public and private institutions and between the different levels of the GUB Statistical analyses showed that administrative support, professional support, STEML training, teaching and learning time positively influenced the attitudes of STEML teachers.
Keywords: Ecuador; education; multi method research; science teachers; STEML; teacher’ attitude
The growing need for nations to remain globally viable and competitive depends on the availability of education and on having a qualified Teaching Staff of Science (TSS), specifically a teaching staff who possess the STEML (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Online) competencies The impact of not having a STEML trained teacher was experienced during the COVID 19 pandemic crisis in Ecuador and many other countries (Navarro et al., 2021).
Virtual assessments showed that more than 60% of Ecuadorian students failed or had their lowest scores in biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics (Calle, 2022). Consequently, students have little preparation or motivation to pursue STEML related careers in Ecuadorian universities. Yet, STEML education has been recognised as an effective approach to increase students' motivation and interest in learning the four STEM disciplines (Mulisa, 2019) of science, technology, engineering and mathematics which are connected in real world problems (Hebebci, et al., 2020). STEML education is a pedagogy as well as a curriculum based on an instructional approach that improves performance in science related subjects, facilitating student motivation to pursue STEML related careers at university.
The STEML educational concept involves the integration of subjects in a constructivist environment. Since 2017, Ecuador has adopted UNESCO regulations to ensure the smooth transition of integrating science subjects into the curriculum. The burden of implementing STEML education has been placed on baccalaureate science teachers (biology, chemistry, integrated science, and physics). Although STEML subjects are taught individually according to the Ecuadorian curriculum, the teachers have been given the task of aligning their subject content. Based on the above, according to Kara, (2019) and Zuljan et al., (2021), consolidating science subjects with other subjects is recommended to create a constructivist environment
The Ecuadorian Ministry of Education is committed to motivating students to learn STEML related topics and has put extreme pressure on teachers in Ecuador (Ministry of Higher Education, 2018). However, the Ecuadorian teachers have limited experience and nominal efficiency in teaching STEM related subjects online, and it has become increasingly important to develop the STEML capacity of the teachers. Many studies have shown that hands on training and creative problem solving remain imperative in the educational process (Ching & Fernandez, 2020).
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Some research indicates that the lack of values and attitudes towards STEML education in Latin countries contributes to underachievement (Blackburn & Heppler, 2019); in consequence, the Ecuadorian government has emphasised professional development programmes that adequately train and equip teachers Existing studies have suggested a link between teachers’ attitudes, motivation and student performance within the same area (Ciftci, et al., 2020; Gok, 2021). When teachers develop progressive attitudes towards collaboration with other teachers, they cultivate a more positive approach to teaching in an interdisciplinary way, and they become more receptive to the idea that STEML students' attitudes,beliefs and enthusiasm can be improved (Ha et al., 2020; Altan, et al., 2018). Understanding STEML teachers’ attitudes is therefore critical to successful implementation and is necessary to foster the advancement of teachers’ STEML professional development.
In the Ecuadorian context, studies on how science teachers perceive STEML education are scarce, and research on factors that can predict teachers' attitudes towards STEML teaching is limited. The limited evidence that is available is mostly qualitative in nature (Thibaut, et al., 2018; Altan, et al., 2018). This study describes a novel investigation into the attitudes of Ecuadorian teachers to STEML. The research seeks to examine current teachers’ STEML attitudes and their fundamental interdisciplinary nature. When the attitudes of Ecuadorian teachers to STEML are known and understood, effective intervention strategies can be developed to support and assist teachers and STEML As Ecuador prepares to promote science education in the wake of the COVID 19 pandemic, it is imperative to explore the attitudes of teachers to STEML to identify the influencing factors.
In summary, the research focuses on the attitudes of STEM teachers towards teaching in Ecuadorian education. The study analyses and determines the barriers that impede the progressive implementation of the STEML curriculum within the classroom and analyses the factors affecting teachers’ attitudes. The research focuses on the following questions:
(1) What are the attitudes of Ecuadorian teachers towards STEML education?
(2) What factors influence the attitudes of Ecuadorian teachers towards STEML education?
(3) What is needed to help teachers implement STEML education?
Attitudes towards STEML education refer to a teacher's views, state of mind or feelings towards the integration of science, technology, engineering and mathematics. In STEML education, students are exposed to specific learning content and intentional instruction derived from interconnected disciplines (Thi et al., 2020; Thibaut et al., 2018). STEML education also includes the use of the engineering design process which involves a cyclical process of students evaluating their solutions and then working to improve them. The implementation of STEML education depends critically on the attitudes of the teachers However, primary teachers feel that they are not sufficiently equipped
to provide science education (Lam et al., 2021). According to Ramli and Awang (2020), primary teachers find students' questions problematic, and they mostly conclude their lessons with standard textbooks or exercises.
In Ecuador, Levels 1, 2 and 3 of the general unified baccalaureates (GUB) offer STEML classes (see Table 1) and since 2018, this new training has been promoted through actions and programmes that raise awareness in the community, generate alliances, and support improvements in the educational process. The Ecuadorian Ministry of Education emphasises the upgrading the teachers and improving attitudes through curricular teacher updating. In this way, students will be the leaders, innovators, scientists, researchers, engineers and technologists of tomorrow (Ministry of Higher Education, 2018).
Table 1: The educational levels of education in Ecuador Definition Level Age
General Unified Baccalaureate (GUB) 1, 2 y 3 From 15 to 17 Higher Basic 8, 9 y 10 From 12 to 14 Middle Basic 5, 6 y 7 9 to 11 years old Basic elementary 2, 3 y 4 6 to 8 years old Preparatory 1 5 years old Initial Unnumbered 3 to 4 years old
Attitude is a key factor in accepting pedagogical practices or the actual use of STEML education (Wong & Maat, 2020) and teachers’ attitudes are challenging agents in their understanding and interpretation (Tai, et al., 2022). A change in the attitude of the teachers towards STEM education determines the level at which their educational practice changes (Arnado et al., 2022). These implementation agents facilitate new instructional practices such as teaching STEML in a more integrated way. Teachers with positive attitudes towards STEML tend to enjoy teaching in an integrated way; teachers with negative perceptions tend to avoid interdisciplinary teaching (Cennet et al., 2021; Holmes et al., 2021). Margot and Kettler (2019) reported lower STEML attitude scores for mathematics teachers than for engineering/technology teachers because of their resistance to change. It can be conjectured that general student attitudes towards STEML originate from and are enhanced by the teacher’ s own attitude (Tardy et al., 2021).
Valid measurement of teachers’ attitudes towards STEML teaching has proven to be a challenge over the years (Potgieter & Potgieter, 2021). Attitude is not a stand alone concept, but rather a construct comprising multiple dimensions and sub components. Attitude is addressed in a framework that provides a highly validated and widely applicable instrument for measuring STEML baccalaureate teachers’ attitudes (Tunc & Bagceci, 2021) and consists of three dimensions: cognition, affect and perceived control. These dimensions comprise sub components that represent a variety of thoughts, beliefs and/or feelings towards STEML teaching (Wahono & Chang, 2019). The cognitive dimension comprises the relevance and relative difficulty associated with STEML teaching. The affective dimension comprises perceived enjoyment of and anxiety towards STEML teaching. The final dimension, perceived control, refers to the amount of
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control and ability the teachers perceive as having over STEML teaching (Tai et al., 2022; Lam et al., 2021).
2.2 Factors affecting teachers' attitudes towards STEML education
Teachers’ attitudes are fundamental to the efficient implementation of STEML. These attitudes could be shaped by gender, education, training and profession, religious convictions, individual characteristics, personality, and even relationships with others (Toma & Greca, 2018). According to Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model, the four layered factors of the environment interact in a complex way and all affect the development of individuals (Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, 1994). The ecosystem comprises the larger social system and includes the media, politics and communication of the teachers. Similarly, each of the environments, or system layers, within the STEML education ecosystem has an impact or influence on teachers’ attitudes. This impact is underpinned by the microsystem (immediate environment and social aspects of schooling, such as resources, classroom routines, physical spaces, curriculum, and pedagogy). The mesosystem consists of the administrative, support and school climate indicators. The macrosystem comprises the learning institution, such as the education system and the STEML curriculum (Wolfe & Riggs, 2017). Bronfenbrenner's model recognizes the relationships and inflections between factors, both within and between systems. In this way they are not seen or measured in isolation. The present study employs a bioecological model to systematise factors that may influence teachers’ attitudes towards STEML.
Systematisation allows for the discovery of processes and conditions that ensure or impede the successful implementation of STEML education. Therefore, in this study, the relationship between teachers’ attitudes and the Ecuadorian educational context will be investigated. Despite the lack of consensus among researchers regarding the factors that influence teachers' attitudes, several factors have been identified (Wiebe et al., 2018). Some researchers emphasise the role of teachers’ professional development and training programmes in shaping attitudes (Mendoza et al., 2019; Kaleva et al., 2019), others maintain that teachers’ attitudes are based on personal characteristics and teacher education experiences (Shojaee et al., 2019).
Teachers’ attitudes towards STEML education are influenced by personal characteristics and teachers’ experiences (Terzi & Kirilmazkaya, 2020). For example, some studies report no significant differences in teachers’ attitudes based on gender and age (Vennix et al., 2018) while others claim that men have more positive attitudes towards science and STEML than women do. Shojaee et al. (2019) conducted a study on how school related and contextual factors affect teachers’ attitudes towards STEML teaching. In that study, teaching background (age, gender, STEML teaching experience, previous education, professional development attendance) and personal attitudes (personal relevance to STEML subjects) were found to be influential factors.
Consistent results were also observed in other, different studies which showed that teachers with a postgraduate degree had more positive attitudes towards
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STEML education than undergraduate teachers (Mendoza et al., 2019; Thibaut et al., 2018). Teachers with a bachelor's degree were more confident in their science and technology education than their counterparts without a bachelor's degree. Multiple claims by various researchers argue that many teachers have low scientific literacy and have mostly negative perceptions of science. These are common characteristics that hinder motivation to implement science (Kubat, 2018).
The professional development of teachers in education has received much attention by critical stakeholders in STEML education reforms (Madani, 2020; Changtong et al., 2020). Teachers tend to have greater efficiency, confidence and pleasure in teaching STEM when they have had prior STEML content knowledge (Margot & Kettler, 2019). On the other hand, Vongai (2019) and Holmes et al., (2021) argue that involving teachers in professional development is much more effective in changing attitudes than merely participating in science teaching.
Training, as existing research finds, is essential to provide the necessary support for teachers. Thibaut et al. (2018) assert that attitudes are affected by teachers’ experiences in subjects from teaching tasks and teaching situations. Attitudes are shaped by the nature of the subject matter a teacher teaches. Tunc and Bagceci (2021) found that teachers were positive about science teaching, but their research indicated that teachers with little or no prior training experienced difficulty and anxiety in education. In contrast, teachers trained with postgraduate degrees showed less anxiety when explaining science and technology concepts (Widya & Rahmi, 2019)
The present study seeks to investigate the perception of teachers towards STEML integration. It also seeks to analyse the factors affecting their attitudes. It is thus theoretically based on the conceptualisation of teachers’ attitudes towards science and STEML. Table 2 shows the three dimensions of attitudes (cognition, affect and perceived control) towards STEML education that were investigated.
This research is also complemented by the bioecological model of Bronfenbrenner and Ceci (1994) which was used to establish the relationship between attitude and environment. The bioecological model argues that different environments exist throughout life and that these models can influence behaviour to varying degrees (Kurniati et al., 2022). It suggests that both the person and the environment are mutually reinforcing bidirectionally. Mulisa (2019) refers to the bioecological model as a systems theory in which exist systems of complexities, relationships and multi level interactions that influence the person and the environment. Individual and collective interactions between variables contribute dynamically to the outcomes of attitudes towards STEML. As shown in Table 2, five factor categories, including demographics, were investigated.
Table 2. Theoretical framework for attitudes of science teaching staff towards STEML. Categories Dimensions Demographic features
Cognition STEML education
Professional and administrative support Affect Access to STEML resources
Attitudes of science teaching staff towards STEM education
Perceived control Availability of time
A three step hierarchical multiple regression model was used to investigate the predictive power of independent variables, such as demographic information and STEML training, on different dimensions of science teachers' attitudes towards STEML education.
The study focuses on the multi method or mixed method research paradigm. The research design was sequential explanatory, according to Hernández et al. (2014) In the first stage, quantitative data are collected and analysed, followed by another phase in which qualitative data are collected and evaluated. The DEXPLIS design occurs when the initial quantitative results support the qualitative phase. Quantitative data were used to answer the first and second questions, responses to which were initially collected through questionnaires. Semi structured follow up interviews were then conducted to answer the third research question. These interviews were instrumental in understanding and elaborating the key factors that help in shaping the teachers’ perceptions of STEML education
The research was conducted in the city of Quito, Republic of Ecuador, which has a population of approximately 2.11 million people. The target population of the study comprised 194 teachers and was sampled using a nonprobalistic participatory technique. The letter questionnaire was sent to the email addresses of the institutions working at the baccalaureate to participate in this study Of the 510 institutions (public and private) contacted, a total of 45 educational institutions agreed to participate.
The schools were selected based on convenience and ease of access. Teachers who teach biology, chemistry, physics and mathematics responded to the questionnaire. After the questionnaire, participants were given the opportunity of an interview A stratified purposive sampling technique based on specific demographic characteristics was used to select the interview participants. The researchers sought as representative a sample of participants as possible. Of the 10 participants, half (50%) were from public schools, the other half (50%) were from public schools. The male to female gender ratio was also 1:1. Descriptive statistics of the participants are given in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3. Demographic information of the sample.
Characteristic
N % Gender
Female 90 46,4 Male 104 53,6 Type of school Private (Private) 84 43,3 Fiscal (Public) 110 56,7 Age group under 25 years old 23 11,9 26 35 112 57,7 36 45 30 15,5 46 55 19 9,8 56 years and older 10 5,2 Grade (GUB) 1 69 35,6 2 60 30,9 3 65 33,5
Teaching experience less than 3 years 20 10,3 4 9 112 57,7 10 15 47 24,2 16 and above 15 7,7 Educational level
Bachelor's degree (Graduate) 152 78,4 Postgraduate 42 21,6
Table 4. Characteristics of interview informants
Informant Gender Age Experience Docent Formation Type of school STEML training
T.1 Female 39 12 years Postgraduate Public No training
T.2 Female 28 2 years Bachelor's degree Private No training
T.3 Female 25 1 year Undergraduate Public Training
T.4 Female 30 5 years Postgraduate Private Training T.5 Female 29 4 years Undergraduate Public Training
T.6 Male 37 12 years Bachelor's Degree Private individual No training
T.7 Male 29 5 years Undergraduate Public Prosecutor Training
T.8 Male 40 19 years Postgraduate Private individual Training
T.9 Male 42 20 years Undergraduate Public Prosecutor No training
T.10 Male 38 14 years Postgraduate Private Individual Training
To assess attitudes towards STEML Education, three instruments were applied. Two questionnaires were applied in the quantitative phase and an interview in the qualitative phase. The first was the Dimension of Attitude towards Science (DAS) Instrument, designed by Van Aalderen et al. (2011). The second instrument was the Teachers’ Attitudes towards STEML questionnaire, designed by Thibaut et al. (2017). The instruments were adapted, combined, and modified. For the purposes of this research the following steps were taken: first, permission was obtained from the competent authorities to use these instruments; second, the language of the items was simplified; third, the items relevant to the research questions were combined from both sources. The final instrument had a total of 26 items which were divided into three dimensions: the cognitive judgement dimension of STEML, the affective perception of STEML, and perceived control of STEML teaching behaviours
In the cognitive judgement dimension, the teachers reported on the perceived relevance of STEML and their perceived difficulty in teaching STEML. In the affective perception dimension, teachers' enjoyment and anxiety were measured.
The response options were set by a five choice Likert scale: ranging through "Never" (1 point), "Hardly Ever" (2), "Sometimes" (3), "Almost Always" (4) to “Always” (5)
Table 5. Reliability results of the instruments applied to teachers (N=194) Case Processing Summary Scale Subscale Items Reliability Cronbach’s α
Perceived difficulty 6 0.794 Perceived relevance 4 0.702 Anxiety 4 0.899 Enjoyment 5 0.850 Perceived control of teaching behaviours 7 0.758 Factors Professional and administrative support 5 0.854 Access to STEM resources 5 0.755 STEM training 5 0.798
Attitude
To establish the reliability of the questionnaire, a pilot test was applied to five participants and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to calculate Cronbach's alpha coefficient for each subscale. In the pilot test the results were greater than 0.700, indicating reliability. (Ponce, et al., 2021). As a third instrument, the semi structured questionnaire was used. This research employed a semi structured interview for its flexibility (see Table 6). The development of the interview protocol was based on both the theoretical framework and the results of the questions from the quantitative phase.
Universidad San Gregorio de Portoviejo IMF Technology and Educational Innovation Date: ___/___/___ Informant: Semi-structured interview
Items
1 What kind of resources do you apply in STEML teaching?
2 How capable do you feel of teaching and integrating the different aspects of STEML into your lessons, and why?
3 What other things do you think can help you be effective in implementing STEML education?
Key words were explained within the questions contained in the interview guide. Interviews were conducted using an interview protocol with the researcher following a script. The interviews were conducted virtually using the GoToMeeting application (Cavus & Sekyere, 2021) and were recorded and transcribed. In this way, researchers could gain an in depth understanding of the participant's opinion regarding the factors that they believe can improve their attitudes towards STEML education.
Each subscale of the questionnaire was considered as an analysis group. These groups were compared and analysed quantitatively using Student's t tests and ANOVA. The results were developed with the SPSS version 25. These methods facilitated the comparison of attitude scores between the groups. Correlation and regression analysis was used to determine the relationship and was also applied to establish the predictive value of factors such as demographic information, training, support and time on the attitude subscales. In the qualitative phase, interpretive analysis was used to analyse the information with respect to the interview and the technique of contrasting the information was applied (Feria et al., 2019)
A hierarchical multiple regression model consisting of three steps was used to investigate the predictive power of the independent variables. Analysis of predictions of the different dimensions of teachers’ perceptions of STEML education was chosen, based on Bronfenbrenner's model. Predictors were included sequentially in the models as follows: all demographic predictors were included in Model 1 as controlled variables. In Model 2, all other factors were added. In Model 3, potential interactions between factors were added to investigate moderating effects. Non significant variables were removed from the final model, which comprised only the significant predictors of the outcome variables.
At the conclusion of the statistical analyses, the researchers cross checked the results with interview feedback, improving clarity, providing a deeper understanding and ensuring easy categorization of the data using structural networks from which the respective themes for further interpretation were derived
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The quantitative and qualitative results were contrasted using triangulation. In this way, the questions posed were answered.
4.1 Question 1: What are the attitudes of Ecuadorian science teachers towards STEML education?
Table 7 shows no significant differences between male and female teachers with respect to their overall attitude scores (t = .974, p=.331). Similar trends were also observed for age (F=1.273, p=.282) and teaching experience (F=1.259, p=.290). However, a significant difference in overall attitude scores was observed between private and public school teachers (t=2.202, p=.029).
Table 7. Differences between groups in terms of overall attitudes towards STEML
Variable N M SD t/F (p) Gender
Male 104 3.41 .16 .974(.331) Female 90 3.37 .19 School Type Private 84 3.39 .16 2.202(.029) Fiscal (public) 110 3.36 .20 Grade 1 69 3.39 .20 1.751(.057) 2 60 3.36 .17 3 65 3.35 .16
Education level
Bachelor's degree 152 3.54 .22 .783(.435) Postgraduate or Master's degree 42 3.51 .23 Age
Under 25 23 3.43 .13 1.273(.282) 26 35 112 3.53 .24 36 45 30 3.56 .22 46 55 19 3.56 .14 56 and above 10 3.50 .31
Teaching Experience
Under 3 20 3.44 .24 1.259(.290) 4 9 112 3.53 .22 10 15 47 3.53 .22 16 and above 15 3.56 .19
4.2. Question 2: What factors influence teachers’ attitudes towards STEML education?
The results of the first step of the regression model (Table 8), the demographic predictors “Type of school” and “Grade taught” collectively accounted for 5.1% of the variance in the outcome variable. These results indicated that teachers teaching higher grade levels had more positive attitudes towards STEML education than teachers teaching lower grades. Similarly, teachers in public schools had more positive attitudes towards STEML than those teaching in public schools. The results of the second step of the regression model showed that the interactive effects of the variables included in this model accounted for 31.8% of
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the variance in the outcome variable. Type of school (β = .029), STEML training (β=.325), level of support (β=.296), sufficient time to prepare (β=.202) and insufficient time to use the STEML approach (β=.104, p= .147) contributed tentatively to the model. This generally indicates that teachers who have less training in STEML and less support from school administration are likely to have negative attitudes towards STEML.
Table 8. Results of hierarchical multiple regression of factors influencing teachers' attitudes towards STEML education.
Model 1 Model 2
Variable B (p) β B (p) β (Constant) 3.338 2.998 School type .084(.011) .190 .061 .029 Grade taught .084(.019) .175 .040 .032
STEML training .142 .296 Insufficient time to teach .047 .147 Sufficient time to prepare .041 .202 R2 .051 .318 F 4.946 13.917 ΔR2 .051 .267 ΔF 4.946 17.510
4.3. Question 3: What is needed to help teachers to implement STEML teaching?
When teachers were asked what was needed to effectively implement or teach their instructional topics using the STEML approach, three recurring themes emerged: the first was training and professional development; the second theme was peer collaboration and administrative support, and the third was the availability of resources such as computers and software.
All 10 participants interviewed highlighted the importance of training in STEML. Constant training implements successful STEML education in a more meaningful and integrated way. The majority (8 out of 10) of the participants highlighted their ability to successfully align other STEML subjects with their instructional subjects and attributed their ability to prior STEML training, either in the form of professional development or during their pre service teacher education programme. In contrast, one participant expressed a generally negative level of ability on account of the lack of training and professional development opportunities within his school. Participant T.9, a 42 year old GUB teacher, expressed his dissatisfaction in these words:
“I don't feel able to teach and integrate other aspects of STEML. To be frank with you, the pandemic made me very unhappy. The reason is that I don't have any knowledge to explain STEML. Also, I have no training to teach STEM with computers. The training can help me to be effective in integrating STEM education virtually.”
The participant clearly felt anxious and unhappy owing to the lack of STEML training available
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Participant T.4 expressed their ability to teach their subject alone, but attributed their lack of confidence in aligning other STEM subjects to the lack of STEML training. All teachers interviewed alluded to the need for professional development opportunities in the form of workshops, short training programmes, seminars, and opportunities to study abroad. They also felt that STEML is dynamic and requires constant training to be implemented effectively. They said that the quality of their delivery within the classroom depended to a large extent on improving its quality through professional development. In addition to professional development, seven participants (Participants T.1, T.2, T.4, T.7, T.8, T.9, T.10) mentioned that local and international experts should be invited to share their knowledge. Technical advice on evaluation and mentoring would help them enormously and they believed that continuous technical support from these STEML experts would help them to become more professional. Participant T.5 said:
I have little educational experience, I need STEML experts. The experts can provide me technical support with additional knowledge.
4.5. Availability of resources improves teachers’ attitudes. The general availability or absence of digital resources was the most frequent theme in the interview transcripts. In general, the teachers expressed a lack of support from educational institutions, which generated distress about the absence of adequate resources within their schools during the COVID 19 pandemic.
Participant T.2 voiced this concern:
I have a very limited computer[access]. My access to the internet has really affected the teaching in my subject. Worse using the STEML approach. Realistically speaking, most of the materials I use are mine. If I were given the technological equipment, everything would be better. I am required to use technology, but the payments do not solve the problem
Participants stated that STEML was a complex construction involving many things. As such, it was right to have access to STEML resources to make it more meaningful, interesting, and less stressful. Participant T.6, a teacher from a public school said: Because STEML involves more than one subject, it will require four times more activities. Therefore, it is expected that the materials needed to teach it will be more. For me, if one is to conduct a full STEML instruction, one will need a well equipped laboratory; a fast and efficient computer, a projector and other STEML related teaching materials. These things will make STEML instruction very easy. Without these things, teaching STEML is stressful and difficult
The resources they mentioned during the interviews included a well equipped modern lab, science kits, current digital PDF books, fast internet, modern computers, and budget support. Despite these school related challenges, some of the teachers were quite optimistic and resourceful. Participant T.5, a public school teacher, articulated her resourcefulness amidst the lack of resources: I don't really have adequate resources for the full STEML presentation. But I have tried my best over the years, using my training knowledge in these areas to teach.
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However, because of the passion I have for STEML, most of the time I use my salary to get teaching materials to teach
4.6. Teachers need peer to peer collaboration and administrative support to teach STEML
Collaboration was a theme that was related to other themes found in the interview. The essential nature of collaboration between the teachers and administrators was obvious throughout the interview process. Participants T.2, T.3, T.4, T.5, T.6, T.7 and T.10 considered peer evaluation as well as collaboration between teachers of different STEML subjects, partner teaching, provision of necessary resources. Participants T.1, T.2 T.3, T.4, T.5, T.6, T9 and T.10 felt that peer collaboration was a form of professional development that made STEML teaching easier and more enjoyable. An analysis of the transcripts revealed that all participants believed that school administrators had a key role in providing STEML resources to implement it successfully. Interviewees emphasized the need for administrators to be proactive in establishing meaningful internal and external collaboration among participants. Participant T.8 expressed his thoughts on this issue by saying:
Educational administration has a role to play in helping us teach STEML. The administration should supervise my work and provide me with what I need to teach well. My colleagues should work as a team for lesson planning. When everyone collaborates, it saves planning time and makes teaching easy and enjoyable.
The teachers indicated that the STEML approach is highly integrated and collaborative, and this collaboration should be evident in its implementation. Five of the ten participants voiced the importance of the role of school principals, who had a duty to create an enabling environment for teachers to work in. Teamwork as well as an environment for student achievement in science and STEML related subjects was essential for success The teachers reiterated the massive failure of students in STEML related subjects in mid term and termly examinations in which the blame for low grades is always placed on the teachers. Participant T.1, a 39 year old woman with 12 years of teaching experience said: We cannot work alone. We try, but it is difficult. If you are passionate about what you do and you have all the knowledge in the world, being in a school where there is no support is difficult. The school environment and the administration can help us fail or succeed, so they are very important, if they weren't, I would just stay at home. If not, then I would offer tutorials at home for students
In the Republic of Ecuador, the COVID 19 pandemic forced an unexpected turn on education. Moving from face to face to virtual education was difficult. The education system demanded the implementation of STEML as a strategic plan, but it did not take into account the need for teachers or the problems of low performance of students in STEML subjects at GUB level and lack of preparedness of students. As Ramli and Awang (2020) pointed out, there has been a growing decline in student interest in science, engineering, mathematics, and technology in Latin America owing to the lack of trained STEML instructors. In this context,
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the Ecuadorian Ministry of Education is promoting the development of courses and research. The present study contributes to the description and interpretation in the following ways.
Firstly, the current study demonstrates the attitudes and lack of understanding of teachers towards STEML teaching. It also demonstrates relevant influential factors in the Ecuadorian educational context and highlights the importance of teachers’ attitudes towards STEML teaching from three dimensions. The study examines the factors affecting teachers’ attitudes and investigates their views on what is necessary to implement STEML in the Ecuadorian context.
Secondly, the study is important for strengthening the capacities of the teachers because it provides relevant recommendations that will help the STEML education division within the Ministry of Education. When the attitudes of the teachers are known and understood, effective programmes can be developed to support and assist the science educator. Specifically, the study will help policy makers in Ecuador more aware of teachers’ attitudes towards STEML and the factors that influence their attitudes (Ching & Fernandez, 2020). It will ensure that STEML career development programmes are more efficient and responsive to science needs in Ecuador in order to increase student achievement, interest and motivation in STEML careers.
Thirdly, this research provides a rationale for an intervention to reform STEML education.
5.1. What are the attitudes of Ecuadorian science TEACHERS towards STEML education?
The first research question examined the attitudes of teachers towards online STEM education. The results suggest that GUB teachers have a positive outlook towards STEML education although they differed in attitudes, based on school type and grade levels. However, there were no significant differences between genders. With regard to the need for serious economic development, the teachers alluded to the importance of STEML education for the development of the country.
Teachers in private schools showed a more positive attitude towards STEML education than those in public schools. The main reason for this difference could be that private schools provide resources and, by maintaining better services, they attract more students (in most cases, they have a higher socio economic status than those in public schools). In this context, most private schools in Quito, Ecuador, tend to invest in scientific equipment. These schools have teaching resources and look for better qualified teachers.
Secondly, the environment of private schools is more favourable. The rectorate or principals tend to be more involved in the teaching process. They also tend to participate in many STEML activities (such as virtual science presentations and robotics competitions). In the case of public schools, obtaining resources for such activities is very cumbersome and bureaucratic.
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Finally, public schools are overcrowded. As a result, teachers must deal with two or more very large classes with an average of 45 pupils per class. The large class sizes make STEML teaching difficult and frustrating for teachers
Based on the three Grade levels, teachers teaching at Grade Levels 1 and 2 generally have less experience in teaching STEML. They have access to fewer professional development opportunities and are often less qualified than teachers working at Level 3. GUB teachers rarely have graduate or Master's degrees; they are usually Bachelor graduates. Those GUB teachers teaching at Level 1 generally have larger classes whereas teachers at Levels 2 and 3 teach smaller classes. This factor is consistent with Simpson and Bouhafa (2020) who argue that most Level 1 teachers have a low level of scientific literacy. These teachers also demonstrate mostly negative attitudes towards science. The GUB Level 1 teachers also feel more confused about STEML, unlike the Level 3 teachers, who enjoyed teaching STEML more. This difference is possibly a result of the teachers’ belief that they are adequately qualified to teach STEM with technology. To obtain a science degree (biology, chemistry, engineering, physics) in Ecuador, you must study some aspect of STEML courses for at least two semesters (technology education is not available at some universities). All this previous experience with more science and mathematics courses stimulates the teachers to be more aware and positive, as described by Thibaut et al. (2017). These results align with other research that claims that perception might be affected by the subject experiences of the teachers (Ugras, 2018; Kurniati, et al., 2022).
5.2. What factors influence the perception of the TEACHERS towards STEML education and why?
Alangari, (2022) and Selco and Habbak, (2021) emphasize that individual and contextual factors shape perceptions and attitudes of teachers. Therefore, this study specifically examined the relationship between teachers’ demographic characteristics, school environment variables and their attitudes towards STEML teaching.
The main recurring inflection factors found in the regression analysis showed that professional development, sufficient preparation time and administrative support positively influence STEML attitudes, whereas insufficient class time (actual teaching time) negatively influenced attitudes. This factor is consistent with research by Roberts et al. (2018) and Asgari et al. (2021). The cited authors suggest that, in the context of STEML education, teachers are forced out of their comfort zone. Therefore, in addition to providing time for collaboration and planning, the presence of a strong support system, STEML training opportunities, sufficient preparation time and the virtual classroom greatly reduce anxiety, and would have a greater influence on attitudes as well as reduce teachers’ levels of difficulty towards STEML teaching.
In this study, teacher training had the strongest positive correlations with STEML attitudes. Similarly, a study by Nurtanto et al. (2020) indicated that in service STEML teachers had significantly higher self efficacy scores for instruction. According to the authors, the higher levels arose from completing a two year professional development programme.
This study found that access to STEM technology resources, support, and the need for STEML training surfaced most frequently in the qualitative data. The Ecuadorian teachers saw the main obstacles to STEML implementation as the lack of support, technological resources, and training. Professional and administrative support helps the teachers to constantly improve their teaching practice as well as facilitate the development of students' interests. However, a teacher working in a solo environment is bound to feel unsupported and overburdened.
The lack of resources, support and training made the teachers feel apprehensive and unhappy about STEML teaching practice. These components are consistent with many studies that allude to the importance of these factors in implementing STEML education (Muenks et al., 2020). For example, research by Ha et al. (2020) identified the following factors as likely to make STEML teaching easier or more difficult: collegial and social support, professional development, collaboration, lack of resources (materials and money), time allocated to science in the curriculum, and time to prepare science lessons.
Three main findings surfaced in the research. First, GUB teachers of science have a positive outlook towards STEML education although teachers’ attitudes differed, based on school type and grade levels. Private school teachers have more positive STEML attitudes than their public school counterparts. Secondly, the study revealed that professional development, sufficient teaching hours, preparation time and administrative support positively influence teachers’ attitudes. Finally, teachers need STEML professional development. They require peer collaboration, administrative support, and STEM resources to successfully implement STEML. Based on the findings, there is a need to provide additional support to the GUB teachers. It is recommended that STEML professional learning communities should be established, and attitude focused STEML training programmes should be designed. These actions will reasonably drive the effective implementation of STEML education in Ecuador.
The implications for future research based on this research are numerous. First, this study has implications not only for Ecuador, but also for nations around the world. Although the factors here were drawn from a sample from the province of Pichicnha, Quito, Ecuador, the results are consistent with other cultures (Zeidler, 2016). For example, both groups of teachers may recognise the importance of STEML education, but it was also found that teachers from different contexts face similar challenges. These challenges are insufficient support (Thibaut et al., 2018b), limited teaching resources (Li et al., 2020) and lack of training (Mendoza et al., 2019). For example, Kelley et al. (2020) noted that, in the United States, teachers could potentially limit their students' exposure to the totality of STEML knowledge by limiting themselves owing to their own loss of teaching skills. Li et al. (2020) noted that the professional growth of STEM teachers depends on policy support at the bureaucratic level. These factors imply that the development of STEML education is not an easy task for any country. As such, more connection,
more technology, more communication, more exchange, and more teamwork will benefit us all.
Secondly, the factors based on this study will also help future research by facilitating other studies to design context based strategies to improve STEML education. Based on the quantitative and qualitative data, STEML professional development training was identified as one of the influential factors. This influencing factor was always related to teachers' attitudes. Therefore, future research could analyse existing STEML professional development programmes and analyse the key content and strategies that shape attitudes to see if they have been addressed. In addition, given that teachers are concerned about insufficient support, future research could explore how support could be provided efficiently, especially within the school context.
Thirdly, as a pioneering research work in Ecuador, this study intends to provide important information on the current situation in STEML education and information based on quantitative and qualitative paradigms or methodologies. Although it focuses only on the teachers in the province of Pichincha, Ecuador, the factors could also be generalized to other provinces in Ecuador (there may be slight contextual differences) and even to other South American nations owing to similarities in contexts and challenges. Martinez et al. (2019) have pointed out that Ecuador faces a severe skills shortage in STEML areas owing to challenges such as poor resources and infrastructure. There are also the limitations of inappropriate and deficient curricula, and the absence of assessment practices which result in teachers with inadequate pedagogical and subject knowledge and, consequently, disengaged and unenthusiastic students. This situation points to the need for better teaching and STEML interventions all aimed at improving the pedagogical practices of Ecuadorian teachers in STEM subjects (Ching & Fernández, 2020).
The limitations of the current study need to be addressed in future research. Firstly, only a limited number of influencing factors were investigated; there are many complex contextual factors that may influence STEML perception, and more studies are needed to further investigate the bigger picture and provide a broader view of the Ecuadorian educational context. Future research could also examine each factor in more depth to provide a clearer picture of the extent to which a specific factor affects STEML attitudes of the teachers
Secondly, the factors are based on teachers’ self reports which, although it is a common methodology for measuring implicit perception, could elicit socially undesirable responses (Thibaut et al., 2018). Unfortunately, implicit measures of ability beliefs (such as implicit association tests) are currently absent. However, the results of this study are significant owing to the limited empirical research on the relationship between STEML attitudes and attitude shaping factors. The former open the door to examine new approaches to stimulating teachers' attitudes towards STEML education.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 82 106, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.5
Received May 22, 2022; Revised Jul 11, 2022; Accepted Jul 19, 2022
Surya Subrahmanyam Vellanki*
English Language Center, University of Technology and Applied Sciences Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman
Saadat Mond
English Language Center, University of Technology and Applied Sciences Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman
Zahid Kamran Khan
English Language Center, University of Technology and Applied Sciences Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman
Lekha Gopalakrishnan Nair
English Language Center, University of Technology and Applied Sciences Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman
Abstract. Researchinsecond languagelearninghasidentified the absence of metacognition among learners as one of the major problems contributing to students’ inability to comprehend listening texts. Moreover, the shift toremote teachingdue toCOVID 19 hasmade itmore crucial for teachers and learners to adapt to new modes of teaching and learning. This accentuates the need for effective listening strategy instruction. This study conducted at a university in Oman, is unique in two ways: first, it seeks out teachers’ perceptions of metacognitive strategy instruction in remote teaching; and second, the intervention in the form of explicit metacognitive strategy instruction is offered online. This paper presents the findings of the study, which focused on the following:teachers’ perception of students’ listening difficulties; teachers’ perceptions of metacognitive strategies and their explicit instruction; the role of metacognitive strategy awareness and instruction in improving student participation and skills in listening; challenges encountered in teaching listening during remote teaching; and overcoming challenges of teaching metacognitive strategies in remote teaching This mixed method study collected data through questionnaires and interviews with 10
* Corresponding author: Surya Subrahmanyam Vellanki; surya.vellanki@nct.edu.om
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
faculty members and 75 students. The findings show that teachers face several challenges, such as time limitations, shortened semesters, unfamiliar coursebook contexts, and assessment practices. For strategy instruction, teachers utilized collaborative lesson planning and resources and virtual flipped classrooms, among others. We conclude that metacognitive strategy instruction can provide better scaffolding during listening instruction and recommends further exploration of students’ use of metacognitive strategies in other academic contexts.
Keywords: EFL listening; listening strategies; metacognition; metacognitive strategy instruction; remote teaching
Though each of the four language skills is important to acquire a second language, listening is regarded as the primary means of L2 acquisition (Rost, 2002) and remains the most frequently used skill in the classroom. According to Rubin (1994, p. 85), “Listening, quite possibly, is the most important of language skills since people spend approximately 60% of their time listening.” White (2008) emphasized that learners with high proficiency in listening skills make better progress in acquiring a second language. Kurita (2012; p. 30) too emphasizes that “listeningcomprehension is at the heart of successful language learning”.
However, teachers and students do not give as much importance to listening skills as they give to other skills. Lim (2013) mentioned in a study that teachers focus less on the development of students’ listening skill compared to that of other skills. Three reasons cited by Linang (2005) for paying less attention to listening are: the assumption that listening skill can be developed automatically; teachers’ lack of awareness of how to teach listening strategies; and the lack of emphasis on teaching listening skills in the curriculum. It has been empirically observed by researchersthat learners too, in general, rarely use the opportunities to ask questions and negotiate meaning during lectures despite substantial inputs from teachers. Vandergrift and Goh (2012) believe that, despite being the most important and active skill in communication, listening tends to receive the least importance from both teachers and students, and remains the most under researched skill as well.
In language learning, according to Krashen & Terrel (1983), there has to be comprehension before language production can take place and “the starting point in language instruction is to help acquirers understand what is being said to them” (ibid, p. 20). Understanding, on the part of the listener, depends on vocabulary knowledge, grammatical structures, stress and intonation, and other linguistic, non linguistic, and paralinguistic clues of contextual utterances (Rost, 2002).
Goh (2000) considers listening problems as the external and internal characteristics that might interrupt understanding at various stages of listening comprehension. Buck (2001)takes into account unknown vocabulary, unfamiliar topics, speed of speaking and multiple accents as contributing to listening difficulties. Out of these factors, some are beyond listeners’ control, such as the
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rate of speech of the speaker, the accent of the speaker, phonological variations, processing of speech in real time, and the cultural context (Chen, 2005; Chang & Read, 2007; Renandya & Farrell, 2011). Learners’ listening comprehension can also be affected by learner characteristics, such as their limited contextual knowledge (Chiang & Dunkel, 1992), language proficiency (Murphy, 1985, 1986; O’Malley, Chamot, and Kupper, 1989) and memory, i.e., their ability to recall information (Call, 1985; Greenberg & Roscoe, 1987).
In addition to these issues, much of listening practice places emphasis on testing listening, not on teaching it (Brown 2011). The current teaching practices of listening skills are exam oriented, as most teachers focus more on how to make students pass exams rather than on how to listen and develop metacognitive strategies. Learners are usually exposed to traditional classroom listening tests such asanswering multiple choice questions,filling the blanks, or writing words they hear in conversational exchanges (Graham, 2017). Consequently, teachers and learners are able to attain their immediate and short term goals, but the ultimate goal of making learners better listeners is pushed out of focus.
The absence of metacognitive strategy used by learners has been identified as one of the main problems related to their inability to comprehend listening texts. Listening skills are cognitively demanding and are required to be taught explicitly, with the focus on how to listen (Schmidt, 2016). Nguyen and Abbott (2016) point out that educators often test comprehension without teaching students how to listen, accentuating the need for effective listening strategy instruction. This may be attributed to the fact that listening strategies employed by L2 listeners are misunderstood by a majority of teachers (Harding, Anderson, & Brunfaut, 2015; Vandergrift, 2007), making it a challenge for L2 teachers to teach L2 listening effectively (Field 2008, Nation & Newton, 2009; Siegel, 2014; Siegel & Siegel, 2015). Teachers should know how listeners deduce answers, especially incorrect answers (Field, 2003), as this knowledge helps teachers diagnose the problems of learners and develop more efficient strategies to compensate for gaps in learners’ understanding (Vandergrift, 2004). Vandergrift (2003) believes that planned and well designed listening activities inherently instruct learners in developing metacognitive strategies. Goh (2008) emphasizes the role of teachers in making students aware of the use of metacognitive strategies to develop the ability to analyze, critique, and evaluate processes in listening. Teachers can model their lessons to help learners develop these strategies by using different technologies and authentic materials (De Souza et al., 2021), which will go a long way in developing listening skills.
Flavell (1979, p. 906) coined the term metacognition and defined it as “knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena”. Hence,metacognitionisacombinationof metacognitive knowledge (awareness of one’s own learning process) and metacognitive strategyuse(howstrategiescanbeappliedinlearning). Wenden (1991) applied the term to language learning. Metacognition, according to him, means “thinking about thinking” and includes knowledge about oneself and regulating one’s cognition. Research in L2 listening has, over a period, recognized facilitative strategies that help clarify listeners’ mental processes (Thompson & Rubin, 1996; Vandergrift,
1999). Oxford (1990, p. 8) defines language strategies as “actions taken by learners to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self directed and more transferable to new situations”. Metacognitive strategies are used by learners to plan,monitor,andevaluatetheirlearningprocesses(Oxford, 1990; Wenden, 1998).
Chamot (2004, p. 14) claims strategies to be “the conscious thoughts and actions that learners take in order to achieve a learning goal”.
Vandergrift (1997) created a taxonomy of metacognitive strategies (which include planning, monitoring, problem solving, and evaluation) specific to listening comprehension. Similarly, Chamot’s (1999, 2005) model of metacognitive strategies includes the same strategies. The strategies proposed by both of them are helpful in organizing strategy instruction. Metacognitive strategies are strategies learners use to approach a task, check on their progress and evaluate their performance. Basically, it is about linking new information to current knowledge, choosing thinking strategies appropriately and consciously planning, monitoring, and evaluating our thinking processes (Dirkes, 1985).
Many studies have evaluated the effectiveness of metacognitive strategy instruction (MSI) on developing listening skills and listening comprehension. MSI refers to pedagogical practices that facilitate improvement of listening process and metacognitive strategy awareness among learners, while simultaneously enabling “learners to know how to plan, monitor, and evaluate their comprehension efforts and the progress of their overall listening development” (Vandergrift & Goh 2012, p. 97). There seems to be general agreement among ELT practitioners that listening comprehension can be enhanced through proper instruction of metacognitive strategies. Brown (2007) favored strategies based instruction which focused on equipping students with skills so that they could make the most using successful learning principles. The existing literature indicates that successful learners have a greater ability to effectively employ metacognitive learning strategies than less successful learners, and less skilled listeners benefit most from MSI and show great progress in their performance (Rubin, 1987; O’Malley & Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 2003; Vandergrift, 2006, 2007; Vandergrift & Tafaghodtari, 2010; Goh & Taib, 2006; Liu, 2008; Goh, 2000, 2008; Lai, 2009; Kurita, 2012; Yesilyurt, 2013; Fahim & Fakhri Alamdari, 2014; Lee & Cha, 2020). Learners, according to O’Malley et al. (1985a), who are not equipped with metacognitive approaches do not have a direction and they fail to trace their development, accomplishment, and progress.
Learners, according to Goh (2008) and Siegel (2015), can reap major benefits from MSI, which include more motivation and less anxiety and enhancement in listening performance. Moreover, it can result in broader benefits for weaker learners. The results of a study conducted by Movahed (2014) on the effect of MSI on listening performance, metacognitive awareness and listening anxiety revealed that anxiety levels of the students reduced substantially, and the experimental group outclassed the control group on the post test. Similarly, a further study by Wang and MacIntyre (2021, p. 509) on the role of anxiety and enjoyment in listening metacognitive awareness showed that “use of listening
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strategies was positively correlated with both listening anxiety and enjoyment” and, hence, effective teaching of strategies could reduce listening anxiety for listeners. A different study conducted by Rivera (2018) on the correlation between listening strategy instruction and listening motivation indicated that motivation levels in both groups decreased over the treatment period. However, a smaller decrease in motivation levels was noticed in the experiment group when compared to the control group.
Vandergrift (1999) noted that the use of metacognitive strategies leads to better listening achievement. He points out that less efficient learners utilized cognitive and memory strategies more frequently, and social strategies less frequently, while the more efficient learners often applied metacognitive strategies to enhance their listening skills. Vandergrift (2010) and Cross (2011) have observed that self analysis, reflection and goal setting can increase metacognitive knowledge. Goh and Taib (2006) noticed that metacognitive instruction allows the teacher to elicit and promote learners’ knowledge about themselves as L2 listeners.
Some other studies dedicated to MSI in listening English learners indicated that MSI improved students’ awareness of metacognitive strategies and their use (Lotfi, Maftoon & Birjandi, 2012; Rahimirad & Shams, 2014; Bozorgian, 2014; Mahdavi & Miri, 2016; Bozorgian & Alamdari, 2017). Explicit MSI in listening is also found to have a positive effect on learners’ listening comprehension and their metacognitive strategy awareness and use (Khonmari & Ahmadi, 2015; Farhadi, Zoghi & Talbei, 2015; Al Shammari, 2020). The results of these studies found a considerable difference between the means of the pre and post tests in the control groups
MSI helps learners become autonomous learners and improve their listening performance (Kobayashi, 2018; Krishnan et al. 2021). Taguchi (2017), Bermillo and Aradilla (2022) found significant differences in the performance of learners who had been given MSI in improving their listening comprehension It was found in these studies that MSI exposure helped the treatments group in improving their average scores.
It was the transition to communicative language teaching (CLT) in the 1980s and 1990s that signaled a shift away from teacher centered pedagogies to student centered ones and placed emphasis on teaching strategies in L2 teaching (Goh, 2008). In order to achieve the goal of making students autonomous learners, strategy based instruction was believed to be extremely crucial for enhanced learning. Cohen and Weaver (1998) emphasized the necessity of providing explicit strategy instruction to develop students’ metacognitive abilities to monitor and evaluate their strategy use through class discussions and reflective exercises. This approach brought into sharp focus the metacognitive strategies that students were actually using without realizing that they were doing so. Therefore, it became essential for students to know the terminology, notice how, where and why a particular strategy was being applied either by teachers or high proficiency learners, and later deploy it accordingly. With reference to
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Omani learners, Al Toubi (1998, as cited in Al Issa, 2006), believes that English is not taught as a languagefor communication in Oman. They argue that classroom materials and classroom activities are controlled and do not resemble actual language use, and the Omani English language teaching curriculum fails to prepare students for accurate, effective, and appropriate oral communication in English. In the same vein, Al Issa (2005b) found that the current national syllabus lacks a variety of authentic practice activities and materials and focuses heavily on foreign cultures and environments
Omani students’ unsatisfactory performance in listening can be attributed to the fact that listening skills in Oman are relegated to a secondary level although the marks scored in listening tests constitute a considerable weightage in the overall assessment of students. Higgins’ (1995) notes that speech rate, vocabulary, and pronunciation are problems in listening comprehension. Similarly, a study by Hasan (2000) on Arab learners of English points out that grammar structures, unfamiliar vocabulary, lack of interest, nature of answers in listening comprehension and the length of the spoken text are essential factors affecting listening comprehension. Further, the differences in L1 and L2 grammar structures, theabsenceofspecific Englishphonemes in Arabic and vice versa, and less familiar cultural contexts make the situation in Oman even more complex and demanding for learners. A study by Al Jahwari et al., (2019) examined the effect of MSI in listening comprehension on Grade 11 EFL learners and showed that MSI intervention improved students’ listening and metacognitive awareness significantly.
The impetus for the present study stemmed from the fact that students facemany challenges in listening comprehension resulting in low scores. Moreover, the remote teaching (RT) context has added considerably to students’ difficulties. The researchers of this study believe that if metacognitive strategies are taught explicitly and are practiced by students appropriately, they are most likely to perform better and improve their listening comprehension skills. Despite the number of studies cited above, it is notable that little research has been done in the Omani context, as well as in other academic contexts around the world, with the focus specifically on students’ use of metacognitive strategies and the differences in the use of the strategies at different levels of achievement in listening, especially in remote teaching/learning. Hence, we believe that it is important to determine whether metacognitive strategy awareness can play a role in students’ improved listening comprehension.
We look at the impact of metacognitive listening strategy instruction on students enrolled in the General Foundation Program (GFP) at a university in Oman. The following research questions were addressed:
1) What are teachers’ perceptions of difficulties that students face in listening skills?
2) What are teachers’ perceptions and beliefs about metacognitive strategies and their explicit instruction?
3) What are the teachers’ perceptions of the role of MSI in improving students’ listening skills during RT?
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4) What are the teachers’ perspectives on the impact of MSI intervention during RT?
5) What challenges did teachers face during the metacognitive strategy instruction (MSI) in RT?
6) How can teachers overcome the challenges of teaching metacognitive strategies in RT?
This study has chosen qualitative and quantitative approaches to investigate the outcomes of MSI on GFP students’ listening comprehension. A concurrent triangulation mixed method approach is used as it enhances the validity of the research by combining the advantages of both quantitative and qualitative data, provides us with the opportunities to triangulate both forms of data collected from different sources, and minimizes the limitations of both approaches. This approach also brings into light multiple perspectives since both forms of data exist in a supportive role (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011; Creswell, 2012; Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Seventy five students (39 females and 36 males), aged between 18 and 20, selected from four groups of the GFP, participated in this study. Two were experimental groups to which MSI was given; the other two were controlled and not part of the intervention. The participants were chosen from level 4 (advanced) as this level determines which course students would study in their majors. All students were native Arabic speakers with a similar background in primary and secondary education and had studied English at school for almost 12 years as a compulsory course before joining the GFP, which is a four semester preparatory program to develop students’ English language skills for further studies in their chosen specializations.
Teacher participants in this study were 10 faculty members of the university who had taught level 4. These teachers are master’s and doctoral degree holders with experience ranging from four to over twenty years in Oman.
3.3.1
As listening comprehension and metacognition are internal processes that are not apparently noticeable, we used various data sources for data triangulation. A questionnaire designed by Lotfi (2012) was used to find out the difficulties students’ encountered in listening. The questionnaire was originally developed to explore listening comprehension problems among Iranian EFL learners. The questionnaire consists of six different factors: process, input, listening, task, affect and context. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used to measure the reliability of the questionnaire. It was 0.895, which demonstrates a satisfactory internal consistency. The same questionnaire was modified and rephrased to make it suitable to find out teachers’ perceptions of students’ listening difficulties. Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ, Vandergrift et al.,
2006) was used to assess the foreign language learners’ metacognitive awareness and perceived use of strategies in listening comprehension. It measured strategies such as problem solving, planning and evaluation, translation, personal knowledge, and directed attention. It was administered twice (before and after the intervention) in students’ native language to ensure they understood what they read and responded correctly.
A questionnaire for teachers was developed by the researchers to explore the challenges in metacognitive strategy instruction, learning, and assessment during RT. It sought the challenges teachers faced in teaching listening during RT, teachers’ perceptions of teaching metacognitive strategies during RT, and their perceptions of MSI. It was validated by five language experts who are faculty members of different universities. Its reliability was established through a pilot test.
The qualitative data were collected using semi structured interviews with teachers as they encourage two-way communication by letting the respondents open up about critical issues. Purposive sampling technique is used to involve the individuals who are experienced and have knowledge in the field of enquiry (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). The goal was to choose individuals who were willing to participate, who could communicate and reflect on their experiences effectively. An interview guide was developed with a set of probing questions and was validated by two language experts for its open endedness, appropriateness, simplicity, and clarity. The teacher participants were informed of the time needed (approximately 30 minutes) to complete the interviews. In addition, discussions in every listening class and in the final class, in which the researchers summed up the whole intervention process, served as informal interviews with students. The consent of both teacher and student participants was taken during different phases of data collection and they were assured about the anonymity and confidentiality of qualitative and quantitative data.
The primary concern in the whole process of data collection was to understand the students’ use of metacognitive strategies, whether there was any progress in the way they used the strategies and, most importantly, whether they noticed their own learning over time. As a result of the strategy instruction intervention, students’ notes, predictions, comments, reflections, and opinions given in the MS Teams’ chatbox, Padlet, etc. emerged as another data source that gave us insights related to students’ application of different metacognitive strategies during the listening tasks.
In this study, institution adapted IELTS listening tests, comprising three sections and a total of 25 questions, were used. These tests had a variety of question types including multiple choice, sentence completion, true/false, etc. They were assessed using the institution adapted IELTS listening criteria. In between the pretest and post test, an intervention in the form of MSI was introduced to the experimental groups.
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3.3.2.1 Intervention Metacognitive Strategy Instruction (MSI)
The intervention involved two groups of students. For this intervention, the task sequence suggested by Vandergrift (2004, p.11) to teach listening skills was used. Students were guided through different pedagogical stages to understand how to listen, as this “metacognitive, process based approach” appears to represent real life listening (Goh, 2002b; Vandergrift, 2003a; Vandergrift & Tafaghodtari, 2010, p. 470). Different stages of this task sequence and the underlying metacognitive strategies in each step are shown in Table 1.
1. Once students know topic and text type, they predict types of information and possible words they may hear.
First verification stage
2. Students verify initial hypotheses, correct as required, and note additional information understood.
3. Students compare what they have written with peers, modify as required, establish what needs resolution and decide on details that still need special attention.
Second verification stage
4. Students verify points of disagreement, make corrections, and write down additional details understood.
5. Class discussion in which all contribute to reconstruction of the text’s main points and most pertinent details, interspersed with reflections on how students arrived at the meaning of certain words or parts of the text.
Final verification stage
6. Students listen for information that they could not decipher earlier in the class discussion.
Reflection stage
7. Based on discussion of strategies used to compensate for what was not understood, students write goals for next listening activity.
1. Planning and directed attention
2. Monitoring
3. Monitoring, planning, and selective attention
4. Monitoring and problem solving
5. Monitoring and evaluation
6. Selective attention and monitoring
7. Evaluation
As students listen to different recordings of English texts, they employ a series of metacognitive strategies implicitly, and the teacher guides them explicitly, whenever necessary, to use them. At the end of the tasks (during the reflection stages), students reflect on the strategies used at different points during the task and evaluate their own use of these strategies.
The pedagogical cycle was implemented in an EFL context, which is similar to what many researchers have done earlier, including Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari (2010) and Goh & Taib (2006). In the present study, too, all learners shared the same language and culture; however, the difference lies in the way the intervention was introduced, i.e., through RT. Based on the class schedules, a 90 minute session per week was offered for ten weeks. Sometimes, we felt it was necessary to modify the different stages of the pedagogical sequence in view of time constraints, requirements of the course delivery plan, and the needs of the students.
3.3.2.2
The prescribed coursebook is Pathways 3: Listening, Speaking and Critical Thinking (2012). We prepared the lessons based on the topics suggested for the semester and included different strategies in their lesson plans to accommodate the listening and discussion part of the topics in the live sessions and assigned the other activities for completion asynchronously. For example, the vocabulary activities given at the beginning of each lesson were assigned to students prior to the session using online platforms such as H5P, Moodle, or Bookwidgets. This deliberate move saved class time and allowed researchers to reinforce the vocabulary in live sessions through listening activity and class discussions.
In the first lesson, students were given a detailed description of metacognitive strategies and their use. Next, the structure of the lessons, the objective of each listening task and the relevant metacognitive strategies, and how these strategies could help achieve the desired objectives were explained. The explicit instruction of appropriate metacognitive strategies was incorporated at different stages of listening.
The teachers guided students through each stage of the listening sequence and asked them to make a note of predictions to be discussed after listening to the text. The teacher modeled thethink aloud technique so that students would notice how questions could be asked based on the information given and how they could use that information to form predictions.
Students’ opinions/comments were gathered by using MS Teams’ chatbox, Padlet, etc. These responses were about their understanding and use of strategies at different stages of listening and came in the form of written notes in the MS Teams’ chatbox or oral comments during the sessions. It gave the researchers an opportunity to look at what students predicted about the lesson, and it also gave students a chance to verify their understanding at later stages of listening.
In the next stage, students were asked to take notes on important information while listening to the audio. They were asked to review and reflect on the information they had understood and the information that was still unclear to them.
In the second listening, students were asked to distinguish between what they should add to the existing information and what they needed to clarify in the listening. During the last verification stage, students came up with things that were hard to understand and tried to concentrate more on the text selectively.
In class discussions following each lesson, students were asked to reflect on which strategies they used, which ones were effective, what the areas of difficulty were, and how they would address such difficulties in their following listening lessons. The researchers analyzed all these comments and reflections to summarize and outline the strategies used at different stages of the listening tasks. The students who did not do well were reinstructed before the subsequent lessons to enhance their performance.
The qualitative data was analyzed using the thematic analysis approach proposed by Braun and Clark (2006). We familiarized ourselves with the data, examined the transcribed data, coded it, searched for themes using keywords and phrases, and reviewed them to write the details (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The quantitative data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel.
This section addresses the research questions based on the data from the questionnaires, interviews, and the results of the intervention.
The analysis of the questionnaire on teachers’ responses to students’ listening difficulties revealed that the most significant areas of difficulty for students in listening are unfamiliar topics, vocabulary (idiomatic and slang expressions), accent, and pronunciation (94%). This may be due to differences in cultural contexts and students’ lack of exposure to idiomatic and slang expressions in English. This coincides with the findings of Buck (2001), Chang and Read (2007), Higgins (1995) and Hassan (2000). A similar percentage of teachers identified the rate of speech as another area of difficulty in listening (94%).
The areas that rank second in the list of listening difficulties for students are understanding issues related to lengthy texts, context, literally focusing on every word to understand, complex grammatical structures, problems with connected speech, inferencing and deduction (88%). The reasons for these difficulties stem from the fact that many students, as the analysis of the teachers’ interviews showed, do not use appropriate strategies during listening practices. Moreover, the exam pattern constitutes mostly direct questions where students do not have to analyze and process large chunks of information at deeper levels. Another contributing factor to students’ difficulties is the differences in grammatical structures of L1 and L2. Moreover, absence of certain phonemes in English or Arabic poses great difficulty for students in comprehending a listening text. Students also lack exposure to different varieties of authentic English language. These findings correspond to the outcomes of Chen (2005), Chang and Read, (2007) and Renandya and Farell (2011).
The areas that rank third in the list of listening difficulties for students mentioned by 82% of teachers are cultural and contextual differences in listening texts and unfamiliar stress and intonation. Teachers reported that students had problems with lengthy listening texts since they lost focus and were uncertain about their comprehension. Understanding the gist or predicting the missing information
based on context came up as other challenges in listening. External factors such as unclear sounds from an audio, external noise, and classroom acoustic conditions also rank third in the list of difficulties.
Seventy six percent of teachers reported that guessing meanings from context is another challenge that students face in listening. The analysis of the interviews also supported the teachers’ claim that, due to unfamiliar vocabulary, students neglect the next part of the text and lose track of it, as they focus more on grappling with the meanings of unfamiliar words. Multitasking emerges as another significant area of difficulty perceived by 71% of teachers, as processing of listening involves listening to the audio, reading questions, and answering them.
Students, as reported by 65% of teachers, get flustered by large chunks of listening text. They lose focus and find it difficult to relate different parts of the text (e.g., combining details with the main idea, or not being able to recognize discourse markers during listening), which affects their comprehension. Sixty five per cent of teachers viewed sentence completion as being the most difficult task type for students. The same percentage of teachers also believes that inability to use appropriate strategies, especially metacognitive, adds to the challenge of comprehending a listening text, often resulting in student demotivation.
Fifty five percent of teachers believed that students show no or little interest in topics that don’t enthuse them. The least challenging task types, according to teachers (12 50%), are answering matching questions, MCQs, fill in the blanks, wh questions, short answer questions, and completion of forms/tables/notes. The reason for this may be, as mentioned by teachers in the interviews, that the exam pattern followed right from schools contains questions which do not pose a significant challenge to students’ intellect. For example, in most listening exams, students are asked very simple questions such as listening for a phone number, someone’s name, title of a book or the publication year, etc. On the other hand, the most challenging kind of question for students, as mentioned by teachers, is summary completion where students must process, paraphrase, and summarize a lengthy listening text.
During the interviews, teachers pointed out that because of the lack of MSI and critical thinking, most students do not use listening strategies which would have enabled them to become autonomous learners. This autonomy becomes extremely crucial in the RT context. Coupled with the challenges mentioned above, low levels of student proficiency in general also contributes to problems in listening.
Overall, there was a general agreement among teachers that the unsatisfactory performance of students could be attributed to their inability to use strategies, especially metacognitive ones.
According to the responses of teachers in the questionnaire, it is clear that strategy instruction, in general, is believed to be a part of teachers’ teaching practice in
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listening classes (82%). However, teaching metacognitive strategies by teachers falls significantly short (65%). The difference, as the interviews highlight, can be attributed to the fact that teachers probably focus more on cognitive strategies such as inferencing, translation, prediction, summarization, and elaboration. Teachers believe that teaching these strategies might facilitate answering certain task types that usually appear in listening assessment. The questionnaire data from students also validates their greater dependence on cognitive rather than metacognitive strategies, which suffices them to answer different question types given in listening tests. Students’ low proficiency level, lack of exposure to English outside the classroom, and lack of training in using metacognitive strategies make it difficult for them to go beyond cognitive strategies.
The questionnaire data of teachers reveals that 65% of teachers believe that students can have control of their own learning using metacognitive strategies. However, the data also reveals that socio affective and cognitive strategies are considered more effective by 18% and 12% of teachers respectively in improving students’ autonomy in learning. Furthermore, 65% of teachers are aware of metacognitive strategies, such as planning, monitoring, evaluation and problem identification, and their importance in listening classes. The same percentage of teachers devotes some part of their class time to guide students develop metacognitive strategies.
In spite of teachers’ perception that MSI is necessary for students to improve their listening skills, the data obtained from a question on the most challenging skill to teach remotely was interestingly contradictory. Listening emerged as the least challenging skill to teach (with just around 8% of teachers choosing it), while writing was seen as the most challenging skill to teach, with around 65% of teachers selecting it. This data conforms to the findings of earlier research (Abdalhamid, 2012; Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016; Yıldırım & Yıldırım, 2016) that suggests that listening has been given the least preference by EFL/ESL teachers and learners. Moreover, the situation seems to have worsened in the present RT context. Accordingly, listening has been perceived to be the least challenging by many teachers since there has been less focus on teaching listening compared to other skills in RT. It is taken for granted by the teachers that students can manage listening skill development on their own. They can practice the exercises given on various learning management platforms on their own, and this practice is believed to be enough for developing listening skills and strategies. The practice of creating less challenging listening tests on various learning platforms with a focus on either MCQs, fill in the blanks, or direct short answers (such as finding out a name or a year, etc. which does not test students’ critical thinking) is yet another contributing factor to the perception that teaching listening skills is less challenging. Moreover, the marking of listening tests on most learning platforms is automatic, strengthening the perception that teaching listening is the least challenging.
Qualitative data suggests that most teachers believe that metacognitive strategy instruction during remote teaching will be helpful for students because:
• these strategies are likely to develop independent learning and students can manage their own learning better.
• they lead students to evaluate and correct themselves.
• they help students deal better with uncertain and previously un encountered situations.
• they promote a positive attitude towards listening and learning and develop higher order thinking skills and a deeper understanding of topics.
• not knowing or using these strategies is a reason for their lack of motivation and unsatisfactory performance, and students need guidance in cultivating and applying these strategies effectively.
There is no gainsaying the fact that MSI contributes to improved performance in listening skills and makes students autonomous learners. Its significance increases manifold in the current RT context because it is imperative that students rely more on themselves to deal with some shortcomings inherent in RT, such as lesser real time interaction with teachers and peers. Moreover, these strategies help them not only in their listening but also in other courses, skills, and real life situations. They help fulfill the curriculum’s aims and objectives (e.g., inculcating a sense of responsibility among students by using multiple available resources inside and outside the classroom) and make students self reliant and self motivated, which is essential for success, especially in online learning.
In response to whether it is easier to teach metacognitive strategies in the current RT situation compared to a face to face teaching context, 54% of teachers responded in the negative and said that:
• it is “difficult to monitor whether students are using metacognitive strategies in an RT situation”.
• the “degree of effectiveness is slightly lower in an RT context”.
• strategy instruction may not yield better results owing to the “lackluster approach of students in remote learning”.
• less student teacher interaction, lack of time management skills, and lack of intrinsic motivation are other factors that might reduce the efficacy of strategy instruction.
• strategy instruction and tracking the progress of learners is difficult in RT because of constraints of time, technology, and syllabus.
• “RT is not an ideal medium” to teach metacognitive strategies as there is an amount of uncertainty in many aspects of RT (such as lack of students’ physical presence, and lesser interaction), which might impede the effective teaching and development of metacognitive strategies.
Contrary to the opinions given earlier, some teachers (19%) believe that the current RT situation is more conducive for teaching and practicing metacognitive strategies because:
• students have plenty of technological resources available for online learning, and by using those resources, they can understand the strategies and their applications better.
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• the extra time that students have at their disposal is likely to motivate them for independent learning and self improvement.
• RT provides teachers the opportunities to adapt new methodologies and strategies supportive of the teaching of metacognitive strategies.
However, 27% of teachers preferred to remain neutral to the modality of teaching (whether RT or face to face) and offered the following reasons.
• Teachers’ methodology matters most in MSI rather than the mode of teaching.
• Irrespective of the mode of teaching, making students aware of metacognitive strategies and making them practice these strategies is fundamental.
• A key factor in any teaching context is students’ motivation. Motivated students always use the available resources and opportunities to the best of their limits.
Integrating MSI in materials and curriculum is needed regardless of whether it is remote teaching or face to face context.
Pre and post intervention tests and the MALQ administered before and after the intervention revealed significant changes in the self reported metacognitive strategy use among all participants. Class discussions after the lessons and the informal interview with students also gave an opportunity for the researchers to delve further into students’ understanding of metacognitive strategies and their use.
A significant difference was visible in the listening test scores of pre and post intervention of MSI. The average students’ scores improved from 14.7 to 16.8 out of 25. During the intervention, it was observed that a majority of students resorted to using different metacognitive strategies such as planning, monitoring, and evaluation to complete their tasks. It was also noticed during class discussions, especially in the second half of the intervention, that most students understood the terminology of metacognitive strategies and why and when those strategies were to be used. They were able to recall which strategy they had used in similar situations in previous lessons. Certainly, high proficiency learners were able to use these strategies better, and they were also able to explain why and when they had used a particular strategy. For example, they began identifying problems in their understanding during the listening task. They also developed the habit of verifying and evaluating their predictions and monitoring what was going on in their minds while understanding the listening texts. They reported that their approach to solving different listening tasks had changed. Some students said that they had stopped worrying about understanding every word and that certain answers could be guessed intelligently from contextual clues.
It was noticeable in the latter part of the intervention that most students felt comfortable to ask questions and discussing strategies that could be used in their listening tests. The researchers’ empirical observations revealed that students who had higher language proficiency used a variety of metacognitive strategies, while
those with lower proficiency used fewer. This was also why some students could not perform better in listening despite being physically present in the online sessions. The same was reported in the MALQ and in class discussions too. A significant difference was visible in the listening test scores of pre and post intervention of MSI. As the groups comprised mixed ability students, the researchers discovered that students used a range of metacognitive strategies depending on their language proficiency and understanding of the strategies. Students with low proficiency found it challenging to describe or explain their learning processes though they might have used metacognitive strategies. It was also noticed by the researchers that the students who did the exercises on web based platforms, such as Moodle and H5P, prior to lessons responded well during the listening tasks.
A careful analysis of student responses during classroom discussions revealed that specific strategies such as predictions, note taking, comments in the chat box, etc., were perceivable and indicated improvement. However, strategies such as evaluation and monitoring, selective attention, and mental translation were not directly observable but were reported by students. Students’ responses during post listening sessions indicated their understanding of metacognitive strategies and their overall progress in using them wherever necessary. Some students said that they would employ more strategies to approach the same listening task if they were given a second chance.
Frequent discussions on students’ listening difficulties and reiteration of different metacognitive strategies that could help them become better listeners might also have motivated them to use more strategies. With the exception of a small number of students who may not have found any benefit from MSI for various reasons, most students conveyed the impression through their participation that they were making progress with each listening lesson.
Reflecting on the process of implementing metacognitive strategy instruction during remote teaching, we noted the following challenges:
4.5.1
The first challenge was the lack of physical presence of students, which made it hard to notice their body language. Teachers were unable to observe them as they carried out whole listening tasks. Teachers in face to face classes can notice many things without the knowledge of the student, such as the focus levels of students or their reactions to listening texts. Though some of the student participants responded in the chatbox and on Padlet during listening tasks, it was difficult for the researchers to know if all students had made a note of keywords/important points during the listening.
This challenge can be addressed by providing students with a checklist of facilitative questions using language items from MALQ after each listening task to express their thought processes related to metacognitive strategy use. It might provide clear cut data related to their metacognitive awareness and strategy use. It was also tedious for teachers to ask every student to send their notes for every listening task and to check them to provide feedback. So, rather than asking for
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individual responses separately, students could be asked to post all their responses on platforms such as Padlet.
Similarly, as mentioned earlier, the think aloud technique was used by teachers to make students understand how a given piece of information could be processed when going through each sequence in the pedagogical cycle. However, it was difficult to determine in RT whether any student tried to do the same. In such cases, students may be asked to record their think aloud process and upload on LMSs or using any other web based tools such as Vocaroo, though it is questionable as to how many students would be willing to do that!
4.5.2
The second issue was the attitude of students towards strategy use. This was due to the test pattern. Most of the questions in the listening tests conducted by the university in our teaching context seek direct answers from students. In fact, remote teaching has made teachers adapt test questions to suit the testing platforms, thereby reducing the rigor required to challenge students’ critical thinking. This is one of the reasons for the lack of participation by some students who probably looked at immediate goals as far as listening is concerned. As discussed earlier, the less challenging nature of the questions asked in listening tests was a demotivating factor, especially for students with a lower degree of proficiency. They did not show much interest in improving their listening skills through strategy use because they believed they could find ways to answer questions without resorting to metacognitive strategies.
To address this challenge, teachers should prepare appropriately challenging tests so there is less possibility of direct answers.
In RT, as noted by many participating teachers and researchers, some students were reluctant to participate and avoided giving their verbal or written input hiding behind ostensible excuses of technology (for example, bad network or equipment failure). In such cases, improving or updating technical infrastructure by all stakeholders might solve the problem.
4.5.3
Another challenge was that most students, during the discussions, mentioned that the topics were either difficult or uninteresting. In other words, the listening content was cognitively challenging for students. This might be because of a cultural disconnect with the texts in the prescribed syllabus for listening skills. This also conforms to the views of teachers as reported during the interviews. In this situation, materials that are based on familiar cultural contexts might solve the problem to an extent and encourage better and more participation from less proficient learners during reflections.
4.5.4
Time allocation, i.e., the time provided to listening skills in RT (in the context of this research) was another issue. The time given was not adequate compared to the time given to other skills. Initially, it took students time to understand the metacognitive processes and the think aloud technique demonstrated by the researchers. The time duration also varied in individual stages depending on the
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complexity and unfamiliarity of the topic and listening text. We sometimes did not get enough time for follow up tasks such as short speaking or writing activities to reinforce their understanding of the topic and vocabulary.
In contrast to Voth (n.d.), who cut short her whole class discussion to cater more time for prediction, adjustment, and reflection, the researchers, this being an RT context, had to allocate more time for post listening class discussions to understand more about students’ internal processes of using metacognitive strategies. The time spent proved to be worthwhile for motivated learners.
Sometimes, time constraints also did not allow the researchers to carry out all the stages of the pedagogical cycle in one lesson as proposed and followed by Vandergrift (2004). Hence, it is suggested that a balanced time schedule for each skill would give more opportunities for teachers to provide better scaffolding during MSI.
4.5.5
Whole class discussions allowed us to give explicit guidance on metacognitive strategies. Nevertheless, a disadvantage in the RT context was that the researchers found it difficult to conduct one to one discussions among peers because of a lack of sufficient time. This caused them not to use breakout rooms for small group discussions. Most teachers generally agree that, in a mixed ability class, less proficient students can usually be guided and advised by more proficient students. Breakout rooms can also facilitate small group discussions and guidance.
However, on account of not knowing the students’ native language (Arabic), we could not use breakout rooms to allow students to discuss the metacognitive processes they undertook in their native language, just as Vandergrift (2004) did with his respondents who used their native language (French) during discussions in a face to face context. It would have allowed students to elaborate on the way they understood and applied metacognitive strategies during listening tasks.
4.5.6
Another limitation of this research is that we could not use classroom observation of teachers as a tool to triangulate the data related to their practice of strategy instruction. Classroom observation of teacher participants during MSI could also provide more accurate data related to strategy instruction.
Summing up the discussion, it can be maintained that although most of the teachers are aware of the significance of metacognitive strategy instruction, yet it is not translated into their actual online classroom practice. Moreover, the time spent during the metacognitive strategy intervention and the subsequent results of the students indicate that MSI can contribute significantly in developing and improving students’ listening skills in general and, especially, in RT and call for MSI to be a part of teacher training, teaching practice, and curriculum design and development.
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The study was conducted during remote teaching with a small population. It spanned a short semester. Conducting the project with a larger population would allow future researchers to comprehensively understand how students use metacognitive strategies in L2 listening. This would also enhance the authenticity of the results.
Due to the semester being shortened, the number of lessons was limited. Having more lessons would enable even less proficient students to understand better the application of these strategies and allow future researchers to provide better scaffolding during the instruction.
This study was planned based on the researchers’ empirical observations over a period of time. Informal discussions with faculty members had led the researchers to conclude that students’ unsatisfactory performance could be attributed to their inability to use metacognitive strategies. Conducting a systematic needs analysis of students in advance and flexibility in material selection would yield more accurate results.
The main purpose of the research was to understand teachers’ perspectives regarding students’ difficulties in listening, the role of metacognitive strategy instruction in listening through RT, and whether developing metacognitive awareness among students would improve their listening skills. Through remote teaching, the researchers tried to support and engage the students in using metacognitive strategies in various listening tasks. Though it is essential for the teacher to provide scaffolding during listening in various ways (asking concept check questions, asking for clarification), it is difficult to identify the point at which the teacher can stop supporting students and allow them to take control of their learning process. At the end of the intervention, many students reported that they had noticed some improvement and that their confidence had grown in responding to the listening tasks. The reflection of this improvement was also observed in the final exam results. This research is unique in that it offers MSI through RT in Omani context and proffers some strategies to minimize the challenges in teaching metacognitive strategies.
The whole intervention process was a great learning experience for the research team. It provided us with insights into how students used metacognitive strategies during listening tasks. It also brought to the fore the challenges involved in explicit metacognitive strategy instruction in remote teaching and how to address those challenges. Another positive aspect that we noted was that the students, instead of looking to the teacher for answers to difficult questions, either tried to discuss with their friends using the chatbox or focused on the audio again to obtain answers using recently learned metacognitive strategies. To observe such student engagement was indeed satisfactory.
This research project allowed us to have a thorough understanding of explicit MSI and its use in listening. It is highly possible and expected that students will follow these reflective practices in listening and in other academic learning contexts as well.
The authors would like to thank The Research Council of Oman for funding this project and appreciate the University of Technology and Applied Sciences, Nizwa, Oman, for their cooperation in conducting this research.
The research project was funded by The Research Council (Grant number: BFP/RGP/2020/3) of Oman.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 107 126, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.6
Received Apr 11, 2022; Revised Jul 11, 2022; Accepted Jul 19, 2022
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), University of Rwanda College of Education (UR CE), Republic of Rwanda
Irenee Ndayambaje
University of Rwanda College of Education (UR CE), Republic of Rwanda
Charles Magoba MuwongeMbarara University of Science and Technology, Department of Educational Foundations and Psychology, Faculty of Science, Uganda
Abstract. This empirical study sought to examine gender differences and the relationships between students’ perceptions of mathematics teaching, mathematics anxiety, career aspirations, and academic performance. The study utilized the descriptive correlational research design coupled with the quantitative data collection process, i.e., a survey questionnaire. We deliberately sampled six lower secondary schools in Musanze district to participate in the study. A total of 415 (60 % males) senior two students (grade 8) were involved in the study. Data were analyzed using an independent sample t test and structural equation modeling. Students’ perceptions of the teaching approach significantly influenced career aspirations, mathematics anxiety, and performances. In addition, mathematics anxiety affected the relationship between students’ perceptions of the teaching approach and performance and career aspirations. Although girls’ mathematics anxiety, mathematics performance, and perceptions of the teaching approach were higher than boys’, the differenceswere notstatistically significant. Thefindingsof this study revealed that students’ perceptions of the teaching approach influence their mathematics performance, mathematics anxiety, and career aspirations. Therefore, any intervention aimed at reducing mathematics anxiety and improving academic performance and career aspirations in Mathematics should consider students’ perceptions of the teaching approach.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Keywords: career aspiration; mathematics anxiety; structural equation modeling; students’ perception; teaching approach
Developing mathematical skills is crucial for academic success and career choices in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) since those fields rely on it (Rozgonjuk et al., 2020). STEM education is being realized as the foundation of any modern society’s development and wellbeing because it stimulates innovation and creates workers who can drive and respond to technological advancements (Croak, 2018); therefore, it has become an integral part of countries’ economic and social development plans (Bybee, 2013) Despite Rwanda’s substantial efforts to promote STEM education over decades, Mathematics is still the worst performing subject in the national examination at the lower secondary school level compared to science subjects, with more than 70 percent of the candidates scoring below the pass mark (Rwanda Education Board, 2016). Looking at the Rwanda Education Board statistics of previous lower secondary national examinations, only a very small percentage of all candidates (21.5% of 100,640 candidates in 2018; 19.3% of 99,000 candidates in 2019; and29.5% of 100,263 candidates in 2020) passed in Mathematics. In addition, few students pursue mathematics related courses at secondary and tertiary levels, and females are particularly underrepresented in STEM education (Huggins & Randell, 2007; Masanja, 2010) Despite a comparatively equal number of girls and boys in classrooms, Menon (2021) reported boys outperforming girls in 26 of Rwanda’s 30 districts. A study conducted by Uwineza et al. (2018) has shown that teachers’ teaching approaches are one of the factors contributing to low performance among girls. The study found that teachers’ teaching approaches were more boy oriented than girl oriented, and more boys than girls study Mathematics to obtain a good job or to become mathematicians Taking into consideration students’ perceptions of the teacher’s teaching approach could improve our understanding of gender differences in mathematics performance and the relationship between students’ performance and the teacher’s teaching approach. However, to the best of our knowledge, none of the study in Rwanda has studied influence of students’ perceptions of teaching approach on their mathematics performance.
Having good mathematics performance is one of the prerequisites for admission to most STEM fields in Rwanda. Rwanda’s education system places a high value on Mathematics, as evidenced by the high number of hours dedicated to the subject (compared to other subjects) and its mandatory status of nine schooling years (primary and lower secondary schools). The schooling system in Rwanda includes six years of primary education, three years of lower secondary education, and three years of upper secondary education (6+3+3). Upper secondary students specialize in a combination of three principal subjects depending on their interests. Nevertheless, subsidiary mathematics is mandatory for students who do not take Mathematics as one of their principal subjects but have at least one principal subject that requires some mathematical knowledge.
The poor performance in Mathematics has been attributed to high levels of mathematics anxiety; failure to connect Mathematics with students’ future
careers; and others (Cargnelutti et al., 2017; Henschel & Roick, 2017; Richland et al., 2020; Szczygieł, 2021; Uwineza et al., 2018) There have been several studies that examined the relationship between students’ performance and psychological factors, such as career motivation and mathematics anxiety (Cargnelutti et al., 2017; Henschel & Roick, 2017), but none has been conducted in Rwanda. An understanding of this relationship would contribute to Rwanda’ success in meeting its development goals of prioritizing STEM education and improving mathematics literacy among its citizens. While other studies have studied some of the variables of interest, they did not include all the variables being considered in the current study. Therefore, to deepen teachers’ understanding of these variables for better mathematics teaching, the present study examined the interrelationships between senior two students’ mathematics anxiety, career aspirations, mathematics performance, and their perceptions of the teaching approach. In addition, gender differences across these study constructs were examined.
2.1. The Relationship between Perceptions of Teaching Approach and Mathematics Anxiety
Ramirez et al. (2018) defined mathematics anxietyas a negative emotional reaction experienced when people are exposed to mathematics learning or mathematical problems. Studies have examined the relation between mathematics anxiety and mathematics instructional practices (O’Leary et al., 2017). According to the findings of those studies, students who showed good perceptions of their teacher’s teaching approach had less mathematics anxiety. By asking students to rate how they perceive their teacher’s teaching approach, Bekdemir (2010), found that the teacher’s teaching approach contributes to students’ mathematicsanxiety. Based on the previous studies, we hypothesized that students with negative perceptions of the teaching approach experience more mathematics anxiety than students with positive perceptions.
2.2. The Relationship between Mathematics Anxiety and Mathematics Performance
Hembree's (1990) meta analysis reported an average correlation of 0.31 and 0.34 between achievement and anxiety for college and school students, respectively, indicating that mathematics anxiety significantly hinders mathematics performance. Hembree also found that the relationship between mathematics anxiety and performance changes with grade levels peaks during junior to high school years. Although many studies indicate that mathematics anxiety and achievement are negatively related (Hembree, 1990; Meece et al., 1990; Richland et al., 2020; Szczygieł, 2021), the direction of this relationship is still unclear (Carey et al., 2016; Foley et al., 2017). The literature suggests that: (i) mathematics anxiety contributes to poor mathematics performance ( Richland et al., 2020; Szczygieł, 2021), (ii) poor mathematics performance contributes to mathematics anxiety (Alkan, 2018). Accordingly, the current study hypothesized a bidirectional relationship between mathematics anxiety and mathematics performance.
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2.3. The Relationship among Mathematics Anxiety and Career Aspirations
Mathematics anxiety has been linked to negative attitudes about mathematics in which students avoid mathematics problems or tasks, resulting in poor achievement (Buckley et al., 2016; Dowker et al., 2016) and careers involving mathematics avoidance (Ashcraft, 2002; Chipman et al., 1992) For instance, Chipman et al. (1992) found that mathematics anxiety and scientific career intentions are negatively correlated. However, Meece et al. (1990) found no significant direct effects of mathematics anxiety on young adolescents’ course enrolment intentions. It was noted in Huang et al. (2019) that mathematics anxiety directly influenced career interest among girls, but not among boys. According to these inconsistent findings, this relationship seems to be context dependent. In our study, we examined this relationship by testing the hypothesis that students with higher levels of mathematics anxiety would avoid careers that involve Mathematics.
2.4. The
According to Nyacomba (2017), there is a positive correlation between mathematics achievement and career aspirations. According to him, students who aspired to study a course that would involve mathematics (e.g., medicine or engineering) were more likely to perform better in Mathematics. A study carried by Chen et al. (2015) indicated that students are intrinsically motivated to score good grades to be qualified for choosing a career they desire. According to Shapka et al.'s (2006) longitudinal study, mathematics achievement acts as a “critical filter” to career aspirations, with poor mathematics performers aspiring to less prestigious careers. One could argue that it is hard for someone who has never passed Mathematics to aspire to pursue a career that requires mathematical knowledge. In this regard, we hypothesized a bidirectional relationship between mathematics performance and career aspirations.
2.5. The Relationships among Perceptions of Teaching Approach, Career Aspirations, Mathematics Anxiety, and Performance
Negative attitudes towards teachers’ teaching approach negatively affect students’ interest and academic performance in Mathematics (Mutodi & Ngirande, 2014), making students to avoid Mathematics. Oden (2021) reported that students who recognize that their teacher often applies mathematical content to daily life situations are more interested in Mathematics and showed good performance. Despite the lack of studies that include all four constructs (perceptions of teaching approach, mathematics anxiety, career aspirations, mathematics performance) to investigate the link between them, we hypothesized that students with positive perceptions of the teaching approach are more likely to feel less mathematics anxiety, to perform well in Mathematics, and to choose careers that require mathematical knowledge.
2.6. Conceptual Framework
According to Baloglu and Kocak (2006), mathematics anxiety could originate from situational, dispositional, and environmental factors. The present study considers mathematics anxiety caused by environmental factors that include individual’s experiences in mathematics class and perceptions of teaching approach
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(Newstead, 1995; Tobias, 1990). Based on the literature, one can argue that teachers' mathematics teaching approach creates a learning environment that can impact students’ mathematics anxiety and pave the way for students’ academic success and aspiring future career choices. In the present study, students’ perceptions of the teacher’s teaching approach could be conceptualized as environmental factors influencing mathematics anxiety, career aspirations, and academic performance. Some researchers believe that mathematics anxiety has two key negative consequences: mathematics avoidance and poor performance (Daker et al., 2021; Ramirez et al., 2018; Szczygieł, 2021). Previous research has found that mathematics anxiety affects students’ career aspirations and mathematics achievement. Previous studies indicate that mathematics performance is influenced by (a) perceptions of teaching approach, (b) career aspirations, and (c) feelings of anxiety towards Mathematics. However, some studies indicate that mathematics performance impacts career aspirations and mathematics anxiety. Accordingly, we predicted a bidirectional relationship between mathematics achievement and mathematics anxiety, and mathematics performance and career aspirations, as illustrated in Figure 1.
Perceptions Towards Teaching Approach
Mathematics Anxiety Career Aspiration
Mathematics Performance
Figure 1: Conceptual model representing structural relationships among research variables
The purpose of this research is to find out the gender differences between study variables and the mediating roles of mathematics anxiety and career aspirations into the relationship between students’ perceptions towards mathematics teaching approach and mathematics performance. Although the previous studies investigated the relationships between mathematics anxiety and mathematics performance, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to consider students’ perceptions of mathematics teaching approach and their career aspirations in understanding the influence of mathematics teaching methods on mathematics performance among senior two students. This study has two main objectives: (a) to examine gender differences in mathematics anxiety, career
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aspirations, mathematics performance, and teaching approach perceptions; (b) to examine the mediation effect of mathematics anxiety and career aspirations on the relationship between teaching approach perceptions and mathematics performance.
3.1.
This study examined the relationship amongst four main constructs: students’ perceptions of teaching approach, mathematics anxiety, career aspirations, and mathematics performance using a descriptive correlational research design This design allows a researcher to describe study variables and examine their relationship rather than focusing on their cause and effect (Williams, 2007).
For this study, the target population was senior two (S2) students from secondary schools in Musanze District, with a total of about 1,480 senior two students. This region in the Northern Highlands of Rwanda was chosen because students’ performance in Mathematics during lower secondary national exams from 2015 to 2020 was poor (Rwanda Education Board, 2016). In that district, eight (8) secondary schools with large numbers of failures in Mathematics in lower secondary national exams were selected. Two schools participated in the pilot study while the rest participated in the main study. We deliberately chose senior two students due to their sufficient experience in secondary school life and the fact that they were not overburdened with preparing for national examinations. Each of the selected schools had two classes of senior two with approximately 45 students per class and all students were allowed to participate in the study A total of 415 students (ranging in age from 12 to 18 years (mean = 14.8, st. dev = 1.1)) participated in the data collection process and filled out the consent form. The sample comprised more males (n=248, 60%) than females.
Prior to this study, ethic clearance was obtained. The authorization for data collection was issued by the District Education Officials (DEO) of Musanze, in Rwanda. After obtaining the data collection authorization, the Principal Researcher visited all sampled schools and met the administrators to elicit their support. The purpose and objectives of the study were explained to senior two students, and there was also an adequate time for questions. Afterward, a pilot study was conducted in two schools (among 8 schools selected) where students individually filled out a printed survey. The results of a pilot study suggested the revision of some items of the survey for alternative wording that would be easier to understand. After revising the survey’s items, the Principal Researcher administered a revised survey in 6 schools (among 8 schools selected) that did not participate in a pilot study. Individually, students responded to the survey between 15 to 30 minutes. The data gathered were analysed and interpreted in relation to the research objectives.
We used a survey questionnaire and mathematics exam results as data collection tools. A survey consisted of students’ perceptions of teaching approach (SPTA),
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mathematics anxiety (MA), career aspirations (CA) constructs. Likert scale scores ranged from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree.
3.4.1.
The current study adapted items from the career motivation subscale of the Science Motivation Questionnaire II (SMQ II; Glynn et al., 2011 ) to measure lower secondary students’ career aspirations for mathematics, replacing the word “science” with “mathematics.” Sample items include: “My career will involve mathematics”, and “Knowing mathematics will give me a job advantage” The internal consistency (the Cronbach's alpha) for the career aspirations construct is 0.76.
3.4.2.
Students' mathematics anxiety was assessed through five items adapted from the Science Motivation Questionnaire (Glynn & Koballa, 2006) Some of the items adapted include “I hate taking the mathematics tests” , and “I become anxious when it is time a mathematics test” . The mathematics anxiety scale used in this study had an acceptable reliability coefficient (α=0.78).
3.4.3.
We assessed perceptions of students towards teacher’s teaching approach using six items adapted from the Mathematics Lessons sub scale of the 2015 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) student questionnaire for 8th graders (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, 2015). The students rated their feelings about the teacher’s teaching approach on a 5 point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The sample item includes “The way my teacher teaches mathematics makes me love it.” The internal consistency of the measure was good, as demonstrated by Cronbach’s alpha, α= 0.82.
Thisstudyusedstudents’mathematicsexamresultstomeasure their mathematics performance. Country wide, students do mathematics exams at the end of each term and the questions are set up by a team of experts who developed the national curriculum together with a group of secondary school teachers.
We first computed descriptive statistics and estimated inter correlations between study constructs. Afterward, using an independent sample t test, we tested gender differences among measured variables. To examine the mediation effects of mathematics anxiety and career aspirations on the relationship between perceptions of teaching approach on mathematics performance, we used a structural modelling equation (SEM). Before conducting an SEM analysis, we screened data for multivariate normality, homoscedasticity, outliers, multicollinearity, sample size requirements, and missing values, as suggested by Civelek (2018). Although the data were not normally distributed, Hawkins (1981)’s test of homoscedasticity and multivariate normality revealed equal variance. No outliers or missing values were found in the data, and multicollinearity was not detected. Based on Monte Carlo simulation some authors (Wolf et al. (2013)) suggested sample sizes ranging from 30 to 460 cases for SEM analysis, depending on factors and indicators, loadings and path
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coefficients, and missing data, which was undoubtedly met by our sample size of 415. Kline (2015) recommended a minimum of 100 observations to estimate SEM, while 200 observations are required for reliable estimates.
Since no priori model combines the study variables in a single model, a measurement model was tested by first analysing the correlation test between the factors, followed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Using a chi square difference test (Δ��2) and model fit indices (Comparative Fit Index (CFI >090), Tucker Lewis Index ( TLI >090), Root Mean Square Error Approximation ( RMSEA ≤0.06 ) and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual ( SRMR ≤0.08)) suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999), we tested and compared four hypothesized models (see Figure 2) to determine which would best describe the data. Using a finalized model, we estimated the direct and indirect effects of perceptions of teaching on mathematics performance. Test of joint significance approach (Leth Steensen & Gallitto, 2015) was used to test the significance of the total indirect effect of perceptions of teaching approach on mathematics performance and specific indirect effects. As Graham and Coffman (2012) recommended for non normal data, the maximum likelihood estimator with robust standard errors (MLR) was used in the analysis. The present study used R statistical software (R Core Team, 2019) for data analysis.
4.1.
The correlation matrix (see Table 1) shows that all the variables are significantly correlated. Thestudents’perceptions of the teaching approach positively correlate with career aspirations and mathematics performance but negatively correlate with mathematics anxiety. Mathematics anxiety is negatively correlated with career aspiration and mathematics performance, indicating that higher mathematics anxiety is associated with lower levels of mathematics performance and career aspiration.
Table 1: Correlation matrix of the study variables
Before conducting gender differences comparison, we first tested measurement invariance of the research instrument to know whether boys and girls interpreted the questionnaire’s items similarly. The results confirmed the measurement invariance (see Table 2 in Appendix); a mean comparison by gender could be conducted next. Despite females scoring higher in mathematics anxiety, mathematics performance, and perception of the teaching approach, the difference was not statistically significant (see Table 3).
The validity and reliability of an instrument are essential for SEM analysis; therefore, we used the average variance extracted (AVE), the Cronbach Alpha (α), and composite reliability (CR) measures to determine reliability and validity. Table 4 (see in Appendix) indicates that AVEs are greater than 0.5 (the value suggested by Kline (2015) ), factor loadings (FL), composite reliability, and Cronbach’s Alpha values exceed 0.7 (the value suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999); Wang and Wang (2019)), indicating acceptable reliability and validity of the research instrument.
Constructs
SPTTA
Gender Means SD Test P value
Male 2.18 0.73 0.24 0.80 Female 2.20 0.81
CA Male 2.30 0.73 0.66 0.50 Female 2.25 0.77
MA Male 3.65 0.92 0.98 0.32 Female 3.73 0.70
MP Male 2.34 1.09 0.06 0.95 Female 2.35 0.94
The first model (see Figure 2) was tested, and all the fit indices (CFI= 0975; TLI=0972; RMSEA=0035; SRMR=0032) were above the acceptable values, and all factor loadings were significantly higher than 0.4, as Matsunaga, (2010) recommended. However, the results showed that students’ career aspirations had no significant relationship to their mathematics performance (standardized coefficient=0.045, p=0.585). A chi square difference test was then used to compare model 1 and the model without directly influencing career aspirations on mathematics performance (model 2). The chi square difference test found no significant difference (��2 =10.649,���� =1,��=0.310) between the two models (model 1 and model 2), indicating that both models fit the data equally well. Model 2 (CFI=0977; TLI=0973; RMSEA=0034; SRMR=0031) was chosen over model 1 for parsimony reasons. Following Shapka et al.' s (2006)
findings that mathematics performance acts as a “ critical filter” to career aspirations, model 3 with a hypothesized path from mathematics performance to career aspirations was considered, and the model was compared to model 2. The added path did not show statistical significance (standardized coefficient=0.005, p=0.085). Again, based on the chi square difference test (��2 =14.920,���� =1,��= 0.640) between the two models (model 2 and model 3), we chose model 2 over model 3 (CFI=0974; TLI=0971; RMSEA=0036; SRMR=0042) for parsimony reasons. The influence of mathematics performance on mathematics anxiety suggested by Alkan (2018) was tested in model 4. However, the path ���� →���� was not statistically significant (standardized coefficient= 0.0232, p=0.008). The chi square difference test (��2 =12096,���� =1,��=0460) between the two models (model 2 and model 4) supported that both models fitted the data equally well, but we chose model 2 over model 4 (CFI=0.976; TLI= 0971; RMSEA=0036; SRMR=0052) for parsimony reasons.
4.4.
As hypothesized (see Figure 2 and Figure 3), students’ perceptions of the teaching approach negatively contributed to mathematics anxiety (��������→���� = 0.664,���� =0.039,��=0.000) and positively to career aspiration and mathematics performance (��������→���� =0.641,���� =0.037,��=0.000; ��������→���� = 0217,���� =0080,��=00007������������������������). Additionally, students’ mathematics anxiety significantly and negatively predicted their mathematics performance (������→���� = 0.633,���� =0.024,��=0.000) and career aspirations (������→���� = 0.177,���� =0.036,��=0.000). Indirectly students’ perceptions of the teaching approach significantly contributed to mathematics performance and career aspiration via mathematics anxiety (��������→����→���� =0420,���� =0059,��=0000, ��������→����→���� =0.117,���� =0.024,��=0.000������������������������). The results above imply that mathematics anxiety partially mediated the relationship between students' perceptions of teaching approach and mathematics performance and the
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relationship between students’ perceptions of teaching approach and career aspirations. However, career aspirations did not mediate the relationship between students’ perceptions of teaching approach and mathematics performance. The total effect of students’ perceptions of teaching approach on mathematics performance and career aspiration was positively and statistically significant (��������→���� =0.667,���� =0.055,��=0.000; ��������→���� =0.759,���� =0.030,��= 0000,respectively)
Direct effect
Standardized estimates
SE p value Remark
PTA ⟶ CA 0.641** 0.037 0.000 Supported
PTA ⟶ MA 0.664** 0.039 0.000 Supported
PTA ⟶ MP 0.217** 0.080 0.0007 Supported
MA ⟶ CA 0.177** 0.036 0.000 Supported MA ⟶ MP 0.633** 0.024 0.000 Supported
MP ⟶ MA 0.0232 0.043 0.080 Not supported
CA ⟶ MP 0.045 0.083 0.585 Not supported
MP ⟶ CA 0.005 0.048 0.085 Not supported
Indirect/mediation effect
PTA ⟶ CA ⟶ MP 0.029 0.054 0.589 No mediation
PTA ⟶ MA ⟶ MP 0.420** 0.059 0.000 Partial mediation
PTA ⟶ MA ⟶ CA 0.117** 0.024 0.000 Partial mediation
Total effect of PTA on MP 0.667** 0.055 0.000
Total effect of PTA on CA 0.759** 0.030 0.000 ** �� <0001
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PTA
0.664** 0.641**
MA CA
0.633** 0.217**
0.177** MP
Figure 3: Estimated structural model after excluding non-significant paths (model 2)
The findings of this study revealed that students’ perceptions of the teaching approach positively correlate with career aspirations and mathematics performance but negative correlate with mathematics anxiety. Students who reported positive perceptions of their teachers’ mathematics teaching were more likely to feel less anxious about the subject and were more likely to pursue mathematics related careers, resulting in a good performance. Our results concerning a negative association between students’ perceptions of teaching approach and mathematics anxiety was consistent with the findings of O’Leary et al.'s (2017) study which found that students who had good perceptions of their teachers’ teaching approach had lower mathematics anxiety. Mathematics anxiety also negatively correlated with career aspiration and mathematics performance, indicating that highly mathematics anxious students perform poorly in mathematics and thought that they will not need Mathematics in their future career. Consistent with Hembree (1990) findings, mathematics anxiety was related to poor performance in Mathematics. However, poor mathematics performance was not related to mathematics anxiety. Hembree's (1990) meta analysis revealed that mathematics anxious students avoid mathematics related situations, suggesting that mathematics anxiety impedes learning opportunities and thus negatively affects academic performance. Buckley et al. (2016) and Dowker et al. (2016) linked mathematics anxiety to poor performance whereas Ashcraft (2002) and Chipman et al. (1992) associated it with mathematics related careers avoidance. Our study revealed how students perceive their teachers’ teaching approaches significantly influences their mathematics performance and career aspirations via mathematics anxiety. It is expected that students who perceive thattheir teachers teach wellwillhave less mathematics anxiety(O’Leary et al., 2017), which will lead them to do well in mathematics and be willing to pursue careers in mathematics.
Even though Menon (2021) and Uwineza et al. (2018) found that females are less likely to do well in mathematics and to pursue mathematics related careers, the present study revealed that female students in Rwanda perform equally well in mathematics and are similarly motivated to pursue mathematics related careers as their male counterparts. Contrary to Hembree (1990), who found higher mathematics anxiety levels among females than males, there were no gender differences in students’ mathematics anxiety.
The present study demonstrated that students’ perceptions of teaching approach predict mathematics performance and explain differences in career aspirations and mathematics anxiety among senior two students. Findings on senior two students’ perceptions may inform pedagogical decisions in improving their mathematics performance. Considering the recent reform from a knowledge based curriculum to a competence based curriculum in Rwanda, our research findings suggest that students' perceptions of teaching approach should be considered while implementing any intervention to improve their performances, career aspirations, and to reduce anxiety in Mathematics As done at the university level in Rwanda, secondary teachers should also give a time for students to evaluate their teaching approaches and let them suggest what can be improved This would help teachers to know what students think about their teaching approaches, hence adjust their teaching according to students’ needs.
The present study used cross sectional data; hence, this study cannot infer causal relationships due to cross sectional data. In addition a self reported questionnaire, which is prone to social desirability (Creswell & Clark, 2017) was used. Therefore, quantitative results should be complemented by qualitative results in future research to validate and enrich the study results. As our study was limited to senior two students from six low performing schools in Musanze District, the results cannot be generalized. In the absence of longitudinal data, it is impossible to construct a definite model showing whether the relationships observed in this study are stable over time. Thus,we recommend that longitudinal studies be conducted on the relationship among perceptions of teaching approach, career aspirations, mathematics anxiety, and mathematics performance.
This study examined the relationships between students’ perceptions of teaching approach, mathematics anxiety, career aspirations, and academic achievement by analysing self reported questionnaires from senior two students in Musanze, Rwanda The two research objectives were achieved. First, examined the mediating role of mathematics anxiety and career aspirations on the relationships between students’ perceptions of teachers’ teaching approach and academic performance. Only mathematics mediated the effect of students’ perceptions of teachers’ teaching approach and on their academic performances. Secondly, when we considered the effects of students’ gender, we found no gender differences among senior two students, which provided new insights into how the study variables relate. The results of this study not only provide theoretical
contributions but also may help educators, policymakers, and administrators to rethink the role of students’ perceptions of teacher’s teaching approach and find more effective interventions to motivate lower secondary students to take mathematics related courses and reduce their mathematics anxiety, which in turn could improve their academic performance for male and female students.
While this study is, as far as we know, the first of its kind to examine the structural relationships between students’ perceptions of mathematics teaching, mathematics anxiety, academic achievement, and aspirations for mathematics related careers in the Rwandan context, it by no means exhausts all the factors that influence career choices and academic performance. Therefore, more longitudinal surveys should be designed to examine growth trajectories related to students’ perceptions of mathematics teaching, mathematics anxiety, and academic performance in Rwandan secondary schools.
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Uwineza, I., Rubagiza, J., Hakizimana, T., & Uwamahoro, J. (2018). Gender attitudes and perceptions towards mathematics performance and enrolment in Rwandan secondary schools. RwandanJournalofEducation, 4(2), 44 56.
Wang, J., & Wang, X. (2019). Structural equation modeling: Applications using Mplus. John Wiley & Sons.
Williams, C. (2007). Research methods. Journal of Business & Economics Research (JBER), 5(3).
Wolf,E.J.,Harrington,K.M.,Clark,S.L.,&Miller,M.W.(2013).Samplesizerequirements for structural equation models: An evaluation of power, bias, and solution propriety. EducationalandPsychologicalMeasurement, 73(6), 913 934.
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Gender: M F
Dear student; Thank you for accepting to participate in this study that aims to understand what you think and feel about your teacher’s teaching approach and your motivation to learn Mathematics. You will provide your answers by rating each of the proposed statements by ticking one of the five scales that most suits your judgment (Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, or Strongly Disagree). We request you to be as much as honest as you can because your answers will be treated with the utmost confidentiality and will be solely used for research purposes only. So, do not mention your names anywhere on this questionnaire. Please also note that there is no right or wrong answer here.
Item Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
1. The way my teacher teaches mathematics makes me love it.
2. Teacher’s teaching practices make mathematics simple and easy to understand.
3. I feel bored in the mathematics class because does not connect mathematics with real life.
4. I like the way teacher uses real objects and examples to explain abstract concepts in mathematics.
5. Mathematics teacher does not keep my attention because of giving only formula without explaining I get bored
6. My career will involve mathematics
7. Knowing mathematics will give me a job advantage
8. I will use mathematics problem solving skills in my career
9. Learning mathematics will help me get a good job
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10. Understanding mathematics will benefit me in my career
11. I am nervous about how I will do on the mathematics tests.
12. I become anxious when it is time to take a mathematics test.
13. I worry about failing the mathematics tests.
14. I am concerned that the other students are better at mathematics.
15. I hate taking the mathematics tests.
Thank you for your time
Latent Variable Item Item wording
Mathematics performance (MP )
MP
MA1 I am nervous about how I will do on the mathematics tests.
M SD Skew Kurtosis LF ����
2.35 1.03 0.82 0.44 1.00 1.00
3.69 1.05 0.52 0.09 0.56 0.31
Mathematics Anxiety
(MA; �� =0 ����, AVE:0.58, CR:0.81)
MA2 Ibecome anxiouswhenitis time to take a mathematics test.
MA3 I am concerned that the other students are better at mathematics.
3.56 1.21 0.33 1.00 0.57 0.32
3.55 1.11 0.50 0.48 0.66 0.44
MA4 I worry about failing the mathematics tests. 3.70 1.20 0.68 0.45 0.72 0.51
MA5 I hate taking the mathematics tests. 3.93 1.13 0.99 0.28 0.74 0.54
CA1 My career will involve mathematics 2.19 1.01 0.68 0.11 0.68 0.46
(CA; �� =0 ����, AVE:0.56, CR:0.72)
CA2 Knowing mathematics will give me a job advantage 2.20 1.01 0.69 0.16 0.69 0.48
MA3 I will use mathematics problem solving skills in my career
CA4 Learning mathematics will help me get a good job
CA5 Understanding mathematics will benefit me in my career
PTTA1
Perceptions of Teacher’s Teaching Approach (PTTA; ��=0.����, AVE:0.62, CR:0.89)
The way my teacher teaches mathematics makes me love it.
PTTA2 My teacher’s teaching practices make mathematics simple and easy to learn.
2.11 0.94 0.57 0.11 0.61 0.37
2.25 1.09 0.72 0.09 0.62 0.38
2.65 1.17 0.45 0.49 0.51 0.26
2.25 1.08 0.67 0.15 0.69 0.48
2.26 1.09 0.76 0.04 0.62 0.39
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PTTA3 I feel bored in the mathematics class because does not connect mathematics with real life.
PTTA4 I like the way the teacher uses real objects and examples to explain abstract concepts in mathematics.
PTTA5 Mathematics teacher does not keep my attention because of giving only formulas without explaining I get bored
2.15 1.02 0.73 0.07 0.63 0.40
2.18 1.03 0.73 0.19 0.64 0.42
2.20 1.04 0.71 0.13 0.65 0.43
Note: ��2=ItemReliability,LF=loadingfactor,AVE= averagevarianceextracted,CR=composite reliability,M=Mean,SD=Standarddeviation
Table 2: Multi Group Measurement Invariance Analysis ���� Df CFI SRMR RMSEA TLI
Male 1237.134 114 0.970 0.045 0.042 0.964 Female 1657.592 114 0.950 0.044 0.052 0.950
Configural Invariance 338.30 228 0.958 0.045 0.048 0.950 Metric Invariance (Equal loadings) 353.22 241 0.957 0.053 0.047 0.952 Scalar Invariance (Equal intercepts) 363.86 254 0.958 0.054 0.046 0.955 Δ��2 Δ���� Δ������ ∆���������� P value
Configural
Configural Vs. Equal loadings 14.919 13 0.001 0.001 0.312 Equal loadings Vs. Equal intercepts 10.646 13 0.001 0.002 0.640
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 127 144, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.7
Received Apr 26, 2022; Revised Jun 23, 2022; Accepted Jul 20, 2022
Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia; Universitas Qomaruddin, Gresik, Indonesia
Mustaji Mustaji and Bachtiar S. Bahri
Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia
Abstract. The purpose of this research was to determine the effect of the flipped classroom and flex blended learning models in enhancing the mathematical problem solving ability of junior high school students. The quasi experimental pre and post test method was used to carry out this research. The sample consisted of 128 students divided into two equal groups (n1 = n2 = 64). Self efficacy data were collected through a questionnaire, while problem solving ability was evaluated using validated mathematics problem test sets Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyze the data, with the independent variables comprising the learning model (flipped and flex) and self efficacy (low andhigh).Thedependent wasthepost problem solvingabilityscore,and the pre test was the covariate. The test results showed that participants in the flipped class group obtained a final problem solving ability score greater than those in the flex group after the initial score was controlled (p <0.001), witha large effectsize of 2 =0.382.Althoughself efficacywas a significant factor in the final test score (p = 0.001, 2 = 0.134), the interaction with learning models was insignificant (p = 0.226). This shows that students will increase their math problem solving ability test scores in flipped and flex classes regardless of their self efficacy level In conclusion, the flipped classroom technique can be implemented to enhance mathematical problem solving abilities among Grade 8 students with low or high self efficacy To ensure a successful learning process, variances in cognitive capacity, learning medium, objectives, and students’ emotional qualities also need to be considered.
Keywords: blended learning; flex model; flipped classroom; problem solving; self efficacy
* Corresponding author: Muhammad Jamaluddin; muh.jamaluddin27@gmail.com
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The current digital technology development is bound to affect the rate of learning mathematics (Borba et al., 2016). This is evident in its increasing use in schools during the academic process (Lin et al., 2017). Its utilization n the implementation of learning provides new variations on how to deliver teaching materials, interact during the process, as well as carry out evaluations (Stein & Graham, 2014). However, digital technology still has to be adjusted to suit students’ needs to achieve learning objectives (Carreira et al., 2016)
According to the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 2000), five skill objectives need to be achieved by students, namely representation, reasoning, proof, communication, problem solving, as well as connection. One of the main goals of learning mathematics is acquiring problem solving skill or ability (Santos Trigo, 2014). It is an important part of the curriculum, because when students understand mathematical material, the next step is its application (Roehl et al., 2013) Problem solving ability becomes essential when applied in everyday life (Jazuli et al., 2017) Therefore, it needs to be prioritized in mathematics learning (NCTM, 2000).
Schunk (2020) stated that a problem is a circumstance when an individual tries to achieve some goal and needs to determine or decipher ways to ensure its realization. Problem solving can occur when new students are asked to solve a particular question and try to find a solution (Sengul & Katranci, 2012). Similarly, Carreira et al. (2016) argued that it requires trial, discussion, and reflection. Based on this description, problem solving is a thinking activity perceived as an effort to solve questions or issues that are considered difficult and need to be resolved to achieve certain goals.
According to preliminary research, students still face certain difficulties in solving math problems, such as understanding the question and using critical thinking (Purwoko et al., 2019; Setiana et al., 2021; Triana et al., 2021). This makes it difficult for them to transform a problem into a mathematical sentence. Sari et al. (2021) furthermore explained that errors have been found through analysis of students’ answers, as it was discovered that they were unable to connect the problem solving process with known data and facts. This was due to didactic learning, which is usually centered on the teacher (Mulyono & Hadiyanti, 2018). These problems can be managed by using interactive learning designs that construct knowledge and provide opportunities for students to solve questions.
A suitable learning model is blended learning based on cognitive and constructivist theories (Tynan et al., 2013) It combines the conventional face-toface and online methods to promote more active, interactive, and collaborative learning (Awosdeyi et al., 2014), thereby creating an effective, efficient, and flexible environment (Stein & Graham, 2014). Blended learning combines various activities, namely face to face with synchronous and asynchronous e learning and independent studying (Mundt & Hartmann, 2018) Furthermore, it has the potential to improve teaching quality and ensure the flexibility of students by diversifying instructional delivery and exploring the benefits of information
technology in mathematics learning (Lin et al., 2017). Through this model, students are to flexibly interact with the learning materials and media, as well as provide feedback. The use of online media affords students more time to study the material, considering the speed of their understanding (Goos et al., 2020)
One of the most popular blended learning models is the flipped classroom. The learning material or content is studied at home through activities using various media. Meanwhile, in the class or face to face setting, students have ample time to discuss, ask some questions, or engage in other exercises related to the practical ones (Cronin & Coakley, 2018; Fernández Martín et al., 2020). This enables them to develop concepts, participate in collaborative learning, and solve problems (Roehl et al., 2013). The flipped classroom minimizes the amount of direct instruction from teachers during meetings, thereby maximizing interactions among students. With respect to mathematics learning, this method is considered more effective than the traditional format for students of various educational levels, ranging from K 12 (Chen et al., 2015; Clark & Falls, 2015; Razm et al., 2021) to university (Chen et al., 2016; Park & Han, 2018).
In addition to the flipped method, another blended learning approach is the flex model, which focuses on directing students’ activities to independent online based learning. The teacher’s role is to develop materials and provide students assignments accessed by using the internet. Although the basis of this method is online learning, occasionally, it also directs students to engage in offline exercises. Learning activities with the flex model allow real time schedules which can be changed to meet students’ needs (Beaver et al., 2015; Christensen et al., 2013) The flex model is less popular and has not been widely studied, specifically in relation to learning mathematics compared to the flipped classroom. Salleh et al. (2017) carried out a comparative study involving comparing the flipped and flex models in learning English as a second language (ESL). They reported that the flipped model is more suitable for ESL learning because students do not need to go to the physical English language classroom. All theyneed to do is watch the videobefore the lesson and discuss the material or do the exercises related to the topics given in the classroom. Meanwhile, Aboraya (2021) discovered that the flex model, with the help of a web based virtual laboratory, was more effective in helping Grade 5 students understand abstract mathematical concepts than the conventional methods. The effectiveness of both methods is less known in improving students’ problem solving abilities in mathematics
Besides these models, another factor that affects learning objectives is self efficacy (Çikrıkci,2017). This concept relates to a person’s belief in evaluating their abilities while performing a given task (Doménech-Betoret et al., 2017) Generally, the positive relationship between self efficacy and problem solving ability can be extended to mathematics learning (Amri & Widada, 2019; Sun et al., 2018). Students who believe in their own capability tend to be able to use various cognitive strategies to learn and complete mathematical tasks (Pajares & Graham, 1999) Research has reported a positive relationship between self efficacy and blended models both at the university level (Sun et al., 2018) and among high school students (Lai & Hwang, 2016) The evidence mentioned in this research
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suggested an interaction effect between students’ self efficacy and blended learning which has been less studied, particularly among junior high school students.
This research addresses the gap in the literature about the effect of flipped and flex blended learning models on the mathematical problem solving abilities of junior high school students. It also examines whether the effect of the learning models on problem solving ability depends on their self efficacy level.
The flipped classroom is quite a popular blended learning model, with a general principle described as follows In a traditional setting, teachers use some lesson periods to present the material. The remaining periods are used for extracurricular activities, such as practice and exercises. However, in the flipped classroom, the material is studied at home using various media, while the class or face to face setting is devoted to discussions, asking questions, or practicing activities and exercises (Cronin & Coakley, 2018). This type of learning is student centered, with the teacher acting as a facilitator. Students become more active during face to face meetings because the material has been previously studied (Cronin & Coakley, 2018; Fernández Martín et al., 2020) The flipped classroom comprises four pillars, namely flexible environment, learning culture, intentional content, and professional educator (Ayob et al., 2020). Its characteristics areshown in Table 1.
Rotation Students switch schedules between offline and online learning activities during and after school, respectively. Class or lesson periods are used to discuss learned concepts and practice assignments.
Learning methods
Teaching materials and directives are delivered during online learning, which occurs outside the school premises.
Activities Students need to study the teaching materials at home.
Setting Students can study the materials online and ask questions via the learning management system (LMS) used.
Location Students practice and engage in discussions during offline learning held at school.
Source: Ayob et al. (2020)
Kennedy (2021) stated that the flex model is a blended learning design where the majority of the activities are carried out online, although with the support of the classroom teacher. According to Christensen et al. (2013), the flex model benefits both face to face and online learning, and can also be modified to fulfill students’ needs. Some of the characteristics of this model are shown in Table 2.
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Setting Students study online either individually or in groups, while teachers engage in offline learning when at school, except for homework.
Rotation Content and instructions are fully delivered online. Learning methods Students engage in both online and offline learning individually. Activities In the classroom, teachers tend to provide learning activities carried out in small groups and project teams and offer individual guidance. This is carried out either online or offline.
Source: Ayob et al. (2020)
In the flex model, the distribution of teaching materials, discussions, and communication with students, including the collection and assessment of assignments, are carried out using an LMS, for example Google Classroom (Adamu & Hawamdeh, 2020). Teachers can assess students’ progress through the online platform used, and then select those who need improvement or to be re taught (Vanek et al., 2020). These processes are flexibly carried out, and the learning pace can be adjusted based on students’ needs and the learning environment (Horn et al., 2014).
In his book on self efficacy, Bandura (1997) stated that self efficacy is an individual’s belief in achieving the desired performance level. Someone with a high perception of this attribute hopes to succeed and endeavors to complete any assigned task (Doménech Betoret et al., 2017). A person with a low perception tends to anticipate failure and is less likely to engage in challenging activities persistently. In the academic field, self efficacy strengthens motivation in achieving the desired success and determines one’s behavior and intellectual capability. This attribute is triggered in students through four sources, namely physiological affective states, verbal persuasion, vicarious experiences, and authentic mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997). Furthermore, there are three dimensions of self efficacy, namely level, strength, and generality, and these formed the basis for developing the measurement instruments used in this research, as shown in Table 3 below
Problem solving ability refers to a person ’s skill to solve issues encountered in everyday life (Intaros et al., 2014). According to Polya (1973), there are two types of problems in mathematics, namely to find and to prove. The problem to find is any question aimed to determine or obtain the actual value of certain objects that are not known, as well as provide appropriate conditions. Conversely, the problem to prove is resolved with a specific procedure to determine whether or not a statement is true. These problems are further classified into well structured and ill structured problems. Well structured or routine problems create opportunities for the application of procedures obtained from the teaching materials. On the other hand, an ill structured problem requires collecting
information, finding the solution, and clarifying the correct answer (Chiu et al., 2014)
Aspect
Students are optimistic
Statement Level (confidence level to determine the level of difficulty that is believed to be able to be overcome in completing the task)
Students feel that they can confidently complete the task
Strength (level of consistency in carrying out the task at hand)
Generality (the level of belief and ability to generalize previous experiences)
I am able to carry out every task based on my ability. I will be able to properly complete the given task.
I am confident in my ability to complete the task at hand The other students can attest to the fact that I am proficient in completing assignments.
Students are trying their best I tend to engage in activities necessary to complete the task. Whenthereisa newtaskgiven,and I do not know in advance how to solve it, I can complete it well.
Students are committed to completing assignments.
Students are able to properly respond to the various situations and conditions.
Students use their previous experience as a step in determining the success
I usually feel challenged to complete each task. I try to complete the task even irrespective of the obstacles.
I am able to complete new tasks based on previous experiences. Iamable toperformdifferenttasks.
I feel confident because previous experience is useful in terms of properly completing the assigned task.
I believe that experience and achievements serve as a guide to achieving success.
Adapted from: Bandura (1997)
Polya (1973) described the four stages of problem solving. In the first stage, namely understanding the problem, students need to identify the known parameters, either in data, quantities, relationships, and related values or the variable being sought. Some suggestions that can help them understand complex problems include asking questions about the known and sought variable, explaining the difficulty in their own words, relating the current problem to other similar ones, focusing on the important part, developing models, and drawing diagrams (Kirisci et al., 2020). In the second stage, namely devising a plan, students must identify the operations involved and the strategies needed to solve the given problem. This is carried out by guessing, developing a model, sketching diagrams, simplifying problems, identifying patterns, making tables, conducting experiments and simulations, working in reverse, testing all possibilities, identifying sub goals, making analogies, and sorting data or information (Kirisci et al., 2020). As for the third stage, a plan is carried out where the information
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provided is interpreted in mathematical form and strategies are implemented during the calculation process. At this stage, students need to maintain the plan that has been selected. Unfortunately, assuming such a plan cannot be implemented, students are free to select another method (Kirisci et al., 2020). In the final stage, it is necessary to re check all important information that has been identified and the calculations, consider whether the solution is logical, analyze other alternatives, read the question again, and ask oneself whether it has been properly answered (Kirisci et al., 2020)
Several studies have reported that both flipped and flex models of blended learning have a positive effect on mathematical problem solving skills compared to conventional or face to face learning (Aboraya, 2021; Awosdeyi et al., 2014; Clark & Falls, 2015; Fazal & Bryant, 2019; Lopes & Soares, 2018; Razm et al., 2021; Wiginton, 2013). Students are usually less interested and motivated during face to face learning; therefore, they find it difficult trying to understand the learning material (Bringula et al., 2021) The application of active blended learning triggers interactivity among students and teachers. Constructive knowledge is imbibed in students; therefore, they are made to memorize and understand the teaching material. They are also facilitated to discuss the lesson delivered and apply it as a starting point to be used in problem solving. Students have more time to study the material and assignments at their own pace independently. It has been shown that blended learning has many variations in teaching mathematics (Awosdeyi et al., 2014) Its application is considered appropriate for improving mathematical problem solving ability, specifically at the secondary level
According to Loch and Borland (2014), successful blended learning improves students’ performance and aids them to develop self regulation skills and become aware of their lack of understanding related to complex conceptual tasks. The success of its implementation is affected by both cognitive and affective abilities (Çikrıkci, 2017). Self efficacy is one of the main factors that can affect the success of blended learning. It also has an impact on students’ choices, level of motivation, and resistance to adversity (Chytrý et al., 2020). Those with high self efficacy generally tend to have certain beliefs, accurately perform assigned tasks, are determined, and tend to think clearly, and are therefore highly confident when solving a problem (Wiginton, 2013). Conversely, students with low self efficacy have low self regulation, motivation, and self awareness. They are generally not confident in their ability to solve problems, tend to be unwary, and are not careful in writing their answers (Wiginton, 2013). Prior studies have shown that self efficacy is closely related to learning achievement in mathematics (Amri & Widada, 2019; Arifin et al., 2021) It is also one of the main factors that determines the success of blended learning implementation (Rafiola et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2018). We attempt to explore whether students in the flipped classroom will obtain different problem solving results than those in the flex classroom, depending on their levels of self efficacy
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The participants in this research were Grade 8 students of a junior high school in Gresik, East Java, Indonesia. The sample selection was carried out using a purposive sampling technique based on prior knowledge of the population and the specific study objectives (Fraenkel et al., 2012). The District Education Office selected a school with low mathematics achievement. In general, Grade 8 Indonesian students scored below the “low” level in the 2013 mathematics testing for international benchmarking (OECD/ADB, 2015) Data were obtained from four out of eight classes of Grade 8 students at the selected school based on their similar composition of self efficacy levels (low and high) The four classes consisted of 128 students, which were divided into two groups, namely flipped and flex. Each group comprised 64 students within the age range of 13 to 14 years
This research employed a quasi experimental design consisting of two groups, subject to pre and post tests. The independent variables were blended learning (flipped classroom and flex model) and self efficacy (high and low). The covariate was the initial problem solving score (pre test), while the dependent variable was the final problem solving score (post test). This research was based on experimental and control classes as well as pre and post tests, as shown in Table 4.
Group Pre test Experimental treatments Post test
Experimental group O1 X1 O2 Control group O3 X2 O4
Xi : Experimental treatments at i = 1, 2 Oi : Problem solving ability test at i = 1, 2, 3, 4
As seen in Table 4, self efficacy questionnaires and pre tests were initially administered and performed before the learning process (pre test). The treatment for the experimental and control groups involved using the flipped and flex classroom models. After the learning procedure, both groups were given a problem solving ability test (post test).
In this research, self efficacy was measured with a questionnaire adapted from the indicators designed by Bandura (1997) The participants were asked to answer 12 statement items on a 4 point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 4 = very appropriate). An example of an item is: “I can engage in every task based on my ability.” The content validity test was evaluated by experts, with good assessment results. The item validity evaluation was also carried out using the Pearson product moment correlation, based on the criterion that the value of rcount has to be > rtable (Aspelmeier, 2005). A total of 62 students who were not included in the intervention were involved to evaluate the self efficacy questionnaire. The correlation test results for each question item at the level �� =5% and the value of rtable = 0.25 for df = 60 are shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Pearson correlation values of self efficacy questionnaire Number Correlation Criterion Number Correlation Criterion 1 0.626 Valid
7 0.357 Valid
2 0.589 8 0.518 3 0.380 9 0.577 4 0.494 10 0.324 5 0.485 11 0.543 6 0.635 12 0.605
Based on the validity of the test results, it was discovered that all statement items were valid. Moreover, a reliability test that aims to determine the internal consistency of the instrument questions was carried out using Cronbach’ s alpha criteria. In the social science field, a coefficient value > 0.6 is acceptable (Field, 2017) The reliability test result of the self efficacy questionnaire was 0.747, which is presumed to be good.
Furthermore, a test instrument that consisted of four essay questions on Pythagorean theorem was used to measure students’ problem solving ability This test was developed following the four stages by Polya (1973). The problem solving test is performed within 60 minutes, and the score for each question ranges from 1 to 8. Mathematics education experts conducted content validity testing, with the results of this instrument category being very good. The item validity test was performed using the Pearson product moment correlation based on the criterion that rcount > 0.25 for df = 60, �� =5%. Table 6 shows that all items were declared valid. The Cronbach alpha coefficient value of 0.686 implies that the test instrument for problem solving ability was reliable.
Table 6: Pearson correlation value of problem solving test instrument Number Correlation Criterion 1 0.682 Valid 2 0.657 3 0.757 4 0.783
The data were gathered after the research instrument was proven valid and reliable. The total score of the self efficacy questionnaire was obtained by adding up the scores for each item, which were further classified under low and high categories. This division was used to obtain the median, and the results are taken into consideration while grouping the participants into two classes. After acquiring all the relevant data, statistical inference testing was carried out using the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) performed with SPSS 23. During the evaluation, the dependent variable was the post test value of problem solving ability, the independent one was the value of model and self efficacy, while the results of the pre test acted as a covariate.
This research was carried out for six weeks by implementing two blended learning models: flipped and flex models. The first step was to determine the participants for the flipped and flex classes. Before assigning any work, all of them were asked to fill out a self efficacy questionnaire to group each participant into the appropriate category. They were also expected to engage in a pre test to determine their initial problem solving ability. The subject matter of the Pythagorean theorem was adapted to the Grade 8 junior high school mathematics curriculum. The lessons were delivered by the same teacher twice a week, with a duration of 30 minutes for each group. The learning media used were videos, textbooks, and the internet, for example Google Sites. Google Classroom was used for the interactive sessions outside of the school, using electronic devices such as smartphones and computers to access learning resources.
Regarding the flipped model, the learning materials were delivered online through Google Sites and Google Classroom before in class meetings Furthermore, during in class or face to face sessions, participants were invited to discuss the material they had studied independently. They were also asked to evaluate the worksheets that had been provided. In contrast to the flex model, teachers encouraged participants to study the online materials by accessing them using a computer or smartphone. The teacher’s role was to assist participants in studying independently. At the end of the meeting, participants were given a worksheet to be evaluated at home. The answers were collected through Google Classroom. After each flipped and flex class, a formative assessment was carried out to evaluate the learning process during each meeting. At the end of the entire procedure, participants were asked to work on their problem solving ability post test.
Descriptive statistics for math problem solving scores based on the main effects of each factor and the interactions between them are shown in Figure 1 and Table 7.
Figure 1. Comparison of problem-solving ability between blended learning model and self efficacy before and after intervention
Table 7: Descriptive statistics of all variables
Variable n Pre test Post test Mean SD Mean SD
Model
Flipped 64 9.73 2.807 24.75 3.537 Flex 64 9.38 2.682 21.11 2.955
Efficacy Low 43 8.93 2.649 21.42 3.6 High 85 9.87 2.746 23.69 3.569
Cross tabulation of the model vs efficacy vs test score
Model Efficacy n
Pre-test Post-test Mean SD Mean SD
Flipped Low 21 9.29 2.723 22.95 3.309 High 43 9.95 2.853 25.63 3.338 Flex Low 22 8.59 2.594 19.95 3.302 High 42 9.79 2.664 21.71 2.597
In general, the problem solving test scores between participants in the flipped (M = 9.73; SD = 2.807) and flex classes (M = 9.38; SD = 2.682) before the intervention were relatively similar. Those with low (M = 8.93; SD = 2.649) and high (M = 9.87; SD = 2.746) levels of self efficacy did not show significant differences on their pre test scores. Similar observations were also noted in the respective cross tabulation, as shown in Table 7.
Before the ANCOVA analysis, Levene’s test was carried out, and the following results were obtained: F(3,124) = 2.372, p = 0.0735 (p > 0.05). This indicates that the assumption of variance homogeneity is fulfilled. A summary of the ANCOVA test results is shown in Table 8.
Source F p 2 2
Problem solving_Pre 43.156 < 0.001 0.260 Model 40.639 < 0.001 0.248 0.382 Efficacy 10.906 0.001 0.081 0.134 Model * Efficacy 1.479 0.226 0.012 0.007
Based on the results displayed in Table 8, the learning model was a significant factor after the initial problem solving score was controlled, with F(1,123) = 40 639, p < 0.001. Although the SPSS output yielded an effect size value of 2 , in this research, we manually calculated the value of 2 for bias correction (Lakens, 2013). The value of 2 relating to the difference in the learning model of 0.382 indicates that the blended model had a large effect, where participants in the flipped class obtained a higher problem solving score than those in the flex class (Table 7). Problem solving scores also differed between participants with high
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and low self efficacy, with F(1,123) = 10.906, p < 0.001, with a medium effect size (2 = 0.134). However, no interaction was detected between the learning model and self efficacy in the final problem solving score, with a value of F(1,123) = 1.479, p = 0.226, 2 = 0.007. This shows that both variables are able to individually explain the ability to solve mathematical problems. Regardless of the level of self efficacy, participants’ problem solving abilities increased after they had attended the flipped and flex classes, with those in the flipped class scoring higher (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Interaction between learning model and self efficacy
In general, we found that the blended learning model was able to increase the final scores awarded to the mathematical problem solving abilities of the participating junior high school students. This is in line with previous research, which showed the positive impact of blended learning, specifically the flipped classroom method, compared to the conventional approach adopted in learning mathematics in both K 12 (Clark & Falls, 2015; Fazal & Bryant, 2019; Razm et al., 2021; Wiginton, 2013) and higher education (Awosdeyi et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2016).
Lin et al. (2017) demonstrated that blended learning effectively improves academic achievement This model allows students to use their digital devices to access teaching resources, thereby enabling them to control their entire progress and study without being distracted. They can browse the learning materials as many times as possible, and repeat the explanations and exercises for them to understand the content (Tynan et al., 2013)
Specifically, the flipped classroom also boosts interaction among peers, students, and teachers. Students benefit from group discussions and collaborative learning helps them increase their understanding of previous self studies (Guo et al., 2016; Roehl et al., 2013). Furthermore, they actively use online resources rather than
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passively receive information from teachers to acquire and learn mathematical concepts. In the face to face part, students are aided with their assignments and encouraged to get involved. This process improves students’ mathematical problem solving ability. They exhibit more positive attitudes, enjoy the lessons delivered, and are more motivated to practice mathematics (Razm et al., 2021). Good interaction between the main components tends to impact learning efficiency.
Meanwhile, compared to the flex model, participants in the flipped class achieved higher scores. Unfortunately, no research has compared these two methods in learning mathematics and other subjects at the secondary school level. The flex model allows students to move according to a more fluid schedule between learning activities and modalities according to their needs.
Anthony (2019) examined best teacher practices in blended elementary classrooms through observations of and interviews with six teachers and found that flex model learning requires more drastic changes in instructional design than other station rotation models. This explains why it is less effective than the flipped classroom in enhancing mathematical problem solving skills. Students in a flipped class are exposed to more opportunities in terms of discussing the material while in class because it was studied beforehand. Comparative research has also supported that the flipped model is more suitably applied in the ESL classroom than the flex one (Salleh et al., 2017)
This study also discovered that self efficacy has a significant effect on problem solving ability. The findings are in line with previous research showing that self efficacy has a positive effect on the general academic scores and mathematical problem solving ability (Amri & Widada, 2019; Sun et al., 2018) This implies that in circumstances where students are faced with a particular problem, the higher their self efficacy, the more positive their attitude. Conversely, it implies that the lower their self efficacy, the higher the feeling of being threatened and the more negative the attitude. Students need to be able to overcome obstacles and not give up quickly on these online subjects. Self efficacy is needed for students to develop their thinking processes (Chen et al., 2015; Lai & Hwang, 2016). It helps them to predict their problem solving abilities in a controlled model as well as to detect the effects of anxiety, cognitive competence, math achievement, and self efficacy on independent learning (Pajares & Graham, 1999)
We found an insignificant interaction between learning model and self efficacy, which indicates that the two variables (learning model and self-efficacy) had no simultaneous effect on mathematical problem solving ability. It is presumed that the effect of the learning model on this variable does not depend on self efficacy. Participants in both the low and high self efficacy groups tended to experience an increase in problem solving ability in both the blended flipped and flex classes (see cross tabulation section in Table 7). Moreover, their problem solving abilities were affected by independent variables that had a separate impact (Kerlinger,
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2006). This is because this study only evaluated self efficacy before blended learning was applied, thereby probably boosting those with low self efficacy.
Action research conducted on students in Grade 9 relating to their learning of algebra showed that students in the flipped mastery learning method class had higher scores in the Mathematics Self Efficacy Scale Revised (MSES R) test than those in the traditional classes (Wiginton, 2013) This is also in line with a systematic review of the flipped classroom, which showed that the level of self efficacy in collaborative learning positively impacts strategies employed during the learning sessions (Rasheed et al., 2020). Therefore, it has potential to obtain different outcomes, assuming self efficacy is also re measured after the intervention
This research had several limitations First, it was limited to the use of junior high school students from a particular institution, and as such the results cannot be generalized to other populations and disciplines. Second, the learning outcomes measured were limited to problem solving ability. Therefore, further research needs to be conducted to determine the effectiveness of blended and other models, such as the rotation and dependent variables. According to preliminary research, these academic outcomes are related to understanding mathematical concepts (Arifin et al., 2021; NCTM, 2000) and students’ attitudes or perceptions after the intervention (Chen et al., 2016; Clark & Falls, 2015)
This is the first research to compare the effect of two blended methods in mathematics learning in secondary schools. According to the findings, the blended method offers many combinations of various learning models, such as the flipped and flex models The flipped model was suggested because it is more suitable to improve certain mathematical abilities in secondary school students. Furthermore, cognitive ability, learning media, objectives, and students’ affective characteristics need to be considered in order to ensure its effectiveness (Setiana et al., 2021) Educators must be able to combine certain learning approaches with environmental conditions and facilities that allow students to achieve their objectives optimally (Purwoko et al., 2019).
The main objective of this research was to examine the effect of blended learning with flipped and flex models and self efficacy, respectively, on the mathematical problem solving abilities of Grade 8 students and the interaction between these two factors. In summary, participants in the flipped class obtained higher problem solving ability than those in the flex class. Furthermore, those who had high self efficacy performed better than those with low self efficacy. There was no interaction between the learning models and self efficacy. This indicates that its effect on the mathematical problem solving ability does not depend on the level of self efficacy.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 145 157, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.8
Received May 9, 2022; Revised Jul 8, 2022; Accepted Jul 19, 2022
Abstract. Collaborative teaching (co teaching) is a method of providing educationalservicestostudentswithlearningdisabilities(LDs)ingeneral education classes, and it also reduces educational dispersion as a result of these students joining remedial instruction in special education programs. This descriptive research aimed to identify the level of awareness of co teaching among teachers of resource room program (RRP). A total of 162 Omani teachers of RRP responded on a co teaching scale.Thisscaleconsistedof 28itemsdistributedintofivedomainsrelated to the concept of co teaching, as well as co teaching models, in addition to the elements, benefits and requirements of co teaching. The results indicated that, according to the means and standard deviations of the scale domains, the teachers’ awareness of co teaching was as follows: a low level of awareness of the elements, requirements and models of co teaching, a moderate one of the benefits of co teaching, and a high one of the concept of co teaching. The outcomes of the t test also showed that there were no statistically significant differences in the teachers’ awareness attributed to their specialization and teaching experience. This research recommended reconsidering the pre service and in service teacher training programs in Oman to align with the philosophy of co teaching and raising awareness of it among Omani teachers and educational leaders.
Keywords: awareness; co teaching; Oman; teachers; students with learning disabilities; resource room program
Students with LDs spend the majority of the school day with their peers in general education classes, and the rest of it in RRP. The RRP provides remedial instruction
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
services to improve the academic and social skills of students with LDs. The teacher of RRP teaches students with LDs academic skills in reading, writing and mathematics in which they have learning deficits Therefore, RRP may reduce the opportunities for students with LDs to benefit from the school program and the general curriculum, as well as social interaction with their peers without LDs. Teachers of RRPs are not trained to teach all school subjects to students with LDs, and general education teachers are not trained to deal with students with LDs in general education classes. Hence, there was a need to find a new educational strategy that meets the academic and social requirements of students with LDs and create a spirit of collaboration between general and special education teachers (GSETs) From this standpoint, co teaching emerged to establish a collaboration base between GSETs in teaching students with LDs in inclusive education settings.
Co teaching developed in the middle of the last century to improve the teaching of students with special needs and to respond to laws and regulations demanding the education of these students in the least restrictive environments (Walther Thomas et al., 1996). Therefore, co teaching came to establish a positive collaborative relationship between GSETs to provide high quality teaching for students with LDs in inclusive education settings. Co teaching is one of the educational strategies that seek to achieve inclusive education for students with LDs. It is based on collaboration between GSETs in teaching students with LDs in general education classes (Alsheaha, 2022). In other words, co teaching is based on the collaboration between GSETs in planning, teaching, assessment and classroom management to provide appropriate education for all students in general education classes (Cook & McDuffie Landrum, 2020). Therefore, co teaching provides opportunities to integrate students with special needs with their peers, receive individual support, and enhance their social skills in the general classroom (Al Rumaih & Aba Hussein, 2019; Perez &Wong, 2012).
The purpose of co teaching is to provide an opportunity for students with LDs to access general education curricula and benefit from instruction strategies that enhance their learning in general education classes (Friend, 2008). The GSETs participate together in teaching the general curriculum to students with and without special needs (Brown, 2013). Co teaching is a type of collaboration between two or more teachers who share their intellectual and professional experience to create an educational environment that contributes to the academic achievement of students with special needs in general education classes (Diana, 2014; Hentz, 2017). Therefore, co teaching achieves integration between teachers’ experiences and makes students’ participation in the educational process more effective. Individual remedial instruction by special education teachers may not be a guarantee of adequate teaching for students with disabilities (Weiss et al., 2020).
Co teaching is commonly used in general education schools in the United States of America because it meets the educational, social and psychological needs of students with special needs in inclusive education classes (Randolph, 2017). It also contributes to the formation of the teacher’s balanced personality through
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knowledge of the strengths and weaknesses that appear to him/her during the implementation of co teaching (Murawski & Spencer, 2011) Co teaching also promotes positive interaction between GSETs by sharing responsibility in classroom management (DelliCarpini, 2009).
Co teaching may be more effective than the conventional teaching methods used in teaching students with LDs in the Omani RRP It improves academic achievement, thinking skills, motivation and active learning among students with LDs (Le et al., 2018). Co teaching includes group activities based on the mutual positive interaction between students, as well as providing them with a spirit of collaboration to reach answers to teachers’ questions (Wang & Hwang, 2012).
Constructivist learning theory advocated the integration of educational practices between teachers (Shah, 2019). Based on this theory, co teaching facilitates the cross fertilization of ideas and develops teaching strategies for teachers that benefit students with LDs. Accordingly, social interaction between teachers and their participation together in preparing the classroom environment gives students opportunities for oral and written communication and contributes to their cognitive development (Hurst et al., 2013). On the other hand, conversation theory emphasized the dialogue method to construct human knowledge among students (Pangaro, 2017). Co teaching may become a pillar in teaching Omani students with LDs in inclusive education environments because it is linked to the elements of the learning teaching process. Therefore, GSETs are required to use contemporary teaching methods such as co teaching to improve the academic skills of students with LDs (Bani Abdel Rahman & Al Zoubi, 2017). Teachers also encourage the teaching of students with LDs in inclusive education settings by using co teaching rather than in an RRP (Strogilos et al., 2016). Pre and in service teacher training programs play a role in facilitating the implementation of co teaching in inclusive education settings (Pancsofar & Petroff, 2013, 2016). In this regard, pre service special education teachers have noted a lack of co teaching content, while general education teachers need more training on its implementation (Shin et al., 2016).
The effectiveness of co teaching depends on the role of teachers of students with LDs in raising awareness among the administrative and educational staff in inclusive education environments. Thus, the teacher contributes to enhancing the learning of students with special needs in inclusive education environments (Nwosu et al., 2020). Contemporary trends demand that the special education teacher be a consultant for general education teachers (Abdallah et al., 2021). Thus, the most effective teachers are those who demonstrate collaborative relationships with the school administration and other teachers, as well as parents of students with LDs.
There are positive advantages to co teaching, but, on the other hand, there are problems that reduce its use, such as teachers’ resistance to the idea of co-teaching and their refusal to work with another teacher in the classroom, the academic performance gap between students with and without LDs, and the weakness of technical and administrative support provided by school principals (Abidin et al.,
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2012), In addition, teachers have insufficient information about co teaching, few opportunities for professional development, and a lack of co planning time (Alnasser, 2020; Mulhollanda & O’Connor, 2016). At the Arab level, there are obstacles that reduce the implementation of shared teaching in public education schools. Almajed and Albash (2015) have pointed to the negative perception among parents, teachers and students that reduces the chances of using co teaching, the low number of professional development programs for GSETs, and school administrations’ lack of awareness in regard to co teaching.
Co teaching includes three elements related to co planning, co instruction and co assessing (Brendle et al., 2017). In co planning, the GSETs plan teaching methods, materials and assessment methods In co instruction, they implement one of the co teaching models, and in co assessing, they evaluate the performance of students with and without LDs, and the co teaching model used with these students (Sileo, 2011). On the other hand, co teaching includes six models that can be used with students with and without LDs in inclusive education environments. These six models are as follows (Hentz, 2017; Murawski & Lochner, 2017; Stein, 2016):
1. One teaches, one observes: One teacher teaches, while the other observes the teacher’s performance and the students’ social, behavioral and academic aspects.
2. One teaches, one assists: One teacher teaches the course content, while the other teacher roams among the students to provide support or answer their questions.
3. Team teaching: GSETs are in the classroom at the same time and take turns teaching and giving instructions to all students.
4. Alternative teaching: One teacher teaches a large group of students, while the other teacher teaches a small group of students in the same class. The teacher of the small group provides remedial instruction for students with LDs or enrichment activities for gifted students.
5. Station teaching: The teachers divide the students into three groups or teaching stations and the students move between these stations. The two teachers at each station teach students the same lesson in different ways.
6. Parallel teaching: The class is divided into two equal groups of students, and the two teachers teach the same lesson to both groups.
The issue discussed in this research has emerged following the international laws and trends that require inclusive education for students with LDs. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) emphasized that students with special needs should have access to high quality instruction by providing teaching strategies that meet their educational needs in inclusive environments (Guerra, 2015) on the other hand, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) recommends teaching students with special needs in the least restrictive environments (Friend et al., 2010). This investigation was also developed in response to the results and recommendations of previous studies. Pancsofar and Petroff (2013) suggested that teachers who receive training services on co teaching were more confident and positive in their co teaching practices than those who did not receive this training. Brown (2013) described the need to train teachers in the area of content and
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planning for co teaching. Aba Hussein and Al Hussein (2016) and Simon (2017) indicated the lack of in service training programs for special education teachers on co teaching, whereas Baqabed (2018) stressed the need for training workshops to improve the knowledge of teachers of students with LDs about co teaching. In this regard, Al Khatri et al. (2020) confirmed the effectiveness of training programs for improving the attitudes of teachers of students with LDs toward co teaching. Shaffer and Brown (2015) found that GSETs have positive views on co teaching. Alsheaha (2022) emphasized the use of teachers of students with LDs for co teaching and the conduct of empirical research based on it.
This research arose from the need of the educational system in the Sultanate of Oman for research that keeps pace with global trends. These contemporary trends demand the inclusion of students with special needs in general education schools and classes. Therefore, inclusive education requires collaboration between GSETs. This investigation may contribute to improving the awareness of co teaching among these teachers. The results of this analysis may also be useful in organizing workshops and training programs based on co teaching in the Sultanate of Oman. The aim of this evaluation is to identify the awareness of co teaching among teachers of students with LDs by answering the following questions:
1. What level of awareness do teachers have of co teaching?
2. Does the teachers’ level of awareness of co teaching differ according to their specialization?
3. Does the teachers’ level of awareness of co teaching differ according to their amount of teaching experience?
A descriptive survey research design was used to determine the teachers’ level of awareness of co teaching. An electronic scale was distributed to all Omani basic education teachers who teach students with LDs in the RRP
The research population consisted of 649 teachers from various Omani governorates. These teachers teach students with LDs in the RRP attached in the Omani basic education schools. A scale was distributed to all these teachers. Through the convenience sampling method, 162 female teachers responded to the scale. Therefore, the percentage of participants reached 25% of the research population. Table 1 includes the demographic data of the participants.
Table 1 shows the demographic data of the participants who teach students with LDs enrolled in the RRP, of whom 93 teachers teach the Arabic language, and 69
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mathematics. The table also illustrates the level of teaching experience, with 88 teachers having 11 years or more compared to 74 with 10 or less
After reviewing the theoretical literature, the first draft of the co teaching scale, which consisted of 34 items, was developed. To check the psychometric characteristics, the scale was reviewed by five faculty members at the Department of Psychology, Sultan Qaboos University. Thus, the final draft of the scale consisted of 28 items. These items were distributed into five domains related to the concept of co teaching (six items), elements of co teaching (five items), co teaching models (six items), the benefits of co teaching (five items), and co teaching requirements (six items). Furthermore, each item of the scale was answered on a 5 point Likert scale from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). The final draft of the scale was performed on a pilot study of 30 teachers. The reliability coefficient according to Cronbach’ s alpha for each domain was as follows: the concept of co teaching (0.83), elements of co teaching (0.81), co teaching models (0.86), the benefit of co teaching (0.83), and co teaching requirements (0.85). In order to analyze the results, the mean (M) was classified into three levels: low (1:00 to 2.33), moderate (2.34 to 3.67), and high (3.68 to 5:00).
Approvals were obtained from the College of Education at Sultan Qaboos University and the Omani Ministry of Education. The link to the co teaching scale was distributed by WhatsApp to all teachers of students with LDs in the various governorates of the Sultanate of Oman. These teachers were also informed of the instructions for responding to the terms of the scale.
3.1 In terms of the teachers’ level of awareness in regard to co teaching, Table 2 indicates that teachers have a high level of awareness of the concept of co teaching (M = 2.35; standard deviation (SD) = .594), a moderate one of co teaching benefits (M = 2.22; SD = .308), and a low one of co teaching models (M = 1.63; SD = .319), elements (M = 1.61; SD = .239), and requirements (M = 1.45; SD = .275)
Table 2: Means and standard deviations according to the scale domains
Domain Mean SD Level
Concept of co teaching 2.35 .594 High Co teaching benefits 2.22 .308 Moderate Co teaching models 1.63 .319 Low Co teaching elements 1.61 .239 Low Co teaching requirements 1.45 .275 Low
3.2 The teachers’ level of awareness in regard to co teaching does not differ according to specialization. Table 3 shows that there were no statistically significant differences in the teachers’ awareness of co teaching attributed to their specialization (p > 0.05).
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Table 3: T test results according to specialization
Domains Qualification M SD t p
Concept of co teaching Arabic language 2.38 .607 1.02 .306 Mathematics 2.28 .567
Co teaching benefits Arabic language 2.22 .331 .027 .978 Mathematics 2.22 .257
Co teaching models Arabic language 1.63 .229 1.41 .158 Mathematics 1.57 .255
Co teaching elements Arabic language 1.42 .249 1.91 .058 Mathematics 1.50 .317
Co teaching requirements Arabic language 1.64 .344 .775 .440 Mathematics 1.60 .261
3.3 The teachers’ level of awareness in regard to co teaching does not differ according to teaching experience. Table 4 shows that there were no statistically significant differences in the teachers’ awareness of co teaching attributed to their amount of teaching experience (p > 0.05).
Table 4: T-test results according to teaching experience
Domains
Teaching experience M SD t p
Concept of co teaching 10 years or less 2.39 .592 .785 .434 11 years and over 2.31 .597
Co teaching benefits 10 years or less 2.21 .316 .591 .555 11 years and over 2.24 .303
Co teaching models 10 years or less 1.61 .247 .294 .769 11 years and over 1.62 .233
Co teaching elements 10 years or less 1.48 .292 1.52 .129 11 years and over 1.42 .258
Co teaching requirements 10 years or less 1.63 .325 .044 .965 11 years and over 1.63 .316
The responses to the first question showed that teachers of students with LDs have a low awareness level of the elements, models and requirements of co teaching, a moderate one of its benefits, and a high one of its concept. The teachers’ low awareness of the elements, models and requirements of co teaching can be justified by the fact that it is not implemented in Omani general education schools. Mainstreaming (RRP) is the current educational system in Omani basic education schools. Therefore, the implementation of co teaching in inclusive education environments requires the issuance of legislation and laws that encourage the teaching of students with LDs with their peers in the general classroom environment and throughout the school day. In this regard, the NCLB stressed that students with special needs receive a high quality education in the least restrictive environments through the use of strategies that meet their educational needs (Scott, 2016). In contrast, the IDEA emphasized teaching students with special needs the general curriculum in general education classes (Compton et al., 2015; Simonvski, 2015). Thus, the positive attitudes of GSETs enhance their awareness of the elements, models and requirements of co teaching. In other
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words, teachers’ knowledge of co teaching improves their attitudes toward implementing it in general education classrooms. On the international level, Almajed and Albash (2018) indicated that teachers’ attitudes towards implementing co teaching still varied between supporters and opponents. Almajed and Albash (2018) reviewed 41 articles published in English. This review addressed the attitudes, requirements, models and benefits of co teaching. Their results concluded that GSETs need training on the models, elements and requirements of co teaching.
Since mainstreaming is the educational alternative applicable in Omani schools, it is obvious that the awareness level of teachers is low in relation to the elements, models and requirements of co teaching. The implementation of co teaching requires knowledge of co planning so that the teacher of Arabic or mathematics collaborated with the teacher of students with LDs in lesson planning. It also requires co instruction between GSETs through the implementation of a co teaching model, in addition to the active participation of GSETs in classroom management and co assessing students’ performance. In this regard, Indelicato (2014) asserted that GSETs do not know the concept and models of co teaching. On the level of Arab Gulf states, Baqabed (2018) confirmed that the knowledge of teachers of students with LDs about co teaching models is still average. Aba Hussein and Al Hussein (2016) showed that teachers of students with LDs face problems in implementing co teaching in general education classes. Aldabas and Alhossein (2019) stressed that the readiness of GSETs for using co teaching in co teaching in inclusive schools is still average.
Therefore, it is necessary to reconsider the pre service and in service preparation programs for Omani GSETs. Training programs in the Sultanate of Oman must highlight the models and elements of co teaching. The Omani special education teacher needs to have an in depth knowledge of general education curricula, while the Omani general education teacher needs to have knowledge of the categories and characteristics of students with special needs. Thus, training programs may contribute to providing Omani GSETs with theoretical and practical knowledge about the requirements of co teaching and promoting collaboration among others In this regard, Almajed and Albash (2018) suggested reconsidering the pre service and in service teacher education programs to comply with the requirements of co teaching in inclusive education environments. Al Zoubi and Bani Abdel Rahman (2016) indicated that the weakness of teachers in implementing teaching strategies is one of the challenges of inclusive education for students with LDs. Chitiyo and Brinda (2018) stressed that the lack of training and workshops reduced teachers’ preparedness for using co teaching.
The results showed that the teachers of students with LDs have a moderate awareness of the benefits of co teaching. This outcome can be justified by the fact that these teachers have only theoretical knowledge and no practical experience of the benefits of implementing co teaching in inclusive education environments. Consequently, these teachers need to have applied knowledge regarding implementing co teaching in general education classrooms, as well as the positive social, psychological and behavioral benefits of applying it to students with LDs.
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The presence of students with LDs with their peers in the general class throughout the school day contributes to reducing the social stigma of students with LDs. In this regard, Packard et al (2011) emphasized the benefits of co teaching in reducing social stigma and improving the mental health of students with LDs as a result of their studying the general curriculum. In addition, Dasilva (2011) demonstrated the positive impact of co teaching on social and academic skills on students with and without LDs because it encouraged them to participate in dialogue and collaboration. On the other hand, co teaching contributed to advancing the reading and writing skills of students with special needs and gave them access to general education curricula (Wilson & Michaels, 2007). In this regard, Alsheaha (2022) confirmed the effectiveness of co teaching in boosting the reading skills of students with and without LDs. On the other hand, Lehane and Senior (2019) stressed the need to conduct empirical research to identify the effect of co teaching on the academic skills of students with LDs.
Co teaching also helped improve positive interactions and classroom activities among students with disabilities in classrooms that applied co teaching (Strogilos & Avramidis, 2016). In contrast, it provides teachers with new methods for collaboration and professional development. Through co teaching, teachers exchange ideas for teaching students with LDs in inclusive education settings. Thus, co teaching results in diverse social and academic benefits for teachers and students The awareness of the benefits of co teaching must be raised among teachers of students with LDs. Thus, professional development programs and collaborative relationships between GSETs have facilitated the implementation of co teaching (Aljabr et al., 2019). In this regard, constructivist theory has received attention from psychologists because it focuses on aspects of social and cultural interactions in the education of students with LDs. Therefore, the students learn more as a group than they do individually. The implementation of co teaching by GSETs in inclusive education for students with LDs achieves the implications of this theory.
This research observed that the teachers of students with LDs have a high awareness of the concept of co teaching. This outcome can be justified by the efforts of the Omani Ministry of Education to achieve inclusive education and keep pace with contemporary international trends in teaching students with LDs in general education classes throughout the school day. The Omani legislation that developed in response to international laws also contributed to raising teachers’ awareness of the concept of co teaching. In addition, the desire of Omani teachers to learn the contemporary teaching methods used in teaching students with LDs around the world cannot be ignored. In other words, the internet and social media have contributed to improving teachers’ awareness of co teaching and have formed a conceptual framework regarding it.
The results of the second and third questions showed that there were no statistically significant differences in the teachers’ awareness level of co teaching attributed to their specialization and teaching experience. Accordingly, awareness of co teaching was not affected by the specialization and teaching experience of teachers of students with LDs. This result can be justified by the fact that the idea of co teaching is not presently implemented and that mainstreaming education is
the current practice in Omani general education schools. Therefore, it is normal that awareness of co teaching is not altered by specialization and teaching experience.
The results of this analysis showed that there was a difference in the awareness level of the concept, models, benefits and requirements of co teaching among teachers of students with LDs. The outcomes also indicated that there were no statistically significant differences in the teachers’ awareness attributed to their specialization and teaching experience. These conclusions encourage educational leaders in the Sultanate of Oman to rethink the in service training programs for special education teachers. In service training programs may contribute to improving the knowledge, awareness and implementation of co teaching by teachers of students with LDs. Despite the findings of this research, the educational field in Sultanate of Oman and the Arab Gulf states needs more empirical research on the effectiveness of implementing co teaching in inclusive education environments. These investigations may contribute toward modifying teachers’ attitudes towards co teaching and to improving their awareness of co teaching models, requirements and elements. Subsequently, it is recommended that an evaluation of the attitudes of Omani general education teachers towards co teaching be conducted. Finally, it should be noted that the selection of participants through convenience sampling may reduce the generalization of the results to all teachers of students with LDs in the governorates of the Sultanate of Oman
The authors report no conflicts of interest.
This research did not receive funding from any source.
The authors thank the RRP teachers for their collaboration and responses to the research scale
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 158 177, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.9
Received Apr 19, 2022; Revised Jul 18, 2022; Accepted Jul 28, 2022
Abstract. To ensure that learning continues during the Covid 19 pandemic, educators must understand pedagogical and content knowledge through the integration of information and communication technology (ICT). An example is English teachers at elementary schools in Indonesia making videos to help young learners learn English remotely. This paper aims to find out how teachers maximize student learning from their videos in a technology limited environment and how teachers integrate their role as facilitators into their videos. We gathered data by conducting observations of three English teachers for four months during the odd semester of the 2021 2022 academic year and interviews with the participants. The research findings indicated that participants implemented a cognitive load aspect that makes it easier for young learners to see real examples of objects, even if only on video, thereby reducing excessive cognitive load. In addition, the participants implemented the student engagement aspect, which reduces the intrinsic load and makes the text in the video more meaningful. A third aspect implemented was active learning, which serves to help students and teachers develop strong feelings of social cooperation. Moreover, participants integrated their role as facilitators in educational videos by using an information guide and by being friendly inquirers to their students. The findingsimplythatif packaged properly, teacher videoscan be one of the learningtechniques thatteachersand studentscanuse inany situation. Furthermore, unlike in offline learning, students can replay teaching videos to aid their learning process, without having to ask the teacher to repeat the explanation.
Keywords: Indonesian primary schools; information communication technology; teacher made video; teaching English; young learners
The global Covid 19 pandemic is driving teachers and education practitioners to think creatively, develop unique solutions, and take meaningful action to
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implement their teaching process (Ferri et al., 2020). Teachers can continue teaching remotely using various methods, strategies, and techniques as a result of government mandated work and study policies in virtually every country. The issue illustrates that merely possessing knowledge of topic pedagogy is not enough for teachers today (Beattie et al., 2022; Jacob et al., 2020). Teachers should increase their knowledge and ability to apply technology. This dilemma forces all teachers to confront this fact. However, a surprising proportion of teachers perceive the dilemma as a positive inhibition. These tenacious teachers have a wealth of ideas and techniques for preserving learning, of which one method is the creation of educational videos.
Teacher videos are a technique perceived by teachers to be good for teaching, as they allow students to repeatedly pay attention to the subject matter to grasp particular concepts (Dufour, 2020; Ok & Howorth, 2020). Students can watch videos to gain context of the speaker’s discourse and body language and additional visual aids for comprehension. According to de Araujo et al. (2017), teacher created videos can be used in place of textbooks in flipped mathematics classes, increasing students’ enthusiasm for learning. Additionally, videos are an essential part of the curriculum at the school where this research was undertaken. Unlike de Araujo et al., who focused their research on mathematics, Cowie and Sakui (2021) surveyed teachers and students who created videos for English learning. They explored three facets of teachers and students’ use of video in English language teaching (ELT), including the newest advancements in video technology, the reasons for teachers and students’ video production, and strategies for making videos more engaging
According to Cowie and Sakui (2021), teacher videos are becoming a popular trend that can be employed for online learning. In addition, the videos serve to educate students about digital literacy and academic integrity. The objective of employing video is to strengthen the current pedagogy. In other words, technology can be used to supplement an existing teaching technique. This is a genuine pedagogical step in which videos can be used to transform and reframe the way language instruction occurs. While de Araujo et al. (2017) did their research on mathematics education, this paper focuses on the implementation of teaching English with teacher videos. Furthermore, while Cowie and Sakui (2021) focused on teacher videos for teaching English at all levels of education, this research focuses on teaching English to young learners. Although both Dufour (2020) and the researchers of this study examined English learning videos at the elementary school level, Dufour used the phenomenological method in Texas, United States of America. In contrast, this study used a case study design in Indonesia.
Shrosbree (2008) recommended that language teachers focus on three essential areas while developing teaching videos: video models, comprehension tasks, and content instruction. In addition, Brame (2016) suggested practical ways biology teachers can apply these principles when using video as an educational tool. According to Brame (2016), teacher videos are effective when three aspects are considered: 1) videos can manage students’ cognitive load; 2) videos can
maximize student engagement; and 3) videos can promote active learning. The indicator of using teacher videos in learning offered by Brame (2016) is applied to English learning conducted by teachers in Indonesia The teachers make videos of short duration, which can reduce the burden on students to understand teacher explanations, and provide keywords on the screen to highlight important elements (to reduce cognitive load). In addition, even though they only use videos for teaching, the teachers still involve students in learning. For example, they engage students in the lesson by calling their names and asking them to repeat their words (student management). Likewise, videos are packaged by teachers with interactive questions to create a bond between teacher and student (active learning). The sophistication of teacher videos, which teachers make with several considerations for the videos to be effective for online learning, is intrinsically tied to the teacher’s role as a facilitator of learning. Whatever technology is used, it will never be able to replace the teacher as the essential key to learning success. In his study, Jagtap (2016) offered several quality indicators of teachers as facilitators, including counsellors, guides, information providers, and inquirers.
It is therefore necessary to conduct in depth research to determine how teachers can use videos in teaching English, especially in the context of EFL. This is why we investigated how English teachers at primary schools in East Java have incorporated video footage into their instruction in teaching English We did a pre observation at elementary schools and discovered that English teachers produced instructional videos, uploaded them on YouTube, and shared the link on the student WhatsApp groups. The teacher videos are not intended for public consumption and are only available to students at the school. Additionally, the teachers used applications such as CapCut and KineMaster to create videos by using the framework offered by Brame (2016) on how teachers practice maximizing their teaching through the videos they make. They also used Jagtap’s (2016) framework, which highlights the role of teachers as facilitators, especially in their video learning in an environment that is very limited in technological facilities due to student and school demographic factors. Nonetheless, teachers still have to struggle and be creative in packaging English learning materials. To find out more about what is going on in the field, we propose the following research questions:
1. How do teachers maximize student learning from their videos?
2. How do teachers integrate their role as facilitators in the videos?
2.1
We collected several previous studies that discuss teaching English to young learners and how to properly teach English in difficult environments or conditions. Difficult conditions include the lack of learning facilities, mainly in today’s digital era, and the demographic diversity in which students and teachers live, especially in the rural areas. Several researchers have attempted to examine good practice in difficult circumstances by interviewing and observing primary school teachers in various countries (Alyasin, 2018; Astutik et al., 2019; Binod, 2015; Garton et al., 2011; Khulel, 2021; Kuchah, 2018)
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In Kuchah’s (2018) study, both teachers and young learners identified good practice, with the findings indicating that teachers and learners have convergent, and in some cases, divergent notions of good practice for teaching English to young learners. It is these notions, rather than the practices themselves, that are important. Alyasin (2018) examined the challenges and coping strategies faced by an English teacher working in a Syrian refugee camp school in southern Turkey. The research demonstrated how the teacher developed pedagogic practices based on her prior experiences, her understanding of her students, and the unique contextual constraints in which they operate. Vignettes from the teacher’ s classroom demonstrate how to confront tough circumstances using available capacities rather than succumbing to the chaotic reality of conflict. Garton et al. (2013) identified realia as a successful approach for involving young learners in the classroom in Tanzania. At the foundation of these strategies are teachers’ energy, animation, and interest, all of which lead to the positive, industrious attitude noticed in their courses. Astutik et al. (2019) also found that teachers who teach English to young learners in rural areas can continue to teach as long as they can be adaptive to all situations and conditions around them. No matter how good a method or strategy is, it will not work well if the teacher themself cannot adapt to their environment and the characteristics of their students.
Moreover, Khulel (2021) discovered that rural schools confront far more obstacles than urban schools in EFL teaching in primary schools in Tulungagung, East Java, Indonesia. Khulel (2021) interviewed six English teachers at six different schools and found that teachers confront three distinct and significant hurdles First, students’ socioeconomic circumstances preclude them from accessing more advanced technological instruments such as laptops, computers, and private internet networks that facilitate student learning. Second, because English is not a required subject in schools, it is taught by instructors with limited time. The third hurdle is the Covid 19 pandemic, which challenges teachers in all school sectors, not only primary school teachers. As a result, Khulel (2021) recommended that more studies be performed to establish realistic ways of teaching English in elementary schools, particularly those located in rural regions. Binod (2015) encountered several problems in his research in India on teaching English in rural locations due to limited access to technology. As with Astutik et al.’s (2019) research finding, according to Binod (2015), as long as teachers are creative and innovative in their instruction, the absence of advanced technology is not an issue anymore. He underlined that the most important thing for students to learn is not the technical tools used by the teacher but how well the teacher can do their job.
All of the previous research findings show that, regardless of the settings and environments encountered by teachers and students and the presence or absence of sufficient technology, it is not a guarantee that English learning will take place or not. Teachers are the key to success and the efficient functioning of the learning process. English language skills, pedagogical skills, and technological literacy are all skills that teachers need to be able to work and survive in a technologically limited environment. Teachers who have these skills can be more creative when working with limited resources and conditions. Thus, teachers are required to optimize the facilities and abilities they have so that they can still teach in any
difficult situation. One of the teaching techniques used by teachers is to make videos of their teaching.
2.2 Teacher Made Videos in Teaching English to Young Learners
Teacher videos are one of the ICT integrated teacher technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) practice activities (Kartimi et al., 2021) Teacher videos are recordings of a teacher’s activities during a lesson which are then compiled into videos for students to watch Teacher videos are sort of an online learning method that has been developed to enable students to watch the teacher explaining and presenting the lesson’s essential concepts even when they are not physically present with the teacher (Dufour, 2020; Ok & Howorth, 2020) This difficulty emerges as a result of limited facilities; also, time and distance constraints may hamper synchronous learning. This issue is especially true in rural areas, where many parents lack access to a computer or laptop and rely only on their smartphones to communicate with and educate their children during online schooling.
Teacher videos should be no longer than 5 10 minutes to avoid students feeling bored (Wijaya et al., 2020) Similar to Wijaya et al. (2020), Brame (2016) stated that teacher videos should be no longer than six minutes in order to manage students’ cognitive load. Students who do not understand the teacher’s explanation in the video can watch it as many times as they want during the period specified by the teacher prior to assessing student comprehension. The teacher can implement their knowledge of technology, pedagogy, and subject matter to the video like they would in a typical classroom. The distinction is that when a teacher teaches through video, they must do so independently, without aid from students in the same forum. The essential aspect for the teacher to remember is that even if they are alone in the recorded forum, they are still required to demonstrate effective implementation of their pedagogical content knowledge. This means that teachers must involve students in interacting while listening and watching their videos (Brame, 2016). In addition, teachers should create active and interesting learning so that students feel they are present with the teacher, even though, in reality, this is asynchronous learning where students and teacher do not meet face to face (see Figure 1).
For this reason, knowledge of technology is very important for teachers to master. By knowing and understanding the technology, they can package teaching videos well, such as editing the footage using an application, adding images, and making the video more engaging for students. As part of ICT integration, teachers can use YouTube to publish videos to their personal or institutional channels. Students can subsequently access what their teacher instructs them via a Telegram or WhatsApp group at any time
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Teachers are the most significant role player in education in developing a nation (Snoek et al., 2010). Students at all stages of education, from kindergarten through secondary school and college, are a country’s most valuable asset. Teachers who are also competent in their disciplines must instruct competent, knowledgeable, and skillful students (Hammond & Berry, 2006). The field of English education for young learners, particularly in the EFL environment, is no exception. In this era of globalization, technological advancements cannot be stifled. Whether they are prepared or not, all instructors at all school levels must face this reality. While dealing with fast advancing technology, the learning styles of today’s children have shifted from conventional to electronic learning. All instructors were compelled to learn how to use technology during the pandemic. Even when the pandemic is over, technology will remain; it will continue to advance (Lederer, 2021). The teacher’s position as a role model for students can no longer be overlooked during that period. Teachers must continue to play the role of educators, with technology serving as a tool for teachers to adapt to the changing times rather than as a replacement for them.
According to Jagtap (2016), there have been several modifications and new developments in education. The teacher’s position is evolving in the global era. The four pillars of education that the teacher must comprehend and concentrate on are learning to live, learning to know, learning to do, and learning to be. In smart and active learning methodologies, the teacher’s role is changing. The teacher is now a learning facilitator. Owing to various educational advancements, both teaching and learning have changed. Jagtap (2016) divided the role of the teacher as a facilitator into several parts, that of guide, counsellor, provider of information, and inquirer.
First, the teacher is a guide (Jagtap, 2016). A philosopher and a friend of students, the teacher should enthusiastically guide pupils. Students spend most of their time in school and in front of their teachers. As a result, teachers must determine which attributes their students possess. In addition, teachers should provide opportunities for students to demonstrate their talents. They can include students in many educational programs.
Second, the teacher is a counsellor (Jagtap, 2016). Sometimes, there are some issues with the students, and the teacher is aware of the difficulties that the students are experiencing. Troubles with study habits, low achievement, discouragement, financial difficulties, and family problems are among the issues that teachers may assist students with as counsellors
In their role as provider of information (Jagtap, 2016), the teacher should keep up to date on their topic and the education system throughout the country. The teacher should be aware of current trends and conduct studies in education. The teacher improves students’ general knowledge.
Lastly, the teacher serves as inquirer (Jagtap, 2016), a role which requires them to conduct investigations in school for their students. Students from all backgrounds attend the school. Some students come from slum areas, others from rural areas, and others from metropolitan areas. Some students do not attend school regularly. Teachers should always inquire about their students.
The role of the teacher as a facilitator in learning English for young learners through teacher videos therefore needs to be explored. By using the Jagtap (2016) framework, this paper tries to look deeper into the role of teachers as learning facilitators during online learning through their teaching videos
We used qualitative research with a case study design. We conducted an intensive, detailed, and in depth study of teacher practices in integrating technology into teaching English to young learners. We thus considered the case study design appropriate to answer the research questions.
The participants of this research were three English teachers who taught at different grade levels, from Grade 1 to Grade 6, at private elementary schools in East Java, Indonesia, implementing English lessons in their curriculum. All the participants were female, with ages ranging between 25 and 45. We selected the participants of this study based on several criteria, which included participants being college graduates from the Department of English Education and having at least two years of teaching experience. We used this process to select participants with similar interest levels to prevent bias in the study results.
This research took place from July 2021 to October 2021 or during the odd semester of the 2021 2022 academic year. Within these four months, data saturation was reached and no further data collection was necessary Data were
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collected from the three participants’ instructions in their videos where they teach English to young learners. The data were presented as verbal and non verbal data that were defined descriptively. The study’s data sources were teachers’ videos used to teach English to young learners.
To answer research question 1, we collected data through non participant observation, where we indirectly participated in the activities being carried out by participants and their students. This non participant observation involved an overt observation model in which the research participants were aware of our presence. In addition, the research participants voluntarily provided us with their video documentation. To minimize the bias from overt observation data, we conducted an unstructured interview with each participant to clarify unclear information, such as why they did not implement some sub aspects of practice maximizing student learning from their videos. Bogdan and Biklen (1997) supported the collection of data from research participants who are willing to be observed During our observation of participants’ activities in their videos, we made field notes using a checklist of Brame’s (2016) theoretical framework indicators. Then, to answer research question 2, we used structured interviews, for which we had set question guidelines based on the Jagtap (2016) framework.
We analyzed the data in various steps. We started by attentively viewing the participants’ videos We then used the Google Docs speech-to-text function to transcribe the participants’ speech from the videos This was followed by reviewing the transcripts of the observation data, identifying ways participants maximized student learning from their videos, and reducing the date to ensure we had the necessary data for the research based on Brame’s (2016) framework After we had completed analyzing the observation data, we transcribed the interview data to determine the participants’ role as facilitator when teaching English through video. We also asked the participants questions about the procedures, starting from the preparation of making videos, distributing their videos to students, and ending with the assessment of learning through videos they had done. Finally, we concluded the analysis of the data to produce our research findings.
Before delving into the research findings, we want to describe how participants integrated their videos into their teaching to teach English to young learners at private elementary schools in East Java, Indonesia. The participants must complete seven phases, as seen in Figure 2. To begin with, they record themself while teaching specific topics. Naturally, they encounter challenges while producing the instructional videos, including requiring additional time during teaching to retake the recording if there were technical difficulties. Second, they have to be deliberate in editing the videos to make them more engaging for their students. Third, they post the videos to the YouTube channel, where only the students of the school can access the URL. Following that, while the students are at home, the participants share the video link on the students’ WhatsApp group.
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The participants then direct students in the WhatsApp group to view and listen to their fourth stage explanation video. Fifth, 30 minutes later, the participants inquire on the WhatsApp group what the students have or have not grasped Then, the students complete teacher assigned assignments and submit them via the WhatsApp group. Finally, the participants conduct an individual assessment of each student privately via WhatsApp.
The following sections present the results of the data analysis. First, we look at how participants maximized their teaching activities with their videos. Second, we explore the participants’ role as learning facilitator, which cannot be replaced by technological sophistication. During several meetings over four months, we collected video data from three participants, named T1, T2, and T3 (pseudonyms). We disguised all research participants’ identities to uphold research ethics and human rights.
We used Brame’s (2016) framework as basis to present research findings on the participants’ practices in maximizing student learning through their videos. The findings are presented in Table 1.
Cognitive load Utilize signaling to draw attention to the important information.
√ √ √
The participant provides written English vocabulary accompanied by pictures of objects that are explained.
The participant uses fascinating colors in their videos. The participant uses changes in contrast or color of the pictures of objects.
Utilize segmenting to chunk information. √ √ The participant produces short videos (5–10 minutes).
The participant cuts and merges several videos taken (self recorded) separately in one video.
To emphasize the topics, teachers discuss and make it easier for young learners to see real examples, even if only on video. They can see how it is written and the object’s shape, and they know how to pronounce it in English.
To emphasize relationships within information of the topic.
To reduce excessive burden.
To reduce intrinsic load.
Utilize weeding to remove extraneous information.
√ The participant does not use music in the video.
The participant does not use a complicated visual background.
To reduce the extra burden while learning through teacher videos.
Match the mode of communication by adding auditory and visual methods to
√ √ √
The participant inserts a native English voice into the video for pronunciation
Can make the text in video more meaningful.
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Aspect Sub-aspect T1 T2 T3 Examples Functions communicate extra information.
vocabulary according to the lesson theme.
Student engagement Make each video brief. √ √ √ The participant makes short videos.
Use conversational language. √ √ √ The participant places students in the lesson by saying “ yours ” instead of “the” .
The participant uses “I” to indicate their point of view.
Speak quite loudly and enthusiastically. √ √ √ The participant speaks fluently and concisely, and does not stutter in explaining the topic of the lesson.
The participant speaks with happy expressions and with enthusiasm.
In some cases, this may make it easier for students to watch more of each video, which may stop their mind from wandering.
When students and teachers work together, they feel like they are part of a group. This makes the students want to put in more effort to understand the lesson.
Increases the percentage of pupils who view each video.
May help students and teacher develop strong feeling of social cooperation.
Make videos that are relevant to the course in which they are utilized.
√ √ √
The participant compliments to students who can follow their lessons in their videos.
The participant makes videos specifically for the class in which they will be utilized, with teacher commentary
Increases the percentage of pupils who view each video.
Helping pupils recognize connections may raise high cognitive load.
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Aspect Sub-aspect T1 T2 T3 Examples Functions explaining linkages to previous content.
The participant provides explanatory text to help students understand where the video fits in the course.
Active learning Add interactive questions in the video packaging.
Utilize interactive features that allow pupils to take control.
√ √ √ The participant asks questions verbally in their teaching videos.
√ The participant provides explanations in their videos by inserting other features such as YouTube content.
Utilize guiding questions. √ √ √ The participant asks What, Why,Who, and How questions to guide the students to actively interact while watching teacher videos.
Make video part of a larger homework assignment.
√ √ √
The participant assigns their students to watch their videos as a component of a larger homework assignment.
It is possible that the testing effect will raise relevant cognitive load, improve memory, and improve learners’ self cognition.
Increases student participation and may result in an increase in meaningful cognitive load.
May result in an increase in germane cognitive load, a decrease in extraneous cognitive load, and an improvement in student self-assessment.
May boost student motivation, relevant cognitive load, and self esteem.
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Table 1 presents the practices of participants in maximizing student learning from their videos. In reference to Brame’s (2016) framework, the three participants did not implement all Brame’s indicators. All three participants implemented the sub aspect of using signals to draw attention to important information in the cognitive load aspect. For example, the participants gave written English vocabulary and pictures of explained objects and used fascinating colors in the video. Regarding the sub aspect utilize segmenting to chunk information, only T1 and T2 implemented it, while T3 did not implement this sub aspect in all videos. T3 was asked why during the interview. She stated that she followed standard school rules in creating the videos, so she could not modify it as she wanted. The same finding was made for the following sub aspect, namely utilize weeding to remove extraneous information. T3 did not use different music and backgrounds, because she could not add any effects to the video, either sound or background view. However, the three participants agreed to insert the voices of native English speakers because, based on their explanations during the interviews, it was essential to provide examples of pronunciation from native English speakers. After all, they were aware of their shortcomings of sometimes not being fluent in English and wanted to avoid fossilizing students’ cognitive ability to pronounce the correct vocabulary as they grow up.
In contrast to the cognitive load aspect, in the student engagement aspect, it appears that all three participants implemented all sub aspects (Table 1), including making each video brief, using conversational language, speaking quite loudly and enthusiastically, and making videos that are relevant to the course in which they are utilized. The three participants agreed that the aspect of student engagement was the most important to be used in making teacher videos so that students were enthusiastic about learning by watching teacher videos. This can be seen in their implementation of each sub aspect. For example, each video was short, the participants spoke fluently and concisely, and they did not stutter in explaining the lesson topic.
In the active learning aspect, all participants implemented almost all aspects, except for the sub aspect utilize interactive features that allow pupils to take control, such as linking YouTube content to the learning video. Only T1 implemented this sub aspect. According to T1, the activities aim to increase student participation and result in a significant increase in cognitive load. Meanwhile, T2 and T3 did not use a YouTube link because they thought that if they were active and solid in explaining the lesson topic, there was no need to link to YouTube. In addition, T3 reasoned that linking to YouTube would make the time spent on video editing longer and tiring. Thus, T3 decided to focus more on maximizing her performance without adding other features and instruments.
In addition to the findings on participants’ practice of maximizing English language learning for young learners with technology limitations, the next session explains the participants’ role during video teaching materials.
Using the framework offered by Jagtap (2016), the teacher’s main role is to act as a facilitator. As a facilitator, the teacher provides services, including the availability of facilities, to provide convenience in learning activities for students. An unpleasant learning environment or a classroom atmosphere that is less conducive and supportive causes low student interest in learning. Therefore, teachers need to provide facilities for students to carry out learning activities that help students overcome difficulties in the learning process. In addition, they need to try to create an environment that challenges students to carry out learning activities. The following findings are the results of the interviews with the research participants on how they integrated their role as facilitator in their educational videos.
4.2.1 “I guide my students in my video”
According to Jagtap (2016), the first part of the teacher’s role as a facilitator is to be a guide. In the role of a guide, the teacher does not only guide in terms of academics. They also provide direction on some non academic aspects, such as advising students to study hard even though they do not come to school, maintain health by exercising, and help parents do house work.
“In my videos, before explaining the core material, I usually give an overview first to improve bonding with my students, such as asking them to consume vegetables rich in vitamins to maintain health during a pandemic. I do this because many children dislike vegetables.” (T1)
“I always guide my students to exercise before the online lessons start to increase their enthusiasm for learning ” (T2)
“I guide my students both non academic and academically. They have to study and help their parents at home.” (T3)
In the three excerpts, participants indicated that, as a facilitator, they are also obliged to educate and direct their students academically. They agreed that teachers are facilitators for their students and should guide and direct their students as they learn.
4.2.2 “I don’t act as a counsellor in my videos, but on WhatsApp, I do”
According to Jagtap (2016), another role of the teacher as a facilitator is that of a counsellor. It turned out that none of the three participants assumed this role.
“In the video, I cannot directly give a solution to my student’s problem. I think it is difficult to do. So, during online learning, I call them at certain times.” (T1)
“There is no consultation session in the video. I think it is ineffective, and I only focus on delivering the lesson material.” (T2)
“I am not a counsellor in the video, but I do home visits to students’ homes by implementing health protocols ” (T3)
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The excerpts show that all participants had their reason for not acting as counsellor Participants admitted that it was difficult to provide solutions from their learning videos because the learning videos have a short duration. In addition, providing solutions or explanations is not effective if it is not done one on one or face to face. The only way the three participants could do this was through WhatsApp calls or home visits.
4.2.3 “I insert important information to my students in the video” Jagtap (2016) stated that teachers must stay up to date with learning topics. They need to be aware of current trends to increase children’s general knowledge. All three participants adopted the role of information provider to their students. T1 told students how important it is to study hard both inside and outside of school, T2 told students how important it is to stay healthy, and T3 told them about interesting reading suggestions to excite them about learning English. This can be seen in the following extract snippets
“In my videos, I always give information about the importance of studying even though the students are not present at school.” (T1)
“I always provide information about how to maintain health during a pandemic by exercising and consuming nutritious food. Children sometimes do not like to eat vegetables. I give information about vegetables that are good for health at the same time, and I teach the vocabulary of vegetable names in English.” (T2)
“I gave information about accessing web links for learning English, such as Duolingo and LearnEnglish.” (T3)
The excerpts demonstrate that T1, T2, and T3 provided students with information that is useful outside of the particular topic. In this way, their role as an information provider can continue even when teacher and students do not meet face to face in offline learning.
4.2.4 “I’m an inquirer, I ask a lot of questions in my videos. I hope my students answer it”
Even though the three participants did not act as inquirer in their videos, their role as teachers includes to evaluate their students. In their videos, the three participants asked many questions related to the discussion of certain topics. According to Jagtap (2016), teachers need to conduct school investigations for their students. This is because demographic differences and the environment where students live are dissimilar, which will affect the student learning process or even student learning outcomes. In their videos, T1, T2, and T3 always asked whether the students had understood the specific lesson. Where students did not get the answer right away, the participants could confirm it again on the WhatsApp group.
“Sometimes, it seems funny when I have to ask questions without the students in front of me while making videos, but I did. I hope my students will answer it when they watch my teaching videos.” (T1)
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“In videos, I often ask my students questions after explaining certain material, such as, ‘Do you understand?’ even though I do not hear their answer directly.” (T2)
“I always ask my students in my videos, at the beginning of the video, I ask them, ‘How are you today?’ Furthermore, other questions about the material when I teach, such as, ‘What is the name of a banana in Indonesian?’ Hopefully, they will enthusiastically answer them while watching me in the video.” (T3)
The excerpts illustrate the efforts of participants in asking questions to their students even though the students could not respond directly. The participants thought that by asking students questions, they can still invite them to be active in learning English.
Individual competitiveness has intensified as the globalization era has moved to Industry 4.0. As a result, foreign language skills, particularly in English, a global language, have become increasingly important to acquire (Bao, 2021) Parents should begin teaching their children English at a young age In Indonesia, many parents compete to enroll their children in English language education classes beginning in elementary school (Jaekel et al., 2017). They do this because government regulations stipulate that English should be a subject, with local content implemented at the school’s discretion, and not all elementary schools in Indonesia include English lessons in their curricula (Astutik & Munir, 2022). Teaching EFL to young learners in difficult circumstances creates an imbalance in Indonesian elementary schools, as schools in big cities and rural areas certainly have different environments, such as learning support facilities. Schools in big cities are better resourced with fast and easily accessible learning facilities and tools such as technology. English teachers in elementary schools in the city also have it easier, because parents in the city are more prepared to facilitate their children’s learning with the technology needed. Conditions in the city for learning English in elementary schools are inversely proportional to those in rural areas. The lack of technological literacy of parents and students due to unfavorable demographic conditions makes all teachers think extra hard about solving these problems so that learning continues, especially during the pandemic, where learning must still be done remotely.
Video, YouTube, and WhatsApp are considered more effective for asynchronous learning for rural schools unfamiliar with other learning management systems (LMSs) such as Moodle and Google Classroom. It is not that they do not want to learn the applications, but they have limitations of technological tools such as computers and laptops, making learning with specific LMSs challenging. Since videos are timeless, teachers can use them beyond the pandemic. Teachers are therefore expected to be able to create their learning videos in terms of their English competence, teaching pedagogy strategies, and technological literacy that can be adaptive in this digital age. This research is supported by the findings of several studies which have found that good learning is learning that adapts to the conditions and characteristics in which students live (Astutik et al., 2019; Astutik
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& Munir, 2022; Binod, 2015; Khulel, 2021; Kuchah, 2018). In the new normal era, teacher videos remain a successful medium for some schools, particularly in rural areas, where residents have only cell phones and no laptops, even though they may access the internet from anywhere. Rural residents lack facilities for conducting synchronous learning sessions with their children, for example, because the majority of them are from the lower middle class, do not work in academics or administration, and hence do not require these tools. Few teachers and office staff have access to laptops, iPads, and computers (Utami et al., 2021). As a result of this imbalance, teachers, particularly English teachers at elementary schools in East Java, have developed innovative ways to package their teaching activities
Aligned with Torrington and Bower (2021), teacher videos positively impact both elementary school students and teachers in learning. This study also identified best practices for how teachers in environments with limited access to technology and facilities constantly develop themselves with ideas, creativity, and innovation. Although teacher videos are not new, the participants of this study and their students have experienced their benefits in the learning process, especially during the Covid 19 pandemic. These participants tried their best to implement their knowledge of pedagogy, content, and practice by integrating technologies, one of which is teacher videos, in teaching English to young learners. By prioritizing English skills as the core of the learning objectives, the participants successfully taught these skills through videos. The participants used aspects proposed by Brame’s (2016) theory about making videos suitable for learning. For example, the participants created videos to make students easily understand lessons and not burden their cognitive abilities; they could still interact with students and make learning through videos interactive.
Various studies have indicated that contemporary teachers try to adapt to technological advancements (Ogalo et al., 2020; Taopan et al., 2019; Walker, 2020). Nonetheless, in the twenty first century, technology is a tool that all teachers in all sectors and levels of education, including those teaching English to young learners, should manage. Additionally, teachers are expected to be wiser and more creative in their teaching approaches due to the integration of ICT to adjust their instruction to the unique characteristics of their students at any given time. Teachers should not rely solely on prior learning experiences (Astutik et al., 2022), as the era in which teachers first learned as students is vastly different from the era in which children now live, an age of increasing technological sophistication. It is time for educators to adapt to new situations and points of view. By not neglecting their role as facilitators, teachers are also expected to be able to become guides, counselors, information providers, and inquirers for their students. They must do so, so that in whatever way they teach, even remotely, they can still bond with the students. As a result, students will inevitably acquire English through ICT integration. The issue is no longer the pandemic, but more crucially, in the post pandemic digital era, requirements in all disciplines, including English, will become increasingly demanding. This study has shown that the participants were able to adapt to technological advances in the most difficult conditions and situations where technological equipment facilities were minimal in rural areas.
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However, because they were ICT literate, they took advantage of the existing facilities with their pedagogical and technological knowledge by making videos for teaching English to young learners.
This study contradicts prior research (Taopan et al., 2019; Walker et al., 2019), which has found that teachers are not proficient in ICT practices when teaching English to young learners. In fact, the participants, teachers from remote areas, were able to succeed in education with a commitment to continue learning and adapting. In essence, the success of learning is not determined by technological sophistication but by how teachers can be adaptive to technology in any situation. This is because, essentially, technology cannot replace the role of the teacher as an educator who fosters students’ cognitive and character growth.
The findings of this study indicate that English teachers for young learners can still continue to innovate their teaching practices even though they are in an environment or situation that is limited by the absence of technology. Therefore, teachers need to adapt their teaching methods, strategies, and techniques to keep up with the dynamics of change based on students’ demographic conditions and characteristics in the city or the countryside. Thus, teachers should develop a strong foundation in the teaching framework, namely TPACK.
Teachers should have better teaching practices in delivering the subject matter, one of which is teacher videos to teach English to young learners. With good packaging and consideration of aspects that focus on students’ achievement of English language skills, teacher videos are a relevant teaching technique during the Covid 19 pandemic. In addition, teachers must become facilitators for their students. This means that the integration of technology and ICT can never completely replace the role of the teacher as a shaper of student character. Technology is just a tool that teachers can use to help them transfer their knowledge to students. However, we cannot conclusively state that teacher videos can be used in all subjects in primary schools. As such, we recommend that future researchers conduct similar research in various fields or even at higher school levels.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 178 196, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.10
Received May 1, 2022; Revised Jul 22, 2022; Accepted Jul 23, 2022
Chinese International College, Dhurakij Pundit University, Bangkok, Thailand / College of Environment and Life Sciences, Weinan Normal University Weinan, China
Pengfei Chen*
Chinese International College, Dhurakij Pundit University, Bangkok, Thailand
Abstract Developing the professional teaching competence of college student teachers is a vital task in initial teacher education institutions. The aim of this research, based on a quasi experimental design, was to apply active learning strategies to develop the professional teaching competence of Chinese college geography student teachers. In total, 96 geography student teachers in China participated in this research; 50 of them were placed in the experimental group, and the remaining 46 were placed in the control group. The intervention on active learning strategies was based on Bloom’s taxonomy and the Standards for The Professional Competence of Teachers majoring in Secondary Education for Student Teachers. The experimental group received the experimental intervention for 16 lessons, while the control group was exposed to the traditional teaching in the same teaching schedule. The results of the one way ANCOVA undertaken show that the intervention consisting of active learning strategies significantly improved the professional competence of the Chinese college student geography teachers in the experimental group. This study contributes empirically to the universities, educators, and researchers involved in initial teacher education programmes in the geography field
Keywords: professional teaching competency, active learning strategies, student teacher, geography education, Bloom’s taxonomy
* Corresponding author: PengfeiChen, peng fei.che@dpu.ach.th
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
The development of the professional competency of teachers is an essential component of their professionalisation (Ubani, 2016) which has been found to predict teacher burnout (Lauermann & König, 2016) and have a positive impact on student academic outcomes and the quality of instructions given (Fauth et al., 2019). The teaching competence is the most crucial out of the many competencies required by professional teachers, as well as being the concentrated embodiment of their professionalism (Guan et al., 2016). Initial teacher education (ITE) is deemed to be the foundation of the development of a teacher’s professional teaching competence (Wardoyo et al., 2017). It is where student teachers are equipped with professional teaching competence by learning various pedagogical courses and participating in pre service training (Allen & Wright, 2014). The student teachers’ teaching competence and their participation in ITE have been proven to be positively related (Goodwin & Oyler, 2008), playing a vital role in their effective professional teaching performance (Gokalp, 2016). Hence, training and developing the student teachers’ professional teaching competence is a crucial task for ITE institutions.
However, many challenges affect the development of the student teachers’ professional teaching competence. Firstly, the professional competence in China is generally comparable to the requirements of a reformed middle school geography curriculum (Zhang et al., 2015). This is manifested by an unstable professional attitude, unfamiliarity with teaching knowledge, and low teaching competence (Wang & Zhang, 2021; Hu & Zeng, 2019). Secondly, the related curriculum for teacher education mainly focuses on theory and ignores the need for student teachers to have practical experience (Ding & Li, 2014). Thirdly, student teachers are usually silent in teacher driven education classes because the educational environment is based on teacher centred pedagogies and related ways of operation (Yan & He, 2020). Hence, reforming ITE has been deemed a policy lever to transform the teachers’ professional development. Therefore, restructuring the Chinese geography teachers’ initial education has become a critical issue in the context of reforming the educational environment, mode of teaching, and teacher education courses to improve their professional teaching competence.
Many factors and learning strategies can affect and promote the student teachers’ professional competency (Lee, 2019). According to the central tenet of constructivism, learning is a process of constructing knowledge actively (Bada & Olusegun, 2015; Brooks & Brooks, 1993) in which the learners are encouraged to participate in their studying actively and to connect it to their previous experiences positively (Bonwell & Eison, 1991). Active learning has been proven to increase the engagement of student teachers, enhance the effect of the learning itself (Preston et al., 2015) and assist them in acquiring and understanding their professional competence deeply (Kramarski & Michalsky, 2009; Tang et al., 2016). A positive relationship has been reported to exist between active learning and the student teachers’ professional competence (Niemi, 2012; Virtanen et al., 2017).
Based on the existing literature, only a few empirical researchers have studied the teaching competence of Chinese college geography student teachers (Yang et al., 2021). Although the existing research into the Chinese student teachers' professional competence has received the attention of many Chinese scholars, most of them have focused on examining the current situation (Cai, 2015) and discussing theoretical strategies for the Chinese student teachers to use to develop their professional teaching competence (Zeng, 2015; Hou, 2016). Additionally, active learning is relatively new to the field of teacher education. Although the relationship between active learning and the professional competence of Finnish student teachers has been explored in teacher education programmes (Niemi et al., 2016; Lonka & Ketonen, 2012), there have been only a few in depth analyses of the development of the teaching competence of student teachers through active learning. Therefore, the research aimed to fill in this gap by applying active learning strategies in a course to develop the college student teachers’ professional teaching competence in the context of geography education. The results of this research are expected to become a reference for ITE administrators and educators to develop the professional teaching competence of college geography student teachers.
2.1
As the core of teachers’ professional competence, professional teaching competence constitutes a combination of the knowledge and abilities necessary for teachers to effectively undertake their teaching activities in various situations (Tigelaar et al., 2004). Since it is context specific and necessary for resolving problems in the teaching practice (Herppich et al., 2017), it seems to be a means to manage the teaching process itself (Hb et al., 2020; Lukasik et al., 2019). A competent teacher should be equipped with all kinds of knowledge and competencies to manage the teaching and learning process effectively, e.g., subject knowledge, general teaching knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, pedagogical technology knowledge, and the ability to plan and implement instructions (Kim & Kim, 2016; Oliva et al., 2016; Astuty, 2015; Hanifah et al., 2019). This includes designing the course, implementing the teaching and learning process, evaluating the outcomes, etc. (Lukasik et al , 2019; Hb et al., 2020). More specifically, geography teachers need to possess varied knowledge of the natural sciences (e.g., geomorphology, water resources, biology, and the climate) and social sciences (e.g., nation, history, archaeology), be able to explain the relationships between social phenomena, natural events, and geographical space, and teach geographical knowledge (Karaca, 2020; Pirbhai Illich & Martin, 2020). Therefore, the college geography student teachers’ professional teaching competence is defined in this study as a synthesis of the specific teaching competence and knowledge required to ensure that the professional geography teaching activities and processes are undertaken effectively
Developing a teaching education course with an innovative classroom teaching model in the ITE stage is an essential measure to improve the student teachers’ teaching competence (Pantić & Wubbels, 2010; Lander et al., 2020). According to
the professional competence framework used for the student teachers majoring in Secondary Education (Trial) issued by the Ministry of Education of China (MOE), the Chinese student teachers’ professional teaching competence has been summarised and categorised into three dimensions: professional knowledge, teaching design competence, and teaching implementation competence (MOE, 2021). This framework was applied to this research to measure the Chinese college geography student teachers’ teaching competence.
Active learning was developed based on Piaget’s constructivist learning theory which is focused on the individual nature of the learning process in which the learners’ knowledge is reconstructed into new information by connecting and modifying their existing knowledge and experience (Bransford et al., 1999). Hence, when using active learning methods, the learners are often explicitly required to link their new knowledge to their old thinking patterns. The teachers provide them with effective learning activities to help them to overcome the conflict between the old and new knowledge and to reconstruct their way of thinking (Brame, 2016). Meanwhile, according to Vygotsky’s social constructionism theory, an individual’s learning is built by communicating with others in a group (Alexandra, 2014). Active learners tend to generate and apply knowledge collaboratively in discussions or through cooperative problem solving (Nonaka et al., 2005). Active learning strategies, including demonstrations, discussions, practising doing, and teaching others, are highlighted due to their high information retention rate, which is helpful in stimulating the students’ desire to increase their comprehension of the knowledge by discussing it with their peers (Rodriguez, 2018).
Active learning is regarded as any activity that inspires the students to become involved in classroom learning, as well as encourages them to think critically about extracurricular activities (Adkins, 2018). Active learning is contrary to traditional passive learning (Stover & Ziswiler, 2017). It is characterised by being student centred, experiential, and involving cooperative learning to help the learners obtain new abilities in a more positive way (Diković & Gergorić, 2020). Their abilities are supported by common active learning strategies, including visual based instructions, case studies, cooperative learning, role playing and simulations, think pair share, visual aids, and so on (Daouk et al., 2016; McConnell et al., 2017).
Researchers have found that active learning can effectively stimulate the students' interest, improve their learning engagement and performance, and significantly develop their competence (Cavanagh, 2011; Togimin & Jaafar, 2020; Chen et al., 2020). As a key achievement, the student teachers’ professional teaching competency is influenced by active learning strategies, such as autonomous group work, cooperative learning, and problem solving (Niemi et al., 2016; Virtanen et al., 2017). There exists a strong relationship between the student teachers’ professional competence and active learning based on them being highly engaged in the learning tasks undertaken in a collaborative learning culture (Niemi, 2012). Other researchers have provided case studies to prove that active learning strategies such as role play, cooperative learning,
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visual based instructions, and practice by doing can enhance the college geography student teachers’ professional competence (Ferizat & Kuat, 2021), e.g., their professional assessment ability (Bijsterbosch et al., 2019), ability to acquire knowledge of geographical subjects, and knowledge of the pedagogical content (Harte & Reitano, 2015; Niiranen et al., 2020).
Active learning provides learners with valuable strategies to achieve their learning objectives. Bloom’s taxonomy is considered a key tool for organising educational knowledge (Bloom et al.,1956). It is based on six steps arranged in a hierarchical structure, namely Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyse, Evaluate, and Create (Krathwohl, 2002). Some researchers have reported that Bloom’s higher order cognitive goals and skills, such as analysis, evaluation, and creation, can be developed through the use of active learning strategies such as cooperative learning, role playing, case studies, discussions, problem based learning, and so on (Bonwell & Eison, 1991; Brame, 2016; Weber, 2019). Additionally, Bloom’s taxonomy could also be utilised to guide teachers in the use of active learning in the classroom based on designing questions (Tabrizi & Rideout, 2017), developing the teaching materials (Rampeng et al., 2021), inspiring and motivating the students to learn, and enhancing their ability to practice (Li et al., 2020). Therefore, active learning was chosen as a possible teaching method to develop the student teachers’ teaching competence in this study. Bloom’s taxonomy was used as a tool for organising educational knowledge and describing the teaching objectives of every lesson in the active learning course.
Therefore, in this study, active learning strategies, such as visual based instruction, cooperative learning, case studies, role playing, and discussion, were applied in a teaching educational course based on Bloom’s taxonomy to examine its effectiveness in improving the Chinese college geography student teachers’ professional teaching competence.
In this study, a quasi experimental design with a non equivalent control group was used, aiming to apply active learning strategies to train and develop the sampled college geography student teachers’ professional teaching competence. The participants were 96 geography student teachers from a public university in China, who were placed in the experimental group (EG) or control group (CG) The independent variable was active learning strategies, and a pre test and post test were used as the dependent variables to evaluate the college geography student teachers’ professional teaching competence.
This study was implemented in two stages. Stage 1 consisted of developing the course using active learning strategies to promote the Chinese student geography teachers’ teaching competence based on analysing the related literature. Five experts were asked to review the course to obtain expert validity, and the active learning course was then modified based on the five experts’
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suggestions. The purpose of Stage 2 was to examine the effectiveness of the revised active learning course to develop the student teachers’ teaching competence. The CG was subjected to traditional teaching, while the EG received the active learning intervention. The student teachers’ teaching competence was scored and compared using a t test, ANCOVA, pre test, and post test.
The study was conducted in a public teacher university in northwest China. There were 96 college geography student teachers selected to partake in this research. Fifty were randomly placed in the EG, and the remaining 46 in the CG. The intervention consisting of active learning strategies was used to teach the EG for 16 lessons over 16 weeks, while the CG was exposed to traditional teacher centred lectures over the same period.
The designed active learning strategies, such as visual based instruction, cooperative learning, case studies, role playing, and discussion, were utilised as the intervention to instruct the EG, while the CG received the regular lecture based teaching. The researcher was the teacher in the experiment. All the participants utilised the same textbook containing 6 units and the same teaching environment and schedule.
The course chosen for this study was Geography Teaching Theory, a compulsory course in ITE for undergraduates majoring in geography education. The learning objectives of the course were designed based on Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom et al., 1956) and the Standards for The Professional Competence of Teachers majoring in Secondary Education for Student Teachers (Trial) issued by the MOE (MOE, 2021). As for the learning objectives, at the end of the course, the students should be capable of explaining the basic principles and knowledge of geography pedagogy, designing the main links of secondary school geography teaching, constructing a geography teaching scheme, and applying basic teaching skills to implement geography teaching. The points correspond to the three dimensions of the Chinese student teachers' professional teaching competence, namely professional knowledge, teaching design competence, and teaching implementation competence. As shown in Table 1, the three dimensions of the Chinese student teachers’ professional teaching competence served as the learning objectives for every unit. The course was followed by teaching the student teachers professional knowledge from week 1 to week 2, designing teaching competence from week 3 to week 16, and implementing teaching competence from week 5 to week 16. Understand (U), Apply (Ap), Evaluate (E), and Create (C) represent the different levels of the sub goals based on Bloom’s taxonomy and unit themes. The EG was designed with active learning strategies in mind, such as visual based instructions, cooperative learning, case studies, role-playing, discussions, etc. Two or three active learning strategies were chosen and displayed in the lecture classroom. On the contrary, the CG was exposed to lecture based and teacher centred methods, alongside fewer activities. The course was comprised of 16 lessons, with one lesson per week lasting for 100 minutes.
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Table 1: Theme design for each unit intervention in the form of the active learning strategies used by the EG
Theme Period Learning objectives (U: Understand; C: Create; E: Evaluate; Ap: Apply) Introduction methods
Unit 1: Introduction to the geography teaching design
Unit 2: Design of the geography teaching objective
Unit 3: Design of the geography teaching content
2 periods (2 classes for 100 minutes each class)
➢Professional knowledge
• Summarise the characteristics of geography pedagogy. (U)
• Summarise the characteristics of modern geography teaching design. (U)
• Explain the theoretical basis of the geography teaching design. (U)
Visual based instruction/ Think pair Share
2 periods (2 classes for 100 minutes each class)
➢Teaching design competence
• Construct the teaching objectives. (C)
• Judge the effectiveness of the requirements for developing the teaching objectives. (E)
Case study/ Visual based instruction/ Cooperative learning
4 periods (2 classes for 100 minutes each class)
➢Teaching design competence
• Construct a scheme for the different geographical knowledge using the design strategy. (C) ➢Teaching implementation competence
• Demonstrate the designed scheme. (Ap)
Cooperative learning / Case study/ Think pair Share / Role play/ Demonstration
Unit 4: Design of the geographical teaching methods
3 periods (2 classes for 100 minutes each class)
➢Teaching design competence
• Design and demonstrate a teaching method for the given teaching content. (C) ➢Teaching implementation competence Demonstrate the designed scheme using a selection of teaching methods. (Ap)
Role play/ Think pair Share/ Demonstration /Role play
Unit 5: Design of the geography teaching process
3 periods (2 classes for 100 minutes each class)
➢Teaching design competence
• Elaborate a teaching plan. (C)
• Design the teaching process of a specific theme and write it on the blackboard. (C) ➢Teaching implementation competence
• Demonstrate the teaching process of a specific theme and write it on the blackboard. (Ap)
Visual based instruction/ Role play/ Demonstration /Case study/ Cooperative learning
Unit 6: Design of a geography teaching evaluation
2 periods (2 classes for 100 minutes each class)
➢Teaching design competence
• Evaluate a teaching theme. (C) ➢Teaching implementation competence
• Estimate the teaching design and teaching process that the members show using the evaluation methods and requirements. (Ap)
• Reflect on your teaching design, and write and state your teaching reflection and redesign. (Ap)
Case study /Role play /Cooperative learning
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The rubric for the Chinese college geography student teachers’ teaching competence was used in this study to determine if the teaching competence of the geography Chinese student teachers had effectively improved after the active learning intervention. The rubric used for evaluating the teaching undertaken refers to the Standards for the Professional Competence of Teachers majoring in Secondary Education for Student teachers (Trial) (MOE, 2021). Five experts were invited to review the rubric for the Chinese college geography student teachers’ teaching competence for the revised national standard (Ye, 2017) so then it could receive expert validation. According to Polit et al. (2007), the CVI should be at least 0.78 or higher for three or more experts. Since the content validity index (CVI) of every item in this study was ranged from 0.8 to 1, the rubric for the Chinese college geography student teachers’ teaching competence was considered to have good content validity.
The rubric used three dimensions to assess the teaching competence of the student teachers, namely professional knowledge, teaching design competence, and teaching implementation competence, consisting of 20 items and a 5 point Likert scale, as shown in Appendix I. The score was 100 points in total, with 30 points for professional knowledge, 25 points for the teaching design competence, and 45 points for teaching implementation competence.
The student teachers in both the EG and the CG were required to deliver a 10 minute instructional demonstration during the pre test and post test. The pre test was implemented before the research intervention, and the post test was taken after it. The instructional performance of the college geography student teachers in the two tests was scored based on the rubric determined by six experts with rich experience in geography education who were placed into two groups randomly. Before the official grading, all of the experts were invited to work together to mark the test materials of three students to understand the specific test procedures and assessment items, as well as unifying the test requirements. Then, an independent sample t test, paired sample t test, and ANCOVA were used to compare the scores of the student teachers’ teaching competence.
As mentioned above, the 96 student teachers across the EG and the CG were conducted to a pre test and a post test. There were 50 test takers in the EG and 46 in the CG.
The results of the descriptive analysis for teaching competence in the pre and post tests are shown in Table 2, in which it is indicated that the mean of the pre test for the two groups was close, but the mean of the post test for the EG (M=80.687) was greater than that of the CG (M= 67.638).
Table 2: Descriptive Analysis of Professional competence in Pre and Post tests
Post test
Group n Mean SD Mean SD
EG 50 57.040 5.037 80.687 7.852 CG 46 57.797 6.834 67.638 6.784
An independent sample t test was applied to analyse the pre test results to examine if there were any significant differences between the EG and the CG in terms of the starting level of professional teaching competence. As shown in Table 3, there existed no significant difference between the two groups overall (t= .621, p>.05, Cohen’s d=.126) as well as in the three dimensions of professional knowledge (t= 1.271, p>.05, Cohen’s d=.259), teaching design competence (t=1.430, p>.05, Cohen’s d=.291), and teaching implementation competence (t= 1.087, p>.05, Cohen’s d=.221). This indicates there was no significant difference and a small effect found regarding the professional teaching competence of both groups before the experimental intervention, which met the homogeneity requirement of the pre test.
Table 3: Independent Sample t test showing the pre test results for professional teaching competence
Factors Groups n Mean SD t p Cohen’s d
Professional Knowledge
Teaching Implementation Competence
Overall
EG 50 15.307 1.695 1.430 .156 .291 CG 46 14.746 2.133
EG 50 19.213 1.628 1.271 .207 .259 CG 46 19.696 2.077 Teaching Design Competence
EG 50 22.520 3.361 1.087 .280 .221 CG 46 23.355 4.153
EG 50 57.040 5.037 .621 0.536 .126 CG 46 57.797 6.834
A paired sample t test was utilised to analyse the teaching performance of the sampled Chinese college geography student teachers to examine whether there existed a difference between the professional teaching competence of the EG and CG before and after the intervention. These results are shown in Table 4, where it can be found that both groups had significantly progressed (p<.001) and that there was a large effect (Cohen’s d>0.8) in the three dimensions as well as the overall score. This indicates that the student teachers’ pre and post test results were significantly different, with the post test results being better than the pre test ones.
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Table 4: Summary of the paired sample t test results for professional teaching competence across the different dimensions and overall
Factors Groups Tests Mean SD t Cohen’s d Professional Knowledge
Teaching Design Competence
Teaching Implementation Competence
EG
Pre test 19.213 1.628 15.840*** 2.240 Post test 24.650 2.629
Pre test 15.307 1.695 19.367*** 2.739 Post test 21.140 1.849
Pre test 22.520 3.361 26.094*** 3.690 Post test 34.927 4.009
Overall
Teaching Design Competence
Pre test 57.040 5.037 27.420*** 3.878 Post test 80.687 7.852 Professional Knowledge CG
Teaching Implementation Competence
Pre test 19.696 2.077 9.036*** 1.332 Post test 22.174 2.444
Pre test 14.746 2.133 8.746*** 1.289 Post test 17.594 2.359
Pre test 23.355 4.153 8.217*** 1.212 Post test 27.833 3.388
Pre test 57.797 6.834 11.482*** 1.693 Post test 67.638 6.784 ***p<.001
Overall
A one way ANCOVA was used to further examine whether there existed a significant difference between the EG and CG in the post test when the pre test was controlled for.
Based on the ANCOVA assumption, the initial test of the homogeneity of the groups’ regression coefficients displayed that there was no significant difference between the two groups overall (F=2.901, p=.092>.05.), as well as in relation to the three dimensions of professional knowledge (F=.164, p=.686>.05.), teaching design competence (F=1.657, p=.201>.05.), and teaching implementation competence (F=2.559, p=.113>.05.). In the further covariate analysis, the results of the variation homogeneity test also indicated the two groups had the same variation with the same quality overall (F=1.683, p=.198>.05), as well as in the three dimensions of professional knowledge (F=3.754, p=.056>.05), teaching design competence (F=.026, p=.872>.05), and teaching implementation competence (F=.612, p=.436>.05).
The results from the final analysis of the covariables are displayed in Tables 5 and 6. The mean and standard deviation of the two groups in the three dimensions and overall are shown in Table 5 after re estimating the mean of the pre test. According to Table 6, there was a significant effect found in the two groups in the post test overall [F (1,93) =130.690, p<.05], as well as in the three dimensions of professional knowledge [F (1, 93) =41.597, p<.05], teaching design competence [F (1, 93) =68.586, p<.05], and teaching implementation competence
[F (1, 93) =139.422, p<.05]. This indicates that the score of the EG’s teaching competence in the post test, both in different dimensions and overall, was significantly higher than that of the CG. After the research intervention, the teaching competence of the EG in the post test was therefore found to be better than that of the CG after controlling the pre test.
Table 5: Descriptive analysis of the two groups
Factors Groups n Mean SD
Professional Knowledge EG 50 24.824 .303 CG 46 21.985 .316 Teaching Design Competence EG 50 21.015 .273 CG 46 17.730 .285 Teaching Implementation Competence
EG 50 35.147 .441 CG 46 27.594 .460
Overall EG 50 80.963 .824 CG 46 67.337 .859
Table 6: Summary of the one-way ANCOVA for professional teaching competence
Factors Source SS df MS F p Professional Knowledge
Pre test 183.180 1 183.180 40.147 .000 Groups 189.795 1 189.795 41.597 .000 Error 424.332 93 Total 53606.028 96
Teaching Design Competence
Teaching Implementation Competence
Pre test 123.115 1 123.115 33.373 .000 Groups 253.020 1 253.020 68.586 .000 Error 343.085 93 Total 719.221 96
Pre test 403.542 1 403.542 41.678 .000 Groups 1349.943 1 1349.943 139.422 .000 Error 900.467 93 9.682 Total 97933.556 96
Overall Pre test 1939.547 1 1939.547 57.221 .000 Groups 4429.803 1 4429.803 130.690 .000 Error 3152.283 93 33.896 Total 541050.111 96
Adopting and practicing active learning strategies in the course training as a part of teacher education has become crucial (Shaaruddin & Mohamad, 2017) due to the fact that many young graduates are not well equipped for teaching (Wang & Zhang, 2021; Hu & Zeng, 2019). This research aimed to examine the effectiveness of a teacher education course based on active learning strategies to develop the professional teaching competence of Chinese college geography student teachers.
Firstly, the designed course called Geography Teaching Theory was a compulsory course that all college geography student teachers at a public university in
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northwest China had to attend and complete within 16 weeks. The course aim was that student teachers could acquire the relevant professional knowledge of teaching geography and develop the competence to design and implement the teaching. The course was designed based on Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom et al., 1956) and the Chinese framework for the Professional Competence of Student Teachers (MOE, 2021). It included 6 units, namely an introduction to geography teaching design, the design of geography teaching objectives, teaching content, teaching methods, teaching process, teaching evaluation, and reflection. Active learning was incorporated into the course activities and assignments (Anderson et al., 2001) to practice the higher order skills in Bloom’s taxonomy. This included strategies of visual based instruction, think pair share, a case study, cooperative learning, role play, and demonstrations, all of which should be designed according to the principle of active learning. In terms of the teaching content of the course used in this study, it was consistent with that of other researchers who all emphasise the conceptualisation of various types of geographical knowledge and the modeling of geography teaching methods (Mitchell, 2018; Schee et al., 2016). As for the teaching methods, this course responded to the suggestion that active learning strategies should be utilised to design the training programmes for college geography student teachers (Schoonenboom et al., 2016). Although previous researchers have also attempted to integrate active learning strategies into a pedagogy course with undergraduate TESL students as subjects (Shaaruddin & Mohamad, 2017), this study is different in that the research involved other active learning strategies, including micro teaching, peer reflections, feedback, and self reflections in the designed course under the policy framework of higher education in Malaysia.
Secondly, the effectiveness of applying active learning strategies to develop the Chinese college geography student teachers’ teaching competence was proved. First of all, the professional teaching competence of both groups had progressed overall after the intervention. However, the teaching competence of the Chinese college geography student teachers subjected to the active learning strategy training was significantly improved compared to those who underwent regular teaching. This result corresponds to the earlier review that demonstrated that active learning could positively enhance students’ learning performance (Khan et al., 2017). Other researchers also reported there to be a significant relationship between active learning strategies and the student teachers’ professional teaching competence (Niemi et al., 2016; Virtanen et al., 2017; Niemi, 2012). This finding also supports for the previous researchers who found that the students in active learning classrooms achieved more than those subjected to traditional teaching (Bishara, 2018; Diković & Gergorić, 2020). More specifically, all three dimensions of the professional teaching competence, including professional knowledge, designing teaching competence, and implementing teaching competence, had progressed after the intervention. This result corresponds to that of previous research that active learning was beneficial for student teachers as it helped them to understand and develop their professional knowledge (Niiranen et al., 2020; Demirci & Akcaalan, 2020; Ishii, 2017) and improve their teaching competence (Togimin & Jaafar, 2020; Niemi et al., 2016), e.g.,
developing their teaching materials (Laksana et al., 2019) and implementing and practicing the theories they have learned (Namli AltKaraaslan, 2019).
This study aimed to develop the Chinese college geography student teachers’ professional teaching competence through an intervention of active learning strategies. A quasi experimental design was implemented involving 96 participants (50 for EG and 46 for CG). The goal of developing the student teachers’ professional teaching competence was achieved, and their level of competence was evaluated by experts both before and after the intervention according to the Chinese Standards for the Professional Competence of Teachers majoring in Secondary Education for Student Teachers. The experimental results were then analysed statistically and proven to be effective. Based on the analysis, the professional teaching competence of the Chinese college geography student teachers in the two groups improved between the pre test and post test. However, the professional teaching competence of the students in the EG improved much more than that of the students in the CG. In summary, it can be concluded that active learning strategies (e.g., visual based instruction, think pair share, case study, cooperative learning, role play, and demonstrations) can effectively improve the Chinese college geography student teachers’ professional teaching competence, including their professional knowledge, teaching design competence, and teaching implementation competence.
Based on the findings, this study could be considered one of the few empirical studies that have explored how to improve the professional teaching competence of college geography student teachers in China. This study conducted an in depth analysis of an intervention consisting of active learning strategies to develop the student teachers’ teaching competence as the core ability of professional student teachers. It contributes empirically to the universities, educators, and researchers involved in ITE programmes in the geography field. Furthermore, it provides a new validated framework for integrating active learning strategies into teacher education courses. However, in further research, innovative educational techniques should be recommended, e.g., flipped classrooms, blended learning, or virtual learning. These techniques are flexible and can provide more opportunities for active learning (Fuchs, 2021; Astudillo et al., 2020). Additionally, other kinds of assessment strategies, including interviews and questionnaires (Shaaruddin & Mohamad, 2017; Niemi & Nevgi, 2014), could be utilised to get feedback on the students' experiences. It is suggested that future researchers in this field should apply these models within active learning further to develop the student teachers’ professional teaching competence.
The author appreciates the patient instruction of their supervisor at Dhurakij Pundit University. Thanks also go to the teachers from Weinan Normal University for their sincere support in terms of the teaching design. I also want to acknowledge the active involvement of the participants in the practice. Lastly,
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the author would like to extend her gratitude to the Shaanxi Education Association and Weinan Normal University for the Education Research Grants (code: SJHYBKT2020010) that helped to fund this research.
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Yang, T. T., Shan, L., & Yue, L. (2021). Zhuo yue jiao shi bei jing xia shi fan sheng jiao xue ji neng ping jia mo xing gou jian [Establishing an assessment model of teaching skills for Normal Students Majoring in Geographic Science]. Jiao Shi Jiao Yu Lun Tan, 34(3), 30 35.
Ye, Z. X. (2017). Research MethodsinResearch. Psychological Publishing Co., Ltd Zeng, Z. (2015). An Action Research on Cultivating Chinese Sophomore EFL Student Teachers’ Teaching Competence during Intensive English Course. Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Social Science, Education Management and Sports Education, Beijing, China. https://www.atlantis press.com/proceedings/ssemse 15/25842094
Zhang, G. H., Zhang, Q. Q., & Hu, L. M. (2015). Guan yu gao xiao di li shi fan sheng su yang de diao yan fen xi [Investigation and Analysis of Normal University Students’ Literacy of Geography Specialty]. Liao Ning ShiFan Da XueBao (Zi Ran KeXueBan), 38(3), 415 420. http;//10.11679/lsxblk2015030415
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First level index and weight
Professional knowledge （30%）
Secondary level indicators
Serial number
Index requirements Weight （%） Level Score
A B C D E
Education foundation 1 1 The student teacher can master the basic education theoretical knowledge required, follow the middle school teaching rules, combine the cognitive characteristics of the middle school students, and use teaching principles and methods to solve any teaching practice problems that arise.
Discipline Literacy 1 2 The student teacher can master the relevant basic geographical knowledge, theories and thinking methods, such as man land
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
First level index and weight
Secondary level indicators
Serial number
Index requirements Weight （%） Level Score A B C D E coordination, regional cognition, etc. 1 3 The student teacher can analyse the value of geography knowledge in relation to the development of the students' core qualities regarding geography (such as man land, coordination, regional cognition, comprehensive thinking, and geographical practice).
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree Information literacy 1-4 The student teacher can master the common operation of information teaching equipment,
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
First level index and weight
Secondary level indicators
Serial number
Index requirements Weight （%） Level Score
A B C D E software, and other new technologies.
Knowledge integration 1 5 The student teacher can understand the connection between geography and other subjects and carry out effective geography teaching activities in combination with social life practices.
Teaching design Familiar with course standards
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree 1 6 The student teacher can master the geography teaching knowledge and strategies.
2 1 The student teacher is familiar with the geography curriculum standard and textbook compilation logic
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
First level index and weight
Secondary level indicators
Serial number
Index requirements Weight （%） Level Score
A B C D E
competencies （25%） and system structure, can correctly handle the relationship between the geography curriculum standard and geography textbook, and is conscious of teaching according to the curriculum standard.
Learning situation analysis
2 2 The student teacher can analyse the relationship between the geography teaching content and his/her existing knowledge and experience, and predict any difficulties when learning geography based on his/her existing level of knowledge, learning
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
First level index and weight
Secondary level indicators
Serial number
Index requirements Weight （%） Level Score
A B C D E
experience, and interest characteristics.
Design lesson plans 2 3 The student teacher can accurately grasp the geography teaching content, understand the status of this course in the textbook, and its relationship with other courses. He/she can also determine the appropriate learning objectives and learning focus according to the geography curriculum standard requirements and their learning situation analysis.
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
First level index and weight
Secondary level indicators
Serial number
Index requirements Weight （%） Level Score
A B C D E
Teaching implementation competence（ 45%）
2-4 The student teacher can design the learning activities reasonably and choose appropriate learning resources and teaching methods.
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree 2 5 The student teacher can arrange the teaching process and link, as well as design scientific and reasonable evaluation content and methods.
Create environments 3 1 The student teacher can create teaching situations, establish the connection between the learning content and life experience, stimulate learning interest, and guide the students to
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
First level index and weight
Secondary level indicators
Serial number
Index requirements Weight （%） Level Score
A B C D E
actively participate in the learning activities.
Instruction organisation 3 2 The student teacher can master the form and strategy of the teaching organisation and classroom management and can control both the teaching time and teaching pace.
3 3 The student teacher can scientifically and accurately present and express the teaching content, establish reasonable questions and discussions, guide the students in active learning, explore learning, and help
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
First level index and weight
Secondary level indicators
Serial number
Index requirements Weight （%） Level Score A B C D E them to achieve the learning objectives.
Learning instructions 3 4 The student teacher can guide the students towards independent, cooperative, and inquiry-based learning, and help them to effectively learn the key and difficult learning points in relation to the characteristics of the geography subjects, the cognitive characteristics of the middle school students, and their individual differences.
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
3-5 The student teacher can use class ending skills to guide the students to conclude and summarise the learning
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
First level index and weight
Secondary level indicators
Serial number
Index requirements Weight （%） Level Score
A B C D E
content and assign a reasonable amount of homework.
Instruction evaluation 3-6 The student teacher can evaluate the learning activities and learning outcomes in the form of homework and problem feedback in relation to their teaching practice.
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree 3 7 The student teacher can analyse the problems and deficiencies that exist in the learning process of both teachers and students, and they can form an awareness to diagnose and improve
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
First level index and weight
Secondary level indicators
Serial number
Index requirements Weight （%） Level Score A B C D E
their teaching based on the students' learning situation.
Master skill 3 8 The student teacher has the basic teaching skills of using chalk, pen, brush writing, and Mandarin.
3-9 The student teacher can systematically master basic classroom teaching skills such as the introduction, explanation, questioning, demonstration, writing on the board, finishing, assignments, and so on.
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
5 Strongly Agree Relatively Agree Medium Relatively disagree Strongly Disagree
Total
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 197 218, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.11
Received Mar 12, 2022; Revised Jul 14, 2022; Accepted Jul 23, 2022
Alanood Alshamsi Zayed University, Dubai, United Arab Emirates Laila Mohebi* Zayed University, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Abstract. Academic advising and tutoring policies play key roles in achieving students' satisfaction and engagement, and thereby improving students'retentionandcareerdevelopment. However, universitiesdonot give enough attention to developing the Student Affairs entities or advising quality. This study aims to conduct a systematic review of the literature, in order to determine the needs of UAE federal universities, withaspecialemphasison therolesofacademicadvisingandcounselling in improving students' retention and satisfaction. The target population of this study consisted of related works published in peer review journals, books and websites. A comprehensive review of the literature was conducted on a list of 28 selected manuscripts published from 2000 to 2021. The data were collected manually from the articles, by the researchers. This study draws the attention of policy makers and advisory boards, to launch proper policies and advisory services, so that, the students of higher classes will achieve good academic performance, leading to students’ retention. Furthermore, our findings revealed that academic advising can improve the students’ satisfaction, gender identity or expression. Thus, academic advising is the groundwork for all fruitful learning institutes. This paper gives an overview of the flaws in academic advising policies and the limitations of the available tools to support the policy goals in federal universities in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Consequently, further research in this subject and the implementation thereof could improve the quality of student affair programs in the federal universities of the UAE.
Keywords: academic advising; career development; policy making; Higher Education in UAE; student affairs
* Corresponding author: LailaMohebi;Laila.Mohebi@zu.ac.ae
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
In spite of being a rich country, with a good infrastructure, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) has a considerable outflow of its citizens to foreign universities in pursuit of higher education Around 7.1% of the UAE nationals choose foreign universities for higher education, compared to 1.9% in China and 0.9% in India (Shukla, 2020). This scenario raises the question of why the UAE isnot competitive enough in the higher education sector Flaws in the academic advising and counselling programs could contribute to this scenario (Ashour & Fatima, 2016; Almaghaslah & Alsayari, 2022). As most Universities are trying to boost student retention and enrolment, academic advising becomes an important and crucial task that is related to students’ success, satisfaction, and retention. The academic advising entities come under the Students’ Affairs Department or the Students' Success Department that foster many other entities supporting and helping students to fulfill their personal and professional goals (Gudep, 2007). In a word, academic advising is a developmental process that aids students in clarifying their career goals and developing educational strategies to help them achieve those goals.
Academic advisory policies are instrumental to the university's strategic planning for establishing a well defined, efficient, and successful system of academic advice. It is based on the concepts of accountability and responsibility, with the goal of providing high quality advisory services to students. “One of the main responsibilities of any institution of higher education involves Academic the advice of students” (Ward, 1979, p.1). So, what is Academic advice, and how do different researchers explain it? Academic advice is the foundation of any academic institute that intends to be an environment of growth and excellence.
According to Miller (2012), academic advice is responsible for educating students about the institution’s objectives, preparing the students and informing them about the course requirements, assisting them in understanding the course, and enhancing their personal development. Davis and Cooper (2001) defined it as “methodical and structured services that take place in the campus, in order to facilitate a dynamic interaction with the administration” (p.53). Academic advice helps students to understand the learning process and to make valuable decisions. In addition, academic advice develops students' core skills, such as problem solving and critical thinking (Drake, 2011).
Similarly, previous works of literature show evidence of the importance of academic advice for increasing students’ levels of satisfaction and academic retention (Tinto, 1987). According to Drake (2011), academic guidance is the ability to build relationships with students and to help them to identify their strengths and weaknesses.
Academic Advisory Procedures are a part of the operational processes required to implement institutional policy. These processes are known as procedures. Procedures can be formal or informal between departments, or ministries. If a policy is an operational "what to do", then the procedure is a "method" intended to implement those operational policies (Smith College, 2021). The advisees have accountability for their educational choices and instructional selections. They
must make clear values, competencies, interests, and aims. In each semester, the students are expected to schedule an appointment with their academic or faculty advisor. In addition, advisees are asked to be prepared for an academic advisement and have all the materials and resources needed (Thorne, 2011; Hatherley Greene, 2012; Smith College, 2021)
The procedures should also include a variety of advising tools that should promote efficient and effective communication between students and advisors, such as the Degree Audit, Career & Internship Office, Student Accessibility Department for students of determined, Tutoring & Leadership Program, GPA Calculation, Students’ E Forms, Students’ Policies & Procedures, Zoom, University Catalogue, and Library and study areas
Thus, for academic advice to be successful, a good design and the implementation of policies and procedures, which meet the need of the university society, should be addressed. All the stockholders should be involved and educated on policies and the importance of the available tools. Similarly, workshops and orientations should be developed to spotlight the importance of the Academic Success Department, especially the advising entities (Thorne, 2011; Hatherley Greene, 2012; Smith College, 2021).
When we read these articles, most of the academic advising definitions contained processes of work, procedures, responsibilities of advisors and the way of advising methods. All these descriptions led us to the roots of work, which are ‘policies of the institutions that develop and outline the process of the tasks, and also the responsibilities. Nowadays, academic advising in higher education faces structural challenges and issues that must be addressed, through changes in educational policies and practices, which also include academic advising.
According to Poole (2021), policies clarify the values and the operations of the university, thereby making it easier for the different university members to understand them. Theserules provide rubrics, guidelines, and principles that help the university, or any other educational institution to achieve target goals and learning outcomes (Welsh & Harris, 2016). Furthermore, the educational policies cover a huge variety of issues, including fairness in the opportunities provided for students, learning and teaching quality, the ability of the university to put together college students for effective governance, and financing (Viennet & Pont, 2017).
Although the UAE is a rich country, the federal universities of UAE often fail to perform at higher educational levels, when compared to the western universities. Furthermore, the federal universities of the UAE are often unable to retain their students; and the students often prefer foreign countries for their higher studies and career development. When comparing with the international standards, the UAE has a high outbound student mobility ratio. Around 7.1% of the UAE nationals undergoing tertiary degree programs prefer foreign universities, when compared with the 1.9% in China and only 0.9% in India (Shukla, 2020). This scenario raises the question of what makes the federal universities of the UAE to perform below par when compared with the Western universities. Being a rich
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country, the universities of UAE have adequate infrastructure to enable them to excel in all areas of higher education, including research. However, the infra structure is not helping the UAE universities to achieve academic success, students’ career development, students’ satisfaction and expression, and student retention. Such scenarios can arise from pitfalls in academic advice and counselling, as well as from the lack of proper student affair programs (Annemarie, 2011; Ashour & Fatima, 2016; Almaghaslah & Alsayari, 2022)
Consequently, we decided to assess the efficacy of the Academic advice programs, student affair programs, student satisfaction and the effect of these modalities on the students’ career development and retention through a review of the research articles published in the areas of our concern.
When it comes to policy development, there are plenty of models encompassing different disciplines (Poole, 2021). These models can be listed as “the institutional model”, “the rational model”, “the incremental model”, “the group model”, “the elite model”, “and “the process model”. According to Dye (2013), these models are inter related, concentrating on the distinct political characteristics (Figure 1) One of the best models to be used in the field of advising policy is explained by Welsh and Harris (2016), in their book ‘Criminal Justice Policy and Planning’ (Figure 2). It is a process that includes seven steps, as cited by (Poole, 2021), which are given below Stage 1: Analysis Stage 2: Setting goals Stage 3: Design policy Stage 4: Creating an action plan Stage 5: Implementation and monitoring (Data collection) Stage 6: Evaluating the progress Stage 7: Re assessing and reviewing (to identify the gap areas)
The first stage is the analysis of the problem. In this stage, the issues and the problems encountered at the institution or department level should be analysed by the university professionals and administrators. This step includes describing the history of the problem, identifying the reasons behind it, considering any previous intervention, and identifying the obstacles that prevent any change. The second step involves setting clear and concise goals. Thirdly, the stockholders should be taken into consideration, while designing the policy.
In the fourth step, a precise action plan is created, which defines the process that should be followed to change the policy. A Gantt chart may be used in this step. The fifth step is a very crucial part implementing and monitoring the policy which involves translating the goals and objectives into actions. It includes the instruments for the data collection. In the sixth step, one evaluates the outcomes of the new policy implementation. The policy maker should consider the kind of evaluation that suits the changes needed for the planned goals and values., re assessing and reviewing, in order to make it identify with the gap area and to make the necessary updates. In academic advising, these steps are mostly used
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to measure learning outcomes and student satisfaction, in addition to the percentage of the retention and graduation time.
Figure 1. Hierarchical diagram from the problem to its effects
Figure 2. The seven steps involved in the Welsh and Harris advisory policy.
According to Knill and Tosun (2008), it is also important to consider the costs and the benefits, when designing a policy. As per Cooper and Munger (2000), it
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combines three thoughts regarding the cost which comprises the activities of cost and benefit, the potential errors and the opportunities for achieving, and the value of the upcoming benefit and the percentage of the cost Every step of the ones mentioned above is crucial to consider, while designing a policy; however, not every step will be used when designing and implementing a policy (Knill & Tosun, 2008; Viennet & Pont, 2017).
According to Fullan (2000), there is no guarantee that the success of a policy’s implementation will last. Fullan (2000) also noted that both local institutional development and the quality of the surrounding infrastructure are essential for lasting success.
Based on the study of Poole (2021), there are plenty of useful tools that can support the design of the policy. These science and knowledge based tools and methods can assist in developing valuable decisions and in improving policy design and the implementation thereof, and according to Floden (2004), “policy tools” are designed, in order to boost the capacity of the university and academic advisement, in particular. Below are seven different groups of tools and methodologies that could be used in developing a policy (Fowler, 1996, pp.203 239).
Group 1. Assembling data and knowledge (including monitoring): This includes a collection of the data, monitoring and changing in databases, history, and scanning.
Group 2. Assessment and evaluation: this include different tools, which are based on various techniques and values.
Group 3. Public discussion, involvement, and participatory processes
Group 4. Selection and design of policy instruments: This includes setting aims and objectives and meeting the administration.
Group 5. Implementation, outreach, and enforcement: Evaluating the potential of the policy designed and the institutions’ setting in which this policy is to be implemented, and comparing the policy designed with previous policies.
Group 6. Tutoring, institution building, and economic development: Providing stakeholders with the appropriate instruments, guidelines and the perceptions needed for policy implementation.
Group 7. Authority policy and societal learning: Detecting the gaps and working on fixing them, by improving the skills and the competence of the members involved.
According to Cobb's (2012) study, providing the advisor's committee with enough and convenient resources, materials and tools could support the policy design implementation, and analysis, thereby, improving the instructional institution. It adds that the incorporation of tools can support the re organisation of practices and procedures.
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The late Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan stated that “A country's greatest investment lies in building generations of educated and knowledgeable youths” (Higher Education, 2021). According to Hatherley Greene (2012), the government in UAE is putting pressure on higher education to bring about extended economic changes. Similarly, it stated that higher education is used as a measure of how well reformed initiatives are working in any society, especially in the Arab countries currently in the process of restructuring.
Although the government considers higher education as a priority, and despite the increase in higher education student enrolment, the previewed works of literature and the scientific researches indicated that this area is facing many issues and challenges, including the discrepancy between the graduates and the labour market, the shortage in the governmental database, the shortage in the resources needed, the incompatibility between the universities offered programs and the labour market demands (Sebihi, 2014).
To overcome these challenges the Department of Pedagogy establishes rules, guidelines, procedures, and policies to enhance the quality of studying programs and to govern the operation of higher education institutions in Abu Dhabi (Higher Education, 2021). The UAE, unlike other developing countries, is a great purchaser of policy options (Thorne, 2011). According to O’Sullivan (2013), the UAE uses a variety of educational policies sampled, before choosing one to adopt
However, Croucher's (2014) study emphasizes that the UAE government, as well as educational institutions, should find and design a policy that meets the needs of the country. Policy implementation is experiencing many issues. Gaad, Arif, and Scott, (2006) reported that the UAE government lacks the level of organisation required to review and reflect on their work, and to detect that the outcomes are not what they want them to be. In addition, the UAE does not perform deep analyses for its policies, where the policies are blindly taken up “without considering the cultural context in which they would be applied” (Harold, 2005).
Annemarie (2011) and Tabari (2014) suggest that the UAE should start working for an original policy that meets the demands of the country and that allows it to receive international recognition. Nowadays, many UAE universities are in the transformative process. There is a high demand and emphasis on in house developed applications and tools, outsourcing jobs, and merging programs and colleges, in order to cut down budgets and to establish new programs that meet the needs of the country and the developed economy.
Over time, many programs will be developed, new colleges will be presented, and new policies should be developed to meet the needs of the country with the given data and resources.
Regardless of the importance of the existing advisory policies and procedures, student advising has never been a priority in an institution’s agenda, in which most universities place more value on their buildings, making new programs, and securing outside funds that are more important than advising. In addition, the universities do not give sufficient attention to developing the Student Affairs entities or advising quality.
The advising system in federal UAE universities is a newly developed concept, that previous works of literature provide little information presented about its effect on students, advisors, and universities (Al Ali, 2014; Banat, 2015; Thomas 2021) Moreover, there are a small number of universities and educational institutes that focus on providing advisory workshops, or looking into the newest tools, or the procedures needed to help at risk students. Therefore, federal universities are always importing advisory programs from foreign outstanding universities.
These programs need a huge budgeting system, in order to cover the cost of planning, applying and updating in local universities. It is always the top bottom method, when it comes to foreign programs, which most of the time need updates after application Therefore, they need to take a look at what others are developing; and they should try to create their own plans and policies with the available data and resources, which are suitable for their goals, culture, people, and resources (Banat, 2015; Ashour & Fatima, 2016)
Applying new educational policies requires the development of a new process for improving the education system and the quality of learning. This can be achieved by the development of a professional academic advisory policy. As mentioned previously, the infrastructure alone is not sufficient for UAE universities to achieve academic success, student’s career development, student’s satisfaction and expression, and student retention. The reason for this could be the drawbacks in academic advising and counselling, the lack of proper data collection and assessment tools, inadequacy in student affair programs and less chances for the freedom of expression (Ashour & Fatima, 2016; Thomas, 2021; Almaghaslah & Alsayari, 2022).
Therefore, we decided to assess the efficacy of the Academic advice programs, student affairs programs, student satisfaction, as well as the effect of these modalities on the students’ career development and retention in the federal universities of UAE, through a review of the research articles published in the areas of our concern.
Every study has some limitations and requires future directions. This study is limited in its context; particularly, it targeted the articles, books and other published works on federal/public universities in UAE. Limited numbers of articles were found that meet the needs of the study. The study was based on a systematic literature review, so there is a need for empirical and qualitative studies, in order to interpret the findings in general and specific ways. Other
factors should also be discussed that contribute to the needs of advisory policies, i.e., learning outcomes, university culture, academic self efficacy and most importantly, the use of social media applications. Although this study reached its goal, there are a number of limitations that could not be avoided. A limited number of articles were found discussing academic advising in UAE and its policy. In addition, manyarticles were excluded; since they are not peer reviewed, or they are not written in English. Moreover, while scanning the reference list, some articles could not be accessed
The major objective of the current study is to investigate the academic advisory policies in UAE universities, as well as the importance of an advisory policy and its goals. Also, it aims to provide several definitions of academic advice, and to explain the policy generating process.
The following research questions will be addressed in this study: Research Question 1: How well does the local entity define advising? Research Question 2: What are the advisory procedures and policies?
This work was designed and performed by the researchers, in order to accomplish the main objectives of this study. It includes the research design, data collection, as well as sample sorting, data analysis, and sorting out the ethical concerns. The methodology involved in this study is explained below.
8a.
Indeed, one on one interviews and personal questionnaires are superior tools for research, because of its flexibility, ability to collect minute details and ease in conducting deeper analysis (Young et al. 2018). However, instead of personal interviews we opted for conducting a review of the literature because of the COVID 19 restrictions. Many of the respondents were not interested in personal interviews, due to perceived fatigue from mental and behavioural stress associated with the COVID 19 restrictions. Further, we were not able to collect the students’ contact details from the institutions because many of the institutions were not fully functional when we started this work during early 2021.
In addition to this, the imposed travel restrictions also reduced the possibility of conducting personal interviews (Mosleh et al. 2022). Consequently, we decided to conduct a literature review of the peer reviewed publications, in order to overcome these shortcomings and to get an answer to our research questions. The literature review is a “form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature in an integrated way, such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated” (Kennedy, 2007).
The data were collected from sources like Journal articles, books, the internet, websites, and from the library. The data collection process was done in two steps, as described previously (Bramer et al. 2017). The first step was the database
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selection and search, while the second step involved scanning the reference lists of the selected articles
Step 1: Database selection: The most appropriate search terms and databases were chosen, as sources for the initial data search. This included: NACADA, OECD, ERIC and Google Scholar. The following border lines were used in the search: full text, scholarly journals and journals written in English. All the articles chosen were related to policy and academic advising. The keywords used in the research were as follows: Academic Advising, Academic counselling, Academic success, Student Affairs, Policy making Procedures, Federal Universities, and other sources
Step 2: The Scanning of reference lists: In this step, the list of references in all the articles and the books chosen in step 1 were scanned for other relevant publications that could be included in this paper. Publications that featured relevant research topics were added, and the same process was repeated in which the references of the newly selected articles were scanned. Two book chapters, and 2 dissertations were added to the list of the already selected samples.
Inclusion criteria: Articles published after 2000 until 2021 The availability of external referencing; the credibility of the data presented (whether the article has undergone the peer review process, or not); Articles published in English. The publications prior to 2000 were avoided; because towards the end of the 1990s, the government’s higher education policies and study programs in UAE were changed (Ashour & Fatima, 2016; Matsumoto, 2019) Therefore, articles prior to 2000, might not reflect the present scenario.
Exclusion criteria: non-peer reviewed articles; non-English articles; the lack of availability for external referencing; publications dated prior to 2000.
Out of the 126 publications collected, 98 did not meet the inclusion criteria (Table 1). The final sample includes 28 publications published from 2000 until 2021; these consist of articles, books, and websites (Table 2)
Each article is read once, in order to scan the categories related to academic advising, their policies and procedures. During the first reading many notes, ideas, and relationships were taken and recorded. We assessed the efficiency of the institutions related to the academic advisory program and student affairs using the model described under Section 2. Policy Models in this article, which was based on the model described by Welsh & Harris (2016). Seven stages (criteria) were set for assessing the efficiency of institutions in policy making and implementation. These comprised: the collection of data and monitoring, assessment of the progress, students’ involvement and the participatory process, the advisory program design, implementation of the policies, academic tutoring and identifying the gap areas and improving these Two researchers independently assessed the data in the selected 28 publications; and the averages of the points given by the two independent evaluations were taken. A score of
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75% and above was considered as good; scores between 50% to <75% were considered as average (needs to improve) and scores <50% were regarded as poor.
When the information about a particular assessment criterion (for example: identifying the gap areas) was not available in a publication under evaluation, then the points were calculated, after omitting that article from the calculation for that particular assessment criteria.
After the initial literature search, we were able to collect 126 publications, related to the area of research involved in this study. The category wise split up of these documents is given in Table 1. However, during the assessment of these items, we had to omit 98 items from the analysis, because they were not adhering to the selection criteria. The main reason for exclusion was that the item was not subjected to the peer review process’ (50 items), followed by the reason the language used is other than English’ (30 items). A further 15 items were excluded from the analysis because they are published before the year 2000; and 3 items were excluded because these items were not available for external referencing.
None of the websites metthe review criteria, because they were not peer reviewed and were personally rejected in many cases (Table 1) After sorting, 28 items were selected for the final analysis. The details of the finally selected 28 items for analysis are given in Table 2.
Table 1: Category wise split up of the initially collected items for this study: Item Number of items collected initially
Number of items excluded from this study
Items qualified for the final review of literature
Book/Book Chapter 24 22 2
Research Articles 62 38 24
Website data 34 34 0
Thesis 6 4 2
Total 126 98 28
Reasons for omission
Dated prior to year 2000; Language used is other than English; Itemis notavailable for external referencing; and the Item has not subjected to the Peer review process.
We manually checked all the 28 manuscripts selected for analysis; and we noted how the higher education departments perform the Advisory programs, how they monitor and collect data, how Assessment and evaluation were performed, student satisfaction and retention records, as well as the involvement of students in these programs. Furthermore, how well the programs are implemented, the efforts from the authorities to identify the gap areas and efforts made for improvement were also noted. It was noticed that universities in UAE performed well with regard to the design of the advisory systems and the tutoring systems.
Also, they made some efforts to implement these two stages as well. Average performance was seen in the areas of data collection and monitoring, as well as
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confirming student participation in the program. However, if the federal universities of the UAE want to make a good impact, then they need to make substantial improvements in the areas of assessing the progress, and identifying the gap areas. The Table 3 given below shows the stages and how well universities followed the stages of policies creation, adapting, or exporting.
Regarding the first question of this literature review How well do the local entities define Academic advising? we found that most of the regional literature provided the same definition of academic advising, where they defined it as ‘a program or an approach that contributes to preparing students for university life and supporting their academic career progression’. This definition also coincides with other definitions, such as the one provided by NACADA which cited that academic advising is an operation that is based on a co operation between the student and the advisor, which is aimed at helping students in achieving educational, vocational goals. Furthermore, the definition of academic advising provided by local UAE entities coincided with that found in other literature, such as that Miller (2012), and Larson (2018).
Table 2: List of 28 publications included in the final analysis
Sl. No Title Year Category (Article/ Book/ Thesis /Website/ Document)
Author name(s) Link /DOI
1 Systems analysis of the UAE education system 2006 Article Gaad et al. https://www.emerald.co m/insight/content/doi/1 0.1108/0951354061066540 5/full/html
2 Issues And Challenges In Academic Advising: A Multivariate Study Of Students’ Attitudes Towards Academic Advising In United Arab Emirates (UAE)
3 The United Arab Emirates: Policy Choices Shaping the Future of Public Higher Education.
4 Integrating ICT in Education: Impact on Teachers‘ Beliefs and Practices
5 Higher education in the United Arab Emirates: an analysis of the outcomes of significant increases in supply and competition
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School Principal in the United Arab Emirates
7 Cultural border crossings in the UAE: Improving transitions from high school to higher education
8 Understanding student satisfaction and loyalty in the UAE HE sector
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The Development of the UAE Federal Higher Education System: Main Characteristics and Influences
10 Challenges of Higher Education in United Arab Emirates (UAE)
11 An analysis of the instructional leadership model at an institution of higher education in the United Arab Emirates
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12 Academic advising problems at Al Quds University, as perceived by students, and its relationship with students’ academic performance.
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20 Literature Review on Education Reform in the UAE
21 Determinants of Student Satisfaction in Higher Education: A Case of the UAE University
22 Quality higher education is thefoundationofaknowledge society: where does the UAE stand?
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Concerning the second question of this literature review What are the advising procedures and policies? our study results also showed that, through academic advising and policy taking, students would have the opportunity to align their aspirations with UAE federal academic institutions which they are attending. In this way, academic advisors might be able to reduce the anxiety and the doubts of the students in UAE federal universities, through proper advising policies and
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implementation in the academic surroundings. The process of advising first year students begins with the development of interpersonal bonds. Through the advising policies and counselling, they exposed the complexities of this interaction.
All these measures assist in improving the student advisor relationships, that lead to self assessment and assist the student in recognising their abilities and shortcomings. Advising via self assessment necessitates that, students review their abilities, study goals, and willingness to complete their education in the UAE federal universities.
Table 3. Stages and the performance of universities regarding the following of policies. The ‘x’ mark shows where the federal universities of UAE stand with regard to the particular criterion being questioned. Good = >75% score, Average = 50% to <75% scores, and Poor = <50% score.
Collectio n of Data and Monitori ng
Level of performa nce
Assessm ent of the progress
Students’ Involveme nt, And Participato ry Process
Progra m Desig n
Implementat ion Tutori ng
Identifying The Gaps and Improving Good X X Average (Needs more effort) X X X Poor X X
We found that after the year 2000, there was a marked change in the academic advisory practices and policies of the higher educational institutions in UAE and Arab countries. Therefore, we omitted all the items dated prior to 2000 from our literature review; because those items did not relate to the present policies and scenario. The reason for the considerable changes in advising principles and policies in Arab countries may be due to the establishment of new international level higher educational institutions in the area, which deal with the problem in a more professional way.
Furthermore, during the last 20 years, the information technology has improved considerably in the area and online services, including the advising and counselling that are now available. This could also have contributed to the changes in the policies of the federal universities of UAE (Annemarie, 2011; Ashour & Fatima, 2016; Matsumoto, 2019).
It was found that most local works of literature provide the same definition of academic advice where they defined it as a program, or an approach that
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contributes to preparing students for university life and supporting their academic career progression. Pargett (2011) defines the approaches of advising academic students, such as the prescriptive approach and the developmental approach. The first approach deals with the educational completion needs and requirements, while the second approach deals with the belief of achieving a graduation degree on time. The prescriptive approach does not allow academic students to make their own choices to complete the study; but rather the students are obliged to receive instructions, advice and directions to the needy, according to the advisors. Therefore, there is an impersonal and authoritative relationship between the students and the advisors.
Academic advice in higher education is facing many problems. Developing good academic advising policies could be one of the methods used to face such struggles, and thereby to increase the university students' enrolment and retention. A successful policy designation includes different steps, starting from the analysis of the problem and setting goals before reaching the review and evaluation. In addition, according to the studied works of literature, academic advising policy designation should address the needs of the instittion, and should take into account the institutions' cost and benefit. Policies also should be accompanied by the appropriate procedure that assigns the role of individuals involved in the academic advisory process This includes the advisee, faculty and academic advisor, as well as the director. The ability to analyse one's own abilities and become aware of one's strengths and shortcomings is a key step towards academic achievement (Gudep, 2007; Annemarie, 2011)
A recent study by Tinto (2012) concluded that academic advisors should systematically measure new students' attitudes. According to Kuh et al. (2005), public universities provide timely advice to their students on how to improve their academic performance. Academic policies on advising are methods through which institutions can analyse and get feedback from the students on personal attitudes that might affect the ability to succeed in universities. For example, they could use advising to assess students' attitudes towards the instructors, their use of institutions, and their likelihood of dropping out.
Academic advisors develop relationships between students by guiding them through advising policies and assessments. They also refer students to appropriate institutional services, in order to meet their requirements. More importantly, they also instruct students on creating a study roadmap. Consequently, students understand the importance of scheduling and balancing other activities, as well as the importance of deciding on which courses to enrol for.
Moreover, the policy comes with clear procedures and available tools in most students' handbooks, which are published online for everyone and is easy to get. The advising program is new to our universities; and it needs a dedicated advisor who believes in the importance of their work. It’s not only about available policy, or the listed tools; it is about giving alternatives and building UAE capabilities (Hammo & Saraireh, 2010). In the same way, Davis and Cooper (2001)
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investigated students' opinions of academic advising and tutoring in connection with diverse adviser models, including full time academic advisors, professional advisors, and housing advisors.
The previous studies took part in students' satisfaction as regards academic counselling and advising, noting that it was collaborative, rather than deciding procedures. Professional advisers were given a somewhat higher rating than academic advisors; because faculty advisors typically have greater responsibilities (i.e., tutoring, teaching, assisting, and supervising the students). However, advising is one of many obligations that they must complete, although professional advisors, have the best strategy to promote students' learning and academic performance in the federal UAE universities.
The UAE is a rich country; it can import policies, skilled professionals, and programs. However, there is always a missing key that makes the government change and to seek a new system. A study by Fox (2007) shapes the megatrends and advising policies for the public universities of UAE. He proposed that students and UAE itself would not gain from federal academic institutions unless the UAE is dedicated to preserving advisory programs at public universities and the Higher Institutes of Technology. If this does not happen, the top students would leave the UAE for more academic prospects and career development.
In HEI, there are several different ways to assess advising policies. These include well prepared student applications, appropriate funds, highly skilled teachers, modern infrastructure, high quality IT services, strong external bodies, and shareholders who would protect the best future of the federal universities of UAE. The result of any educational system needs at least 4 years of dedicated work, evaluation, and analysis. It is pleasing to have such a government seeking to get the best for their citizens According to Gaad, Arif, & Scott, (2006) importing is good; but it has the dark side of wasting money, effort, and capacities unless it is planned and evaluated according to the given data and culture.
Fowler's (1996) study describes the policy development stages, and how these are applied to the advising policy procedure. There is little effort to collect the data from the source (advisors). Always looking to data through the available tools, which have not always given clear data that reflect numbers only. Gudep (2007) conducted a study targeting higher academic institutions in UAE; and this author found the best practices for adjusting higher level students' behaviours and attitudes towards academic advising and policy making.
Al Ali (2014) also conducted a study in UAE federal universities and drew the intentions of university management to handle the students’ needs and requirements. He targeted three federal universities of UAE, in order to discover the educational needs and change the educational advising policies, according to the new year. The research was an interpretive approach/qualitative study, so he talked about advising policies and other educational development reforms in UAE universities. Banat (2015) also conducted a study in UAE universities and attempted to negotiate the advising problems students face in their academic performance and career development.
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The study of Banat (2015) was a qualitative interpretive study in UAE federal universities; and they found significant issues with students' advising at Al Quds University. They reported that 74.8% of college students have issues with academic advising and counselling. The students always share the advising problems and issues with Al Quds University, UAE; and they assert that this university with social, cultural, psychological and academic learning could pay attention to proper advising policies, so that the students would not have to face a dark future. The average university student confronts numerous issues. As students undergo transition from high school to university, they need guidance to resolve and adjust to these challenges within their skills and potential outcomes. The assessment and the evaluation should be from in and outside the field of advising, in order to get a clear picture of what is there and how to improve the situation.
In the next stage, a professional person and a presenter from the advising team should be present to discuss the plan and then design or import the suitable policy or tool to adapt. On the implementation process, workshops and tutoring systems should be available for the guidance of academic advisors; because follow up with the data collection and detecting gaps areas is essential for the successful implementation of the policies Although this process is hard, if it's applied in the right process, it would save money and effort. The study findings also supported the belief that the academic advisors are conscious of the students' information; they regularly contact their parents, while they communicate clearly with their advisees, develops programmes to facilitate advisor advisee relationships and focus on peer collaborative activities among the advisees in UAE federal universities (Banat, 2015).
They also experienced that their advisor recognised their strengths and limitations and assisted them in evaluating their professional and vocational progress. In addition, they believe in academic advisors to meet good advising policies and manners. While one may consider academic advising as a tool, which increases the probability of students sticking onto the UAE universities and achieving personal development, the actual benefits of academic advising extend beyond the universities and the students (Gudep, 2007; McIntosh, 2021).
Our work suggests that there is a need for improvement in the quality of the academic advisement system, by developing a good policy and standard operating procedures that meet the needs of the university, as well as those of the country. In brief, academic advising is an indispensable part of higher education institutions, because academic advising plays a vital role in students’ achievement, as well as in the institutions’ success.
This study has discussed the academic advising policies and the role of these policies in mediating the academic advising process in the federal universities of UAE. In addition, our work provides a framework for the research scholars and the universities to assess how they could increase their institutional success and
students' retention. Further, this review of literature identifies academic advising as an essential tool for achieving students’ emotional attachments, and for improving learning outcomes, curricular and extra curricular activities. In UAE, federal universities, faculty programs and professional advising facilities, and policies should be modernised and innovative, in order to have a tremendous impact on students' growth and development.
Previous literature studies and the results of this study provide evidence that academic advising and tutoring policies are very important; and they have an effect on learners during their college or university careers. Institutions should establish modern criteria to identify those students who are in danger of dropping out. Particularly, UAE federal universities should take the necessary measures to launch advising policies and manners for the betterment of the students and federal universities. The university advising board should implement the necessary measures to attain high quality education in technology and development.
The deficiency in training programs or workshops for academic advisors in the UAE may result in an inaccurate representation of information, and hence inaccurate advice. At present, there are very few studies in the literature review models, that are best suited to UAE federal universities. We could find only 28 peer reviewed publications, published over the past 20 years. Although there are a few more articles in the local language (Arabic), these articles are not useful for the international community. Our study lists the flaws in the academic advising policies and the limitations of the available tools to support the academic policy goals in the federal universities of the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
Thus, further research in this subject and the implementation of the findings could well improve the quality of student affair programs in the federal universities of the UAE.
The UAE universities are still relying on traditionaladvising methods, which have many limitations. Additionally, the traditional method of advising relies mainly on the advisor’s efforts, which are directly affected by time and experience (Assiri, Al Ghamdi, & Bredesen, 2020). The limitations of resources provided to the academic advisors in the United Arab Emirates is another area that needs to be addressed (Gudep, 2007). In addition to the previously mentioned limitations, traditional academic advising is influenced by the length of the meeting time, and students’ files and documents submitted for the process (Assiri, Al Ghamdi, & Bredesen, 2020).
This paper suggests that there is a need for improvement in the quality of academic advising, by developing a good policy and procedures that meet the economic and social needs of the university, as well as those of the country For improving the present academic advice programs of UAE, it is necessary to design well defined policies, and to provide the advisors with the necessary tools and training, to set up proper monitoring and evaluation systems, and lastly, the identification of crucial gap areas and improving these is necessary.
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Furthermore, organizing local conferences to share the knowledge and experiences of students and advisors could greatly benefit the academic advisory program Furthermore, we have noticed that only a few articles discussing academic advising processes in the UAE are available at present. Thus, there is a need for more research works that addresses this topic. In addition, research works on the students’ perception of academic advising programs in UAE is necessary, because the advisee is an important part of the advising process. Continuous evaluation of academic advisory tools could help in the improvement thereof and also its efficiency and productivity.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 219 240, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.12
Received Apr 4, 2022; Revised Jul 9, 2022; Accepted Jul 29, 2022
Lilian Ifunanya Nwosu
Faculty of Economics and Management Sciences, North West University, Mafikeng, South Africa
Martha Matashu
School of Commerce and Social Studies in Education, North West University, Mafikeng, South Africa
Assan Thomas Buabeng
Department of research and innovation, North West University, Mafikeng, South Africa
Abstract The coronavirus disease 19 has dismantled the traditional approaches to school management of education, prompting an urgent need to maintain teaching and learning during and post the pandemic. This study thus calls for strengthening instructional leadership to improve learner performance during and post the pandemic. Instructional leadership is an emerging concept from education leadership; however, the literature on educational leadership functions is still in its infancy. Subsequently, there is a lack of a complete understanding of the role of the School Management Team and educators’ instructional practices in managing teaching and learning in education literature. Although the School Management Team should identify and improve instructional practices to help learners attain learning outcomes, this goal is hindered by a lack of compressive insight into the relationship between instructional leadership and learner achievement. The purpose of this Systematic Literature Review is to examine the instructional leadership roles of SMTs and educators as identified by academics and practitioners. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analysis reporting guidelines were adopted in the study An electronic search identified 127 publications. After duplication, titles and abstracts were screened, and inclusion and exclusion criteria were considered; 27 full text version publications were assessed. Findings revealed a comprehensive conceptual relationship between instructional leadership roles at different hierarchical levels and
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
their influence on learner performance. This study contributes a synthesised literature reviewonstrengthening instructional leadership to promote learner attainment. These findings have implications for policymakers interested in promoting learner performance through strengthened instructional leadership during and post the coronavirus.
Keywords: School Management Teams, school leadership, principal leadership, educators, educator leadership, learner achievements, COVID 19
The disruption of teaching and learning during the Coronavirus Diseases 19 (COVID 19) has given rise to several challenges in education that prompt the call for strengthening the management of education systems within the schools (Jandrić et al., 2020). According to the World Bank (2020), teaching and learning in schools have been adversely affected by COVID 19. Instructional leadership is a key function of school management which influences learner performance. According to research, the instructional leadership quality of school administrators, such as School Management Teams (SMTs), can influence learners’ academic performance (Hallinger & Wang, 2015; Liebowitz & Porter, 2019; Veletić & Olsen, 2021). Studies on instructional leadership have provided compelling evidence that the way instructions of teaching and learning are conducted in the school affects learner learning outcomes (Bellibas et al., 2016; Heck & Hallinger, 2009; Vanblaere & Devos, 2016). For SMTs and educators who want positive changes in their schools, instructional leadership is essential (Bellibas et al., 2016). As provided by the SMTs, instructional leadership is viewed as a key factor in education reform (Veletić & Olsen, 2021). Given the critical responsibilities for schools to continue with effective teaching and learning during and post the COVID 19 pandemic, it is imperative for schools to consider improving learner performance through strengthened instructional leadership. This is because the duration of COVID 19 is unknown; despite this uncertainty, it is also essential to enhance instructional leader practices beyond the pandemic era.
Instructional leadership is one of the key roles of SMTs since it is connected to students, teachers, instruction and learning methods (Shava et al., 2021). Presumably, insight into the other roles of instructional leadership is necessary in order improve learner performance in schools during and post COVID 19 In advocacy for promoting instructional leadership in school, Vanblaere and Devos (2016) propose that to stimulate professional learning communities in high schools, school leaders’ roles must shift from that of a business manager to that of an instructional leader. There is growing evidence that effective instructional leadership improves learner attainment in schools. Against this backdrop, it is important to conduct a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) into the relationship between instructional leadership and learner performance in school. Such a study may provide insights that may assist in strengthening school management systems during and post the pandemic.
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Instructional leadership impacts educators’ teaching methods, which is directly tied to learners learning results and raises learners’ potential. As a result, instructional leaders must be aware of the issues that educators and learners encounter. Hallinger and Murphy (1985), mention that sound instructional leadership can be obtained from SMTs. Conceding the views of Hallinger and Murphy (1985), this study extended the argument that SMTs are not the only role players in instructional leadership; it is also the duty of educators. Carpenter (2015) asserts that the adaption of distributed leadership by SMTs promotes active educators’ collaboration towards improved teaching and learning. Principal leadership significantly impacts academic performance, although it is often felt indirectly through classroom educators, school processes, and the teaching climate (Liu & Werblow, 2019). This effect is especially powerful when school administrators foster employee trust and co operation (Bryk et al., 2010; Heck & Hallinger, 2009). For these reasons, educators and other stakeholders must be involved in class leadership and management, as their participation in decision making is positively associated with staff satisfaction and commitment (Liu & Werblow, 2013; Liu & Werblow, 2019; Spillane & Healey, 2010).
Studies on school leadership have provided policymakers with more compelling evidence about the scope of instructional leadership and the means by which leadership affects learner learning outcomes (Bellibas et al., 2016; Shava et al., 2021; Vanblaere & Devos, 2016). Bellibas et al., (2016) suggest that instructional leadership is essential for SMTs and educators who want to see positive changes The notion of instructional leadership must be understood and applied by educational leaders in carrying out their tasks and obligations in schools (Ail et al., 2015; Kemethofer et al., 2022). When educator instructional leaders teach full time and perform formal roles in a school’s hierarchy (e.g., coach, specialist, mentor), adequate time is devoted to the two positions. However, informal educator leaders may not have separate time dedicated to instructional leadership roles (Smith et al., 2017). According to Smith et al. (2017), the educator’s instructional leadership position must be balanced with other management tasks. Some instructional leaders perform several tasks; thus, it is possible that they cannot tell the difference between the instructional leadership task and their management responsibilities. The inability to recognise instructional leadership as a unique task may limit the chances of discovering loopholes associated with exercising this function. It is likely that this role will not be strengthened at both the SMT and educator levels. Increased school autonomy and a greater focus on learner achievement have necessitated a rethinking of the instructional leadership role of SMTs and educators.
van der Merwe and Schenck (2016) pointed out a misunderstanding of the SMTs’ instructional practices in managing teaching and learning. Mestry (2019) posited that some of the SMTs’ instructional practices can be found in their general SMTs roles. These findings are a reflection of the absence of role clarity and distinction of instructional leadership in the function of school management. Scholars have indicated the critical need to outline, distribute and implement SMTs instructional practices among different hierarchies of school management systems as necessary for improved learner performance (Hallinger, 2011; Manaseh, 2016).
Although several studies (e.g., Bellibas et al., 2016; Shava et al., 2021; Vanblaere & Devos, 2016) have been conducted on instructional leadership, fewer studies have focused on providing a comprehensive SLR of the relationship between instructional leadership and learner performance. Furthermore, to the researcher’s knowledge, no study has focused on the COVID 19 era. To address the gap in the literature on the influence of instructional leadership in supporting learner achievement during and post COVID 19; thus, adopting the SLR approach to examine the instructional leadership practices of SMTs and educators. The following research objectives guided this investigation: Firstly, to systematically review the roles of SMTs as instructional leaders. Secondly, to systematically review the roles of educators as instructional leaders.
The rest of this article is structured as follows. Firstly, the theoretical framework expands the understanding of the roles of SMTs as instructional leaders. We then provided a brief outline of the research methodology adopted for this study. This was followed by a discussion of findings on the salient issues of institutional leadership in the literature. Finally, the article concluded by providing conclusions derived from the findings of the study.
Principles of instructional leadership theory provide the theoretical framework for fostering learner learning outcomes and; therefore, the quality of teaching and learning (Day et al., 2016; Hallinger, 2019; Hallinger & Murphy, 1985; Robinson et al., 2008; Zhu et al., 2020). Hallinger and Murphy (1985) and Veletić and Olsen (2021) enhanced the appliance of instructional leadership theory into practise by developing the Principal Instructional Management Rating Scale (PIMRS) as a conceptual framework and a scale for measuring instructional leadership. This framework identifies ten functions that correspond to three dimensions of instructional leadership. The primary dimension, defining the school’s mission, entails two tasks: framing and communicating the school’s objectives. The second dimension, managing the instructional programme, entails three functions: curriculum co ordination, instruction evaluation and supervision, and learner progress monitoring. Lastly, developing the school learning climate entails protecting instructional time, providing incentives for educators, providing incentives for learning, promoting professional development, and maintaining high principal visibility within the school are the five functions of the dimension, developing the school’s learning climate. The three functions provided in Hallinger and Murphy (1985) may provide a sound instructional leadership framework whose guidelines may help SMT’s to work toward a common goal (Veletić & Olsen, 2021). A visual presentation of the PIMRS theoretical framework is depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1: PIMRS theoretical framework
Source: Hallinger and Murphy (1985)
This section discussed the material and research methods employed in this study which include SLR, search process, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and quality evaluation.
The SLR was performed to examine the instructional leadership roles of SMTs and educators as identified by academics and practitioners. According to Shahrol et al. (2020), SLR identifies, evaluates, analyses, and interprets the research results and findings relevant to the research problem. The SLR’s primary goals are to present a broad spectrum image, collate evidence for specific questions, and summarise the existing literature on a problem. The SLR was used to identify, evaluate, interpret, and analyse available studies to address specific research questions on the roles of SMTs and educators as instructional leaders, following the guidelines set out by Kitchenham and Charters (2007). As such, an interpretive research paradigm helps to achieve the goal of the SLR approach in a study.
A comprehensive search of primary studies, the identification of inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the assessment of the quality of included studies are the three steps of the SLR approach adopted for this study. The explanations for each step are listed below. To assess the quality and applicability of current literature, the researchers employed systematic ordering and description of the findings to arrange them into related conceptual groupings (Motyka, 2018).
PRISMA reporting guidelines were followed throughout this study (Hutton et al., 2015). Online indexing database libraries, such as ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, and Xplore Digital Library, were used to search for articles published in English. Keywords like "instructional leadership," "educator leader," and "School Management Team" were also used on the Mendeley desktop. The results of the
search were recorded by categorising and listing the existing academic papers in journals, conferences, book chapters, theses, and websites (Table 1).
Material search Publications Inclusion to the current study Exclusion to the current study
Journals 108 24 84
Conference 10 0 10 Books chapters 5 2 3 Theses 4 1 3 Websites 0 0 0
Total 127 27 100
When conducting the SLR, some inclusion criteria are taken into account. A collection of papers from the source library were reviewed and sorted, with published papers from journals and conferences receiving priority. Another requirement for inclusion was that all studies be written in English. As a result, the papers should at the very least include the roles of instructional leaders played by either educators or SMTs across the globe and the study population must be from a primary or secondary school. In addition, the SLR has its own set of exclusion criteria. This SLR automatically excludes papers that are not written in English. Finally, papers that met the criteria for inclusion and exclusion were short listed and reviewed for final selection (quality evaluation). A total of 227 studies reporting outcomes at 34 weeks were identified, but heterogeneity in study design allowed the synthesis of only 27.
The researchers developed a few guidelines to select relevant papers for the current study to validate the quality of the selected papers. To comply with the quality assessment, this step of the SLR process was necessary to ensure that only relevant, valid, reliable, and related articles to the current study were selected and applied. This was done using search strings whereby only studies containing the keywords "School Management Teams, " "school leadership, " "principal leadership, " "educators, " "educator leadership, " "learner achievements, " and "COVID 19" were included. To be fully evaluated, an article must include a discussion of at least one role of SMTs or the educator as an instructional leader, as well as a discussion of the role's strengths and weaknesses in terms of learner achievement (see Table 3).
This section presents the literature search results and categorisation of reviewed studies.
An electronic search identified 127 publications. After duplication, titles and abstracts were screened, and inclusion and exclusion criteria were considered; thus, 27 full text version publications were assessed. The reviewed studies were conducted in 13 countries, across six continents, as shown in Table 2. The findings indicate that South Africa has limited studies focusing on combined SMTs and educator’s instructional leadership. It is believed that this study would help to identify the instructional leadership roles of SMTs and educators in attaining learners’ performance.
Table 2: Distribution of reviewed studies by country Number Country where the study was conducted Number of research reports 1 Australia One 2 Belgium One 3 China Two 4 Hong Kong Two 5 Lebanon One 6 Malaysia One 7 Netherlands One 8 Norway One 9 Oman One 10 Pakistan One 11 South Africa One 12 Swaziland One 13 USA Ten 14 Multinational Three
The SLR of existing studies is based on a systematic ordering and description of the findings of the studies that have been reviewed. Tables 3 and 4 divided the studies into categories based on the SMTs’ and educators’ roles as instructional leaders.
Hallinger (2011); Harris, Jones, Cheah, Devadason and Adams (2017)
Curriculum co ordination
Lessons learned from 40 years of empirical research on learning leadership
Exploring principals' instructional leadership practices in Malaysia: Insights and implications.
Secondary Carpenter (2015) Professional learning communities' culture and leadership
Primary Leithwood et al., (2020) A test of "The Four Paths Model" to see how school leadership influences learner learning
Veletić and Olsen (2021)
TALIS is working on creating a standardized cluster model for instructional leadership
Al Mahdy et al., (2018) Oman is evaluating the impact of principle instructional leadership and collective educator efficacy on educator commitment
Primary van der Merwe and Schenck (2016)
Hallinger (2011); Harris, Jones, Cheah, Devadason and Adams (2017)
Instructional leadership in Swaziland primary schools: The basics
Lessons learned from 40 years of empirical research on learning leadership
Exploring principals' instructional leadership practices in Malaysia: Insights and implications.
Al Mahdy et al., (2018) Oman is working on evaluating the impact of principle instructional leadership and collective educator efficacy on educator commitment Vanblaere and Devos (2016) A multilevel investigation of the relationship between school leadership and perceived professional learning community features
Secondary Carpenter (2015) Professional learning communities' culture and leadership
Primary van der Merwe and Schenck (2016)
Secondary Mestry (2019)
Instructional leadership in Swaziland primary schools: The basics
The instructional leadership role of School Management Teams in closing the achievement gap in low income schools
Al Mahdy et al., (2018) Oman is evaluating the impact of principal instructional leadership and collective educator efficacy on educator commitment
Primary and secondary
Evaluation and supervision of instruction
Monitoring of learner progress
Liebowitz and Porter (2019)
Protection of instruction tim e
Provision of incentives for educators
The empirical literature: A systematic review and meta analysis on the effect of principal behaviors on learner, educator, and school outcomes
Secondary Ail et al., (2015) Three Mara Junior Science Colleges (Mjsc) in Pahang, Malaysia: Principals' instructional leadership and educators' commitment
Primary Leithwood et al., (2020) A test of "The Four Paths Model" to see how school leadership influences learner learning
Secondary Mestry (2019) The instructional leadership role of School Management Teams in closing the achievement gap in low income schools
Smith et al., (2017) The environment in which instructional educators lead Veletić and Olsen (2021) TALIS is working on creating a standardized cluster model for instructional leadership
Secondary Mestry (2019) The instructional leadership role of School Management Teams in closing the achievement gap in low income schools
Veletić and Olsen (2021) TALIS is working on creating a standardized cluster model for instructional leadership
Primary van der Merwe and Schenck (2016) Instructional leadership in Swaziland primary schools: The basics
Primary and secondary
Liebowitz and Porter (2019)
The empirical literature: A systematic review and meta analysis on the effect of principal behaviors on learner, educator, and school outcomes
Primary Leithwood et al., (2020) A test of "The Four Paths Model" to see how school leadership influences learner learning
Secondary Mestry (2019) The instructional leadership role of School Management Teams in closing the achievement gap in low income schools
Fryer (2013)
Primary and secondary
Liebowitz and Porter (2019)
Evidence from New York City public schools on educator incentives and learner achievement
The empirical literature: A systematic review and meta analysis on the effect of principal behaviors on learner, educator, and school outcomes
Al Mahdy et al., (2018) Oman is evaluating the impact of principle instructional leadership
and collective educator efficacy on educator commitment
Primary Leithwood et al., (2020) How school leadership influences learner learning: A test of “The Four Paths Model”
Primary Heck and Hallinger (2009) Assessing distributed leadership's contribution to school improvement and math achievement growth
. Hilton et al., (2015) The impact of educators' and school leaders' professional growth as participants in educators' professional development
Provision of incentives for learning
Primary and secondary
Fryer (2013) Evidence from New York City public schools on educator incentives and learner achievement
Liebowitz and Porter (2019)
The empirical literature: A systematic review and meta analysis on the effect of principal behaviors on learner, educator, and school outcomes
Zhu et al., (2020) A test of "The Four Paths Model" to see how school leadership influences learner learning
Primary Leithwood et al., (2020) How school leadership influences learner learning
Primary Heck and Hallinger (2009) Assessing distributed leadership's contribution to school improvement and math achievement growth
Primary and secondary
Promotion of professional development
Liebowitz and Porter (2019); Veletić and Olsen (2021)
The empirical literature: A systematic review on the effect of principal behaviors on learner, educator, and school outcomes
TALIS is working on creating a standardized cluster model for instructional leadership
Secondary Ail et al., (2015) ; Veletić and Olsen (2021)
The empirical literature: A systematic review on learner, educator, and school outcomes TALIS is working on creating a standardized cluster model for instructional leadership
Secondary Carpenter (2015) Professional learning communities' culture and leadership
Primary Leithwood et al., (2020) A test of "The Four Paths Model" to see how school leadership influences learner learning
Hilton et al., (2015) The impact of educators' and school leaders' professional growth as participants in educators' professional development
Secondary Mestry (2019)
The instructional leadership role of School Management Teams in closing the achievement gap in low income schools
Liu et al., (2021) In China, the impact of distributed leadership on educator job satisfaction: Educator autonomy and collaboration have a mediating role High school McLaughlin and Talbert (2007) Challenges and potential strategies in forming professional learning communities in high schools
Vanblaere and Devos (2016) A multilevel examination into the relationship between school leadershipand perceived aspectsof the professional learning community
Primary van der Merwe and Schenck (2016)
Continuity of high principal visibility of the school
Instructional leadership in Swaziland primary schools: The basics
Primary Heck and Hallinger (2009) Assessing distributed leadership's contribution to school improvement and math achievement growth
Hilton et al., (2015) The impact of educators' and school leaders' professional growth as participants in educators' professional development
Vanblaere and Devos (2016) A multilevel analysis showing the relationship between school leadership and the characteristics of the professional learning community
Secondary Mestry (2019) The instructional leadership role of School Management Teams in closing the achievement gap in low income schools
Veletić and Olsen (2021)
TALIS is working on creating a standardized cluster model for instructional leadership
Evaluation and supervision of instruction
Monitoring of learner progress
Protection of instruction time
Harrison and Killion (2007)
Educators have ten roles to play. Vanblaere and Devos (2016) A multilevel investigation of the relationship between school leadership and perceived professional learning community features
Al Mahdy et al., (2018) Oman is evaluating the impact of principle instructional leadership and collective educator efficacy on educator commitment
High need schools Berry et al., (2010) Leadership in education: Paving the way for effective teaching and learning
Harrison and Killion (2007)
Educators have ten roles to play Smith et al., (2017) The environment in which instructional educators lead
Secondary Sharar and Nawab (2020)
Educator leadership techniques as seen by educators: A case study of private secondary schools in Lahore, Pakistan Liu and Werblow (2019) The operation of distributed leadership, organizational commitment and principal and educator job satisfaction Ware and Kitsantas (2007) Professional commitment is predicted by educator and collective efficacy views
High school Ghamrawi (2013) Educators assisting educators: A model of professional development that encourages educator leadership
Harrison and Killion (2007)
Educatorshavetendifferentinstructional roles to play in the classroom. Smith et al., (2017) The environment in which instructional educators lead Vanblaere and Devos (2016) School leadership and professional learning perceptions. A multilayer examination of community characteristics
Secondary Zwart et al., (2009) What factors influence educator learning asseenbyeducatorsand their studentsin a reciprocal peer coaching context? Ingersoll et al., (2018) Educators' responsibilities in decision making and learner performance
Harrison and Killion (2007)
Secondary Sharar and Nawab (2020)
Educators have ten roles to play
Educator leadership practices as regarded by educators: In Lahore, Pakistan, an instance of private secondary schools Spillane and Healey (2010) An exploration of some study operations and measures in conceptualizing school leadership and management from a distributed perspective
Provision of incentives for educators
Provision of incentives for learning
Promotion of professional development
Liu (2021)
Contextual influences on educator leadership, both formal and informal
Hilton et al., (2015) The impact of educators' and school leaders' professional growth as participants in educators' professional development.
Leithwood et al., (2020) A test of "The Four Paths Model" to see how school leadership influences learner learning
Harrison and Killion (2007) Tenrolesfor educators helpingeducators
High school Ghamrawi (2013) A professional development model that promotes educator leadership
Fryer (2013) Evidence from New York City public schools on educator incentives and learner achievement
High need schools Berry et al., (2010) Leadership in education: Paving the way for effective teaching and learning Harrison and Killion (2007) Tenrolesfor educators helpingeducators
High school Ghamrawi (2013) A professional development model that promotes educator leadership Hilton et al., (2015) The impact of educators' and school leaders' professional growth as participants in educators' professional development
The discussion of findings is structured into instructional leaders’ roles played by SMTs and educators in strengthening learner achievement
The SMTs instructional leadership role in strengthening learner achievement is embedded in the principals and educators. A multilevel analysis of the relationship between school leadership and the characteristics of the professional learning community (Al Mahdy, Emam & Hallinger, 2018). The principal's job in defining the mission includes framing school wide goals (Hallinger & Murphy, 1985). According to Al Mahdy et al. (2018), the principal's role is to articulate and explain a vision for learning and build support for putting the vision into action in the school's existence. Effective schools have well defined objectives that are centred on learners’ success. In this post COVID 19, the focus should be on fewer goals that may be mobilised with the help of staff energy and other school resources. Many schools tend to benefit from a few unified objectives, each with a reasonable scope. The objectives should include information on previous and current learner performance, as well as staff roles and responsibilities for meeting the goals.
Communicating school goals
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During the pre and post COVID 19 era, it has always been the duty of the principals to oversee making instructional, curricular, and financial decisions. By discussing and reviewing them regularly, principals can ensure that staff understand the significance of school goals. The mission of the school can be communicated through both formal and informal interaction (Hallinger & Murphy, 1985). While principals must take overall responsibility for instructional leadership, Al Mahdy et al., (2018) pointed out that, in practice, they ought to collaborate with their middle level leaders. It is then important to focus more the principal takingthe lead in defining the school's vision and mission, and middle level leaders should reinforce coaching and other professional development activities via contact with educators in this post COVID 19. The better educators valued their principal's transformational leadership, the more collective responsibility they perceived in their school (Vanblaere & Devos, 2016).
Curriculum objectives and achievement tests are closely aligned in instructional effective schools. The curriculum looks to have a high degree of consistency across grade levels. Greater engagement among educators on instructional and curricular concerns generally supports this component of curricular co ordination (Hallinger & Murphy, 1985). Deputy principals, department heads, and educators are usually delegated to perform curriculum co ordination and instructional supervision (Al Mahdy et al., 2018).
Evaluation and supervision of instruction
This study ascertained that in this post COVID 19, the principal's job is to ensure the school's goals are carried out in the classroom. This requires working with schools to co ordinate instructors' teaching objectives and monitoring classroom instruction. For both supervisory and evaluation purposes, feedback to educators is concrete and tied to specific educational practices (Hallinger & Murphy, 1985). According to Smith et al. (2017), administrators are often members of the educational leader's exosystem and can either provide or destroy leadership opportunities. This role can be argued to be connected to the traditional management roles of the SMTs. However, it is seen as part of an instructional leadership role as management ensures that the instructional leadership roles are continually monitored and supervised.
Monitoring of learner progress Tests are used in the classroom to diagnose programmatic and student problems, as well as to assess the impact of modifications to the school's instructional programme. In various ways, principals play an important role in this area. Educators are given informative test findings, discuss test results with staff, and provide interpretative analyses that summarise the test data. Both standardised and criterion referenced testing are emphasised in instructional effective schools. The results of these tests are used to set goals, assess the curriculum, evaluate instruction, and track progress toward school objectives.
If announcements, tardy students, and office requests regularly interrupt lessons, instructors' classroom management and instructional skills will be underutilised.
The principal can exert control over this area by developing and implementing general school policies that minimise disruptions to classroom learning time (Al Mahdy et al., 2018; Hallinger & Murphy, 1985) School administrators who successfully implement these policies can potentially increase both allocated learning time and learner achievement (Al Mahdy et al., 2018; Hallinger & Murphy, 1985; Leithwood et al., 2020).
The principal can create a positive learning environment by implementing a work structure that recognises and rewards educators' achievements. Principals can also encourage instructors but are severely limited by the single remuneration schedule and tenure structure. However, research indicates that monetary incentives aren't the sole way to drive top performers. Principals can recognise educators in various ways, including private praise, public acknowledgement, and formal honours and awards (Al Mahdy et al., 2018). According to Al Mahdy et al. (2018), school principals who engage actively in instructional leadership can acquire higher commitment from their educators. This is a positive result and can be emphasied in because educator commitment is a key factor in bringing about change and improvement in the classroom. While educator incentives have been shown to improve learner achievement in developing countries, Fryer (2013) suggests that they may have the opposite effect in the United States, particularly in larger schools.
By constantly rewarding and recognising learners' academic progress and development, there is a need to build a school learning climate in which students respect academic performance (Zhu et al., 2020). The awards do not have to be excessive or costly; the most important component is recognition in front of educators and peers. Learners should be honoured in the classroom and in front of the entire school for their achievements. The principal is vital in connecting classrooms and reward systems and ensuring that they work in tandem. Learner achievement has been proven to be directly and indirectly influenced by school leadership (Zhu et al., 2020). Experiments using learner incentives suggest that programmes that directly incentivise educational production function inputs are more likely to succeed (Fryer, 2013).
Promotion of professional development
SMTs can help instructors enhance instruction in a variety of ways, including through professional development opportunities and in service training. In addition, SMTs can ensure that staff programmes are strongly related to school goals and vision (McLaughlin & Talbert, 2007). Assisting educators with classroom implementation and integrating skills taught through staff development programmes are also part of this position. To achieve this goal, there is a global demand for schools to transform into professional learning communities, where educators accept responsibility for high quality learner learning and are willing to learn from their peers through systematic collaboration. (Carpenter, 2015; Vanblaere & Devos, 2016). According to Liu et al. (2021), distributed leadership indirectly impacts educator job satisfaction through professional collaboration. Hilton et al., (2015) confirm that school leaders'
participation in professional development programmes improves educators' ability to implement and reflect on new knowledge and practices (Sodiya & Hajiyeva, 2022). They also revealed that they had a positive impact on the leaders' professional growth. (Hilton et al., 2015)
Continuous principal visibility in the school
Increased visibility in school and classrooms improves interactions between the principal and learners as well as between the principal and educators. This informal interaction provides the principal with additional information about the learners' and instructors' needs. It also allows the administration to express the school's priorities to SMT members. This can have a favourable impact on learners' and educators' attitudes and behaviours. For example, educators perceived higher instructional leadership from a school leader who was concerned about instructional concerns and frequently talked with staff members about these issues (Vanblaere & Devos, 2016).
According to Liu (2021), educators can serve as formal or informal leaders. Informal educator leaders often decide on instructional materials and examine learner performance data, whereas formal educator leaders usually make decisions about assessment policy, educator evaluation, data analysis, and parental communication (Liu, 2021). According to Harrison and Killion (2007), formal educator leadership practices may include traditional leadership roles and responsibilities such as school co ordinator, head educator, peer coach, and mentor. In contrast, informal educator leadership practices refer to roles and responsibilities that do not involve traditional leadership positions but have the potential to influence other educators. As a result, people who are led and those who lead may have differing perspectives on instructional leadership (Urick & Bowers, 2019; Veletić & Olsen, 2021). Educators’ instructional leadership role in strengthening learner achievement include:
While the principal may take centre stage when it comes to articulating the school's vision and mission, middle level leaders are critical in reinforcing these during interactions with educators (Al Mahdy et al., 2018). Educators share this vision with one another and with their learners. As a result, educators share the responsibility of communicating the school's mission to learners. The better educators rank their principal's transformative leadership, the more collective responsibility they perceive in their school (Vanblaere & Devos, 2016).
As more individuals realise that leadership is more than a job title, the concept of educator leadership is gaining traction among academics and practitioners (Sharar & Nawab, 2020) According to Sharar and Nawab (2020), educators should practice some leadership aspects, such as making instructional decisions, assisting new educators, organising school events, and connecting with the community. In addition, the willingness and ability to innovate successfully in the classroom is
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strongly and positively associated with educator's self efficacy as an instructional leader (Berry et al., 2010).
According to Smith et al. (2017), some educators have had considerable training in how to facilitate group planning and lesson study groups, skills that would greatly enhance the success of the school and common planning times. On the other hand, educators' involvement in instructional management negatively correlates with the principals' perceived dedication and satisfaction (Liu & Werblow, 2019). As an instructor in the classroom, educators want to be more active in instructional management, which poses a conundrum. On the other hand, their participation is linked to unhappiness among the principals. (Liu & Werblow, 2019). Educators who were not trusted by their principals, coaches, or facilitators to go off script were more likely to feel professionally undermined or burnt out. As a result, they spoke less positively about formal leadership in their schools and were less enthusiastic about staying in their current positions (Berry et al., 2010). Empowering educators to function as self sufficient professionals and leaders develops a sense of professional pride and confidence, which is conducive to good teaching (Ware & Kitsantas, 2007). According to Berry et al. (2010), educators require more tools and opportunities than ever to adjust curriculum and instructional practices due to the diversity of learners entering classrooms
Evaluation and supervision of instruction
Educators rarely open their doors to one another in the classroom; however, they make up for it by discussing their classroom experiences or other educational challenges (Vanblaere & Devos, 2016; Zwart et al., 2009). According to Smith et al. (2017), educators should monitor educator leaders in their classrooms as a strategy to improve instructional practice.
Educator leaders were more proactive in creating instructional strategies and picking learner grading or assessment practices (Ingersoll et al., 2018), but less powerful in setting the budget or employing new educators (Ingersoll et al., 2018). In addition, while educator leadership roles in the classroom have increased in recent years, educators' power to influence peers is limited due to the demand in school cultures for educators to maintain completely egalitarian working relationships and resistance from administrators (Berry et al., 2010).
Due to the failure of positional leadership to improve schools prior to COVID 19, more emphasis is being placed on promoting the concept of shared and distributed leadership in schools (Sharar & Nawab, 2020) Sharar and Nawab (2020) further assert that because of their intimate engagement, personal relationships, and interaction with learners, educators play a crucial role in school reform and learners' academic progress. It encourages educators to embrace educator leadership as a vital component of school improvement and active participation in school concerns outside of the classroom.
The educational leader may be responsible for developing assessments, administering assessments, scoring and analysing outcomes, and identifying and modifying instructional needs and priorities (Sharar & Nawab, 2020; Spillane &
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Healey, 2010). Informal educator leaders make decisions on instructional materials and analyse learner performance data (Liu, 2021), whereas formal educator leaders make decisions on assessment policy, educator evaluation, data analysis, and parental communication.
Protection of instruction time
While the school may have a general instruction time policy, the educator is the one who enforces it in the classroom. When enough time is devoted to each subject, the educator is able to protect instructional time. According to Harrison and Killion (2007), Educators can serve as resource providers, instructional and curricular specialists, classroom supporters, learning co ordinators, mentors, school leaders, data coaches, change catalysts, and, most importantly, learners (Chien, 2020). Efforts by educators to maximize teaching and learning time, provide classroom settings that allow for an acceptable pace of instruction, and enable learners to take charge of their own learning in age appropriate ways are all examples of how they employ instructional time (Leithwood et al., 2020).
Provision of incentives for learning
Fryer (2013) presented a school based randomised study conducted in over 200 New York City public schools to understand the influence of educator incentives. Educator incentives did not appear to promote learner achievement, attendance, or graduation, nor did they influence student or educator behaviour. According to Fryer (2013), educator incentives may lower learner attainment, particularly in larger schools in the United States. However, incentive systems in developing countries have proven to be effective in promoting achievement (Fryer, 2013)
Promotion of professional development Educators, who are at the centre of the educational process, have the knowledge and skills to direct their own professional development. However, gaining access to that knowledge necessitates identifying, developing, and nurturing educator leaders. In the opposite direction, empowering and nurturing educator leadership seems prudent by providing the resources, culture, and structures necessary for success. One structure for nurturing educator leadership is for educators to lead professional development events (Ghamrawi, 2013). In fact, to ensure the sustainability of school reform, one can tap into the creativity of educators and allow them to speed up school improvement. According to Ghamrawi (2013), the study's findings highlight resonant school gains and the programme's potential to develop not only educator leadership but also learner leadership.
Instructional leadership is fluid, distributed, expertise based, and shared, rather than the monopoly of any one person or individual. Educators have various skills and expertise, and if given the opportunity, they can take on effective instructional leadership roles in schools and capitalise on their skills and expertise. Successful educators are intimately familiar with both the content they must teach learners and the context of the community they serve. Allowing educators to serve as instructional leaders in their schools permits them to bring their unique knowledge to bear in meeting learner needs. This can be helpful in tailoring and
streamlining services for learners and families in high needs schools and developing policies during and post COVID 19 that can be sustained over time.
In sum, this study recommends that strengthened instructional leadership practices within schools can enhance the managing of education systems and provide a basis for developing post pandemic school management policies.
This study experiences various limitations. Firstly, this study used a systematic literature review approach, making it collective in nature. Future studies can adopt a meta analytical approach, which can generate more specific outcomes by synthesising empirical data. Secondly, the review of existing literature excludes practitioner’s literature, government gazettes and published reports. Future studies can rely on an extended body of knowledge and data sources.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 241 268, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.13
Received May 28, 2022; Revised Jul 24, 2022; Accepted Jul 27, 2022
Abstract. The current study aimed to investigate the extent and areas of training needs of teachers of students with learning disabilities (LD) as well as the extent to which some demographic variables influence the training needs for LD teachers. The researcher adopted a quantitative research method using a 42 item questionnaire as a data collection tool. The sample consisted of 432 LD teachers working in the programs designed for LD students in public schools in Riyadh. Teachers were selected using the simple random sampling method The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. The results indicated that the most of the questionnaire items represented moderate training needs (mean = 2.78) for the teachers. The results indicated that, to a certain extent, gender influenced the extent of training needs of teachers working with LD students. For example, male teachers had more training needs than female teachers. Qualification and years of teaching experience were found to influence the training needs of participants in this study, for example, teachers with bachelor’s degrees were found to have more training needs than those with master’s degrees, while those with less than 5 years of experience have more training needs comparing to other groups Implications and recommendation for designing LD teachers’ professional development programs are discussed.
Keywords: training needs; teachers; learning disabilities; public school; Riyadh
Professional development and continuous in service training have become indispensable requirements for updating and refreshing the experiences and promoting the effectiveness of special education teachers. These changes came with the emergence of the special education field and the enactment of laws and legislation guaranteeing disabled individuals appropriate educational services compatible with their capabilities. Modern education trends also pose many
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challenges in preparing, training, and qualifying special education teachers (Alayed & Alayed, 2015; Alkhateeb, 2015).
The emergence of continuous professional development also put the in service development programs of special education teachers under the microscope In other words, evaluating these programs and judging their suitability to keep pace with the needs of students living with disabilities and the requirements of modern trends is an issue of interest (Abuhusain & Abdulrahman, 2016). In addition, attention to in service programs for teachers working with students with learning disabilities (LD) is driven by the need for continuous professional development, a vital process that raises teachers’ competence and reforms their shortcomings by reconsidering and improving their skills to acquire the teaching competencies necessary for their educational work. In service professional development provides LD teachers with knowledge, skills, and modern developing trends directly related to their field of work. Moreover, LD teachers urgently need continuous in service training and qualifications as they work with the most diverse categories of special education in terms of abilities and characteristics. Particularly, they need to provide educational content in various innovative ways, use special teaching aids, and develop individual educational programs that differ from those offered to ordinary students (Alkhateeb, 2015).
Despite the importance of continuous training and qualification for in service LD teachers, their professional shortcomings are one of the most serious problems curbing the success of educational and support services provided to their students (Alshamare, 2019). Various studies (Alayed & Alayed, 2015; Alshamare, 2019) have confirmed that the quality of training programs provided to LD teachers is poor, as they are not mainly based on the findings of studies on the training needs of teachers. Instead, they are heavily limited on the theoretical side, implemented in short periods, and based on inappropriate mechanisms for evaluating the training elements. In service training and qualification programs for LD teachers must be based on the research findings on their training needs to prepare them professionally and functionally, and to provide them with the necessary competencies to help their students (Alkhateeb, 2015; Alshamare, 2019). Moreover, identifying training needs of LD teachers is essential to assess the quality of the existing educational process through detecting its strengths and weaknesses Identification of training needs of LD teachers also reveals the training level and scope that cadres need as well as exposing their levels of satisfaction regarding the existing training programs (Alayed & Alayed, 2015).
Identifying these needs is essential in defining and implementing the necessary input for the training programs provided. Importantly, these training needs are not static but dynamic. They change and are affected by developments in learning disabilities and the needs and experiences of the teachers themselves. Therefore, they must be studied and re evaluated periodically so that the efficiency of teacher training is commensurate with ongoing changes and developments (Abuhusain & Abdulrahman, 2016).
Hence, there seems to be an urgent need to identify the extent and areas of training needs of LD teachers from their point of view as well as examine the influence of some demographic variables on the extent of training needs of those
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teachers. That is a necessary step contributing to properly directing the future training and professional development processes to improve LD teachers’ performance. It also helps to refine LD teachers' competencies, strengthens their expertise, and consequently improves their practices in the educational process.
A review of relevant literature has been carried out and provided in the following six sub sections.
Boudersa (2016) stated that learning is a changing process because information is not static. Hence, teachers’ practices should move beyond traditional methods and become evidence based and data driven. He also emphasized the critical role that both empirical data and scientific research play as sources of evidence regarding what works in classrooms. Given that teachers are the most important factor in good education and there is high need for improving their skills and knowledge, many educational agencies worldwide have provided teachers with different training programs. These aim to expose teachers to new knowledge, improve their teaching skills, and provide contemporary knowledge in academic subject domains, which will positively reflect on their students’ performance. Alshamare (2019) emphasized that, nowadays, teacher training programs are considered the backbone of improving teachers’ profession, knowledge, and teaching practices to meet the different needs of their students.
Richards and Farrell (2005, p. 3) defined the term training as: “Activities directly focused on a teacher’s present responsibilities and typically aimed at short term and immediate goals. Often it is seen as preparation for instruction into a first teaching position or as preparation to take on a new teaching assignment or responsibility. Training involves understanding basic concepts and principles as prerequisite for applying them to teaching and the ability to demonstrate principles and practices in the classroom. Teacher training also involves trying out new strategies in the classroom, usually with supervision, and monitoring and getting feedback from others on one’s practice. The content of training is usually determined by experts and is often available in standard training formats or through prescriptions in methodology books.”
Another definition of teacher training has been provided by the Inter Agency Network for Education in Emergencies, INEE (2010), which refers to teacher training as any type of support, procedures, and processes that are provided to teachers to ensure they effectively instruct and assess their students on curricula, as well as to ensure that teachers continue to improve their teaching practices during their careers. Teacher training programs are usually built based on the needs of both learners and educators.
The importance of suitable training programs for LD teachers, who are in charge of improving students’ performance, has never been greater. Individualized learning for students with disabilities continues to be improved by research
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based practices, which satisfies their needs to be sufficiently met and assessed (Monaghan & Columbaro, 2009).
Teacher training programs have been used as a tool to guide educators in assisting their students to master the necessary 21st century skills. Teaching skills such as cleverness in multiple subjects, problem solving, communication, technology literacy, critical thinking, collaboration, and self direction requires teachers to use efficient teaching techniques that facilitate students’ acquisition of these skills (Alshamare, 2019) In addition, due to the unique and heterogenic characteristics of students with LD, the LD teacher is considered the most significant aspect in the process of learning. They must be well prepared with all strategies, techniques and tools that satisfy the students’ needs and facilitate their learning. This is because LD teachers hold the main responsibility as to whether students benefit or suffer from their teaching practices (Almahrej, 2020).
Therefore, efficient training programs play a critical role in helping LD teachers in applying suitable instructional strategies needed to teach these skills to their students (Darlin Hammond et al., 2017). Also, training programs in the area of LD provide teachers with an opportunity to be familiar with contemporary topics and issues within the field. Training programs are considered also a critical aspect in new LD teachers’ professional life. Those teachers often start their career with very little training and formal teaching experience. Therefore, professional training programs are necessary in helping them in starting their career with confidence and building an efficient professional experience (Albluwi, 2019). Moreover, training programs are an important factor for encouraging the innovation and productivity of LD teachers, which will positively reflect on the academic performance of their students (Abuhusain & Abdulrahman, 2016).
Previous studies have pointed out that special education teachers are at high risk for low self efficacy, have low job satisfaction, burnout, and high stress levels due to the special nature of their career requirements and responsibilities (Brusting et al., 2021; Emery & Vandenberg, 2010). Therefore, increasing the quantity and quality of training programs lowers the risk of experiencing the feeling of burnout (Lauermann & Konig, 2016).
Charney and Conway (2005) highlighted many reasons that raise the importance of establishing training programs for teachers, and these s include: The technological revolution. Technology has played an important role in enriching and facilitating the educational process and dealing with different learning resources. However, the effective incorporation of technology in the educational process requires exposing teachers to an adequate training. In other words, teachers should be well prepared to effectively use technology in education and mitigate its negative effects on the educational process.
Job performance assessment. According to special education standards, teachers’ job performance assessments may reveal differences between their actual and expected performance.
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Creating new tasks. Creating new tasks in the workplace calls for providing professional training for teachers to accomplish these tasks with ease and comfort.
Promotion. Promoting teachers may create a gap between their current capabilities, experience, and the requirements of the new position, which sometimes makes them feel incapable of performing the tasks assigned to them.
Quality control. Reports issued by quality control centers may sometimes indicate a defect or decrease in the quality of work due to teachers’ ignorance of the work method.
Assigning tasks of a special nature. School administrations may sometimes wish to assign special tasks to teachers who are fully aware that their current abilities do not match the requirements for completing those tasks. In such cases, teacher training is imperative.
Teachers gain numerous advantages from well prepared and effective training programs. One such is that training can assist educators in obtaining the certification and skills they need to efficiently perform their jobs (Haider et al., 2015). Obtaining teacher training helps to effectively satisfy the educational needs of each student in their classrooms and push him/her toward academic success. Mizell (2010) reported that “research confirms that the most important factor contributing to a student’s success in school is the quality of teaching” (p. 1). This means that educators who do not desire to learn new teaching skills or improve their teaching practices are unable to support their students through course curricula (Mizell, 2010). Moreover, training programs help teachers to become more effective in their course delivery and evaluation. These programs provide teachers with contemporary teaching techniques, assessment tools, ongoing progress monitoring systems, and modification methods (Thistlethwaite et al., 2012).
When talking specifically about learning disabilities teachers, training programs help LD educators to learn better and contemporary techniques while teaching their students. Training programs also help student teachers to be more efficient in differentiating their lesson styles and modifying the curriculum to better suit learners’ requirements in the classrooms. Another advantage of training programs is that LD students achieve better learning outcomes (Abuhusain & Abdulrahman, 2016). However, LD teachers find it challenging to keep up with the rapid changes in curriculum standards, school district requirements, and contemporary educational technologies (Hughes et al., 2016)
Therefore, they need to enroll in training programs that help them provide suitable teaching materials for today’s students to become effective teachers. The Institute of Education Sciences of the United States Department of Education demonstrated that educators’ enrollment in well prepared training programs can improve learners’ performance by up to 12 percentile points (Lawless & Pellegrino, 2007). Moreover, well developed training programs can prepare LD educators to effectively utilize diagnostic teaching methods (Albluwi, 2019). Mophoso and Mahlo (2015) pointed out that teachers who are well trained and
in command of their subject matter can identify their learners’ weaknesses and strengths, which makes learning and teaching easier
2.4
The need to obtain ongoing teacher training has become necessary throughout professional life because knowledge is rapidly renewed. Education is an endless process that must not stop after obtaining academic degrees and starting a career (Alqadi, 2018). It is critical for LD teachers to pursue ongoing training to guarantee the best learning performance for their learners and their satisfaction with different aspects of their work (The importance of professional development for educators, n.d.). Even though training is an essential aspect that targets the improvement of the skills of both educators and students, its scope is very varied.
The training needs of LD teachers vary based on their students’ individual circumstances, abilities, needs, and the challenges they face in the classroom. Aktan (2020) indicated several training needs of LD teachers. These included the competence in identifying areas of learning difficulties, applying educational diagnosis tests, and developing individualized educational plans. According to Albluwi (2019), other training needs of LD teachers include self assessment, determining the effectiveness of learning methods, using educational technology, and adapting assessment tools. Further, managing the classroom environment, assessing the effectiveness of individualized educational plans, and using suitable educational aids have been identified as training needs of LD teachers (Hamdan, 2018) It can be concluded that the training needs of LD teachers could vary from one teacher to another based on the surrounding circumstances.
2.5 Importance of Identifying the Training Needs of LD Teachers Training programs improve work quality by developing methods for enhancing LD teachers’ self abilities and performance on assigned tasks. To ensure the success of the training programs and the realization of their desired goals, they must be based primarily on the accurately identified and defined training needs of the group benefiting from the training. As such, the essential starting point for managing any training process is identifying the true needs of trainees (Albluwi, 2019)
Alsahali and Gan (2012) stated that training needs are the necessary set of changes required in teachers’ information, knowledge, experiences, attitudes, and skills to qualify them to achieve the level of performance required by their work with a specific degree of quality and proficiency. Abuhusain and Abdulrahman (2016) defined training needs as a set of what teachers lack in terms of activities, experiences, skills, and competencies In other words, it refers to which competences, skills, knowledge teachers need to enhance their performance and effectiveness of their practices.
Special education is unique in that it provides special educational alternatives, curricula, and teaching methods for students with learning disabilities who are unable to benefit from the educational services provided in regular schools Thus, LD teachers must be provided a special kind of professional training to
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carry out the tasks in the best possible manner (Alayed & Alayed, 2015). Therefore, the training needs of special education teachers must be accurately identified (Alsubaie, 2014). Identifying such needs is an essential pre planning stage for any training program, and ignoring this phase results in a wasted effort, time, and money (Najm & Abudaia, 2020). Abuhusain and Abdulrahman (2016) confirmed that the failure of some training programs for special education teachers in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is due to the lack of interest in identifying the training needs of these teachers.
Najm and Abudaia (2018) added that identifying training needs is a necessary process in building targeted plans and programs that meet the actual needs of teachers, instead of wasting time and effort in training teachers on aspects that do not add to their knowledge structure. Almerich et al. (2011) indicated that identifying the training needs of teachers contributes to the design of high quality training and qualification programs for teachers, which leads to an improvement in the efficiency of their professional performance in their work with students. Furthermore, Kosgei (2015) stressed that identifying the training needs of teachers results in the provision of training and qualification programs that can improve the quality of education and educational services provided to students. Identifying training needs in designing targeted training programs is a complex process that is not limited to a specific individual. It requires effort from all parties involved in presenting and evaluating the educational process in special education schools.
Almahrej (2020) assessed the level of training needs of LD teachers in the four domains dyslexia, dyspraxia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia from the perspectives of an educational supervisor in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The study tool was a 24-item questionnaire that was used to collect data from 93 educational supervisors. The findings showed that the level of training needs for LD teachers in the four domains was very high.
Aktan (2020) determined the training needs of teachers regarding inclusion students with LD in their classrooms. The study sample consisted of 20 teachers who worked in primary, secondary, and high schools in Duzce City and who had LD students in their classes. The qualitative research collected data using a semi structured interview. The findings revealed several trainings needs that LD teachers lack These included competence in identifying learning difficulties, applying educational diagnostic test, adjusting the curricula according to the students’ needs, and developing individualized educational plans
Alajmi et al. (2020) identified the level of educational competencies and training needs of inclusion teachers who teach slow learners in Kuwait from the teachers’ point of view. The sample consisted of 300 teachers who worked in inclusive classrooms. A 60 item questionnaire was developed to collect data from the participants. The findings revealed that the educational competencies that teachers possess to deal with slow learners came at the intermediate level in the domains of planning, teaching, diagnosis and assessment, and classroom management. However, other competencies represented a high level of needs for the teachers, including adapting the classroom environment, designing
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appropriate tests for students, applying cooperative educational strategies, and applying behavior modification strategies.
Albluwi (2019) evaluated in service professional training programs for LD teachers in Tabuk and identified the training needs from the teachers’ point of view. The study used a 63 item questionnaire with five main domains: program management, program content, professional competencies for trainers, program objectives, and training needs for teachers. The study sample consisted of 63 LD teachers. The findings indicated that the effectiveness level of in service professional training programs for LD teachers was within the moderate range. However, the level of training needs for LD teachers was high in several domains, including self assessment to determine the effectiveness of teaching methods, adapting assessment tools to suit LD students, developing individual educational plans, using standards and standardized tests, using educational technology in teaching LD students, and developing and implementing transitional plans.
Chitiyo et al. (2019) identified the professional development needs of both general and special education teachers who work with students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms in Ghana. The study used a mixed method approach to investigate the questions. The study sample consisted of 232 teachers. The findings showed that teachers felt inadequately prepared to work with students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms. Almost all participants emphasized the importance of professional development. The teachers acknowledged the importance of all the topics presented to them, including the use of modern teaching methods, application of assessment and diagnosis tools, differentiation of teaching methods, application of behavior modification techniques, characteristics of students with disabilities, and the inclusion of technology in teaching students with disabilities.
Alshamare (2019) identified the nature of the necessary training needs for special education teachers working in Saudi government schools from their perspectives. A descriptive approach was applied, and a questionnaire was used to collect data from 384 teachers. The study reported that teachers had a high level of training needs in different domains, including the assessment and diagnosis process, modern trends in teaching methods, educational technology, and behavior modification. There was a moderate level of training needs in developing educational aids, individual educational programs, professional rehabilitation, transitional services, comprehensive education, and work with families of students with disabilities. The results also showed no significant differences in the participants’ responses based on their gender, specialization, and region.
Anuradha et al. (2019) attempted to identify the level of skills and training needs of special education teachers and teaching support staff in functional behavioral assessment and behavioral interventions within special education from their point of view. The study sample consisted of 378 special education teachers and 38 teaching support staff members. A self report inventory was used as a data collection tool. The findings revealed that the special education and teaching associates possessed a lower level of skills related to conducting functional
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behavioral assessments than skills related to behavioral intervention. Furthermore, the special education and teaching associates mentioned that both functional behavioral assessment and behavioral intervention represented a priority area for training for them.
Hamdan (2018) explored the training needs of teachers of autism spectrum disorder students and their relationship to some variables. The study sample consisted of 73 teachers of ASD children in Amman. The researcher developed a 48 item scale that consisted of two domains: theoretical training needs and practical training needs. The results showed that teachers have a moderate level of training needs in different domains, including assessing the effectiveness of individual educational programs, organizing the classroom environment, developing educational reports, applying assessment tools and lesson planning, using educational aids, and managing the classroom environment. There were no significant differences in teachers’ training needs based on their teaching experience and academic qualifications.
Almaamaria and Altaj (2017) investigated the training needs of special education teachers and their relationship to certain variables. The study surveyed the opinions of 115 teachers working in schools in the Alburaimi Governorate, Sultanate of Oman. The findings revealed a high level of training need for special education teachers in the domain of employing technology and educational techniques, followed by lesson planning, and implementing the educational process domain. Both measurement and diagnosis and communication domains came in the third rank, followed by the behavior modification domain, and theoretical knowledge in education came in the last rank. Furthermore, there were no significant differences in the training needs of the study sample according to their gender, academic qualifications, years of experience, and the type of disability of the students being taught. The authors recommended reconsidering special education teachers’ preparation and training programs and holding workshops that suit teachers’ needs.
Hughes et al. (2016) explored the professional development needs of both general and special education teachers in northern Malawi. The study sample consisted of 300 teachers working with learners with special needs. A semi structured questionnaire with open and closed ended questions was used to collect data for the study. The findings indicate that the teachers were in favor of inclusive education and acknowledged a high need for special education professional development programs. The teachers also pointed to training and resources for working with sensory disabilities as a high priority.
Abuhusain and Abdulrahman (2016) aimed to explore the essential training needs of LD teachers and LD supervisors from their point of view. The study sample consisted of 50 teachers and supervisors who worked in a middle school. A 29 item survey was used to collect the data. The study findings revealed an intermediate level for the training needs of both teachers and supervisors in the domains of developing and implementing transitional plans for LD students, applying diagnostic tests, knowledge of the characteristics of LD learners, comprehensive and accurate descriptions of the strengths and needs of learners, and applying informal tests. However, there were no significant statistical
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differences in the teachers’ and supervisors’ training needs based on the nature of the work (supervisor/teacher), academic qualification, years of experience, and the number of training courses.
Alsaree (2016) identified the most important training needs of teachers who worked with students with mild intellectual disabilities in public schools in Jordan from their point of view. The sample of this study consisted of 50 LD teachers. A 20 item questionnaire was used to collect the data. The results indicated that the most important training needs for teachers include organizing appropriate educational environments, identifying behavioral modification strategies, applying assessment and educational diagnoses, and developing transition plans for students with disabilities. There were no significant differences in the teachers’ responses based on gender. Other training needs were estimated as less important needs (medium), such as preparing individualized educational plans, writing daily reports about learners’ performances, and providing psychological support to students’ families. The results also showed that there were no statistically significant differences in training needs according to the gender of the participants.
Alayed and Alayed (2015) identified the training needs of special education teachers in the Majmah Governorate. The study tool was a 30 item questionnaire. The study sample consisted of 66 teachers. The results showed that teachers acknowledged their need for efficient training in different domains, including assessment, lesson planning, and communication skills. There were, however, no differences in the training needs according to the teachers’ specialization, gender, and years of experience.
Some of the previous study focused on assessing level of training needs of LD teachers on specific domains (Albluwi, 2019; Almahrej, 2020). Other studies have concentrated on assessing the training needs of teachers who are working in specific educational environment, inclusive classrooms (Aktan, 2020; Alajmi et al., 2020). Alayed and Alayed (2015), Almaamaria and Altaj (2017), Alshamare (2019) and Anuradha et al. (2019), assessed the training need of special education teachers in general without classifying their specialty while Hughes et al. (2016) and Chitiyo et al. (2019) focused on the training needs of both special education and general education teachers. Differently, the current study focused on investigating the extent and areas of training needs of LD teachers who are only working on programs that have been established for LD students.
The increased number of students enrolled in learning disabilities programs in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has called for the need to pay attention to the qualitative and quantitative development of those programs.
Therefore, it is without question that any development process directed at these programs must first begin with an adequate professional preparation for LD teachers, as it is one of the essential elements that contribute to the success of the educational process. In that context, Almahrej (2020) stressed the need to prepare human cadres at a high level of qualification and training to meet the educational and behavioral needs of LD students in resource rooms. In addition,
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he emphasized the need to keep pace with contemporary educational trends while working with LD students, especially in terms of the use of educational technology, evidence based practices (EBPs), assessment and diagnosis issues, and the response to the intervention (RTI) model (Alsubaie, 2014).
The rapid developments in the field of LD also have imposed teachers to learn new skills and competencies to keep pace with changes at the scientific and technical levels. Together, these development and changes make the process of providing LD teachers with a unique type of in service professional training an urgent necessity that cannot be overlooked (Albluwi, 2019; Alsubaie, 2014).
Even though professional training is an urgent necessity, it must not be randomly built, but rather according to the actual training needs of LD teachers. Almahrej (2020) confirmed that this professional training must be based on the real needs of LD teachers to help them raise the level of educational outcomes for their students. Therefore, identifying training needs is the core of any successful training program’s planning and implementation process (Abuhusain & Abdulrahman, 2016). Any process targeting the improvement of a professional development of LD teachers must be established based on the assessment of training needs of teachers. Doing that will contribute to designing and implementing suitable training programs emanating from those needs. That confirms what was stated in Article 34 of the Civil Service Law issued under Decree No. 49 on 1/1/1900 AH, which stipulates the need to provide training programs for all holders of educational jobs according to their actual training needs to improve their skills and professional performances.
Therefore, many studies, including Albluwi (2019), Alshamare (2019), and Chitiyo at al. (2019), highlighted the importance of identifying the training needs of LD teachers to develop training and qualification programs according to those needs. Further, Rosenberg and Walther Thomas (2014) argued for the ongoing in service identification of the needs of teachers working with LD students to train them on all new developments in their field of specialization. Thus, any training program that is not built based on evaluating the training needs of teachers cannot lead to an upgraded level of their professional performance. It will be no more than a waste of the time and effort of the authorities in charge (Alsubaie, 2014).
When talking about Saudi Arabia in particular, great attention has been given to assess the effectiveness of the existing training programs that have been provided for learning disabilities teachers (Albluwi, 2019; Altabeeb et al., 2020; Bakhsh, 2009). However, thus far, not much is discovered about the extent and areas of training needs of learning disabilities teachers from their perspectives. In addition, despite the paramount importance of identifying the training needs of human cadres working with LD students to adequately develop training and development programs for them, many of the programs offered to LD teachers do not necessarily reflect the actual their training needs(Almahrej, 2020; Alshamare, 2019; Chitiyo et al., 2019). Alsubaie (2014) indicated that there are some gaps in the professional training systems targeting LD teachers which require to be more considered and carefully planned. The shortcomings of identifying the training needs of LD teachers are considered one of the most
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serious problems that negatively impact the successful planning and implementation of the professional development programs (Albluwi, 2019).
Further, the researcher’s work on learning disabilities and constant communication with LD teachers for many years revealed that many LD teachers criticize the training programs offered to them. They claim that these programs still follow the traditional methods of training and ignore the actual teachers training needs. Some LD teachers also stated that their professional training was confined to theoretical instead of the practical aspects. This is consistent with Alshamare’s (2019) findings that confirm that the quality of professional development for LD teachers in the KSA falls below the expected level, as its training programs are traditional and far from the real training needs of teachers. Alkhateeb (2015) added that the professional training programs offered to LD teachers direct most of their attention to theoretical aspects and neglect important practical aspects. Therefore, further studies are needed on the extent and areas of training needs of learning disabilities teachers from their perspectives. That will contribute enrich the literature and gain better understanding of the extent and areas of training needs of LD teachers. Moreover, it will assist in providing efficient training programs that are built based on the actual training needs of LD teachers.
The purpose of the current study was to identify the extent and areas of LD teachers’ training needs based on their perspectives. It also sought to examine the influence of some demographic variables on the extent of training needs for LD teachers.
The current study’s findings contribute to filling the existing gap and enriching the special education literature with important information about the extent and nature of the training needs of LD teachers, considering the preliminary local studies addressing the topic. As far as the researcher knows, no Saudi study has investigated the problem under study. Moreover, this study attempts to provide feedback to those in charge of professional development programs on the reality of the training programs currently offered to LD teachers and the extent to which they meet their needs. The results of this study contribute to reducing the amount of waste resulting from the inappropriate training programs currently offered, which do not meet the needs of LD teachers. The findings of this study could draw the attention of those who work in the professional development authorities affiliated with the Ministry of Education to the importance of providing training (before and during service) for LD teachers, which may enhance their efficiency and develop their professional skills.
This study also intends to draw the attention of the supervisors of the LD teachers’ training programs to the importance of following up, evaluating, and developing these programs on an ongoing basis to align with the needs of the teachers. The current study’s findings are also expected to provide training centers concerned with developing and implementing training packages with information about the priority training needs of LD teachers. This will assist in
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creating high efficiency professional training programs based on the identified training needs for LD teachers and may also act as the foundation for similar studies. The researcher argues that the interest in qualifying teachers professionally according to their real needs reflects the extent of the sense of responsibility toward the future of LD and the keenness to provide them with appropriate services. Moreover, the researcher hopes to provide the Arabic literature with a self devised standardized scale to assess the extent of training needs of LD teachers from their point of view.
This section provides an explanation of the study design, questions and hypotheses, variables, participants and sampling, data collection instrument and procedure, and data analysis that have been used to investigate the problem under study.
To achieve the study’s purpose and answer its questions, a descriptive non experimental quantitative method with a survey design was adopted to collect relevant information.
The following questions and hypotheses were formulated for this study:
RQ1: What is the extent of training needs of LD teachers from their perspectives?
RQ2: What are the areas of training needs of LD teachers?
RQ3: Are there significant differences in the extent of training needs of LD teachers based on their gender, highest degree earned, and years of teaching experience?
H1: There is significant difference in the extent of training needs of LD teachers based on their gender.
H2: There is significant difference in the extent of training needs of LD teachers based on their highest degree earned.
H3: There is significant difference in the extent of training needs of LD teachers based on teachers’ teaching experience.
This study involved four variables as following:
6.3.1 Dependent
The extent of training needs of LD teachers working in LD programs at public schools from their perspectives.
6.3.2 Independent variables
Gender. This study included teachers of both genders (male/female).
Highest degree earned. This study included LD teachers who held bachelor’s and master’s degrees.
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Number of years of teaching experience. This study included LD teachers with teaching experience ranging from between <5 and 11 years
The total population size of this study was 1300 LD teachers while the participants consisted of 432 LD teachers working in learning disabilities programs at public schools in Riyadh during the 2022 academic year. Due to the large size of the population and difficulty to reach them, participants were selected using the simple random sampling method. Table 1 shows the distribution of the respondents according to their demographic information
Variable Category Frequency Percentage Gender
Male 166 38.4 Female 266 61.6
Highest degree earned Bachelor’s degree 238 55.1 Master’s degree 194 44.9
Years of teaching experience of students with LD
Less than 5 years 124 28.7 From 5 to 10 years 238 55.1 11 years or more 70 16.2 Total 432 100.0
Table 1 shows that most of the respondents were females (61.6%). Concerning the highest degree held, 238 respondents (55.1%) had a bachelor’s degree and 194 had a master’s degree (44.9%) Regarding teaching experience of students with LD, 28.7% of respondents had been teaching for less than 5 years, whereas 238 respondents (55 1%) had taught for 5 to 10 years Only 70 respondents (16.2%) had been teaching for 11 years or more.
As a data collection instrument, a questionnaire of 42 items was developed for this study. The survey aimed to explore the extent and areas of LD teachers’ training needs based on their perspectives. It was designed to assess the extent and specific areas of training for teacher professional development programs. The researcher built the survey after comprehensively reviewing the relevant literature by Alayed and Alayed (2015), Arafa (2015), and Abuhusain and Abdulrahman (2016) and by relying on her knowledge of the standards required for LD teachers, as approved by the National Centre for Assessment and Evaluation in the KSA (2017).
The questionnaire consisted of two sections. The first section included questions on the respondents regarding gender, highest degree earned, and years of teaching experience, while the second section included 42 items, all of which aimed to reveal the extent and area of the training needs of LD teachers. The participants were asked to respond using a 5 point Likert scale (no need , few , moderate , high , extremely high).
Four techniques were utilized to ascertain the psychometric properties of the questionnaire in this study:
Content validity. The first draft of the questionnaire was sent to eight special education experts, who held a doctoral degree in special education, to examine the items’ clarity and their relationship to the purpose of the study. All the experts’ observations were considered while developing the final draft of the questionnaire.
Internal consistency validity. Validity was calculated using internal consistency by calculating the correlation coefficient (Pearson correlation coefficient) for each item of the questionnaire, as shown in Table 2.
N Correlations sig N Correlations sig
1 .685** 0.000 22 .476** 0.008 2 .446* 0.014 23 .563** 0.001 3 .583** 0.001 24 .657** 0.000 4 .578** 0.001 25 .538** 0.002 5 .436* 0.016 26 .522** 0.003 6 .483** 0.007 27 .574** 0.001 7 .525** 0.003 28 .591** 0.001 8 .541** 0.002 29 .706** 0.000 9 .420* 0.021 30 .673** 0.000 10 .552** 0.002 31 .503** 0.005 11 .407* 0.026 32 .407* 0.026 12 .414* 0.023 33 .380* 0.038 13 .433* 0.017 34 .372* 0.043 14 .387* 0.034 35 .544** 0.002 15 .478** 0.008 36 .402* 0.028 16 .391* 0.033 37 .499** 0.005 17 .563** 0.001 38 .489** 0.006 18 .510** 0.004 39 .655** 0.000 19 .498** 0.005 40 .562** 0.001 20 .448* 0.013 41 .726** 0.000 21 .433* 0.017 42 .686** 0.000
Table 2 shows that all the correlation coefficients were statistically significant, indicating that the questionnaire items were valid and homogenous. According to Table 6, internal consistency validity tended to be good.
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and split-half method. The results are shown in Table 3.
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Table 3: Values of the reliability coefficient of the questionnaire
Split half Cronbach’s alpha Reliability of the Questionnaire 0.854 0.890 0.931
Table 3 shows that all values of the reliability coefficients, the alpha and the split half value were greater than 0.70, indicating high reliability and thus suitability for use.
Google Forms were used to draft and administer both the consent form and the questionnaire for data collection after obtaining permission from the university authorities (Appendix 1). The researcher chose to electronically deliver the questionnaire to the participants through the general administration of education in Riyadh to save the cost, time, and energy of commuting during school and work time The data collection phase lasted three months, from January 2022 to March 2022.
Different statistical techniques percentages, frequency, means, standard deviation, three way ANOVA, and Scheffe’s test for multiple comparisons were used to examine the study variables. Specifically, to describe the data from demographic factors, percentages, and frequencies were used. Means and standard deviations were used to assess the extent of training needs of LD teachers. The influence of demographic factors on the extent of training needs for LD teachers was examined using mean, standard deviation, three way ANOVA, and Scheffe’s test for multiple comparisons. The study hypotheses were tested at a 0.05 level of significance. The following method was utilized to determine the extent of LD teachers’ training needs:
Once the data were encoded, the length of the cells for the 5 point scale (lower and upper limits) was determined by calculating the range (5 1 = 4) and then dividing it by the number of scale cells to get the correct cell length (4/5 = 0.80). This value was added to the lowest value in the scale (or the beginning of the scale, which is whole 1) to determine the upper bound for this cell; thus, the length of the cells was as follows:
1 1.80 represents the no need response to each phrase.
1.81 2.60 represents the low response to each phrase.
2.61 3.40 represents the moderate response to each phrase.
3.41 4.20 represents the high need response to each phrase.
4.21 5.00 represents the very high response to each phrase.
7.1 Q1 2: The extent and areas of training needs of LD teachers from their perspectives.
Table 4: Means and standard deviations of the extent of training needs of LD teachers
Items
2. The extent of training that I need in evaluating the effectiveness of individual educational programs for students with learning disabilities.
42. The extent of training that I need in applying cooperative learning strategies with students with learning disabilities.
1. The extent of training that I need in designing and implementing individual educational programs for students with learning disabilities.
12. The extent of training that I need in essential skills to work with multidisciplinary team members (e.g , effective communication, time management, planning, active listening, collaboration, and problem solving).
8. The extent of training that I need in recognizing the different characteristics of students with learning disabilities.
20. The extent of training that I need in analyzing assessment results to make decisions and provide recommendations for students with learning disabilities.
18. The extent of training that I need in discussing students’ performance reports with parents and involving them in procedures that serve students with learning disabilities.
28. The extent of training that I need in professional counseling skills to guide students with learning disabilities according to their abilities and tendencies.
31. The extent of training that I need in adapting curricula (deleting/ adding/ modifying) to make it more suitable for students with learning disabilities.
15. The extent of training that I need in using educational technologies to teach students with learning disabilities.
9. The extent of training that I need in using appropriate diagnostic tests for students with learning disabilities.
4. The extent of training that I need in applying the principles of UDL with students.
34. The extent of training that I need in evaluating transitional plans in collaboration with IEP team members.
10. The extent of training that I need in developing behavior modification plans for students with learning disabilities.
Mean Std. Deviation Rank ing Extent
3.11 1.12 1 Moderate
3.09 1.17 2 Moderate
3.06 1.03 3 Moderate
2.94 1.21 4 Moderate
2.92 1.13 5 Moderate
2.91 1.21 6 Moderate
2.85 1.22 7 Moderate
2.83 1.20 8 Moderate
2.82 1.22 9 Moderate
2.82 1.20 9 Moderate
2.82 1.16 9 Moderate
2.81 1.13 12 Moderate
2.81 1.26 12 Moderate
2.80 1.19 14 Moderate
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6. The extent of training that I need in using educational assessment methods for students with learning disabilities.
3. The extent of training that I need in using the Response to Intervention (RTI) tool with students with learning disabilities.
27. The extent of training that I need in using evidence based practices in teaching students with learning disabilities.
26. The extent of training that I need in using modern technology to assess students with learning disabilities.
5. The extent of training that I need in developing appropriate teaching aids for students with learning disabilities.
41. The extent of training that I need in applying self assessment methods to students with learning disabilities.
2.80 1.17 14 Moderate
2.80 1.07 14 Moderate
2.79 1.16 17 Moderate
2.78 1.20 18 Moderate
2.78 1.12 18 Moderate
2.78 1.22 18 Moderate
39. The extent of training that I need in effectively using task analysis strategies. 2.77 1.21 21 Moderate
19. The extent of training that I need in framing SMART learning objectives. 2.77 1.17 21 Moderate
29. The extent of training that I need in involving parents of students with learning disabilities in various activities. 2.74 1.21 23 Moderate
32. The extent of training that I need in adapting assignments and tests to suit the abilities of students with learning disabilities.
7. The extent of training that I need in developing extracurricular activities for students with learning disabilities.
17. The extent of training that I need in managing classrooms while working with students with learning disabilities.
11. The extent of training that I need in evaluating the effectiveness of behavior modification plans for students with learning disabilities.
23. The extent of training that I need in motivating students with learning disabilities to learn.
16. The extent of training that I need in conducting scientific research in the field of learning disabilities.
22. The extent of training that I need in arranging the classroom environment to suit the characteristics of students with learning disabilities.
33. The extent of training that I need in designing transitional plans for students with learning disabilities.
24. The extent of training that I need in accurately describing the strengths and weaknesses of students with learning disabilities.
30. The extent of training that I need in developing educational activities to suit the needs of students with learning disabilities.
2.74 1.20 23 Moderate
2.73 1.17 24 Moderate
2.73 1.19 24 Moderate
2.73 1.20 24 Moderate
2.73 1.17 24 Moderate
2.72 1.22 28 Moderate
2.72 1.23 28 Moderate
2.71 1.19 30 Moderate
2.71 1.21 30 Moderate
2.71 1.15 30 Moderate
14. The extent of training that I need in self evaluation skills 2.70 1.17 33 Moderate
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13. The extent of training that I need in methods of professional self development.
25. The extent of training that I need in helping students with learning disabilities acquire different test taking strategies
36. The extent of training that I need in strategies for activating prior knowledge for students with learning disabilities.
38. The extent of training that I need in the methods of communication with the local community and in educating its members about learning disabilities.
21. The extent of training that I need in differentiated instruction for students with learning disabilities.
37. The extent of training that I need in developing the creative skills of students with learning disabilities while teaching them.
40. The extent of training that I need in developing rating scales to have better idea problems facing students with learning disabilities.
35. The extent of training that I need in helping students with learning disabilities acquire problem solving skills.
2.70 1.16 33 Moderate
2.70 1.27 33 Moderate
2.69 1.14 36 Moderate
2.69 1.22 36 Moderate
2.68 1.19 38 Moderate
2.66 1.21 39 Moderate
2.65 1.23 40 Moderate
2.59 1.23 41 Low
Overall mean score 2.78 0.58 Moderate
As shown in Table 4, respondents identified all items, except for item 35, with a “moderate” training need (arranged from largest to smallest degree). The mean scores ranged from 2.65 to 3.11, falling within the third category of the 5 point scale (2.61 3.40). The respondents described their training needs regarding helping their students with learning disabilities acquire problem solving skills as having a low significance (mean = 2.59), falling within the second category of the 5 point scale (1.81 to 2.60). The overall mean score for the questionnaire was 2.78, which was within the third category of the 5 point scale (2.61 to 3.41). This indicates that all the questionnaire items were considered as “moderate” extent of training needs of LD teachers, except item 35, which most respondents indicated as a “low” extent of training need. As shown in Table 4 most of the questionnaire items represents moderate training needs for LD teachers.
The areas of the LD teachers’ training needs varied. They included, but were not limited to, developing individualized educational plans, knowing the characteristics of students with learning disabilities, conducting assessment and diagnostic tests, using educational technology, developing transition plans, using research based strategies, conducting behavioral modification techniques, using appropriate teaching aids, and arranging the classroom environment.
7.2 Q3: Differences in the extent of training needs of LD teachers based on their gender, highest degree earned, and years of teaching experience. To answer the second research question, the means and standard deviations of the extent of training needs of LD teachers were extracted according to the variables gender, highest degree earned, and years of teaching experience, as shown in Table 5.
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Table 5: Means and standard deviations of the extent of training needs of LD teachers according to the study’s variables
Variables Category
Gender
Means Standard deviations
Male 3.00 0.56
Female 2.65 0.54
Highest degree earned Bachelor’s degree 2.84 0.60 Master’s degree 2.72 0.54
Years of teaching experience
Less than 5 years 2.90 0.63
From 5 to 10 years 2.72 0.55 From 11 years or more 2.78 0.52
Table 5 shows an apparent variance in the means and standard deviations of the extent of training needs of LD teachers according to the study’s variables. A triple analysis of variance was conducted to assess the significance of the statistical differences between the arithmetic means, as shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Three-way ANOVA results
Source
Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Gender 11.979 1 11.979 40.435 .000
Highest degree earned 2.345 1 2.345 7.916 .005 Years of teaching experience 2.201 2 1.100 3.714 .025 Error 126.500 427 .296
Total 3489.569 432 Corrected Total 142.862 431
According to Table 6, there was a statistically significant difference in the extent of training needs based on the gender in favor of male, indicating that male teachers have more training needs than female teachers. There was a statistically significant difference in the extent of training needs based on the highest degree earned in favor of a bachelor’s degree, indicating that teachers who had a bachelor’s degree had more training needs than teachers with a master’s degree.
Table 6 also shows statistically significant differences in the extent of LD teachers’ training needs according to years of teaching experience. Scheffe’s test for multiple comparisons was conducted to determine the direction of the statistical difference (Table 7)
Table 7: Scheffe’s test for multiple comparisons
Years of experience
Less than 5 years M = 2.90
Less than 5 years 0.017*
From 5 to 10 years M = 2.72
From 5 to 10 years 0.770 0.341 From 11 years or more
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From 11 years or more
M = 2.78
As indicated in Table 7, there were statistically significant differences in the LD teachers’ extent of training needs among teachers who had been teaching for “less than 5 years” and teachers who have been teaching for “5–10 years” in favor of “less than 5 years ” This confirms that LD teachers with teaching experience of less than 5 years had more training needs.
The aim of this study was to identify the extent and areas of LD teachers’ training needs based on their perspectives. It also sought to examine the influence of different demographic variables on the extent of training needs for teachers of students with learning disabilities to help them receive priority in achieving sustainable professional development that will improve their skills and knowledge in teaching LDs.
The extent of the training needs in the sample studied was moderate on all items of the questionnaire except for item 35, “the extent of training that I need in helping students with learning disabilities acquire problem solving skills,” which was low. This result is consistent with those of studies by Abuhusain and Abdulrahman (2016) and Hamdan (2018) who found that the level of training needs for teachers was moderate. However, the result is contrary to those of Hughes et al. (2016), Almaamaria, and Altaj (2017), Albluwi (2019), Alshamare (2019) and Almahrej (2020), who indicated a high level of training needs for the teachers.
Based on the results, the areas of the LD teachers’ training needs varied. They included, but were not limited to, developing individualized educational plans, knowing the characteristics of students with learning disabilities, conducting assessment and diagnostic tests, using educational technology, developing transition plans, using research based strategies, conducting behavioral modification techniques, using appropriate teaching aids, and arranging the classroom environment. These findings are generally in agreement with those of previous studies conducted by Abuhusain and Abdulrahman (2016), Alsaree (2016), Hamdan (2018), Albluwi (2019), Alshamare (2019), Chitiyo et al. (2019), Aktan (2020), and Alajmi et al. (2020) The identified training needs emphasize the importance of reconsidering LD teacher preparation and training programs to provide teachers with workshops that suit their real needs (Almaamaria & Altaj, 2017). Alsubaie (2014) highlighted that a teacher training program that is not based on the evaluation of training needs cannot lead to an upgraded professional level. Instead, it will be no more than a waste of the time and effort of the educational agencies implementing the program.
8.2 Differences in the extent of training needs of LD teachers based on their gender, highest degree earned, and years of teaching experience
According to the results, there were statistically significant differences at the significance level of 0.05 in the extent of training needs of LD teachers based on their gender, highest degree earned, and years of teaching experience. Male LD teachers indicated more training needs than did female teachers. Furthermore,
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teachers with bachelor’s degrees acknowledged the need for more training than those with master’s degrees, and LD teachers with teaching experience of less than five years indicated more training needs than teachers who had more years of teaching experience. In other words, the finding of this study emphasized that an adequate level of training should be provided to male teacher who have a bachelor’s degree with less than five years of teaching experiences. That result disagreed with prior studies (Abuhusain & Abdulrahman, 2016; Alayed & Alayed, 2015; Almaamaria & Altaj, 2017; Alshamare, 2019; Hamdan, 2018), showing no statistically significant differences in the extent of training needs of LD teachers based on their gender, highest degree earned, and years of teaching experience. Therefore, the researcher concluded that the three study hypotheses were accepted.
The results of this study revealed that the extent of training needs of LD teachers was moderate. Nevertheless, the study results show that the training needs of LD teachers included, but were not limited to, developing individualized educational plans, using evidence based strategies, conducting assessment and diagnostic tests, using educational technology, framing SMART learning objectives, and designing transition plans. The areas of training needs identified in this study are calls to reconsider the current training programs and workshops designed for LD teachers. This suggests that the preparation of teacher training programs should be based on the evaluation of their training needs instead of using the traditional method, which disregards the evaluation of training needs. This study also showed that there are statistically significant differences in the degree of teachers’ training needs based on their gender, qualification, and years of teaching experience. However, future studies are needed to clarify the impact of these and other variables on the needs for the training of LD teachers.
Based on the findings, the following are recommended as implications and opportunities for future research:
1. School districts and principals are encouraged to provide LD teachers with material and moral incentives to encourage them to attend workshops and training programs to develop their professional skills.
2. A similar study should be conducted in other cities and governorates within the KSA for broader analysis and greater generalizability.
3. Further studies may be conducted to identify the extent of LD teachers’ training needs from the point of view of educational supervisors and principals.
4. School districts are encouraged to develop various mechanisms to continuously detect the training needs of LD teachers to provide them with needs based training programs.
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5. Teachers’ professional development programs and agencies are encouraged to provide ongoing training for LD teachers, stemming from the training needs identified in this study.
6. Further studies are needed to examine the influence of other variables, such as the grade level being taught and the number of workshops that have been attended in the field of LD.
In this study, where the extent of LD teachers’ training needs is discovered based on their perspective, the results found by the quantitative approach are limited to the perspective of 432 LD teachers working in learning disabilities programs at public schools during the 2022 academic year. Moreover, all LD teachers lived and worked in Riyadh. Thus, the results cannot be generalized to other cities within the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The reliability of the results is also limited by the objectivity of the participants’ responses.
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Demographic information
Gender Male () Female ()
Highest degree earned Bachelor’s degree () Master’s degree ()
Years of teaching experience Less than 5 years () From 5 10 years () 11 years or more ()
1. The extent of training that I need in designing and implementing individual educational programs for students with learning disabilities.
2. The extent of training that I need in evaluating the effectiveness of individual educational programs for students with learning disabilities.
3. The extent of training that I need in using the Response to Intervention (RTI) model with students with learning disabilities.
4. The extent of training that I need in applying the principles of UDL with students.
5. The extent of training that I need in developing appropriate teaching aids for students with learning disabilities.
6. The extent of training that I need in using educational assessment methods for students with learning disabilities.
7. The extent of training that I need in developing extracurricular activities for students with learning disabilities.
8. The extent of training that I need in recognizing the different characteristics of students with learning disabilities.
9. The extent of training that I need in using appropriate diagnostic tests for students with learning disabilities.
10. The extent of training that I need in developing behavioral modification plans for students with learning disabilities.
11. The extent of training that I need in evaluating the effectiveness of behavioral modification plans
for students with learning disabilities.
12. The extent of training that I need in essential skills to work within multidisciplinary team members (e.g., effective communication, time management, planning, active listening, collaboration, and problem solving).
13. The extent of training that I need in methods of professional self development.
14. The extent of training that I need in self evaluation skills.
15. The extent of training that I need in using educational technologies to teach students with learning disabilities.
16. The extent of training that I need in conducting scientific research in the field of learning disabilities.
17. The extent of training that I need in managing while working with students with learning disabilities.
18. The extent of training that I need in discussing students’ performance reports with parents and involving them regarding procedures that serve students with learning disabilities.
19. The extent of training that I need in framing SMART learning objectives.
20. The extent of training that I need in analysing assessment results to make decisions and provide recommendations for students with learning disabilities.
21. The extent of training that I need in differentiating instruction for students with learning disabilities.
22. The extent of training that I need in arranging the classroom environment to suit the characteristics of students with learning disabilities.
23. The extent of training that I need in motivating students with learning disabilities to learn.
24. The extent of training that I need in accurately describing the strengths and weaknesses of students with learning disabilities.
25. The extent of training that I need in helping students with learning disabilities acquire different test taking strategies
26. The extent of training that I need in using modern technology to assess students with learning disabilities.
27. The extent of training that I need in using evidence based practices in teaching students with learning disabilities.
28. The extent of training that I need in professional counselling skills to guide students with learning disabilities according to their abilities and
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tendencies.
29. The extent of training that I need in involving parents of students with learning disabilities in various activities.
30. The extent of training that I need in developing educational activities to suit the needs of students with learning disabilities.
31. The extent of training that I need in adapting curricula (deleting/ adding/ modifying) to make it more suitable for students with learning disabilities.
32. The extent of training that I need in adapting assignments and tests to suit the abilities of students with learning disabilities.
33. The extent of training that I need in designing transitional plans for students with learning disabilities.
34. The extent of training that I need in evaluating transitional plans in collaboration with IEP team members.
35. The extent of training that I need in helping students with learning disabilities acquire problem solving skills.
36. The extent of training that I need in strategies for activating prior knowledge for students with learning disabilities.
37. The extent of training that I need in developing the creative skills of students with learning disabilities while teaching them.
38. The extent of training that I need in the methods of communication with the local community and in educating its members about learning disabilities.
39. The extent of training that I need in effectively using task analysis strategies.
40. The extent of training that I need in developing rating scales to have better idea problems facing students with learning disabilities.
41. The extent of training that I need in applying self assessment methods to students with learning disabilities.
42. The extent of training that I need in applying cooperative learning strategies with students with learning disabilities.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 269 285, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.14
Received May 15, 2022; Revised Jul 23, 2022; Accepted Jul 26, 2022
Chinese International College, Dhurakij Pundit University, Bangkok, Thailand; College of Environment and Life Sciences, Weinan Normal University, Weinan, China
Jian Hao Huang*Chinese International College, Dhurakij Pundit University, Bangkok, Thailand
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to examine the correlation between perceived teacher autonomy support (PAS) and student engagement (SE), as well as the mediating role of learning motivation (LM) and the moderating role of the class climate (CC) among 1517 college students in Chinese universities. Survey questionnaires were used in gathering data, and the findings revealed that: (1) PAS had a significant positive impact on SE (B=0.966, p<0.001); (2) LM partially mediated the association between PAS and SE (B=0.084, p<0.001); (3) CC moderated the relation between PAS and LM (B=1.895, p<0.001); more specifically, favorable CC strengthened the effect of PAS on LM among college students. From the findings, this study contributes to a better comprehension of the influence of PAS on SE among Chinese college students. It is suggested higher education institutions and teachers should pay attention to college students' PAS, LM, and CC to improve college students' engagement.
Keywords: perceived teacher autonomy support; learning motivation; student engagement; class climate; college student
Student engagement (SE) refers to the degree of students' efforts and the quality of learning activities (Kuh, 2009). Kuh (2009) stated that SE is a critical determinant of students' personal development and college impact and pointed out that the national survey of student engagement (NSSE) is the standard to evaluate the quality of university teaching in the United States. Coates (2009) advocated the Australasian survey of student engagement (AUSSE), noting that the main purpose of AUSSE is to clarify the service content of higher education
* Corresponding author: JianhaoHuang,jianhao.hua@dpu.ac.th
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
institutions and promote its continuous improvement. However, past study has shown that college students' engagement in learning has a positive effect on learning outcomes, meaning that more engagement in learning corresponds to better learning gains and school satisfaction, as well as lower negative affect and undesirable behaviors (Gutiérrez & Tomás, 2019; Yin, 2018). Moreover, Fredricks et al. (2004) noted that SE was a critical factor in students' learning process and their academic success and a highly desirable variable to study. Students' high ability and good grades often require inherently conscientious construction of knowledge and engagement in learning, which can only produce ideal academic results and outcomes when students are engaged in learning (Einolander et al., 2021; Yin, 2018). In addition, Fredricks et al. (2019) found that PAS, teacher student relationship, and peer relationship have a positive impact on urban adolescent students' engagement. Ryan and Deci (2020) reviewed the results of research covering many countries and, through the outline of self determination theory (SDT), they stated that PAS could help promote students' self determination motivation, thereby enhancing their engagement. So, there is evident that SE not only is one of the critical indicators of educational quality, but also predicts learning outcomes and reflects the learning process of students; therefore, SE has often received attention from researchers in various countries (Fredricks et al., 2019; Gutiérrez & Tomás, 2019; Reeve & Cheon, 2021).
Many factors influence SE in colleges, and students' PAS in class is crucial (Ryan & Deci, 2020; Zhao et al., 2021). Students' satisfaction with autonomy support increases engagement in learning, intrinsic motivation, skill development, academic achievement, vitality, and well being (Reeve & Cheon, 2021). In recent years, PAS has drawn scholars' attention (Black & Deci, 2000; Maldonado et al., 2019; Reeve & Cheon, 2021) with past study having found that PAS significantly impacts SE (Fredricks et al., 2019; Jang et al., 2010; Li, 2020; Wang et al., 2017). Gutiérrez and Tomás (2019) suggested that college students' PAS had a significant direct influence on SE, which predicted school satisfaction and academic achievement. Therefore, the current study inferred that college students' PAS might positively affect SE
Past researchers have often adopted the SDT when exploring the influences on SE (Einolander, 2021; Jang et al., 2010; Reeve & Tseng, 2011). SDT explains that satisfaction with basic psychological needs motivates individuals to gain intrinsic motivation and produce better subsequent behaviors (Ryan & Deci, 2020). According to the SDT, it is known that PAS in class leads to students' psychological changes, which, in turn, affects students’ engagement in learning (Burkley & Burkley, 2018). Also, some studies have shown that secondary school students’ PAS significantly affects LM and SE (Jang et al., 2009; Maldonado et al., 2019; Ryan & Patrick, 2001). In addition, Ryan and Deci (2020) indicated that the high LM of students could promote their engagement and academic performance. Many studies have reported that LM significantly impacts SE (Black & Deci, 2000; Fredricks et al., 2017; Wang & Eccles, 2013). Also, some researchers have found a mediating role of LM between PAS and SE (Benita et al., 2021; Yoo, 2015; Zhu & Burrow, 2022). Thus, the current study suggests that college students might have higher learning motivation when they perceive
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more teacher autonomy support, which would increase their engagement. Thus, LM may be an important mediating variable between college students’ PAS and SE
Previous study has noted significant differences in climate between classes (Vallerand et al., 1997; Wang, Degol, et al., 2020). Some empirical studies also have found that adolescents in a high scored CC showed higher LM and SE than did students in a low scored CC (Patrick et al., 2011; Ryan & Patrick, 2001; Wang, Degol, et al., 2020). Wang, Lee, et al. (2020) discovered that college students had higher motivation levels in a good CC, but lower motivation levels in a poor CC. In summary, differences in CC may lead to differences in LM and behaviors. Hence, present study suggests that CC might have a moderating role in the mediating model of college students’ PAS affecting SE through LM.
Based on the previous discussion, this study aimed to investigate the influence of PAS on SE in colleges, the mediating role of LM between PAS and SE, and the moderating role of CC in the influence of PAS on LM. Knowing these, would broaden our knowledge of the crucial influencing factors and mechanisms on college students' engagement, and provide new insights on theoretical contributions. The research findings can provide useful suggestions to improve college students' engagement, which is conducive to the development of students' learning, and can also provide valuable information for future research on SE
This study used the concept of PAS to measure teachers’ exhibited class behaviors that college students can perceive, such as providing choices to students, fostering understanding and interest in students, allowing criticism and independent thinking from students (Assor et al., 2002). SE refers to the quality of students' own investment and effort in the academic environment and learning activities (Fredricks et al., 2004). It is conceptualized as behavioral engagement, cognitive engagement, and emotional engagement (Fredricks et al., 2004), and agentic engagement (Reeve & Tseng, 2011; Wang et al., 2016)
Ryan and Deci (2020) pointed out that PAS significantly impacted SE and learning processes. When students perceive autonomous support from teachers, they show more enjoyment in learning and put more effort and engagement into learning (Fredricks et al., 2017; Jang et al., 2010). Previous studies have found that PAS has a wide range of positive effects on SE (Gutiérrez, & Tomá, 2019; Li et al., 2020; Reeve & Cheon, 2021). In addition, some studies have further shown that PAS has a significant positive effect on SE among college students (Einolander, 2021; Zhao & Qin, 2021). In conclusion, college students' higher level of PAS may result in higher SE. Therefore, this study proposes hypothesis 1: College students' PAS positively and significantly affects SE.
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SDT applies the concept of motivation continuum to reflect the quality of motivation and ranks intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation in turn (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). LM in this study refers to the self determined motivation that college students spontaneously generate toward learning activities in the classroom, which represents several variations of intrinsic motivation to amotivation (Bureau et al., 2022; Deci & Ryan, 2000).
SDT suggests that PAS is often associated with intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Thus, PAS in the classroom stimulates students’ greater intrinsic motivation, curiosity, and desire to be challenged (Ryan & Deci, 2000a, 2000b). Black and Deci (2000) indicated that PAS was associated with high LM among college students. Many studies have shown that PAS significantly affects LM (Domen et al., 2019; Fredricks et al., 2019; Maldonado et al., 2019; Ryan & Patrick, 2001; Stolk et al., 2018). In addition, some researchers noted that LM enhanced SE (Guay et al., 2016; Ryan & Deci, 2020; Wang & Eccles, 2013). Past empirical studies have also found that highly motivated students had a better engagement, which led to better GPAs (Guo, 2018; Yin, 2018; Yoo, 2015).
Past study has often considered LM as a mediating variable. For example, Vallerand et al. (1997) showed that LM mediated the relation between PAS and behavioral intention in high school students. Maldonado et al. (2019) found that LM mediated the association between high school students' PAS and concentration. Jeno et al. (2021) showed that LM mediated the correlation between PAS and vitality in college students. In addition, Yoo (2015) claimed that LM had a mediating role between PAS on SE in secondary school students. Based on the discussion above, Deci and Ryan (2000) stated that all extrinsic facilitative conditions could only lead to action if internalized in the student's mind to form the motivation to learn. This study considers college students' PAS as an external facilitation condition and postulated it might influence SE through LM. Therefore, hypothesis 2 is proposed: LM mediates the association between PAS and SE among college students.
Class members share approximating ages, activities, interests, time, and friendships and frequently interact (Reeve & Cheon, 2021). Thus, CC reflects the collaborative environment and atmosphere shared by class members, which impacts students' perception of autonomy, competence, and LM (Vallerand et al., 1997; Wang & Eccles, 2013), and then affects the growth and development of students (Reeve & Cheon, 2021). As Wang, Degol, et al. (2020) suggested, a favorable CC produces better educational and psychosocial outcomes because, in a better CC, class organization and instructional practices are more effective, with interaction and support among students being more shared, and interpersonal relationships more harmonious, which allows students to experience more enjoyment and achieve growth in competence and promotes intrinsic motivation. Previous study has found that the better the CC, the better the student satisfaction, motivation, and academic performance (Reyes et al., 2012; Mucherah, 2014; Wang & Eccles, 2013). Wang, Lee, et al. (2020) claimed that students in the better CC showed higher LM levels, while students
exhibited lower motivation levels in the worse CC. In summary, this study speculates that the association between PAS and LM is stronger among college students in better CC than in worse CC. Therefore, hypothesis 3 is proposed: CC moderates the effect of PAS on LM
In summary, Figure 1 presents the hypothetical model for this study.
CC H3 H2
H1
LM PAS SE
Figure 1. Hypothetical model
This study adopts quantitative methods, and the data are collected using a self reported questionnaire scored by the Likert scale. The convenience sampling method was employed to recruit students from six universities in Shaanxi Province of China. Convenience sampling is a commonly used method in quantitative research, which is the method of subjectively selecting samples when researchers have greater access to participants (Etikan et al., 2016). Etikan et al. (2016) also stated that the convenience sampling method is very effective when researchers have limited resources, time, and labor because it is easy to collect samples and has the advantages of low survey cost, as well as the statistical power of convenient samples will also increase with the increase of sample size. The questionnaire of this study was distributed twice; one was the pilot test, and the other the questionnaire test. Among them, the purpose of the pilot test is to verify the scales' reliability and validity, and delete inappropriate items; the purpose of the questionnaire test is to explore the relationship between variables. The descriptive analysis describes the participants' engagement and their level of PAS, LM, and CC. In addition, the PROCESS macro of SPSS tests the mediating effect of LM and the moderating effect of CC.
This study conducted a sampling survey among students in six universities in Shaanxi Province of China. In 2019, Shaanxi Province, located in northwest China, ranked 10th in the full scale of higher education among 32 provinces in China, and the number of students in higher education ranked third in China
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(CNR, 2021). Among them, University A, located in Xi'an city, the capital of Shaanxi Province, is the oldest key university in Northwest China. University B, located in Xi'an city, is a top national key university focusing on engineering. University C, located in Xi'an city, is an ordinary local university with application oriented characteristics. University D, located in the small cities around Xi'an, is an ordinary multidisciplinary university focusing on teacher education. University E, located in another small city around Xi'an, is an engineering application oriented university. University F, located in another city around Xi'an, is an ordinary university characterized by teacher education. In short, key universities are different from ordinary universities in terms of policy support, capital investment, infrastructure, teachers, and student qualifications. The six universities selected in this study covered different administrative regions and different university categories in Shaanxi Province of China, so they are highly representative.
In the pilot test, 458 questionnaires were distributed to three universities (W, L, Q) in Shaanxi Province, and 367 valid questionnaires were returned, with an effective rate of 80.13%. In the questionnaire test, we excluded college students who had previously participated in the pilot test. The questionnaire was administered to college students in six universities in Shaanxi Province. A total of 1856 questionnaires was distributed, 339 invalid questionnaires were excluded (such as response periods shorter than two minutes or longer than 25 minutes or missing data), and 1517 valid questionnaires were returned, with a return rate of 81.73%. The results show that, in terms of gender, 342 males accounted for 22.5% of the sample, and 1175 females accounted for 77.5%. As for their grades, 691 (45.6%) were first year students, 431 (28.4%) were sophomores, 307 (20.2%) were juniors, and 73 (4.8%) were seniors.
3.4.1
This study used the Students' Engagement During Learning Activities Scale developed by Reeve and Tseng (2011) to measure SE, which contained four dimensions: Behavioral engagement, agentic engagement, cognitive engagement, and emotional engagement. It was a 7 point Likert scale with 22 items. Higher scores indicated better SE in learning. After the item analysis and EFA of pilot test samples, all scale items could be retained (see Appendix 1), which meets the criterion of factor loading of 0.40 (Hatcher,1994; Schönrock Adema et al., 2009). The scale's Cronbach's α in this study was 0.967, and the CFA results showed factor loadings were from 0.748 to 0.926, all greater than the criterion of 0.5 (Hair et al., 1998). In summary, the scale had acceptable reliability and validity in the current study. The table 1 shows the model fit indices, which means an acceptable fit of the scale model (McDonald & Ho, 2002).
This study employed the Autonomy Enhancement Scales developed by Assor et al. (2002) to measure college students' PAS, containing 18 questions on three dimensions: providing choices to students, fostering understanding and interest in students, allowing criticism and independent thinking. It was a 5 point Likert
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scale, and higher scores indicate a higher level of PAS. After the item analysis and EFA of pilot test samples, two cross dimensional items were deleted, and the remaining 16 items (see Appendix 2) were distributed (Hatcher, 1994; Schönrock Adema et al., 2009). The Cronbach's α for the scale in this study was 0.959, and the results of the CFA showed that the factor loadings were from 0.710 to 0.895, which were greater than 0.5 and indicated acceptable reliability and validity in this study (Hair et al., 1998). The table 1 shows the model fit indices, which indicate an acceptable fit of the scale model (McDonald & Ho, 2002).
This study adopted the Academic Motivation Scale developed by Vallerand et al. (1992) to measure LM. It consisted of 28 questions on seven dimensions: intrinsic motivation to know and learn, intrinsic motivation toward achievement and accomplishment, intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation, extrinsic motivation identified, extrinsic motivation introjected regulation, extrinsic motivation external regulation, and amotivation. The items were scored on a 7 point Likert scale. Higher scores meant higher LM levels, but the amotivation dimension was different, with high scores indicating low LM. In addition, Self Determination Index (SDI) was used to integrate the above motivational factors into a single score (Ryan & Deci, 2020; Stolk, 2018) , which is calculated as follows (Stolk, 2018; Vallerand et al., 1997): 2×(intrinsic motivation to know and learn + intrinsic motivation toward achievement and accomplishment + intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation) / 3 + 1 × extrinsic motivation identified 1× (extrinsic motivation introjected regulation + extrinsic motivation external regulation) / 2 2 × amotivation. The SDI is used to reflect the degree of individuals' self determined motivation. In particular, a higher SDI score indicates a more elevated level of self determined motivation, and a lower SDI score reflects a lower self determined motivation (Black & Deci, 2000; Vallerand et al., 1997). A higher SDI also predicts better educational outcomes (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Seven items were deleted due to cross dimension and factor loading less than 0.40. The remaining 21 items (see Appendix 3) were distributed after the item analysis and EFA of pilot test samples (Hatcher, 1994; Schönrock Adema et al., 2009). The Cronbach's α for the scale in this study was 0.948. The results of the CFA showed that the factor loadings ranged from 0.653 to 0.959, which were all greater than 0.5 (Hair et al., 1998). The table 1 shows the model fit indices, which means an acceptable fit of the scale model (McDonald & Ho, 2002).
This study used the College and University Classroom Environment Inventory adapted by Nair and Fisher (1999), which contained seven dimensions: personalization, cooperation, student cohesiveness, equity, task orientation, innovation, and individualization. It was a 5 point Likert scale with 49 questions— the higher scores meant the more favorable CC. Item analysis and EFA test on pilot test samples eliminated 13 items due to cross dimensionand and factor loading less than 0.40 (Hatcher, 1994; Schönrock Adema et al., 2009). Thirty six items remained (see Appendix 4) for the scale with its Cronbach's α of 0.979. The results of the EFA showed that the factor loadings were from 0.700 to
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0.946, greater than 0.5, indicating acceptable reliability and validity in this study (Hair et al., 1998). The table 1 shows the model fit indices, which indicate an acceptable fit of the scale model (McDonald & Ho, 2002)
Table 1 Model fit index of the scales
Standard X²/df ＜5 SRMR ＜.08 RMSEA ＜ 1 CFI ＞.9 GFI ＞.8 NFI ＞.9 TLI ＞.9 PNFI ＞.5
SE 11.730 0.052 0.084 0.937 0.865 0.932 0.928 0.819 PAS 14.443 0.047 0.094 0.934 0.872 0.929 0.921 0.782
LM 7.177 0.035 0.064 0.971 0.927 0.967 0.964 0.773
CC 6.456 0.044 0.060 0.954 0.873 0.946 0.949 0.860
Note: CFI: comparative fit index; TLI: Tucker Lewis index; GFI: goodness of fit index; NFI: normed fit index; PNFI: parsimonious normed fit index; SRMR: Standardized root mean residual; RMSEA: root mean square error of approximation.
We follows the Declaration of Helsinki (Goodyear et al., 2007), and collect the data in two rounds: a pilot test and a questionnaire test. Specifically, the head teacher of classes distributed the questionnaires. After informing the survey's purpose and obtaining their consent, the respondents answered the online questionnaire by visiting the questionnaire link address When the respondents completed filling in and clicked the submit button, we obtained the data. Simultaneously, the researchers also told the respondents that they can withdraw from the questionnaire at any time.
After using the online questionnaire platform to collect the questionnaire data, SPSS and AMOS software were used to sort out and analyze the sample data. The pilot test data were analyzed using SPSS 25 for item analysis, reliability and validity, and, after the substandard items were deleted, the questionnaire was formed. On the questionnaire data, descriptive statistics, Pearson's correlation analysis, and scale reliability tests were performed with SPSS 25, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and common method variance (CMV) tests were conducted with AMOS 25. Moreover, the mediating effects were tested with Model 4 in the PROCESS macro of SPSS; then, the moderated mediating effects were tested with Model 7. Finally, the study used the bias corrected nonparametric percentile Bootstrap method to examine the confidence interval (CI) and confirm whether the mediating and moderating effects were significant (Hayes, 2013).
To test the CMV problem, a CFA test for the multi factor model was performed and compared with the CFA test for the single factor model (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986) in this study. It was revealed that the multi factor model in the present study had a good fit with the data (X2=15391.314, GFI=0.803, RMSEA=0.042), but the single factor model had exceptionally poor fit with the data (X2=90276.283, GFI=0.225, RMSEA=0.114). The comparison showed that the multi factor model significantly outperformed the single factor model (∆X2= 74884.969, ∆df=209,
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p<0.001), which meant that the two models were significantly different, thus showing no serious CMV problem in this study.
4.1
Descriptive statistics for the four variables of PAS, SE, LM, and CC are present in table 2. The correlation analysis shows that PAS and SE are significantly and positively correlated (r=0.608, p<0.001); PAS and LM are significantly and positively correlated (r=0.502, p<0.001); PAS and CC are significantly and positively correlated (r=0.737, p<0.001); LM and SE are significantly and positively correlated (r=0.374, p<0.001); CC and SE are significantly and positively (r=0.562, p<0.001); and CC and LM are significantly positively correlated (r=0.526, p<0.001). The correlation coefficients between any two of the four variables are less than 0.8, indicating a moderate correlation between variables and no serious collinearity problems (Benesty et al., 2009).
Table 2. Descriptive statistics and correlations analysis
VARIABLE M SD PAS SE LM CC PAS 3.862 0.616 1 SE 5.093 0.970 0.608*** 1 LM 4.939 4.531 0.502*** 0.374*** 1 CC 3.896 0.561 0.737*** 0.562*** 0.526*** 1
Note:n=1517;***p＜0.001
The mediating effect of LM was examined using Model 4 in the PROCESS (Hayes, 2013). As observed in Table 3, PAS in Model 1 significantly and positively predicts SE (B=0.966, p<0.001); PAS in Model 2 also significantly and positively predicts LM (B=3.596, p<0.001). After adding LM as a mediating variable in Model 3, PAS still significantly and positively predicts SE (B=0.881, p<0.001), but the predictive power decreases compared to that in Model 1; LM can also significantly and positively predicts SE (B=0.023, p<0.001), indicating that LM has a partial mediating effect in the relation between PAS and SE in college students. The mediating effect of LM was further examined using the bias corrected nonparametric percentile Bootstrap method. The indirect effect value was 0.084, with a 95% CI of 0.044 0.124, excluding 0. The direct effect value was 0.881, with a 95% CI of 0.809 0.953, not containing 0. The total effect value was 0.966, with a 95% CI of 0.903 1.029, excluding 0. The mediating effect accounted for 8.70% of the total effect, validating the significant partial mediating role of LM in the correlation between college students' PAS and SE
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Table 3 Testing the Learning Motivation mediation model
VARIABLE MODEL 1 SE B (T)
MODEL 2 LM B (T)
MODEL 3 SE B (T)
PAS 0.966 (30.112***) 3.596 (21.706***) 0.881 (23.994***) LM 0.023 (4.615***) R² 0.411 0.282 0.420 F 90.600*** 50.904*** 86.007***
Note: B are unstandardized coefficients; ***p＜0.001
To verify whether CC moderated the relationship between college students' PAS and LM, this study ranked all CC scores and divided them into the high scored group (top 27% of the rank) and the low scored group (bottom 27% of the rank) to test the moderated mediation model with Model 7 in PROCESS (Hayes, 2013). Table 4 shows the results. It can be observed in Model 1 that PAS significantly and positively predicts LM (B=2.723, p<0.001), and CC significantly and positively predicts LM (B=2.655, p<0.001); the interaction of PAS and CC also significantly and positively predicts LM (B=1.895, p< 0.001). While in Model 2, it is clear to notice that SE can be predicted significantly and positively by both PAS (B=0.887, p<0.001) and LM (B=0.034, p<0.001), suggesting that CC moderates the relationship of PAS and LM
Table 4 Testing the Moderated Mediation Model
VARIABLE MODEL 1 LM B (T)
MODEL 2 SE B (T)
PAS 2.723 (11.437***) 0.887 (18.512***) LM 0.034（4.427***） CC 2.655 (7.201***) PAS × CC 1.895 (3.991***) R² 0.473 0.525 F 51.445*** 68.651***
Note: B are unstandardized coefficients; ***p＜0.001
This study also used the bias corrected nonparametric percentile Bootstrap method to verify further. The index of moderated mediation was 0.065 (LLCI= 0.021, ULCI = 0.120), with CI not containing 0, indicating that a significant moderating mediation model holds (Hayes, 2013). That is, the indirect effect of LM among college students in the high scored CC was stronger (B=0.126, LLCI=0.061, ULCI=0.192) than that in the low scored CC (B=0.061, LLCI=0.026 ULCI=0.105).
Furthermore, this study conducted a simple slope analysis. Figure 2 presents the results that the effect of PAS on LM is stronger in the high scored CC (Simple slope=3.669, t=10.760, p<0.001) than that in the low scored CC (Simple
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slope=1.774, t=5.355, p<0.001). It meant that the high scored CC enhanced the impact of PAS on LM more than the low scored CC
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6
4
2
0
Low PAS High PAS
Figure 2. The moderating effect of class climate
The study results supported hypothesis 1 that college students’ PAS positively and significantly affected SE, which is consistent with previous studies (Gutiérrez, & Tomás, 2019; Li, 2020; Jang et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2017). The findings indicate that college students’ PAS can promote SE and support the SDT, which states that satisfying basic psychological needs positively influences individual behavior (Fredricks et al., 2019; Reeve & Cheon, 2021; Ryan & Deci, 2020). The results suggest that, when college students perceive autonomous support from teachers and feel valued, they behave more happily and show more effort and engagement in learning (Einolander, 2021; Zhao & Qin, 2021)
The results of the study verified hypothesis 2 that LM partially mediates the association between PAS and SE among college students, consistent with previous findings that college students' PAS directly predicts LM (Bureau et al., 2022; Domen et al., 2019; Fredricks et al., 2019; Maldonado, 2019; Stolk et al., 2018). Furthermore, the findings also revealed that LM could directly predict SE, consistent with previous findings (Fredricks et al., 2017; Guo, 2018; Yin, 2018). It indicates that the more college students perceive teacher autonomous support during learning, the more motivated they tend to be toward self determination, which promotes SE. It supports the SDT that high autonomous motivation, which drives learning behavior, occurs when college students' psychological need for autonomy is met (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000b). This may be because the teaching activities, such as providing choices for students in
learning, generate a willingness to learn, which encourages students to agree on what they are doing entirely and pulls them into the learning (Guay et al., 2016). This current study further broadens the results of the above research. It deepens the comprehension of the internal mechanism of the effect of PAS on SE among college student. The results reveal that college students' PAS not only has a direct impact on SE, but also can influence SE through LM.
The findings verified hypothesis 3 that CC positively moderates the effect of PAS on LM. In other words, the impact of PAS on LM among college students was stronger in the high scored CC than in the low scored CC. The results are consistent with previous findings (Patrick et al., 2011; Reeve & Cheon, 2021; Vallerand et al., 1997). This is because college students in the high scored CC are more advantaged in the learning experiences, which motivates them toward good cohesion and interpersonal support, so their intrinsic motivation is enhanced. In other words, the proportion of intrinsic motivation components is higher than that of extrinsic motivation components and amotivation components, which means that college students with high scored CC are more inclined toward self determination (Jafari & Asgari, 2020; Mucherah et al., 2014; Ryan & Patrick, 2001). By comparison, college students in the low scored CC receive less teacher and peer support, and undergo poorer learning experiences. So, these disadvantages undermine their intrinsic motivation; that is, they are more inclined to non self determination (Allodi, 2010; Cayubit, 2021; Wang, Lee, et al., 2020). Overall, the findings of this study provide empirical support that CC boosts the effect of college students' PAS on LM.
Overall, this study explored the effects of college students' PAS on SE, the mediating role of LM, and the moderating role of CC. It was verified that college students' PAS not only directly influenced SE, but also indirectly impacted SE through the mediating variable of LM. And finally, it was validated that CC moderated the relation between PAS and LM. Specifically, the impact of PAS on LM was stronger among college students in the high scored CC than those in the low scored CC. These findings support the SDT and enrich our comprehension of the combined effects of PAS, LM, and CC on SE among college students.
Based on the findings, the following practical suggestions are proposed. First, higher education institutions should offer training programs for teachers about autonomy support. For example, relevant training should be applied to strengthen college teachers' understanding of PAS and to improve the teaching methods of PAS, so that teachers can provide more autonomous support to college students in the classroom. Second, college teachers should strive to improve the classroom teaching method, especially the use of autonomous support to college student. For example, providing students with choices, increase the in depth interpretation of the knowledge to be learned and the connection between theory and the real world, allowing students to criticize and encouraging students to think independently so as to improve college students' LM and engagement.
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There are three main limitations of this study. First, this study was limited by sampling conditions, and questionnaires were only administered to college students in six higher education institutions in Shaanxi Province of China. Geographical expansion of the sample can be considered for subsequent studies. Second, interview studies can be included in future studies to elucidate better the potential influence mechanism of college students' PAS on SE Third, this study was based on a discussion of the relationship between college students' PAS, LM, CC, and SE. It is suggested that task value should be used as mediating variables in future research (Zumbrunn et al., 2014), and mindfulness could also be used as a moderating variable (Zhang & Yue, 2021), to obtain more empirical research evidence.
This study has been funded by the 2020 annual project of the 13th Five Year Plan of Educational Science in Shaanxi Province, "Influence of College Students' Perceived Teacher Autonomy Support on Engagement" (No. SGH20Y1269)
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Dimension Item Number Item
BE1 I listen carefully in class.
BE2 I pay attention in class.
Behavioral engagement
BE3 The first time my teacher talks about a new topic, I listen very carefully.
BE4 I try very hard in school.
BE5 I work hard when we start something new in class.
AE1 During class, I express my preferences and opinions.
AE2 During class, I ask questions.
AE3 I tell the teacher what I like and what I don’t like.
AE4 I let my teacher know what I am interested in.
AE5 I offer suggestions about how to make the class better.
CE1 When doing schoolwork, I try to relate what I’ m learning to what I already know.
CE2 When I study, I try to connect what I am learning with my own experiences.
CE3 I try to make all the different ideas fit together and make sense when I study.
Cognitive engagement
CE4 I make up my own examples to help me understand the important concepts I study.
CE5 When what I am working on is difficult to understand, I change the way I learn the material.
CE6 When I’m working on my schoolwork, I stop once in a while and go over what I have been doing.
CE7 As I study, I keep track of how much I understand not just if I am getting the right answers.
CE8 Before I begin to study, I think about what I want to get done.
EE1 When I am in class, I feel curious about what we are learning.
EE2 When we work on something in class, I feel interested.
EE3 I enjoy learning new things in class.
EE4 Class is fun.
Note: Revised from Reeve and Tseng (2011)
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PC1 When I am doing something that interests me the teacher gives me enough time to finish it.
PC2 The teacher allows me to choose how to do my work in the classroom.
PC3 The teacher asks us which topics we would like to study more and which we prefer.
PC4 The teacher asks us if there are things we would like to change in the way we study.
PC5 The teacher allows me to choose to study topics that interest me.
PC6 When the teacher gives us an assignment she allows us to choose which questions to answer.
PC7 The teacher encourages me to work in my own way.
FU1 The teacher talks about the connection between what we study in school and what happens in real life.
FU2 The teacher explains why it is important to study certain subjects in school.
FU3 The teacher talks to us about how we feel about the subjects we study.
AC1 The teacher listens to my opinions and ideas.
AC2 The teacher tells us that it is important that we express our disagreement if we do not agree with her.
AC3 The teacher is willing to listen to students’ complaints about her.
AC4 The teacher respects students who tell her what they really think and are not ingratiating.
AC5 The teacher allows me to decide things myself.
AC6 The teacher shows me how to solve my problems myself.
Note: Revised from Assor et al. (2002)
Dimension Item Number Item
Intrinsic motivation to know and learn
Intrinsic motivation towards achievement and accomplishment
Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation and engagement
IK1 For the pleasure I experience when I discover new things I have never seen before.
IK2 For the pleasure I experience in broadening my knowledge about subjects that appeal to me.
IK3 Because my studies allow me to continue to learn about many things that interest me.
IA1 For the pleasure I experience when I surpass myself in one of my personal achievements.
IA2 For the satisfaction I feel when I am in the process of accomplishing difficult academic activities.
IA3 Because college allows me to experience personal satisfaction in my quest for excellence in my studies.
IS1 For the pleasure I experience when I read books by interesting authors.
IS2 For the pleasure I experience when I feel completely absorbed by what certain authors have written.
EI1 Because I think a college education will help to better prepare me for the career I have chosen.
Extrinsic motivation identified
Extrinsic motivation Introjected regulation
Extrinsic motivation external regulation
EI2 Because eventually it will enable me to enter the job market in a field I like.
EI3 Because this will help me to make a better choice in relation to my career orientation.
EI4 Because I believe that a few additional years of education will improve my competence as a worker.
EJ1 To prove to myself that I am capable of completing my college degree.
EJ2 Because I want to show myself that I can succeed in my studies.
EX1 In order to obtain a more prestigious job later.
EX2 Because I want to have "a good life" later.
EX3 In order to have a better salary later.
AM1 Honestly, I don't know; I really feel I am wasting my time in school.
AM2 I once had good reasons for going to college, but now I wonder if I should continue.
AM3 I can't see why I go to college and frankly, I couldn't care less.
AM4 I don't know; I can't understand what I am doing in school.
Note: Revised from Vallerand et al. (1992)
PS1 The instructor considers students' feelings.
PS2 The instructor talks individually with students.
PS3 The instructor goes out of his/her way to help students.
Personalization
PS4 The instructor helps each student who is finding the work difficult.
PS5 The instructor is friendly and considerate toward students.
CP1 I cooperate with other students when doing assignments.
CP2 I share my books and resources with other students when doing assignments.
CP3 When I work in a group in this class, there is teamwork.
CP4 I work with other students on projects in this class.
CP5 I learn from other students in this class.
CP6 I cooperate with other students on class activities.
CP7 Students work with me to achieve class goals.
CH1 Each student knows the other members of the class by their first name.
CH2 Friendships are made among students in this class.
CH3 It not takes a long time to get to know everybody’s first name in this class.
CH4 Students in this class get to know each other well.
CH5 Students in this class are very interested in getting to know other students.
EQ1 The instructor gives my questions as much attention as other students' questions.
EQ2 I get the same amount of help from the instructor as other students do.
EQ3 I am treated the same as other students in this class.
EQ4 I receive the same encouragement from the instructor as other students do.
EQ5 I am given the same opportunity to answer questions as other students.
EQ6 My work receives as much praise as other students' work.
EQ7 I have the same amount of say as other students in this class.
TO1 The group is often sticking to the point instead of side tracked.
TO2 This is an organized class.
TO3 Class assignments are clear so that everyone knows what to do.
Innovation IN1 New ideas are often tried out in this class.
IN2 New and different ways of teaching are used in this class.
IN3 The instructor thinks of innovative activities for students to do.
IN4 Teaching approaches in this class are characterized by innovation and variety.
IN5 The instructor often thinks of unusual class activities.
DV1 Students are generally allowed to work at their own pace.
DV2 Students have a say in how class time is spent.
DV3 Students are allowed to choose activities and how they will work.
DV4 Teaching approaches allow students to proceed at their own pace.
Note: Revised from Nair and Fisher (1999)
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 286 304, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.15
Received Mar 2, 2022; Revised Apr 28, 2022; Accepted Jul 28, 2022
Fort
Hare, East London, South AfricaAbstract. Recent studies have investigated the impact of the COVID 19 pandemic on the economy, organisations, and education in South Africa. However, research on the work from home opportunities and challenges during the COVID 19 lockdown is still scarce in the context of South Africa. This study, therefore, explored university instructors’ perceptions of work from home opportunities and challenges in South Africa. The study, guided by the SWOT analysis as the theoretical framework, was located within the qualitative research paradigm. It leveraged a sample of ten academics drawn from the Faculty of Education at a rural based university using a purposive sampling technique. Data were collected using a semi structured interview and analysis was thematically performed. The findings revealed that WFH arrangements offered opportunities for working from home without incurring the cost of travelling, saved commuting time, provided new ways of teaching and learning with evolving digital platforms, and allowed for prioritising of time for self development and relaxation. WFH challenges included social isolation, disconnection from colleagues, fatigue from performing monotonous routines daily, inadequate data, and poor internet connectivity. Thus, the study recommends the provision of internet facility support and technological training of academic staff of universities on innovative and pedagogical approaches to teaching and learning for blended and/or online teaching in preparation for any similar disruption of education in the future.
Keywords: work from home; university instructors; COVID 19 lockdown; use of technology; pandemic
* Corresponding author: KazeemAjasaBadaru,badruajasa97@gmail.com
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Recent studies have investigated the impact of the COVID 19 pandemic on the economy, organisations, and education in South Africa. However, studies on the work from home (WFH) opportunities and challenges experienced during the COVID 19 lockdown are still scarce in the context of South Africa. This study therefore set out to fill the gap in the extant literature by exploring university instructors’ perceptions of the work from home opportunities and challenges in South Africa. The outbreak of the COVID 19 pandemic across the globe was followed by the implementation of varying degrees of lockdown measures, such as total restrictions on human movements locally and internationally, by governments (Smith et al., 2021). This unprecedented restriction of human movements during the lockdown, described by a team of researchers as the “great pause or anthropause”, affected over 4.5 billion people worldwide (Smith et al., 2021, p. 1). Drastic measures taken by most countries to curtail the spread of the coronavirus included placing bans on public gatherings and other social functions, the imposition of sit at home orders on the workforce in both private and public sectors, and closures of schools, colleges, and universities (Aristovnik et al., 2020).
The closures of educational institutions forcefully compelled university instructors in South Africa and worldwide to work from home and shift their teaching engagements with students from a face to face delivery mode to an online or virtual mode of teaching because of the restrictions imposed on human and vehicular movements due to the pandemic (Joseph & Trinick, 2021) The COVID 19 lockdown and its resultant effects, such as the work from home (WFH) option for academics, created certain opportunities and challenges (Lantsoght et al., 2021). The concept of working from home has gained popularity since March 2020 when the global lockdown was first introduced as a measure for stopping the spread of the virus. It is a phenomenon that has been studied using various but overlapping terms, such as work from home, “telecommuting, telework, virtual office, remote work, location independent working, and home office” (Aczel et al., 2021). Working from home was more of an alternative strategy adopted by organisations and/or employers for mitigating the widespread economic impact of the COVID 19 lockdown on productivity (Jenkins & Smith, 2021). It was the only safe option available to workers who were forced to stay out of their normal workplaces and they were able to carry out their daily routines from the safety and comfort of their homes.
Before the pandemic and the resultant lockdown of the world, several university instructors were reportedly not proficient in the use of the internet and other technologies for teaching and learning purposes (Kuhfeld et al., 2020; Putri et al., 2020; Ugwuanyi et al., 2021). As Crawford et al. (as cited in Joseph & Trinick, 2021) succinctly put it: “While some universities were somewhat prepared for the unexpected shift due to COVID 19 as they had offered blended or fully online programmes before the pandemic, others had a lot more ground to cover” (p. 3) WFH had two characteristics: people were left with the option of working from home, and they completely relied on the use of information and communication
technologies (ICTs) for connections between home and the office (Rupietta & Beckmann, 2016).
Vyas and Butakhieo (2021) have noted two important factors closely correlated with WFH: namely organisational factors, as well as individual and family factors. Organisational factors involved in WFH include support for the demands from workers; the cost of WFH facilities; training on the utilisation of technology; organisational communication; and trust (Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021). As stated, WFH is also influenced by individual and family factors (Solís, 2016; Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021). According to Baruch (as cited in Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021), WFH requires individuals to be self disciplined, self motivated, able to work independently without supervision, be tenacious, self organised, self confident, have time management skills, and be computer literate. Furthermore, related WFH family factors include the characteristics of the household such as the size of the family apartments, the number of family members sharing the accommodation space, as well as the number and age of the children in the family (Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021).
In South Africa, academics in the tertiary institutions had to stay away from campuses and resort to online platforms for the continuation of teaching and learning activities amid strict COVID 19 lockdowns This study explored the university instructors’ perceptions of WFH opportunities and challenges in the context of South Africa. This study is significant as its findings will contribute empirical evidence to the body of literature concerning the WFH challenges and opportunities, from the perspectives of academics in a rural based university in South Africa, and in the context of the COVID 19 lockdown. In light of the foregoing, the study set out to solve the main research question: What opportunities and challenges did university instructors experience when working from home during the COVID 19 lockdown in South Africa? It also attempted to address the following specific questions:
1. How did participants perceive as the concept of WFH during the COVID 19 lockdown in South Africa?
2 What opportunities did the participants gain from WFH arrangements during the COVID 19 lockdown in South Africa?
3. What challenges did the participants experience with WFH arrangements during the COVID 19 lockdown in South Africa?
According to Vyas and Butakhieo (2021), the concept of WFH was first used by Nilles as far back as 1973. The WFH practice is conceptualised as a typical term that encapsulates the idea of working from any place apart from the designated workplace provided by any organisation for its workforce (Aczel et al., 2021). The lockdown that followed the prevalence of the COVID 19 pandemic necessitated employees (including academics) working from other locations outside their primary offices (Biron et al., 2020). In the extant literature, WFH is used interchangeably with telework, remote work, telecommuting, virtual work, e work, or working in a home office (Aczel et al., 2021; Stone et al., 2015; Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021). Each of these terms is essentially about an employee’s ability to
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execute work duties using technology in a flexible workplace such as from home (Grant et al., 2019; Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021). WFH was an emergency response that brought to the fore the economic potential of the home as a site for productive work during the COVID 19 lockdown period (Jenkins & Smith, 2021). For this study, the concept of WFH was regarded as an idea and a practice. It was an idea that suggested that work could be done elsewhere other than the usual designated workplace or office. It was also regarded as a practice whereby people performed their official duties, which would ordinarily be performed in offices or at workplaces, from their homes since human movements were restricted to curtail the spread of the SARS CoV 2. The benefits and challenges of WFH practices were analysed in a study conducted by Vyas and Butakhieo (2021) in Hong Kong. In this study, the authors applied the SWOT analysis to understand the concept of the WFH arrangement in terms of its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. This is presented in Figure 1 below:
Figure 1: A SWOT Analysis of the WFH Model Source: Adapted from Vyas & Butakhieo (2021)
The SWOT analysis of the WFH arrangement was relevant in the context of this study as its objective was to explore the perception of academics in South Africa regarding the opportunities and challenges of WFH during the COVID 19 lockdown. This theoretical framework guided the researchers of this study in drafting the correct type of questions for the data collection stage. The SWOT analysis of WFH, as shown in Figure 1 above, shows that WFH strengths include flexible work arrangements; the absence of office distractions by colleagues; workers enjoy some degree of autonomy or freedom from supervision by their superiors; stress reduction as people work in a familiar environment; there is no commuting from home to the workplace; and money is saved as less is spent on office workspace. In addition, WFH offers opportunities for hybrid models of work and access to new talents from other parts of the world through digital platforms (Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021). For this study, both the weaknesses and threats of WFH based on the SWOT analysis were referred to as the challenges. Again, Figure 1 above shows that WFH challenges (weaknesses and threats) are distractions caused by family or house chores; working from home can be inconvenient and uncomfortable due to space constraints; the absence of
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communication and interaction with colleagues; a lack of office infrastructure to support working at home; and there is a lack of justice as it does not favour workers equally. Other challenges of WFH are the lack of policies and regulations for WFH practices; cybersecurity; and extra expenses that can be incurred by workers as they carry out their official duties from home (Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021).
There are very few studies on the opportunities inherent in WFH arrangements for academics and their professional practices within the higher education sector during the COVID 19 lockdown (Aczel et al., 2021; Lantsoght et al., 2021). From a positive angle, researchers found that WFH arrangements are beneficial to workers as they eliminate or reduce the need to commute from home to the workplace daily (Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021), and they allow workers increased autonomy over the use of their time, with less interruption from colleagues. WFH also makes it easier to manage family responsibilities and demands, and workers can carry out their official duties with greater flexibility from the comfort of their abode. This increases their job motivation and satisfaction, and grants opportunities for more time and engagement with leisure activities (Aczel et al., 2021; Lantsoght et al., 2021; Okeke et al., 2021; Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021). In a recent study that investigated the challenges and opportunities experienced by academics during COVID 19, academics reportedly enjoyed the opportunity to reach an increased level of technological proficiency through learning about new digital tools and platforms for teaching and engaging their students. They were also able to continue with their research work and conduct official meetings with their colleagues (Lantsoght et al., 2021). Other benefits of WFH include the avoidance of office politics, the use of less office space and facilities, improved gender diversity, much healthier workers with less absenteeism and greater talent retention, and greater productivity (Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021). In Japan, a study found that WFH led to increased life satisfaction for workers (Kazekami, 2020). Commenting about the flexibility of working from home, Makhaga (2020) opined that it was advantageous for workers to do their work from anywhere and at any time of the day. Given the deadly nature of the pandemic, working from home was better and safer than working in the office where people could be exposed to the threats of dying from the COVID 19 infections (Makhaga, 2020).
The WFH arrangement, despite its inherent opportunities, is not without challenges, especially for academics during the lockdown period. Recent studies report that WFH arrangements cause employees to be disconnected from their colleagues, thereby leading to isolation as a result of being physically and socially distanced from their fellow workers. They also have difficulties with switching off and the need to cope with distractions from children and other family members locked out of schools andworkplaces due to the closure of schools andworkplaces (Aczel et al., 2021; Kazekami, 2020; Lantsoght et al., 2021; Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021) WFH requires quiet and dedicated spaces for the performance of work duties and this requirement can be very challenging for workers who live in very small homes and apartments (Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021). A study revealed that online distance education academics complained of WFH challenges including a lack of
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opportunities for skills development and a lack of physical interactions with their colleagues (Aczel et al., 2021). Another challenge was the perceived greater workload resulting from preparation for online teaching engagements by academics (Okeke et al., 2021). University academics also had to contend with the challenge of the non availability of pedagogical practices for online teaching, and many underprivileged students lacked devices for online learning platforms (Okeke et al., 2021). It was also reported in another study that workers who engaged in WFH practice found it difficult to manage time between working and non working hours; a practice that usually resulted in overwork (Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021).
Be that as it may, a review of empirical studies revealed that there was little attention given to the challenges and opportunities of WFH arrangements in the context of the lived experiences of the academics in higher education institutions during the lockdown period in South Africa. This study addressed this gap in the extant literature by investigating university instructors’ perceptions of WFH opportunities and challenges during the lockdown period in South Africa. The researchers selected a rural based university in the Eastern Cape Province as the location of the study. This location was appropriate because it was one of the provinces where the prevalence of COVID 19 infections was high during the lockdown period
This study aimed at exploring university instructors’ perceptions of WFH during the COVID 19 lockdown. In this section, the research paradigm, design, approach, procedure, data collection, and analysis are given rigorous attention.
A researcher’s action is guided by a set of beliefs, otherwise known as a philosophical framework (Badaru & Adu, 2018). The paradigm for this study was interpretivism. Interpretivism is a research paradigm that allows researchers to study phenomena by using a qualitative approach. The interpretivist paradigm is a philosophical belief that reality is complex and multi layered. Therefore, any single phenomenon can have multiple interpretations. This paradigm becomes useful in helping researchers understand how people interpret and interact with their social milieu.
The design of a phenomenological case study was adopted to explore the university instructors’ perceptions of WFH challenges and opportunities during the lockdown period in a rural-based university in South Africa. According to Creswell (2013), the underlying goal of a phenomenology design is to make interpretations of a given phenomenon under study. This design, otherwise known as the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), was most appropriate for this study because it guided the researchers to gather an in-depth understanding of WFH, being the phenomenon studied, from the participants’ perspectives as they experienced it during the lockdown period (Smith & Osborn as cited in Sumalinog, 2022)
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A qualitative interpretivist case study research approach was most useful for this study. Nieuwenhuis (2020) argued that a qualitative research approach focuses on exploring the experiences, meanings, beliefs, experiences as well as perspectives of participants regarding the investigation of a social phenomenon. Creswell (2009) notes that a qualitative paradigm is an interpretative approach that is strongly embedded in an empathetic understanding of the everyday experience of people in specific natural settings. It is an approach with a belief that reality is best interpreted through the meaning attached to the phenomenon under study (Badaru, 2019).
The study targeted all the lecturers in the Faculty of Education in a rural based university in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The sample size comprised ten university teachers selected from the Faculty of Education using a purposive sampling technique. This sampling technique is otherwise known as judgemental, selective, or subjective sampling which allows the researcher to rely on their judgement for choosing participants who share similar and ideal peculiarities relevant to the study (Nhongo & Siziba, 2022). The inclusion criteria for choosing the participants was purposive and based on their ranks, their experiences in conducting teaching and related activities from home, as well as their specialisations in education cutting across science education, educational foundations, humanities, and management sciences. It was believed that involving instructors of various cadres and in different fields of study in education would help the researchers obtain balanced and robust views. Although a total of 15 instructors were invited to participate, only 10 of them eventually agreed to take part in the study. An invitation to participate in the study was sent to the selected participants via email because the lecturers were still working remotely during the period of data collection for this study. The researchers decided to only invite the Faculty of Education’s instructors whose email addresses were readily available as human movements were still restricted by the government. Following the positive responses to the email invitations, the dates for data collection were set by considering the convenience and availability of each of the participants. In conformity with the ethical principles of research, the identities of the participants and the institution where the study was conducted remained anonymous and undisclosed. The participants were thus identified as Lecturers 1, 2, 3…10, as presented in Table 1 below: Table 1:
Lecturer 5 Female Accounting Education 3 Lecturer
Lecturer 6 Female Early Childhood Education 11 Professor
Lecturer 7 Female Mathematics Education 9 Professor
Lecturer 8 Female Language Education and Curriculum Studies
7 Professor
Lecturer 9 Female Early Childhood Education 12 Professor
Lecturer 10 Male Mathematics Education 5 Senior Lecturer
Table 1 shows that 50% of the participants were professors while others were senior lecturers and lecturers who had work experience of three years or more. It also reveals that 60% of the participants who participated in this study were females and 40% were males.
A semi structured interview guide was designed in the English language for data collection. The instrument was validated by other colleagues to ensure that its items were valid and appropriate for measuring the objectives of the study (see Appendix 1 for the research instrument). The interviews were conducted in a manner where the researchers freely probed further on issues of interest In order to ensure an effective IPA, the interviewers established a rapport with their interviewees (Smith & Osborn as cited in Sumalinog, 2022). Before the data collection stage, the researchers sought and obtained ethical clearance from the research ethics committee in their institution. Subsequently, arrangements were made for the interview schedules via WhatsApp and Telegram Messaging and video sessions. The convenience and availability of the participants were given the utmost primacy before fixing the time and date for the interview sessions for each of the participants. It took 16 days, amidst unstable internet connectivity and other challenges, to complete the interview sessions with all the participants. During the interviews, participants were asked to complete and sign the informed consent forms. We also sought the consent of the participants for their responses to be recorded with the aid of an android phone’s video recorder. Two of the researchers transcribed each of the recordings verbatim. Participants were urged to read and confirm the textual data to verify whether or not they were the narratives expressed during the data collection stage. Following the confirmation of the transcribed data, the researchers coded and categorised the textual data into the different themes that provided the answers to the research questions, and an audit trail was performed to ensure the dependability of the research findings.
Data trustworthiness is required in any qualitative research. It has to do with concerns for the findings of a qualitative study to be found worthy of being given attention (Badaru & Adu, 2021). In tandem with the data trustworthiness criteria established by Lincoln and Guba (as cited in Loh, 2013), the data for this study
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were collected and analysed while ensuring credibility, transferability, dependability, and conformability during the process. The researchers performed the data analysis independently, then discussed and compared the various themes and reached an ‘intercoder agreement’ to enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of the findings (Moosa & Bekker, 2021, p. 67).
The data were analysed with the aid of the Atlas 6.2 software application for thematic content analysis. This is a process of transcribing the data, perusing the transcribed data over and over again, identifying the themes, and finally writing a report (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Aloka, 2021). This method of qualitative data analysis was appropriate for this study because it allowed the researchers to scrutinise and interpret the interview data holistically.
This study explored the university instructors’ perception of work from home opportunities and challenges in the context of South Africa. The sub research questions were addressed using the different themes that emerged from the narratives given by the participants.
The researchers asked the first sub research question: How did participants perceive the concept of WFH during the COVID 19 lockdown? This was done to gain insights into the participants’ understanding of the concept of WFH in the context of the COVID 19 lockdown. The majority of the responses from the participants indicated that they had a good understanding of the WFH arrangements. The general understanding emanating from their responses was that WFH meant that they had to perform their official duties such as teaching, supervising research students, and attending departmental meetings from their homes or any other location outside of their workplaces. For instance, the following response was obtained from one of the participants: “Working from home means not going to office during work hours. Rather you do your daily office work in the comfort of your home (Lecturer 7, Female).”
The above excerpt from the interview responses indicated that participants agreed on the meaning of WFH as a work practice within the home space and environment. Thus, it was correct to define WFH as a work arrangement whereby workers were given greater autonomy to carry out their official tasks from their various homes owing to certain factors which made it practically impossible for them to report to the office or workplace.
The researchers posed the sub research question: What opportunities did the participants gain from WFH arrangements during the COVID 19 lockdown in South Africa? They wanted to probe the opportunities that the participants had by working from home in the course of being locked down in their various homes due to the imposition of the COVID 19 movement restrictions. The responses of the participants indicated that the WFH arrangements were beneficial to them.
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According to most of them, the WFH arrangements offered opportunities to save time hitherto spent commuting from home to the office in the pre COVID 19 lockdown period. In addition, they disclosed that working from home offered opportunities to prioritise time for work and self development, to learn about new technological and innovative ways of teaching, assessing, and conducting research without leaving their homes.
5.2.1
The findings of this study indicated that working from home saved time so that participants could do more work at home, as they did not have to spend time commuting from home to their office or workplace. The university teachers did not have to drive from home to the campus during the lockdown. An excerpt of the narratives from the participants expatiates on this as follows: “Working from home meant that there was more time to do my academic work. I no longer had to drive to and from work. I used the morning hours for teaching through blackboard collaboration with undergraduate students. I also responded to students’ emails during morning hours. In the afternoon, I sometimes had lectures for postgraduate students or supervision meetings. In the evening, I would then focus on research (Lecturer 2, Male).”
From the above narratives, it was safe to conclude that working from home saved time that would otherwise be spent commuting from home to the university campus. The participants regarded this as one of the opportunities offered by WFH during the COVID 19 lockdown.
5.2.2
Another opportunity provided by WFH during the COVID 19 lockdown was the exposure of the participants to new technological skills and the use of innovative digital platforms for teaching and learning. The participants reported that they gained new technological skills by using digital platforms when presenting their classes to students. This opportunity, according to the participants, was an enhancement of their teaching career as university instructors. A participant had the following to say:
“I learned new technological skills and learned to work smart to cope during the hard moments. I am sure I worked double the normal working hours, but I also gained so much more. On a personal level, I also learned new skills and got to know my strengths and weaknesses of being without colleagues constantly around me. I also learned new ways of presenting my classes and will most definitely use this next year to make the most of the content and quality presented to students (Lecturer 5, Female). “
From the above findings, it was safe to conclude that working from home offered the opportunity for the acquisition of new technological skills and the use of innovative and digital platforms for teaching and learning. It therefore enhanced technology based teaching and learning activities.
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5.2.3
Flexibility was another WFH opportunity that emerged from the narratives of the participants. The findings revealed that working from home made things flexible for participants. The participants acknowledged how the WFH phenomenon allowed them to work at home and simultaneously attend to family issues. This was evident in the response from one of the participants stated below: “ It is very flexible to work at home, but one must prioritise and have a management plan to accommodate the work as well as the family matters. I always thought that working from home is meant for people working on technical jobs, with no need for face to face meetings (Lecturer 7, Female).”
From the above finding, it was safe to conclude that flexibility was one of the opportunities experienced by university instructors when working from home during the COVID 19 lockdown.
5.2.4
The participants disclosed that working from home provided them with the opportunity to be exposed to alternative assessment techniques through the use of digital platforms for their lesson delivery. A participant responded as follows: “Working from home changed my thinking completely about blended learning and the possibilities thereof. I have learned so many different technological skills and alternative ways of assessment that will enable me to adapt my ways of working in the future (Lecturer 8, Female).”
From the above narrative, it was safe to conclude that working from home provided the opportunity to learn alternative assessment techniques with the aid of digital platforms for teaching engagements with the learners.
5.2.5
Personal safety was another opportunity that working from home offered to university instructors during the COVID 19 lockdown. The majority of the participants, six out of ten, mentioned the fact that working from home guaranteed their safety as they did not need to leave the comfort of their homes at night in order to do their jobs This was explicitly stated by one of the participants as follows: “
For example, before the advent of COVID 19, I used to teach postgraduate students in the evening and sometimes until around 21:00. This created challenges for both me and my students. One of the challenges was safety. However, due to COVID 19’s impact and restriction on human movement, I have used remote lecturing. Post COVID 19, I envision a situation where I and my colleagues will use blended learning so that we do not have lectures scheduled at night (Lecturer 9, Female).”
Thus, it could be concluded that working from home offered the opportunity for personal safety because university instructors did not have to commute to campus at night or return home late from the campus after work.
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The researchers wanted to unmask the challenges associated with the WFH arrangements by asking the sub research question: What challenges did they experience with WFH arrangements during the COVID 19 lockdown in South Africa? The participants highlighted the challenges they experienced in this regard
5.3.1 Stress involved in balancing home and work life
The participants mentioned that it was challenging and stressful to balance work and home responsibilities while working from home during the COVID 19 lockdown. This was pointed out by one of the participants in the response below: “Getting a balance between home and work responsibilities was a challenge at first. It did put a bit of stress on me at the beginning; I felt uncertain and was scared to miss something (Lecturer 3, Female).”
Thus, it could be concluded that WFH posed a challenge as it created stress when the participants struggled to balance their work and family responsibilities during the COVID 19 lockdown.
5.3.2 Poor internet connection and power cuts
WFH was faced with the challenge of poor internet connections and power cuts. The participants narrated how this challenge adversely affected the virtual conducting of classes with their students. The response of one of the participants summed it up as follows: “
The problem is the issue of poor network coverage and the electricity cuts. Classes sometimes would not go as scheduled because of the cuts and poor coverage (Lecturer 8, Female).”
Thus, it could be concluded that poor internet connectivity and power outages presented a challenge to working from home effectively during the COVID 19 lockdown.
5.3.3 Disruption and distraction from family
Working from home was challenged by disruptions and distractions caused by family and other home affairs. A male lecturer narrated how his water heater had exploded and distracted him from his academic work. The following response also highlighted a distraction: “
WFH is difficult, especially when you have children as young as six years old. In the early stages of the lockdown, it was difficult because they do not readily understand that you are working, but after pre school commenced it [was] a bit better (Lecturer 1, Male).”
Given the above narratives, it was safe to conclude that participants’ officialduties were impacted and therefore challenged by distractions and disruptions when working from home during the COVID 19 lockdown in South Africa. These were caused by family members and household responsibilities.
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5.3.4
Working from home created the challenge of working more hours than were necessary. Of note was a particular experience shared by one of the participants who stated that she was unable to switch off from work at home. The following response expatiates on this challenge: “It completely changed; this is because of the way my work is designed. I needed to make sure that I accommodate all my students and colleagues too. As time went on, I noticed that most students have access to data at night or have some difficulties that impacted how I worked and how I work or plan my work [sic]. This meant I am working more than the allocated times [hours] and not in a normal or as I initial [sic] thought (Lecturer 4, Male).”
From these narratives given above, it was safe to conclude that working from home created a challenge in terms of doing more work while working at home because workers do not feel the urge to close for work as they do while in the office.
5.3.5
Boredom and monotony were other challenges associated with working from home experienced by the participants in this study. One of the participants rightly put it as follows: “Before COVID, it was something that I thought was highly privileged because you would do things according to your time without being in a rush of trying to avoid peak hours (traffic), working in the comfort of your home, where you can sip coffee or drink at any given time without driving. However, little did I realise [sic] that if it is a lengthy stay and working from home for so many months it becomes monotonous [sic] and you hit the plateau, simply because of the same environment and the productivity stalls (Lecturer 6, Female).”
From the finding above, it was safe to conclude that working from home during the COVID 19 lockdown created the challenges of work monotony and boredom for the participants in this study.
5.3.6 Financial constraints and limited productivity
Working from home also resulted in the participants in this study experiencing the challenges of financial constraints and limited productivity. The narrative below captures these challenges: “I did not get sufficient time to complete my academic activities due to the tight schedule attending a lot of meetings via zoom, sometimes working from home without data due to financial problems (Lecturer 9, Female).”
Thus, it was safe to conclude that being compelled to WFH was accompanied by the challenge of financial problems, which resulted in the inability to procure internet data, which in turn limited work productivity.
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The participants reported that they had to contend with social isolation. By implication, working from home deprived them of opportunities to collaborate with office colleagues because they were restricted from leaving their homes during the COVID 19 lockdown. One of the participants narrated his experience as follows:
“I had to work alone, with no collaboration with colleagues. I could not interact with individual students and guide them in answering certain tasks (Lecturer 10, Male).”
Given the above narrative, it was safe to conclude that the participants experienced the challenges of social isolation and the absence of collaboration and interaction with colleagues while working from home during the COVID 19 lockdown.
Regarding the first research question, the narrative from the participants shows that they perceived working from home as a necessary arrangement where they had to carry out their official duties, which included teaching, research, and attending to administrative matters, from their home space and environment as the COVID 19 lockdown made it practically impossible to do the same at their workplaces located within the university campus. Although some of the participants expressed divergent views on their initial expectations of working from home while the lockdown lasted, in the end it turned out that their expectations were far different from their experiences, especially in terms of the challenges arising from online tutoring and the use of some digital platforms for teaching. It is instructive to note that the participants’ perceptions of the concept of working from home aligned with the idea of this phenomenon espoused by Aczel et al. (2021), who believed that it meant working from designated areas provided for workers by any organisation. This view is also corroborated by Biron et al. (2020), who defined working from home as the practice of working from other locations outside the primary offices. Thus, it is safe to conclude that the participants perceived working from home as a practice whereby work is performed from any location outside of the usual designated office.
The second research question in this study sought to articulate the WFH opportunities experienced by the university instructors during the period of the COVID 19 lockdown in South Africa. The results, as analysed above, show that working from home provided opportunities for these university instructors during the lockdown. It saved them time when working from home (Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021); it was an eye opener to the availability of the myriad of technologies and digital platforms which could be adopted for teaching and learning (Lantsoght et al., 2021); its flexibility offered opportunities to juggle family matters with official work duties (Kazekami, 2020; Lantsoght et al., 2021; Okeke et al., 2021); it availed the university instructors with insight into the alternate assessment methods using the digital technologies for lesson delivery when connecting the home and the office; and another opportunity associated with working from home was the opportunity for increased personal safety
(Makhaga, 2020). These findings were not in contradiction to the findings of Aczel et al. (2021), who posited that working from home offered opportunities to save on the costs of travelling or commuting from home to the office and vice versa, and increased autonomy over the use of time with no distraction from colleagues. These findings are also corroborated by Lantsoght et al. (2021); and Okeke et al. (2021) in their studies which reported that working from home offered greater flexibility for workers to do their work in their comfort zones. Of course, WFH allowed university instructors greater control over their time and places for performance of work. This is corroborated by Makhaga (2020) who considered flexibility of WFH from the ‘advantage’ point of view. Lantsoght et al. (2021) also found that academics gained more proficiency in the use of technology for teaching and learning. Those university instructors, who for one reason or the other had not been teaching online before the pandemic, were forced to learn and master how to use the innovative digital technology platforms for teaching during the lockdown. Linked to this advantage, this study also found that personal safety was another opportunity enjoyed by the university instructors while working from home; a finding which was also stated by Makhaga (2020).
In the final analysis, the last research question attempted to unravel the challenges experienced by the university instructors when working from home during the pandemic lockdown in South Africa. The challenges, among others, included: balancing home and work life being stressful; poor internet connectivity and power cuts; disruption and distraction by family members (Aczel et al., 2021; Kazekami, 2020; Lantsoght et al., 2021; Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021); an increased workload and working outside of normal working hours (Okeke et al., 2021; Vyas & Butakhieo, 2021); boredom and monotonous work; financial constraints limiting work productivity; and social isolation from office colleagues (Aczel et al., 2021) The WFH challenges identified in this present study are not inconsistent with the findings of Aczel et al. (2021); Lantsoght et al. (2021); and Okeke et al. (2021). In the study done by Aczel et al. (2021), working from home reportedly created challenges such as the disconnection from co workers and social isolation, and problems dealing with pressures imposed by the constant presence of family members. These findings were corroborated by Okeke et al. (2021), who posited that working from home brought with it a greater workload for academics when compared to the usual workload they had to contend with in their face to face teaching engagements with their students. Aczel et al. (2021) further reported a lack of opportunities for skills development and a lack of physical interactions with fellow academics that would have happened had they been on campus. Okeke et al. (2021) also reported by that WFH arrangements were associated with the challenge of a lack of digital devices for online learning in South Africa.
In light of the findings of this study, it is apposite to recommend that the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) and university authorities adequately prepare academic staff ahead of any similar crisis that may cause another disruption to education in the future. There is a popular saying that good preparation prevents poor performance. If there are adequate preparations ahead
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of future disruptions, in terms of upskilling knowledge and effective use of technology, WFH arrangements can be more successful than they have been during the COVID 19 lockdown period. Of course, it is better late than never. Academic staff members need to be trained consistently on a blended or hybrid approach to teaching and learning. University authorities also need to provide more facility support, in terms of internet data and digital tools, to enhance academic staff's work productivity while at home. The challenge of poor internet connectivity and power cuts can be addressed by providing staff with much more reliable internet data and uninterrupted power supply (UPS) battery backup which can help power their personal computers during times of load shedding or power cuts while working at home. The challenge of stress in balancing home and work life as well as social isolation can be mitigated by joining forums for academics and connecting with professional experts via social media and other online platforms where they can share jokes and recipes for healthy practices and engage in motivational sessions related to balancing work life matters with like minded colleagues. Connecting with professional colleagues to laugh together, share teaching challenges, and learn about new online pedagogical approaches can also help them ‘kill’ the boredom that was experienced during the pandemic lockdown. In addition, university authorities need to provide online staff support services and/or physical centres that will help with matters of health and wellbeing. When all of these recommendations are implemented and followed religiously, the WFH opportunities will be maximised for the university instructors in the post pandemic era. The researchers' decision to conduct this study at one of the Eastern Cape universities was not contemplated to be a limitation, rather it was an attempt to unravel an understanding of the perceptions of university instructors regarding the opportunities and challenges associated with working from home during the lockdown in South Africa. Nevertheless, the researchers note that the findings of this study may not apply to other universities in the country. It is therefore essential to also recommend that more studies be conducted to understand WFH opportunities and challenges in the contexts of other universities in South Africa.
This study explored the perceptions of ten academics regarding WFH opportunities and challenges during the COVID 19 lockdown in a rural based university in South Africa. It was found that the academics gained from WFH arrangements as an alternative to working on the university campus. The WFH opportunities included, among others, saving of commuting time, the use of new teaching approaches, proficient use of digital platforms for teaching and learning, and no distractions from colleagues. Conversely, the participants in this study pointed out some challenges they experienced with the WFH practice. They argued that working from home isolated or disconnected them from their office colleagues, and they had to deal with both work and family demands simultaneously as they worked from home. This led to the burden of having to carry a greater workload as they had to work longer hours than they had before the COVID 19 related lockdown. The findings of this study have implications for rethinking teaching and learning in the post 2020 era as regards the modality of
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lesson delivery, pedagogical approaches, and accessibility to various technologies.
Going forward, the modes of lesson delivery and interactions between university instructors and their students have to be hybrid, such that the modes of delivery and interaction can be both face to face (F2F) and virtual when it is practically impossible for the F2F sessions to take place. The pandemic and the avalanche of digital platforms available for teaching and learning have shown that no instructor should miss classes on account of their absence from campus. The WFH alternative has opened our eyes to the possibility of holding lectures virtually, using a variety of technologies. If for one reason or the other an instructor cannot physically be present in the classroom for their lecture, then the alternate option of online teaching has to be explored so that the lecture can still be held. Another implication is the need for university instructors to build on their WFH experiences during the pandemic lockdown by continually pursuing opportunities in the field of information technology to advance their pedagogical approaches and repertoire as the higher education institutions move towards embracing blended and online pedagogies in the post pandemic era.
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1. What is your understanding of working from home, as a university instructor, during the pandemic lockdown?
2. How does the pandemic influence your understanding of the work from home (WFH) phenomenon during the lockdown period in South Africa?
3. How has your perception of working from home changed from the one you had prior to the COVID 19 crisis?
4. In what ways has WFH served as an opportunity to you as a university instructor while teaching during the pandemic?
5. What were the challenges of working from home during the COVID 19 lockdown in South Africa?
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 305 329, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.16
Received Mar 2, 2022; Revised Apr 28, 2022; Accepted Jul 28, 2022
Abstract. Achieving the Quality of Secondary Education seems to have assumed a frightening dimension in South Western Nigeria. This study, therefore, investigated the contributions of the policy factors (PF: Recruitment and Selection RS, Salary and Compensation SC and Training and Development TD) to the Quality of Secondary Education (QSE) in the rural communities of South western Nigeria (RCSN). The data were collected via a Secondary School Graduate Aptitude Test (SSGAT) instrument from 467 secondary school graduates; and a total enumeration technique was adopted for the data collected from 134 teachers from 9 rural secondary schools. Six participants were purposely selected for the Key Informant Interviews, which comprised three principals and three senior officials from the Teaching Service Commissions and the Ministries of Education. Three research questions were developed, and one hypothesis was formulated for the study. The studywaslocated withina post positivistparadigmthatincorporated the convergent parallel design in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of the qualitative and quantitative data. The data generated were analysed using descriptive statistics and a Pearson Product Moment Correlation at the 0.05 level of significance; while the qualitative data were analyzed thematically. The RS ( =3.08 ± 0.82), SC ( =2.72 ± 0.90) and TD ( =2.62 ± 0.83) strongly influenced the QSE in RCSN. The PF (r=0.75) had a negative significant relationship with QSE. The study concluded that urgently addressing the policy issues is highly essential in revamping the QSE in RCSN.
X X X
Keywords: policy; recruitment and selection; salary and compensation; training and development; quality of secondary education
Policies are codes, which indicate the directions that actions may take. They set boundaries to secure andensure the consistency ofpurpose or objectives; and they
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial No Derivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
also prescribe guidelines for carrying out an action (Odunlami, 2008). In addition, the term policy refers to a standard set of principles that guide a course of action. In other words, policies serve as guiding tools, which help in preventing the taking of decisions haphazardly. Most definitions made by scholars established that policies relate to rules, decision making, regulations and the administrative actions, which are directed towards problem solving either in public or private organizations (Isah, 2020) However, the inconsistencies in the formulation and implementation of policies have occupied a front burner in Nigerian society for quite a while, continuing to impede the delivery of quality education that could produce self reliant, innovative, and entrepreneurial citizens.
In addition, the lack of a participatory policy system that accommodates the views of teachers and other educational stakeholders, who determine the success of the curriculum, is another critical issue troubling the Nigerian educational system. Policy participation creates a sense of belonging and ultimately affects the quality of education in the country (Oyelola, 2015). Meanwhile, Salami (2018) sees beyond stakeholders’ policy inputs; and this author opines that the current National Policy on Education is littered with great ideas and ideals; but its implementation has so far been fraught with complaints.
In the same vein, Nwaka (2015) also argues that Nigeria’s challenge is neverabout the dearth of policy because its policies were developed by the most prominent and brightest educational experts. Unfortunately, these propositions have remained mere statements of intent, without yielding any results. Nigeria’s education policy is a veritable tool that should deliver, according to the yearnings and expectations of its educational stakeholders; however, the deteriorating educational standards betray the investment (Oyelola, 2015). In addition, it has been suggested that continuous policy changes and the lack of the thorough assessment of a policy before its introduction are the harbingers of what is currently manifesting in Nigeria’s education system ("Confusion in Education," 2012).
This study therefore examines the labour issues within the context of the recruitment and selection policy, salary and the compensation policy, as well as the training and development policy, as they affect the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South Western Nigeria.
The recruitment and selection policy, the first indicator among policy factors, measures the processes of generating qualified candidates for secondary schools. Recruitment and selection are like two sides of a coin, but the functions of each differ. Recruitment has a positive valence through the attraction of potential candidates to an organization; while selection, on the other hand, has a negative valence; since it is a means through which an organization does the sieving from a pool of talents attracted during an application process. The two operations are inverse in relation to each other. The former attracts all the qualified individuals; while the latter does the sorting from the pool, based on quality and the strategic needs of an organization (Malik, 2018). A school system is only as good as the people it recruits. Thus, recruitment and selection are the keys to educational
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learning outcomes. If schools fail in attracting the best teachers, the quality of secondary education remains no more than a dream; since performance is largely dependent on the quality of the workforce that an organization recruits, without compromising the merits and the pedagogical skills required (Ajayi, 2009a).The quality of an educational system is largely dependent on the teacher quality; and without teachers’ devotion and commitment, the effectiveness of the educational system remains no more than a pipe dream
Even the educational planners with the best intentions, designs and policies would have to depend on the teachers for the ultimate realisation of their goals. Consequently, the processes of the recruitment and the selection of teachers will either negatively or positively impact the translation of the education policy into action and the principles into practice (Ogunyinka et al., 2015).
The salary and compensation policy are the second and third indicators among the policy factors in this study that appear to infuence the quality of secondary education. The salary and the compensation policy involve determining the remuneration in terms of wages, salaries, bonuses, and incentives, in accordance with the contributions made by the employees to the realisation of the organisational objectives. Equitable and fair remuneration is pivotal to employees’ performance; and only through competitive financial incentives, such as wages, salaries, bonuses, retirement benefits, and medical expense reimbursement, can the best teachers be attracted, and can their retention be assured (Akinsanya, 2009)
Despite the potential of these incentives to ensure quality education, Garba (2012) observed that the teaching profession in Nigeria still has a poor salary structure. Teachers’ earnings are unappealing; and teaching is among the lowest paid professions. As a result, potential new entrants into the teaching profession seem not to be attracted, due to the apparently poor remuneration offered.
The training and development policy is the third indicator, among the policy factors that influence the quality of secondary education. Training involves equipping prospective teachers with the necessary tools to perform optimally in the classroom; while retraining or development involves the continual updating of teachers with the current best practices within the teaching profession. Ogunyinka et al. (2015) maintain that the training and the retraining of new entrants, as well as those who are already in teaching service, are fundamental to realising the educational objectives. This is imperative, because teachers are at the core of the educational system. Therefore, investing in teachers would ultimately impact the learning outcomes of the school system.
Ajayi (2009b) alluded to this by stating that, given the rapid pace of change in today’s society, new skills, life long learning and training must be accorded to be matters of priority in the teaching profession. It is no more news that educational technology, through its various modes of instruction, has dominated the teaching learning process in the 21st century. Nevertheless, many teachers still lack the essential competence, such as computer related skills; and they would require
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training, in order to deliver quality education in this day and age. To achieve the purpose of this study, three research questions were posed; and one hypothesis was formulated, as follows:
i. What is the influence of the teacher selection and recruitment policy on the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South Western Nigeria?
ii. What is the influence of the salary and compensation policy on the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South Western Nigeria?
iii. What is the influence of the training and development policy on the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South Western Nigeria?
iv. There is no significant relationship between the policy factors (recruitment and selection, salary and compensation, training, and development) and the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South Western Nigeria.
1.1
1.1.1
The term “policy” is familiar; and it is used on a daily basis by virtually everyone; however, due to the diversity of circumstances and perceptions, there is a variety of meanings attached to this concept (Dlakwa, 2014). Policy has been defined by Chandan (2004), as a statement or guideline that provides direction for action to be taken. However, a policy must be consistent with an organisation’s objectives, mission and philosophy. Babalola (2003) sees policy as comprising generally explicit or implicit statements— either written or unwritten— that guide future thinking, initiatives, and actions, containing both a ‘principle’ and a ‘rule of action’.
Policies are the agreed ways of operating an organization. Odunlami (2008) posits that policies are codes that provide the direction for actions. They set boundaries to secure and ensure the consistency of purposes or objectives, by prescribing the guidelines for carrying out an action. Dlakwa (2014) argues that there is no precise or universally acceptable definition of the term policy, but concurs with scholars like Babalola (2003) and Chandan (2004) that, generally speaking, it refers to the principles, guidelines or orientation adopted by a government body (organization) in guiding the affairs of people in a given direction. A policy ensures consistency of action. Although, It does not have to be rigid; since there should be room for modification if required after policy formulation (Okoroma, 2006). Dlakwa (2014) broadly classifies policy in the following three ways:
I. Policy as a statement of intent;
II. Policy as a set of activities; and
III. Policy as a process of decision making or choice.
Odunlami ( 2008) further explains that written policies are not limited to those stated in manuals, or that appear in annual reports, company charters, budgets, written plans, employee handbooks and public-relation materials. He maintains that policy may include any of these, as a guide to action, a tool for standardizing, a management tool for solving problems, a guiding emblem for fieldwork, a formal template for direction, a decision of the government, formal authorisation, programmes of activities, and a set of rules or a code of conduct. Furthermore,
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Chandan (2004) and Odunlami (2008) observed that for policy to be sound, it should have the elements listed below:
I. It should be stable and flexible.
II. It should be comprehensive in scope.
III. It should be clearly prescribed and understandable by all. The intent and content of the policy must be clearly expressed; and it should preferably be in writing.
IV. It should prescribe general guidelines for conduct and establish criteria for current and future action.
V. It must not contradict, nor conflict with any other policies of the organization.
VI. It must be fair to all members of the organisation.
VII. It must formulate a well articulated and active implementation strategy and contain a clearly defined and practical implementation strategy.
VIII. It must ensure internal consistency within an organization on all policy related issues.
However, Babalola (2003) made a clear distinction between laws and policies. Policies are not laws; because they give room for the application of discretion; while, laws do not permit such allowance for personal initiative The government enacts laws; while policies are made by the government or by organisations to run their affairs within given guidelines. The processes leading to policy making may be similar to those of law making Odunlami (2008) explained that the policy making process is not a static one, but a continuous process of decision and activities, which involve a sequential pattern of action, involving several stages, as follows:
I. Policy Initiation: This refers to problem identification, bringing the problems to the attention of the policy makers, and making pronouncements by the authorities. This stage is crucial; since it sets the tone for other stages of the policy making process. In essence, without the conception or initiation of policy, nothing can be followed.
II. Policy Formulation: After the policy initiation stage, the next is policy formulation. Activities involved in the policy formulation stage include the following: data source identification; the collection of data and their analysis; the formulation of policy options; an organisation and institutional framework for policy formulation; deliberations and consultations; and the draft content of policy proposals.
III. Policy Implementation: This involves the application of efforts, and human, material, and financial resources to the administration of policies. It also involves planning, coordination, communication, directing, staffing, organising, budgeting and other management functions.
IV. Monitoring and Evaluation: Monitoring is more regular than evaluation, but easier, less costly, and less time consuming than evaluation. It is concerned with checking the processes and activities and ascertaining whether the expected changes in a programme/project occur at the time and magnitude envisaged by the plan. In other words, it is a regular gathering of information to track progress. Evaluation is occasional and
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not as regular as monitoring. It is sporadic, more difficult to carry out, more costly, and more time consuming than monitoring.
V. Policy Analysis: This is crucial, as it reveals the nitty gritty or the worthwhileness of a policy. Taylor (1997) designed a policy analysis framework that is centred around three elements, namely: context, text and consequence; while Bell and Stevenson (2006) provided an instructive meaning of each element, as follows:
VI. Context: This refers to what informs the policy to be developed; that is, antecedents and pressures responsible for the initiation of a specific policy. For instance, what gives rise to a policy agenda could be economic, social, or political factors. To have a thorough understanding of how a policy agenda is set, and why policy makers respond to the issue in the first place, there needs to be an understudy of the workings and roles of pressure movements. Thus, the context of a policy is very important, in order to have a full picture of what has transpired, and how the metamorphosis gradually developed into a policy text.
VII. Text: This is the next stage in policy analysis; and it addresses the issues related to the policy content. This x rays the policy frame or articulation. It aims to ask questions, such as: how explicit or implicit is the policy content? If action is required, who should be held responsible? It should be noted at this juncture that analysis of the policy text is a herculean task. Even in explicit policies, it is crucial to unveil the “silences” (what is hidden) and that which is expressly stated.
VIII. Consequences: At this level, it is important to consider whether policy texts have any form of ambiguity that could be misinterpreted. This may likely impact negatively on policy implementation. Such distortions or gaps in the policy implementation process are called policy refraction. Thus, weighing the possible policy consequences is very critical in policy analysis.
1.1.2 Selection and Recruitment Policy and Quality of Secondary Education Educational resources may be human, material, or financial. These three are very critical to the realisation of organisational objectives; and educational institutions are not exempted. It goes without saying that the place of human resources in educational institutions is indispensably important and pivotal to their survival. It is so because, human resources coordinate all other educational resources (Agabi, 2010). Several authors such as Simetwa and Nyang’ori (2011), Nduta (2011), Wadesango et al. (2012) have observed that teachers who are not well qualified for the positions for which they are hired could jeopardize the provision of quality education.
Luschei and Carnoy (2010), too, reported that teacher quality matters if there is to be student success in terms of literacy and numeracy skills. It is in this regard that the selection and recruitment policy of quality teachers should be transparently and objectively carried out, in order to attain quality secondary education. Thus, compromising on this policy could quite easily jeopardise the expected learning outcomes.
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Research findings from other countries support the claim that there are challenges to quality recruitment in the provision of teaching services. In a study, Makori and Onderi (2013) adopted a quantitative survey, in order to study the challenges in the achievement of the effective recruitment of secondary school teachers in Kenya. The study sampled 81 secondary principals with the purposive sampling technique. The data were collected with a questionnaire; while descriptive statistics were employed for the data analysis. It was discovered that the Board of Governors (BoG) jettisons merit for favouritism and paid less attention to competence and qualifications. Similarly, Abdou (2012) looked at teachers’ recruitment and selection practices within public and private schooling systems in Egypt. The findings revealed that there are hidden criteria, such as gender and religious affiliation in teacher recruitment and selection. The results also showed that principals in public schools lacked the autonomy to recruit teachers into those schools they head; while teachers were not happy with their working conditions and societal perceptions.
A similar experience with teachers was found in private schools, when proprietors interfered with the school’s autonomy. This further shows that there are issues surrounding the selection and recruitment of teachers into the teaching service, both in public and private schools. Consequently, there is a need to tighten the noose around the selection and recruitment systems, so that those who are taking advantage of the existing loopholes may be curbed. Previous studies also produced similar results, thereby confirming that there is a positive and significant relationship between recruitment and selection, in addition to organisations’ performance (Gamage, 2014) Syed (2012) also revealed that maintaining high quality assurance in the recruiting processes is positively related to organisational performance.
1.1.3
Salary and allowances are fundamental factors in the motivation of workers both in public, or in private organisations. It is expected that when salaries are attractive, teachers would be encouraged to devote their time and energy to their duties. Conversely, if motivation is lacking, teachers’ commitment to duties may be affected negatively; and the students then bear the brunt (Lambert, 2004) Ali (2009) conducted a study on the impact of teachers’ wages on the performance of students. The scores of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) of 2000, 2003, and 2006 survey data were used as secondary data. Among the factors used for measuring impact were starting salary and earnings after 15 years in service, in addition to the country scores.
A regression analysis was done, which revealed that there is a positive impact of teachers’ wages on students’ performance. Gbenga and Yakub (2018), in their study in Ogun State, Nigeria, investigated the challenges facing public secondary school teachers in the state. Key informant interviews were conducted with the six respondents drawn from the state Ministry of Education and its agencies. The results revealed that teachers were not satisfied with their pay and were not motivated by any rewards. Thus, achieving quality education among secondary school graduates could be linked to teachers’ motivation and satisfactory wages.
Similarly, Arain et al. (2012) evaluated the impact of teachers’ remuneration on the performance of students. It was argued that the salary remuneration of teachers is an important factor in students’ performance. For this reason, the data on teachers’ renumeration and PISA scores for the years 2000, 2003 and 2006 of fifteen year old pupils enrolled in lower secondary schools in the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) member countries were used as secondary data for the study. This study showed that teacher remuneration was found to be positively related to the students’ performance.
In a study in Nigeria, Akande (2014) used a descriptive survey to investigate the relationship between the conditions of service and teachers’ job performance in secondary schools in Kogi State. Samples of 81 principals, 215 teachers and 86 supervisors were selected by a simple random method. The data were obtained by a questionnaire. Hypotheses were tested with the Pearson Product Moment correlation (PPMC). The findings indicated that four out of five of the hypotheses revealed that there were significant relationships among the prompt payment of salaries, promotion, fringe benefits, staff development and staff job performance. In a related study on the influence of wages on academic performance, Varga (2017) used the data from PISA scores between years 2003 to 2012 and national level teacher salary data from the OECD, in order to examine the effects of policies concerning teachers’ wages on students’ performance. The results showed that higher teacher salaries increase students’ mathematics and science performance; but the effect on reading performance was less significant. Thus, the remuneration of teachers has a pivotal role to play in learning outcomes which is the quality of education in the context of this study.
Hanushek et al. used a uniquely matched panel dataset for a study titled “Do highersalaries raise the quality of teaching?” The studyestimated the relationship between teacher test scores and the starting salaries of four cohorts of new teachers in Texas, using the district fixed effects. It further estimated the relationship between student achievement and district salary. The findings showed that mobility is partially related to pay; and this suggested that differences in pay can inform why teachers would act in those ways that they do.
In a similar pattern, Fozia and Sabir (2016) employed a survey design to study the impact of teachers’ financial compensation on their job satisfaction at the higher secondary level in Islamabad. A convenient sampling technique was used to select 30 teachers. The data were obtained with a questionnaire for the study. The results showed that compensation practices had a strong influence on job satisfaction. However, the gender factor was not significant among teachers, while the teachers’ experiences contributed significantly to their job satisfaction.
Babirye (2011) also established the relationship between teachers’ remuneration and the performance of schools under the Universal Primary Education (UPE) system in Uganda. Quantitative data were collected from a sample of 100 respondents that were teachers. The data were analysed by using descriptive statistics. The findings from the study showed that there was a strong and positive relationship between teachers’ remuneration and school performance. It also revealed that teachers’ conditions of service influenced their performance greatly.
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In a related study by Xuehui (2018) on employment policy in rural China, it was shown that salary and benefits not only affect attracting, training, and retraining high quality secondary teachers, but are also highly essential in determining the quality of teaching in schools. The study reported that government implemented policy tagged ‘living allowance’, in order to enhance social security benefits for rural teachers. This study underscores the place of teaching personnel, as an important factor in secondary school education and its improvement. Thus, salary and other benefits may be crucial factors in meeting the expectations and the demands of educational stakeholders in delivering quality and relevant education at the secondary level.
1.1.4 Training and Development Policy and the Quality of Secondary Education Chiemeka Unogu (2018) investigated principals’ participation in staff development programmes for effective performance in public secondary schools in Rivers State in Nigeria. The study employed a descriptive survey design, in which 124 principals were selected through a stratified random technique. The data were obtained by a Staff Development Questionnaire (SDQ). The data were analyzed, showing the mean and z test for the research questions and the hypotheses, respectively. It was found that workshops and in service training should be made available for the staff development of principals.
Imaowaji (2018) also examined the relationship between in service training and teachers’ job performance in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State, Nigeria. The study employed a correlational design; and it used stratified random sampling to select 845 public senior secondary school teachers for the study. The data were obtained through questionnaires, and descriptive and inferential statistics were used for the data analysis. The results showed a mean rating, which was above average for those teachers who participated in in service training sessions. The study also established strong and positive relationships among teacher learning, teacher growth, teacher needs, teacher collaboration and job performance.
In addition, Okotoni (2015) employed a survey research design to examine staff training and development and quality education delivery in public secondary schools in Osun State, Nigeria. The sample was selected randomly from three schools in three Local Government Areas of Osun State. The data were obtained through questionnaires and interviews. The findings revealed that there is a strong connection between learning outcomes and the quality of human resources deployed to execute educational programmes in schools.
2.1 Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory of Motivation: Lately, motivational theories have been receiving a lot of attention from behavioural scientists, as well as from industrial psychologists. This is attributed to the effects of motivation on individual behaviour and job performance (Chandan (2004). Although there are many theories of motivation being used in research, Fredrick Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory of motivation stands out as one of the most acknowledged theories of motivation (Atali et al., 2016). Porter et al. (2003), too, affirm that the two factor theory of Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman (1959) is a practical approach in
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addressing the problem of teacher job satisfaction in respect of leaving or staying in their jobs. Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene study was conducted among 200 engineers and accountants.
Herzberg and his friends were interested in finding out what leads to the improvement or decline in the level of job satisfaction. Based on the outcomes of the study, those factors that determine job satisfaction were established and called ‘motivators; while those factors that demotivate were called ‘hygiene factors’ (Atalic et al., 2016) Raymond (2018) further explains that according to the two factor theory, an individual’s job satisfaction is influenced by two factors: motivating factors that contribute to an individual’s intrinsic growth and hygiene factors that contribute to extrinsic growth. This dichotomy is referred to as a ‘two need system’.
Raymond (2018) adds that Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene theory states that ‘motivators’ can influence job satisfaction in several ways, namely, a sense of achievement, recognition, the meaningfulness of the work, responsibility, growth and promotional opportunities. On the other hand, hygiene factors can lead an individual to experience job dissatisfaction. These job dissatisfiers or ‘hygiene factors’ may surface and manifest in company policy, supervision, workplace relationships with supervisors, workplace conditions, salary, workplace relationships with co workers and peers, personal life, workplace relationships with subordinates, status, and job security
Thus, Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene theory claims that both job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are the products of different causes. That is, job satisfaction relies on motivators; while job dissatisfaction is the product of hygiene factors (Atalic et al., 2016)
2.1.1 The relevance of the Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory of Motivation In the context of this study, Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory is useful in determining the factors that cause satisfaction or dissatisfaction in the workplace. It is thus deemed suitable for a school as a workplace. This theory propounds that hygiene factors; for example, policy, can pacify the employees (teachers) to restrain them from becoming dissatisfied. These dissatisfiers or maintenance factors could be in the form of incentives, or any other fringe benefits to cushion the effects of staying in rural or segregated communities. The application of this theory to schools in rural areas is ideal and appropriate in mitigating the effects of job dissatisfaction, which may lead to teachers quitting the job.
Hasley (2017) affirms that attracting and retaining teachers in rural and remote schools remains a daunting challenge on the educational agenda. This suggests that rural schools may be experiencing a dearth of teachers both in quantity and quality. It is a common cause that, with regard to benefits, hygienic factors would exist concurrently with motivating factors for teachers in rural areas. This is not only a Nigerian phenomenon; since the research shows that there are acute shortages of teachers in rural communities globally. This is affirmed by Hasley (2017), who found that rural schools in Australia are encountering challenges of staffing, as the teachers are not willing to relocate from urban to rural areas due
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to the lack of incentives. The Herzberg’s motivation hygiene theory is suitable for determining the factors that cause satisfaction or dissatisfaction in a workplace, so that these issues can be remedied.
In the context of this study, the hygienic factors may indicate the level of treatment from the government through its agency the Ministry of Education or the Teaching Service Commission as it relates to salary and compensation, as well as to government policy. The examples of motivators, such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, and advancement in the workplace, may come into play in the school setting in the form of recognition from government and school administrators/principals and opportunities for training and development. Motivation in an educational setting, such as a school, is very important and probably ranks among the core issues in personnel management (Babalola (2015). In other words, the application of the theory of motivation in the school as a workplace, is essential in bringing about satisfaction and stemming teachers’ dissatisfaction. Thus, whatever would enhance the motivation of teachers and ultimately increase educational performance or quality in this study context, is worth pursuing for the good of the students, and for that of society as well.
3.1
This study adopted a convergent parallel design for the collection of data from teachers and secondary school graduates on policy factors and the quality of secondary education in rural communities of South Western Nigeria. In essence, both the numerical and the textual data collected complemented each other in achieving the objectives of this study.
The multi level mixed method sampling technique was used to select samples for the study from the three sampled states in South Western Nigeria. At the first stage, the researcher used the purposive sampling technique to select the three states with the most rural demography that make up 50% of the six states in the region, namely, Oyo, Ekiti and Osun. At the second stage, a cluster sampling method was used to select each local government area with the most rural demography across the three senatorial districts of each state from the zone. At the third stage, simple random sampling was used to select a secondary school from each local government area of the senatorial district. Lastly, the proportionate sampling technique was used to select 467 (90%) secondary school graduates from the selected schools, in which the total enumeration technique was adopted in selecting 134 teachers from the selected schools.
3.3
Questionnaires for each school were taken physically to the sites. The Secondary School Graduates’ Aptitude Test (SSGAT) instrument was used to evaluate the quality of secondary education; while the Policy-Factor Teachers’ Questionnaire (PFTQ) was used to collect the data from the teachers. Interviews were conducted by using the Interview Guide for the key informants which are Secondary School Principals and Teaching Service Commission/Ministry of Education
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senior officials of the Planning, Research and Statistics (PR&S) Department in each of the 3 states.
The current study followed all the ethical requirements in the Postgraduate Guide of the University of Fort Hare. Thus, the researcher sought ethical clearance from the University of Fort Hare’s Research Ethics Committee (UREC). The researcher further sought and obtained permission from the Teaching Service Commission (TESCOM) and the Ministry of Education of Ekiti, Oyo and Osun states in Nigeria.
3.5.1 Research Question 1: What is the influence of teacher selection and recruitment policy on the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South Western Nigeria?
Table 1: Influence of Teacher Selection and Recruitment Policy on the eQuality of Secondary Education
Teacher Selection and Recruitment Policy Very Strongly Strongly Weakly Very Weakly Mean Std. Dev.
Teaching advertisement in newspapers, radio and TV before employment
X
51 (38.1%) 57 (42.5%) 15 (11.2%) 11 (8.2%) 3.10 0.903
Accepting Teaching application by Teaching Service Commission 57 (42.5%) 60 (44.8%) 11 (8.2%) 6 (4.5%) 3.25 0.795
Short listing of applicants for teaching jobs 62 (46.3%) 58 (43.3%) 13 (9.7%) 1 (0.7%) 3.35 0.686
Conduct of tests such as aptitude test 54 (40.3%) 66 (49.3%) 13 (9.7%) 1 (0.7%) 3.29 0.67 Conduct of selection interview 53 (39.6%) 50 (37.3%) 25 (18.7%) 6 (4.5%) 3.12 0.867
Physical/health examination of prospective teachers 49 (36.6%) 43 (32.1%) 31 (23.1%) 11 (8.2%) 2.97 0.965 Induction/orientation for new entrants into the teaching profession
Compliance with other levels of selection and recruitment processes before employment
22 (16.4%) 69 (51.5%) 37 (27.6%) 6 (4.5%) 2.80 0.764
32 (23.9%) 58 (43.3%) 28 (20.9%) 16 (11.9%) 2.79 0.943
Weighted Average 380 (35.4%) 461 (43%) 173 (16.1%) 58 (5.4%) 3.08 0.82
Note: Mean value decision ranges from 0 1.24 (VW), 1.25 2.49 (W) 2.50 3.74 (S) and 3.75 4.99(VS).
Table 1 reveals the influence of teacher selection and recruitment policy on the quality of secondary education in rural communities in South Western Nigeria. The weighted average score of 3.08, which can be rated as 77% shows that the respondents believed teacher selection and recruitment policy strongly influenced the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South Western Nigeria. This further implies that selection and recruitment are strong factors that impact the quality of secondary education. To get an in depth understanding of
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how teacher selection and recruitment were being carried out in various states of South Western Nigeria, the participants (secondary school principals (SSP) and Teaching Service Commission officials (TCO) were further interviewed on the procedures employed for selection and recruitment. Some of their comments were as follows:
SSP2 commented: “Currently in Ekiti State, before you can be adopted, you will have to undergo a test and pass it. In the past, it was an all comers ’ affair. Now, the government advertises for recruitment. If the applicants pass now, they move to the interview stage. It is no more a profession for “Tom, Dick and Harry”. An educational qualification, such as a Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) is compulsory; and those who have been recruited without PGDE, do not get the promotion. This serves as a pathway to professionalising education. Merit is being restored, unlike in the past.”
SSP1 corroborated: “In the past, there was nothing like advertisement; merit was never considered. During the time of [Governor] Ajimobi between 2011 and 2019, some people submitted fake results. I have one in this particular school, who claimed that he has a Higher National Diploma (HND) from one school. It was inside their room that they “manufactured” the result. In those days, when they wanted to recruit teachers, there wasn’t any examination to test the ability, no interview, nothing whatsoever. It was whom you knew.
Even during this political era, they already knew those that would be selected; and they would have been given letters without any recruitment process. I can remember the one they did last. Some of the teachers placed by the Oyo State Teaching Service Commission (TESCOM) here found it difficult to face the students; some of them who could perform very well were not recruited. It was based on whom you knew, the political party you belonged to. They shared recruitment slots among themselves.
For instance, if they wanted to recruit 50 teachers, they would share these posts among party loyalists, “you take two, you take that ” In other word sharing slots among themselves without any procedures to be followed]. Someone that cannot even ask “where are you going”? But because he knows politicians, s/he would find his/her way to the classroom. I had someone like that in my school here, who has been transferred now. Thank God, it is getting better now.
Both SSP 2 and SSP1 agreed that the teaching profession was an all comers ’ affair in the past. Merit was never considered in the past; but things are changing now. This speaks volumes and may account for the present level of quality of secondary education in the rural communities investigated.”
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SSP3 revealed: “
To an extent, the immediate past Government followed merit through advertisements, written tests and interviews; however, they gave some consideration to the quota system, and also to satisfying people from different geopolitical zones.
Likewise, the Teaching Service Commission Officials working in Planning, Research and Statistics shed light on the history, processes and procedures of selection and recruitment in these states.”
TCO1 noted: “
On the selection procedure, if merit was observed in the past recruitment, as in 2010, when 70% of applicants were picked on merit; but the remaining 30% went to PR (Political Patronage). Meanwhile, this year appointment was done on the basis of merit; and those who failed were not employed, not even inclusive of my younger brother. For recent recruitment, this Government places adverts on print media/Radio/Television. Candidates apply by purchasing forms; but now it is free. This is followed by short listing, based on the criteria set by the TESCOM, followed by the conducting of an examination. This year’s test was a Computer Based Test (CBT). The cut off mark will be set; and then interviews for those who make the cut off date will be conducted.”
TCO2 added: “
Those employed now are being subjected to examination, in order to ascertain their suitability. The questions for the recruitment test contain both reliability and validity. They are subjected to oral interviews and a rigorous screening of their credentials. There is a standard set for those to be employed in terms of the cut off points. The procedures are clearly listed in the media. They are advertised, then tested and the applicants are then interviewed So overtly, merit is observed in the processes and in the procedures of employment of both teaching and non teaching staff.”
TCO3 revealed: “
In the past, there was no examination for recruitment, except during the Aregbesola administration. Currently, we are being told, that Government will recruit; and that the applicants should prepare for a recruitment test. Recruitment procedures are being followed now; but it is too early to judge, as the processes are still ongoing and we cannot predict the outcome but, in the past, these were not followed. The political era leaves room for political considerations in recruitment. Between 2010 and 2013, politics was not allowed to influence the recruitment. Merit was used in selection, but the political class was also given the opportunity to nominate the candidates.
The information above shows that selection and recruitment policy in the past were mostly based on political considerations, or on those “whom you know”. Merit was not consistently followed. Forms would be sold to party loyalists only; and letters of employment were issued. Consideration was given to the quota system and geographical locations. However, according to the participants, they believe that things are changing now; as
governments are employing an open and transparent policy in the selection and recruitment through the placement of advertisements in both the print and electronic media, and via a computer based tests (CBT) and interview. Although, some are still sceptical, until the process is concluded, they cannot believe that the procedures will be consistently followed.”
3.5.2 Research Question 2: What is the influence of salary and compensation policy on the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South Western Nigeria?
Table 2: The influence of Salary and Compensation Policy on the Quality of Secondary Education Salary and Compensation Policy Very Strongly Strongly Weakly Very Weakly Mean Std. Dev.
My salary affects quality education 63 (47%) 38 (28.4%) 26 (19.4%) 7 (5.2%) 3.17 0.922
My salary affects my commitment to teaching 41 (30.6%) 41 (30.6%) 38 (28.4%) 14 (10.4) 2.81 0.990
The conditions of service of encourages teachers. 29 (21.6%) 43 (32.1%) 40 (29.9%) 22 (16.4%) 2.59 1.005
The existence of incentives such as rural and transportation allowances contributetoeffectiveteaching.
The incentives are attracting new entrants into teaching profession.
The remunerations are in accordance with my grade level/step
22 (16.4%) 57 (42.5%) 38 (28.4%) 17 (12.7%) 2.63 0.907
21 (15.7%) 51 (38.1%) 54 (40.3%) 8 (6%) 2.63 0.818
Teaching job emoluments retain teachers in rural areas. 23 (17.2%) 50 (37.3%) 53 (39.6%) 8 (6%) 2.66 0.833
18 (13.4%) 52 (38.8%) 52 (38.8%) 12 (9%) 2.57 0.836
Weighted Average 217 (23.1%) 332 (35.4%) 301 (32.1%) 88 (9.4%) 2.72 0.90
Note: Mean value decision range from 0 1.24 (VW), 1.25 2.49 (W) 2.50 3.74 (S) and 3.75 4.99(VS)
Table 2 above shows the influence of salary and compensation policy on the quality of secondary education in rural communities in South western Nigeria. The table reveals that 75.4% (101) of the teachers claimed that their salary affects the quality of secondary education; while 24.6% (33) maintained that their salary did not affect the quality of secondary education ( = 3.17). The table further shows that 53.8% (72) of the respondents agreed that incentives are attracting new entrants into the teaching profession; while 46.2% (62) disagreed that incentives are attracting new entrants into the teaching profession ( = 2.63).
X X X
Thus, the weighted average score of 2.72, which can be rated as 68% shows that the respondents believe that salary and compensation strongly influence the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South Western Nigeria. The
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responses from the respondents [secondary school principals (SSP) and Teaching Service Commission officials (TCO) interviewed] show that teachers are not adequately motivated. Most of the interviewees expressed frustration and noted that, if given an opportunity elsewhere, they would not hesitate to leave the teaching profession. Most considered the profession only as their last resort. Their comments were as follows:
SSP1 revealed: “
In the past, teachers were not treated well. Actually, during a particular Governor’s administration, teachers were not treated well. They had to find alternative means to take care of their family. They only managed to do whatever they could do in the school; and they had to find other ways, in order to take care of their families. Thank God, things are getting better nowadays. Let me tell you, this has lost teachers to other areas, apart from teaching. Some have been engaging in farming, trading, and so on. Teachers are not treated well at all. Meanwhile, those teaching in colleges of education are far better; while in universities, they have a special scale for them, but secondary school teachers say that they don’t know why they are being treated in this way. There is no satisfaction with respect to salary and other benefits.
Salaries are nothing to write home about, except an allowance of 3.7% called Teaching Salary Scale (T.S.S.), which is given; but the salaries are nothing to write home about. One of my kids, after graduating, said she could not take a teaching job. She quizzed me about how much she would be earning, and I told her certain thousands of naira. She exclaimed and asked: “Fresh graduate? Mum, I can’t stay at home until I get a better job.” If it were the bank or a company, then one would know how much one would be earning.
Even in retirement, the stipend would not come on time. People go into teaching because there is no alternative. Despite teaching in rural areas, there is no special allowance (normal allowance).”
SSP2 added:
“To be candid, teachers are not well treated. Rather, they are being treated as second class citizens. And most of their entitlements are being deprived, such as allowances and even promotion. For instance, personnel in the ministry appointed on the same day as a teacher, would be on a level ahead of one, as a teacher. There is deliberate discrimination against the teaching profession. Teachers are not happy with the profession Give them an opportunity to take another profession, they would not hesitate to leave. For instance, my leave bonus since 2017 till this year 2020 and other several benefits are still pending. We are not happy. This is discouraging. This is not encouraging; and it is affecting our performance. Conditions of teaching service are not encouraging. New entrants to the teaching profession are trying to back out. They took the job as a last resort. I, myself, after some years, went for another course in Medical Laboratory Science (MLS). I now have my license. If I had another alternative, I would have pulled out of teaching.”
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SSP3 responded: “The conditions in the teaching service are poor. A lot has to be done to motivate teachers.”
TCO1 commented: “No special policy for teachers, no meal allowance. All allowances are general, except [for the] 27.5% (Teaching Service Scale Allowance T.S.SA.).”
TCO2 noted: “The Government is worker friendly; but there are inadequacies on the part of the government. Salaries are being paid promptly; but the deductions for workers are not adequately returned. There are arrears in salaries, leave bonuses and workers’ promotions.”
TCO3 argued: “Teachers are not well paid. They are working assiduously; but their inputs are not in accordance with what they are earning. Teachers are not satisfied with what they earn. Although, it comes when due, we advise teachers to have other sources of income, due to government’s adverse policies on teaching service. There was a time, when government paid only a half salary for teachers. Those on grade levels 2 7 were paid a full salary. Those on Level 8 12 were paid 75 per cent of the salary; while those on level 13 and above were paid only 50 per cent. The remaining levels were paid only 29 per cent.
The information gathered revealed that teachers are not happy with their salary and the compensation policy. They believed that the teaching profession is not being treated fairly; and that teachers deserve more than what they are currently earning. Some noted that the teaching profession is seen as the last resort; and given an opportunity elsewhere, they would quit teaching. Hence, the level of motivation is not encouraging.”
3.5.3 Research Question 3: What is the influence of training and development policy on the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South western Nigeria?
Table 3: The influence of Training and Development Policy on the Quality of Secondary Education
Training and Development Policy Very Strong Strongly Weakly Very Weak Mean Std. Dev.
X
Teaching Service Commission periodically organizes seminar. 28 (20.9%) 46 (34.3%) 44 (32.8%) 16 (11.9%) 2.64 0.945 Opportunity for induction/orientation for new teachers
Teaching Service Commission trains on new skills\teaching methods.
12 (9%) 42 (31.3%) 60 (44.8%) 20 (14.9%) 2.34 0.842
42 (31.3%) 63 (47%) 22 (16.4%) 7 (5.2%) 3.04 0.830
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Teaching Service Commission trains on new emerging pedagogy.
Teaching Service Commission trains on usage of new instructional materials.
Training and development programs available to all without knowing Teaching Service Commission Officers
18 (13.4%) 61 (45.5%) 42 (31.3%) 13 (9.7%) 2.63 0.838
35 (26.1%) 61 (45.5%) 26 (19.4%) 12 (9%) 2.89 0.898
13 (9.7%) 45 (33.6%) 60 (44.8%) 16 (11.9) 2.41 0.825
Use of experienced teachers for in school mentoring 14 (10.4%) 46 (34.3%) 62 (46.3%) 12 (9%) 2.46 0.801
Availability of Continuous Professional Development (CPD) 24 (17.9%) 66 (49.3%) 39 (29.1%) 5 (3.7%) 2.81 0.767
Opportunity for further studies 7 (5.2%) 43 (32.1%) 70 (52.2%) 14 (10.4%) 2.32 0.732
Weighted Average 193 (16%) 473 (39.2%) 425 (35.3%) 115 (9.5%) 2.62 0.83
Note:Meanvaluedecision rangefrom 0 1.24(VW),1.25 2.49(W)2.50 3.74(S)and3.75 4.99(VS)
Table 3 shows the influence of training and development, as an aspect of the policy factor on the quality of secondary education in the rural communities in South Western Nigeria. The Table reveals that 55.2% (74) of the teachers agreed that the Teaching Service Commission (TESCOM) organises seminars periodically; while 44.8% (60) of them disagreed that seminars are organised periodically ( = 2.64). The table further shows that 56.7% (76) of the teachers disagreed that training and development programmes are available to all without Teaching Service Commission officers’ influence, while 43.3 per cent (58) agreed (X = 2.41). Thus, the weighted average score of 2.62, which can be rated as 65.5 per cent shows that the respondents agreed that training and development strongly influence the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South Western Nigeria. This implies that training and development are strong factors that influence the quality of secondary education. The interviews with the respondents (secondary school principals [SSPs] and Teaching Service Commission officials (TCO) also revealed the following on training and development:
X
SSP1 commented: “They organise training for Mathematics and Computer teachers, and Science teachers as well. Basically, for core subjects, while other subjects have their associations, such as Egbe Akomolede for Yoruba Teachers. Geography teachers have their own too; but they are not controlled by government. Each association organises its own seminar/training. Principals, too, attend seminars on how to administer schools.
Even for the core subjects, principals are asked to mobilize them for transportation. They sponsor themselves sometimes. They are asked to pay a sum of money individually to an account, in order to get registered. It does not attract any monetary benefits, except knowledge. The conditions of service are not motivating; and there is nothing to be glad about.”
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SSP3 commented: “A lot has to be done in capacity building.”
TCO1 revealed: “
Last year we trained about 5000 principals and vice principals on leadership and school management in about six Education Zonal Offices (Oyo, Saki, Ogbomoso, Eruwa, Ibarapa I & Ibarapa II). Currently, we plan to train teachers in English and Mathematics, Science Subjects, ICT; and we intend also to train teacher supervisors.”
TCO3 noted: “
The training is always conducted by the Ministry of Education; and because it offers only a little stipend, the selection for training is always influenced; and the staff from the Ministry of Education are part of this.
The responses on training and development show that government is not wholly committed to the training and development of teachers. Sometimes, when the training is organised, the selection for who attends is not based on need and merit due to the small monetary compensation, as revealed by a respondent. At the same time, it was revealed that sometimes teachers were asked to pay for themselves, in order to attend seminars.”
3.5.4 Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship between the policy and the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South Western Nigeria.
Table 4: Comparison of policy factors and quality performance Variable N M SD R Sig
Policyfactors 601 12.77 24.30 .752** .000 Qualityperformance 601 9.12 6.39
Correlationissignificantat0.01level(2tailed).
Table 4 shows the estimated mean score for policy factors and secondary school graduates’ quality performance scores, which are 12.77 and 9.12, respectively, while the S.D. are 24.30 and 6.39, respectively. The calculated R .752 (Sig, .000) shows that there is a significant relationship between the policy factors and the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South western Nigeria. Hence, the null hypothesis was rejected. The correlation was negative, which implies that an inverse correlation existed between the policy factors and the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South Western Nigeria. The inverse correlation is significant.
The results of Table 1 revealed that teacher selection and the recruitment policy strongly influence the quality of secondary education. This implies that the selection and the recruitment policy have a strong impact on the quality of secondary education. Likewise, the qualitative data generated through Key Informant Interviews conducted among the secondary school principals and Teaching Service Commission Officials agreed, that the selection and recruitment policy strongly
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influences the quality of secondary education. Some of the interviewees believed that, sometimes, merit was jettisoned for party affiliation, or other forms of favouritism. SSP1 respondent for the qualitative interview corroborated this by noting that, “in the past, nothing like an advertisement, merit was ever considered ”
This has brought unqualified personnel into the teaching force; and it has negatively influenced the quality of secondary education. This finding is consistent with those of Makori and Onderi (2013), who adopted a quantitative survey to study the challenges in achieving the effective recruitment of secondary school teachers in Kenya. They discovered that school boards of governors were culpable in jettisoning merit in recruitment; and they preferred to have their kith and kin employed in the teaching service. This finding is also in line with those of Abdou (2012), who examined teachers’ recruitment and selection practices within public and private schooling systems in Egypt. The study revealed that there are hidden criteria in teachers’ recruitment and selection. This finding is also in agreement with those of Ekwoaba, Ikeije and Ufoma (2015), which revealed that the quality of procedures followed in the recruitment and selection matter most in determining an organisation’s performance.Inessence,recruitmentbased on merithasa positive influence on the performance of an organisation. This study also validates the works of Gamage (2014) and Syed (2012), which showed that there is a positive and significant relationship between recruitment and selection as well as an organisation’s performance. The current study is equally in support of the existing literature, such as those of Aloo et al. (2011), Nduta (2011), Wadesango et al. (2012). These all observed that teachers who are not well qualified for the positions for which they are hired, could jeopardise the provision of quality of education.
Furthermore, this study also agrees with the findings of Vitale (2009) that teachers are central to education and that those factors considered in teacher recruitment are primarily the knowledge of content, the knowledge of teaching learning processes, and that of classroom management. The current study, also, underscores the fact that teacher quality is the most important among all of the educational factors. No educational system can be greater than its workforce. Thus, teachers as human resources, are fundamental to achieving educational goals.
Table 2 revealed that teachers’ salary and compensation policy strongly influenced the quality of secondary education. This means that salary and compensation policy strongly impact the quality of secondary education. Qualitative data generated through Key Informant Interviews conducted among the secondary school principals and Teaching Service Commission officials in this study agreed that salary and compensation strongly influence the quality of secondary education. At the same time, the qualitative data generated from the respondents confirmed that teachers are not being taken care of adequately. Some respondents (SSP1 and SSP2) categorically expressed their displeasure that teachers were not treated well, and that the conditions of the teaching service were not satisfactory. They argued that when giving teachers other job alternatives rather than teaching, they would not hesitate to quit the teaching profession.
Thus, both the quantitative and qualitative results indicate that teachers’ salary and compensation policy strongly influence the quality of secondary education. The current study is in agreement with the work of Gbenga and Yakub (2018), who in
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their study investigated the challenges facing teachers in public secondary schools. They found that teachers were not satisfied with their pay; and they were not motivated by their rewards. Thus, achieving quality education among secondary graduates could be linked to teachers’ motivation and good wages. The current findings are also in agreement with those of Xuehui (2018), who revealed that salary and benefits not only affect attracting, training, and retraining high quality secondary teachers; but they are essential in determining the quality of teaching in schools.
In China, this consideration led to the government implementing a policy that tagged living allowance in schools in rural areas of the country to enhance social security benefits for rural teachers. The geographical scope of the current study equally needs such a rural allowance policy for teachers in the rural communities of South Western Nigeria.
The current study is consistent with that of Ali (2009), in a study conducted on the impact of teachers’ salaries on the students’ performance using the scores of the International Student Assessment (PISA) of 2000, 2003 and 2006 survey data; the results showed that teachers’ salaries had a positive effect on students’ learning outcomes. This implies that salary and allowances are fundamental factors that motivate teachers to perform optimally. Hence, when it is attractive, teachers would be encouraged to devote their time and energy to the teaching learning process. The current study is also in consonance with that of Fozia and Sabir (2016), who studied the impact of teachers’ financial compensation on their job satisfaction at the higher secondary level in Islamabad.
The results showed that there was a high correlation between compensation practices and job satisfaction. The findings of the current study also support the findings of Babirye (2011), which revealed that there was a strong and positive relationship between teachers’ remuneration and school performance. This study, too, is in line with the findings of Akande (2014), which revealed that the prompt payment of salaries was found to be positively related to teachers’ job performance in secondary schools. The current study’s findings are also in line with those of Varga (2017), who also used a Programme for International Student Assessment between the years 2003 and 2012 and national level teachers’ salary data from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), in order to examine the effects of policies concerning teachers’ wages on students’ performance. The results showed that higher teacher salaries increase students’ performance. Consequently, the remuneration of teachers correlates with the performance of secondary school graduates.
The results of Table 3 revealed that teacher training and development policy influence the quality of secondary education. On the other hand, however, qualitative data generated through Key Informant Interviews conducted among the secondary school principals and Teaching Service Commission officials also revealed that government is not wholly committed to the training and development of teachers. In some instances, when training is organised, the selection of who to attend is not based on need and merit; this is owing to the monetary compensation, which is involved for the attendees
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The interviews also revealed that sometimes teachers were asked to pay, in order to attend seminars. The current findings also validate those of Imaowaji (2018), who established that there is a positive relationship between teacher learning and job performance in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State, Nigeria. The current study also supports the findings of Okotoni (2015), which revealed the current state of in service training and the development of teachers in public schools in Nigeria. The result showed a strong connection between learning outcomes and the quality of human resources deployed to execute educational programmes in schools. The study by Chiemeka Unogu (2018) which investigated principals’ participation in staff development programmes for effective performance in public secondary schools equally supports the findings of this current study
The findings of the study have provided empirical data that could be of immense benefit to both academics and researchers, who may wish to apply these findings in their research endeavour, or in theiir academic writings. The findings from this study also have implications for secondary school administrators, policy makers, government officials, researchers, parents, private and public sector employers, society, and students on labour policy related matters. Another implication of the study is that there is an urgent need to enact labour friendly policies with regard to rural allowances and other benefits, in order to attract and retain teachers and other personnel in rural schools. This motivation would ultimately enhance the quality of secondary education in rural communities.
This study had its limitations, however. Measures were put in place to mitigate the adverse effects on the outcome of the study. The geographical location of the study was conducted in areas hard to reach by motorcar; however, motorcycles were used to access some of these schools. The other limitations were time and funds for data collection during the fieldwork, considering the large geographical scope of the study. Also, engaging administrative bureaucracy, in order to secure approval for the study from the ministries of education of various states in the South West, was a daunting challenge; but due to the resilience of the researcher, this issue was resolved after persistent visits.
The limitations to this study were also manifested in its conceptual and theoretical scope. The researcher would have wanted to extend the study beyond the present scope by examining more variables, but due to time and funding constraints, this could not be achieved.
The findings of the study revealed that there is a significant relationship between policy factors and the quality of secondary education in the rural communities of South Western Nigeria. The correlation was negative for the independent variable of policy factors. Thus, the negative relationship indicates that the existing policy factors (recruitment and selection, salary and compensation, training, and development) did not enhance the quality of secondary education. This study has, therefore, shown the need for government and education stakeholders to urgently address labour policies, so that they can enhance the quality of secondary education. Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are hereby
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made, which the researcher believes would be of immense benefit to all the educational stakeholders:
• There is a need for a review of the existing policy on recruitment and selection, so that it is wholly merit based and devoid of favouritism and any political interference.
• Salary and compensation need to be reviewed by incorporating rural allowances for teachers and other personnel working in rural schools, in order to continue attracting and retaining them.
• Periodic training and development programmes should be introduced in the form of workshops and seminars, in order to expose teachers to the newest pedagogical policies and the best practices.
Funding: This research received no specific grant from any funding agencies.
Competing interest: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 330 344, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.17
Received Apr 27, 2022; Revised Jul 15, 2022; Accepted Jul 29, 2022
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to analyze perceptions of how online feedback was provided in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes, particularly to enhance speaking and writing skills, during the COVID 19 pandemic. The participants were 102 teachers, 40 managers, 80 parents and 120 students from junior high school, senior high school, and higher education levels from 40 public and private educational institutions in southern Ecuador. The sample selection was based on purposeful sampling (voluntary participation). The instruments included questionnaires from students, teachers, parents and educational authorities. In addition, an interview was used to ascertain students’ views about the feedback received in speaking and writing activities. The instruments were designed to collect information about perceptions regarding online feedback in EFL remote teaching of speaking and writing skills. The questionnaires were designed to collect information aboutfeedbackforproductiveskillsinEFLremoteteaching.Thecollected data were tabulated and analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results indicate that online feedback is perceived as an aspect that seems to have a better quality in private institutions, especially in activities related to EFL speaking and writing skills. Another important finding was that technological tools in the EFL classroom are believed to be efficient since teachers in public and private institutions use a variety of technological resources for teaching speaking and writing skills. The fundamental aspects of feedback were time and teacher training.
Keywords: online feedback; pandemic; remote teaching; technological skills; speaking and writing skills
The COVID 19 pandemic changed many aspects of life, including education. According to Khatoony and Nezhadmehr (2020), the pandemic presented a variety of challenges for EFL teachers, including the use of online teaching
* Corresponding author: PaulGonzalez Torres,pfgonzalez@utpl.edu.ec
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
strategies to improve students’ language proficiency. In this context, there is a need for exploring perceptions related to online feedback in remote teaching. Feedback has been considered an essential element of evidence of the students’ learning, performance, knowledge or understanding. However, feedback does not necessarily lead students to self correction and improvement (Lee, 2017). The information from the feedback given has been regarded as helpful to improve learners' linguistic knowledge (Bitchener, 2009), which enhances EFL learners’ skills. Feedback can also help learners overcome errors that they make while acquiring the target language (Bitchener & Ferris, 2012). From this perspective, feedback is the information provided to EFL students to overcome their errors and improve their EFL skills. This process of providing and receiving feedback is positively perceived and appreciated by both teachers and students (Chen et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2016).
Feedback is also important when teaching productive skills such as writing and speaking. In this respect, Harmer (2004) claimed that writing is a fundamental skill for foreign language learners, as much as for everyone using a first language; therefore, he explained that the reasons for teaching writing to EFL students include reinforcement, language development, learning style, and, most importantly, writing itself.
Speaking skills are essential in EFL teaching and learning and involve the active production of oral messages (As, 2016; Bahadorfar & Omidvar, 2014). In this respect, acquiring the ability to speak involves a great deal of effort, so a variety of teaching approaches should be implemented to enhance speaking skills (Leong & Ahmadi, 2017).
Considering feedback for teaching writing and speaking, technology has been very useful for this purpose. In fact, information and communication technology (ICT) has a fundamental role in the field of language teaching. Thus, EFL teachers are expected to integrate ICT in the classroom, but this application of technology in learning requires not only language skills and strategies but also technological skills (Cakici, 2016).
Considering the importance of feedback for enhancing speaking and writing skills, as well as the relevance of technology for EFL teaching, especially in the context of the COVID 19pandemic, the research questions addressed in this study are the following:
1. What are the participants’ perceptions regarding the quality of feedback that students received for enhancing productive skills?
2. What types of feedback are more frequently provided for enhancing productive skills in the EFL remote teaching?
3. What are the technological resources used to provide feedback for productive skills in EFL remote teaching?
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English as a foreign language teaching involves the acquisition of receptive and productive skills, which play a fundamental role in communication. According to Golkovaa and Hubackova (2014), receptive skills (reading and listening) are usually taught first, and they should be followed by productive ones (speaking and writing). This process contributes to achieving learning outcomes since they are dependent on each other. As for productive skills, they refer to transmitting information that a learner produces orally or in written form; however, it is necessary to mention that both types of skills would not be developed without the proper support of the receptive ones, so none of these active skills should be neglected (Golkovaa & Hubackova, 2014; Djabborova, 2020).
In a study about productive skills, Sokolik (2003) stated that writing may be defined in terms of three key contrasts. The first is that writing is both a physical and a mental act. Second, there are two purposes when writing, which are to express and impress, and the third refers to the process and product steps that a writer follows to create a piece of written work. As for the reasons for teaching writing, Harmer (2004) claimed that this skill should be enhanced in an EFL lesson to promote language reinforcement, and most importantly, writing itself. When students write correctly and logically, they are able to use appropriate language and style in their study and work (Dwivedi & Chakravarthy, 2015). For this reason, it is essential to look for new alternatives for teaching writing effectively in the EFL lesson.
In regard to speaking skills, Chaney and Burk (1998) stated that they refer to “the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts” (p. 13). Speaking involves the active production of oral messages, and it is related to the act of producing words that can be understood by listeners. Speaking constitutes one of the most significant skills in EFL teaching and learning (As, 2016; Bahadorfar & Omidvar, 2014). Leong and Ahmadi (2017) also asserted that acquiring the ability to speak is a process that requires much effort, so a variety of teaching approaches should be employed to help students overcome any difficulty in speaking the target language. In this teaching process of productive skills, feedback is considered a fundamental aspect to enhance these types of skills.
2.2
Feedback has been considered an essential element in the EFL classroom to provide evidence related to the students’ learning, performance, knowledge, or understanding (Hibbi et al , 2021; Bognár et al., 2021). However, feedback does not necessarily lead students to self correction and improvement (Lee, 2017). The information from the feedback given is viewed as helpful to improve learners’ linguistic knowledge (Bitchener, 2009), which enhances EFL learners’ skills.
Feedback can also help learners overcome errors that they make while acquiring the target language (Bitchener & Ferris, 2012). From this perspective, feedback is the information provided to EFL students, so they overcome their errors and improve their language skills.
This process of providing and receiving feedback is positively perceived and appreciated by both teachers and students (Chen et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2016). Feedback has been proven to be effective (Irwin, 2017; Siewert, 2011; Zheng & Yu, 2018) and it is an aid in the students’ academic progress, which can explain misunderstandings and make students aware of errors.
Some types of feedback can be applied in the teaching learning process of productive skills. According to Lee (2017), it is necessary to engage students in learning by using the three main types of feedback: peer feedback, technology enhanced feedback, and teacher feedback.
Peer feedback has been widely researched in a second language (L2). It requires learners’ training before implementing it. The benefits of peer feedback include students’ awareness of their strengths and weaknesses in writing, critical thinking, and learners’ autonomy. In contrast, there are shortcomings in peer feedback such as learners’ limited L2 proficiency and class size.
Technology enhanced feedback, which can be also called computer mediated/electronic feedback, is automatic and immediate. It has been put forth as an alternative to the feedback provided by people. This type of feedback has some advantages (such as saving teacher’s time, fostering learner’s autonomy) and disadvantages (such as limited impact on writing improvement).
In the case of teacher feedback, the instructor is seen as the most important source of error correction. A great deal of teacher feedback research has been conducted in university contexts, but the knowledge of teacher feedback in L2 school contexts is limited. This type of feedback has mostly focused on form (language), rather than other aspects, such as content or organization. Teacher feedback may be the most common way to support students while they attempt to apply their recently acquired knowledge (Borup et al., 2015).
Moreover, there are two main strategies: direct feedback and indirect feedback (Westmacott, 2017). Direct feedback involves providing the learner with the correct form, and indirect feedback means giving a hint that an error has been made but without providing the correct form (Sheen, 2011).
Providing feedback in an EFL class is not an easy task. Technology today offers a variety of options that can be utilized to provide feedback, Despite it being a complicated issue. Usually, feedback is mostly provided on productive skills (writing and speaking) but, to access feedback, students may have to use receptive skills such as reading and listening. The use and impact of technology on feedback is an aspect that has been researched, but it needs more study (Cunningham, 2019).
ICTs are another source that complements or facilitate feedback and supports students. One example of these ICTs would be online resources, including online
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writing labs (OWLs) or other sites that provide students with materials, feedback, and exercises that will allow them to learn more about various aspects of the target language (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2014). Another is example are the language editing tools, such as Grammarly, which identify errors in grammar, vocabulary, mechanics, and even language style. Those tools provide feedback by underlining errors throughout the text (Barrot, 2020).
The integration of technology has extended the way teachers provide EFL learners with feedback (Abusa’aleek & Alotaibi, 2022). In the case of ICTs to provide feedback on writing and speaking, we can mention a variety of collaborative tools, such as is the case of blogs, social networks, Wikis, online collaborative writing and storing tools such as Google Docs, discussion boards and forums, podcasts, movie making tools, digital story tools, or e portfolios (Vicentini & De Oliveira, 2018).
Another ICT tool that can be used is video, which can also be used for providing feedback. The students are required to watch videos and revise their work (Soltanpour & Valizadeh, 2018). Feedback from peers and instructors can also be given by using audio tracks or any audiovisual media (Kawinkoonlasate, 2021). Additionally, web based language learning is quite useful when it comes to speaking skills. Web based tools that can help students are general websites providing linguistic inputs, blogging platforms, communication tools, project based learning tools, and learning management systems (Cong Lem, 2018). In this regard, e feedback is feedback provided with the use of technology, which allows students to ask for clarifications, to engage in discussions, and to make effective revisions (Abusa’aleek & Alotaibi, 2022).
2.4
Shang (2017) compared EFL university learners’ experience of employing asynchronous peer feedback (APF) and synchronous corrective feedback (SCF) and if the use of these two types of feedback had an impact on the EFL learners’ writing, specifically syntactic complexity. The main findings suggested that most participants received satisfactory results. The feedback that occurred in APF was more useful than that in SCF in writing more sentences. Additionally, students increased their writing scores after using APF.
Tseng and Yeh (2019) investigated students'’ perceptions of the importance of feedback for improving English speaking between students who received video feedback, those who received written feedback and their preferences for one of these types of feedback. The participants were 43 EFL learners who produced video clips before and after receiving peer feedback. A survey was used to identify students’ preferences after receiving feedback in terms of pronunciation, intonation, fluency, grammar, and word use. The results evidenced that both types of feedback were useful for enhancing the participants’ speaking skills. Written feedback helped the students learn grammar rules and word use. Video feedback allowed students to improve their intonation. However, pronunciation and fluency were not significantly improved The participants also preferred written over video feedback because it was efficient and clear.
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Ali (2016) analyzed the effect of using screencast video feedback on EFL students’ writing and their perceptions of receiving screencast feedback. The participants were 63 students of an academic writing course at a university in Egypt. They were divided into an experimental and a control group. The researcher used a mixed methods approach and applied two writing tests that were administered before and after the intervention, in which the experimental group received video feedback, while the control group received written comments. In addition, an online questionnaire was used to determine the participants’ perceptions regarding screencast feedback, which was applied to the experimental group. The findings demonstrated that the students in the experimental group had better results than the control group. The results also evidenced that most of the participants in the experimental group had positive perceptions of screencast feedback. The participants mentioned some difficulties such as slow loading time and difficulty to download videos
Xu and Yu (2018) conducted a study to determine the effects and benefits of computer mediated communication (CMC) peer feedback. The study was conducted with 26 second year EFL students at a Chinese university. The project aimed to increase EFL students’ engagement with peer feedback activities and to help them enhance their writing by means of CMC peer feedback. The analysis of various sources of data, including questionnaires, interviews, blog based peer comments, student writing assignments, classroom observations, and teacher reflections, demonstrate the way in which blog based CMC peer feedback can enhance students’ engagement with peer feedback tasks.
Soria et al. (2020) investigated the best form of giving feedback through a messaging technological application to students from various primary education schools located in Tarragona, Spain. A total of 30 EFL learners participated voluntarily and were divided into three groups according to their age. The experiment took place for three weeks. The researchers collected data through questionnaires and used a mixed method approach to analyze them. In the questionnaire, participants were asked to reply to several questions, expressing their opinions about the type of feedback they received. The findings revealed that the most popular form of feedback among young learners were smileys and images, and other feedback that was not written. In addition, a set of varied images, even to send corrective feedback, motivated young learners.
The sample for this study consisted of 342 participants divided into 102 EFL teachers, 40 educational authorities, 120 students, and 80 parents. They belonged to 40 public and private institutions (see Table 1) that included junior, senior high school, and higher education institutions in southern Ecuador. The students received EFL classes based on the emergency prioritized curriculum established by the Ecuadorian Ministry of Education and had different proficiency levels of the Common European Framework of Reference (Council of Europe, 2020). Due to the COVID 19 pandemic, these students took EFL lessons via remote learning.
Participants N Public Private
Teachers 102 58% 42% Students 120 75% 25% Authorities 40 40% 60% Parents 80 43% 57%
The questionnaires used in this study were designed by the researchers using the Google Forms tool, adding a consent form before users started to answer the questions.
These questionnaires were directed to four types of participants:
1. A 15 item students’ questionnaire was administered to examine their perceptions regarding the types and quality of feedback that they received through technological resources.
2. A 15 item teachers’ questionnaire, which included 2 sections (feedback section and technology section), was applied to determine their experience when offering feedback on EFL productive skills during the pandemic.
3. A 10 item questionnaire was applied to parents of junior and senior high school students to identify their perceptions of the feedback that students received through technological tools.
4. A 10 item questionnaire was administered to educational authorities to explore their opinions on the feedback provided by EFL teachers in their institutions.
5. An interview was applied to gather students’ perceptions regarding the feedback received in speaking and writing activities.
The questionnaires were based on a five point Likert scale (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree). These instruments were pilot tested with a group of teachers, educational authorities, parents, and students who were not part of the actual study Data obtained from the pilot test were analyzed using Cronbach Alpha’s statistical analysis, which produced an r coefficient of 0.78, which implies that the instruments have acceptable internal consistency.
This study was exploratory in nature with a mixed method approach to analyze the feedback and the technological resources on EFL writing and speaking. The educational institutions were approached to obtain their permission, and then purposeful sampling was applied to select teachers, educational authorities, parents, and students, who gave their consent to participate. The reason for applying purposeful sampling was that the researchers considered teachers, students, authorities and parents as individuals who can provide different points of view about online feedback. Moreover, their participation was voluntary.
The questionnaires were administered via e mail to the participants after one year of receiving classes under the emergency adapted curriculum. These instruments allowed analysis of the types of feedback that were used, the participants’ perceptions about the quality of feedback, and the technological resources used to
provide feedback in teaching EFL productive skills during the pandemic. In addition, a sample of 10 students was interviewed via Zoom about the feedback that they received in their writing and speaking activities in class.
After collecting the information from the respondents, the data of the questionnaires were detailed in the form of tables of frequencies using SPSS, indicating the trends found. The data collected from the questionnaires were contrasted for the presentation, analysis, and discussion of results. The data of the interviews were also used to cross check the information provided in the questionnaires.
As for the perceptions about the quality of feedback for teaching speaking and writing skills, the results in Table 2 show that 68.8% of the teachers from private institutions provide feedback and establish learning goals, expectations, and rules of conduct. In public institutions, this percentage is lower (48.1%). These results indicate that there is a better quality of feedback in private institutions. Furthermore, students and parents also agreed on this aspect and say that teachers correct mistakes and encourage students to do activities to reinforce their EFL learning of speaking and writing skills based on learning goals, expectations, and rules of conduct. Similarly, authorities agreed on the aspect that students are satisfied with the feedback received in the classroom. In this context, it is necessary to point out that, although feedback does not always lead students to self correction and improvement, it is an essential aspect that provides evidence of students’ learning, performance, knowledge, orunderstanding (Lee, 2017). Our results are consistent with studies that have shown that providing and receiving feedback is positively perceived and appreciated by both teachers and students (Chen et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2016).
Concerning the time devoted to addressing students' concerns, offering feedback, and clearing up doubts, 50% of teachers from private institutions say that they spend enough time addressing students’ doubts and providing feedback. In contrast, in public institutions, only 28.3% of teachers do this (see Table 2). Based on these perceptions, we can observe that teachers from public institutions may not invest enough time to consider these aspects of feedback. In regard to this aspect, Selvaraj et al. (2021) posited that, although feedback is an essential practice to improve students’ academic performance, the time constraints can be a challenge for teachers to apply feedback in the classroom.
Learning styles are also a central aspect that teachers embrace when providing feedback. Most of them, in both private (79.2%) and public (74.1%) institutions, consider learning styles and students’ needs when providing feedback (see Table 2). Students also have their perceptions of the feedback received in speaking and writing tasks. For instance, most students in private (80.2%) and public institutions (68.3%) express that teachers correct students’ errors individually, which means more personalized feedback, especially in private institutions. Most
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students receive group feedback, which is common in both private (74.6%) and public institutions (82.9%).
Concerning personalized feedback, Planar and Moya (2016) asserted that this type of feedback is an academic demand that places learners at the center of the learning process. Group feedback can be effective, helping students to be part of a collective action (Troussel & Manrique, 2019). In this respect, authorities of both types of institutions, private (84.6%) and public (55.6%) generally believe that students are satisfied with the feedback provided by their English teachers.
Table 2: Teachers’ perceptions regarding the quality of feedback provided in EFL remote classes Items
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree
1* % 2* % 1* % 2* % 1* % 2* % 1* % 2* % 1* % 2* %
I provide feedback and establish learning goals, expectations, and rules of conduct.
During virtual classes, I have enough time to solve students' concerns, provide feedback, and clear doubts.
I consider students' learning styles and needs when providing feedback.
* 1 = public; 2 = private
1.9 0 0 0 1.9 0 48.1 31.3 48.1 68.8
1.9 4.2 30.2 8.3 35.8 18.8 28.3 50 3.8 18.8
1.9 0 0 0 24.1 20.8 46.3 43.8 27.8 35.4
4.2
in the EFL Remote Teaching?
Table 3 shows that direct feedback is provided in both types of institutions, public (64.8%) and private (87.6%). Indirect feedback is also provided in public (70.3%) and private (91.7%) institutions, which means that both direct and indirect feedback are offered when students do their speaking and writing tasks. When talking about unfocused feedback, there is a division of opinions, which may indicate that this type of feedback is not very common in these institutions in remote teaching. Therefore, focused feedback could be more frequent in the speaking and writing tasks. It is important to mention that most research studies
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have demonstrated that indirect and focused feedback are the most effective in the EFL classroom in comparison to direct and unfocused feedback (Sheen, 2011). This means that the feedback for writing and speaking skills in our study is believed to be appropriate.
Table 3 also indicates that immediate feedback is often provided in private institutions, (83.3%: 50% agreed and 33.3% strongly agreed), while in public institutions, immediate feedback is less frequent (55.5%: 29.6% agreed and 25.9% strongly agreed). In contrast, delayed feedback seems to be rare in both types of institutions since the tendencies show that it is not frequently used by teachers when checking students’ errors in productive skills. In addition, peer feedback is a practice that is more frequently used in private institutions (54.2%), while in public institutions, it is less common (40.7%). This tendency could be caused by the students’ lower proficiency levels in public institutions, as well as the limited access to technological resources that these students might have. It is necessary to mention that the results of the students’ questionnaire, related to the types of feedback provided for speaking and writing skills, are quite similar to the ones provided by the teachers, which further confirms the results that have been discussed.
Table 3: Teachers’ perceptions regarding the types of feedback provided for enhancing productive skills
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree
Items
I provide direct feedback (pointing out mistakes directly) on my student’s performance and tasks.
I provide indirect feedback (pointing out mistakes indirectly) on my student’s performance and tasks.
I provide unfocused feedback (feedback on all types of errors) on my student’s performance and tasks.
1* % 2* % 1* % 2* % 1* % 2* % 1* % 2* % 1* % 2* %
3.7 0 5.6 6.3 25.9 6.3 40.7 43.8 24.1 43.8
0 0 9.3 4.2 20.4 4.2 44.4 56.3 25.9 35.4
1.9 12.5 18.5 14.6 46.3 20.8 20.4 31.3 13.0 20.8
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I provide immediate feedback on my student’s errors.
I provide delayed feedback on my student’s errors.
I divide students into groups so they can provide peer feedback.
* 1 = public; 2 = private
1.9 0 7.4 8.3 35.2 8.3 29.6 50.0 25.9 33.3
1.9 10.4 27.8 27.1 44.4 31.3 13.0 18.8 13.0 12.5
7.4 16.7 25.9 8.3 25.9 20.8 29.6 25.0 11.1 29.2
The findings on technological resources used to provide feedback showed that 81.5% of teachers (sum of the response from agree and strongly agree) from public and 95.7% of teachers (sum of the response from agree and strongly agree) from private institutions use a variety of these resources for teaching speaking and writing skills (see Table 4). Likewise, the students from public (90.5%) and private (85.3%) institutions claim that the use of technological tools in the EFL classroom is efficient.
Regarding the types of technological tools, the students in the interview mentioned some examples such as Word, PowerPoint, Zoom and Google Docs that teachers frequently use to provide online feedback. These results are consistent with Alzamil (2021) and Kusumawati (2020), who found out that the teaching and learning of EFL productive skills using technology did not present many challenges despite problems such as the global COVID 19 pandemic. Furthermore, most of the teachers in public (65%) and private (75%) institutions asserted that they use a variety of ICT tools to provide feedback on their students’ performance and tasks. This knowledge might be due to the constant training that most of the teachers of public (75.9%) and private (89.3%) institutions receive in this area (see Table 4).
Considering the learners’ perceptions about the technological resources used by their teachers, the students’ views indicate an evident division of opinions, which could be a sign of difficulties using technological tools at the moment of receiving their classes. For instance, students in public institutions have more problems using some technological tools because they were not instructed on how to use them properly. Other common problems could also include limited internet connection and lack of technological resources (Shagiakhmetova et al., 2022). Therefore, it can be said that in the Ecuadorian context, the use of technological resources on the part of the teachers is not very common (Cabrera et al., 2021). The perceptions of parents and authorities support the perceptions of students and teacherswith similar tendencies in public and private institutions. This means that
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feedback is provided on speaking and writing tasks in the EFL classroom by using technological resources, but there could be some difficulties in this aspect.
Table 4: Teachers’ perceptions regarding the technological resources used to provide feedback for productive skills in EFL remote teaching
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree
Items
I know how to use technological tools for teaching EFL speaking and writing.
I use a variety of multimedia tools to provide feedback on my student’s performance and tasks.
I receive permanent training in using technological tools for EFL teaching and learning.
* 1 = public; 2 = private
1* % 2* % 1* % 2* % 1* % 2* % 1* % 2* % 1* % 2* %
0 0 1.9 0 16.7 4.3 35.2 38.3 46.3 57.4
0 0 7.4 2.1 27.8 20.8 37.0 37.5 27.8 39.6
7.4 4.3 16.7 6.4 31.5 17.0 18.5 38.3 25.9 34.0
The participants’ perception is that online feedback is an aspect that seems to have a better quality in private institutions, especially when teaching EFL speaking and writing skills. This difference in the quality of online feedback might be caused by the lack of time in public institutions to consider students’ doubts, needs, errors, and learning styles In fact, personalized feedback when correcting students' errors is provided when teaching speaking and writing, especially in private institutions, probably due to the time devoted to this activity, the availability of technological tools, a smaller class size, and the Internet access facilities that these students have in comparison with learners from public institutions.
Direct and indirect feedback are widely provided in public and private institutions. As for focused feedback, it is also frequent in speaking and writing tasks. On the contrary, unfocused feedback does not seem to be common Apart from the teacher feedback, peer feedback is also provided in these institutions, but this practice is less common in public institutions, probably because of the lower students’ proficiency level as well as the limited access to technological resources. Immediate feedback is more frequent in private institutions than in public ones. Conversely, delayed feedback does not seem to be a common practice in these
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institutions. In addition, the use of technological tools in the EFL classroom is perceived as efficient since teachers in private institutions use a wider variety of technological resources for teaching speaking and writing skills. Likewise, feedback is effectively provided using different technological resources, and, furthermore, teachers receive permanent training in the use of ICTs. However, in public institutions, there could be some difficulties about these aspects. In this context, our study was limited to a local level in our country. Thus, future research should consider a sample of public institutions at a national level to obtain a deeper knowledge of the problems to provide feedback, especially in a post pandemic context.
The study has demonstrated that personalized direct and indirect feedback is believed to be imperative aspects when it comes to enhancing speaking and writing skills in remote learning In this sense, teachers from private and public institutions should consider devoting appropriate time in their planning to providing and monitoring feedback. Furthermore, it has been seen that technology was an essential factor in education during the COVID 19 pandemic. For this reason, instructors should be trained in strategies to provide feedback when teaching with technological resources.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 345 365, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.18
Received Apr 6, 2022; Revised Jun 26, 2022; Accepted Aug 1, 2022
Sunday
A. ItasanmiDepartment of Adult Education, University of Ibadan
Mathew T. Oni
Department of Early Childhood and Educational Foundations, University of Ibadan
Violet O. Ekpenyong
Department of Continuing Education, University of Calabar, Nigeria
Oluwatoyin A. Ajani
Social Sciences Education, University of Zululand, South Africa
Oluwatosin G. Omorinkoba
Kenneth Dike Library, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract. This study investigated the academic staff’s motivation for online teaching in Nigerian universities using a mixed methods case study research design. The main instrument used for this study was a questionnaire named ‘Academic Staff’s Motivation for Online Teaching Survey (SMOTS)', which was complemented by in depth interviews. A total of 195 academic staff across various academic faculties and units in the University of Ibadan participated in the study. Data analysis was done using frequency count, simple percentages, mean and standard deviation,whilethein depthinterviewswerethematicallyanalysed.The result of the study revealed that the majority of the academic staff have not taught using online platforms before and their frequency of online teaching consideration is occasional. Additionally, they have a high perceptionofonlineteachingintermsofhelpingtolearnnewtechnology and encouraging intellectual challenges. The academic staff indicated that individual training opportunities, personal decisions and group training opportunities are among the major resources that can motivate them for online teaching. Likewise, the introduction to new technology for teaching, institutional expectation, and students’ enrolment are the major external motivating factors for online teaching. It was further
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
revealed that most of the academic staff feel motivated to teach online. However, erratic power supply, work overload, and limited knowledge of e learning stand as major hindrances to online teaching adoption among academic staff. This study has discovered the need for Nigerian university managements to vigorously embark on capacity building of academic staff for online teaching. This will help them to cultivate or enhance basic information and communication technology skills and other essential competencies needed to manage online learning environments.
Keywords: academic staff; Nigerian universities; motivation; online teaching; university of Ibadan
Online teaching and learning, sometimes called distance learning, encompasses all forms of computer assisted instructional methods that provide an opportunity for faculty delivered instruction via the internet, either in real time (synchronous) or delayed interactions (asynchronous). Online education, where instructors and students interact using virtual means, emerged in the 1990s during the information age and the internet boom. This was at a time when the commercial prospect of the internet started taking shape.
Software developers started creating programmes to make course information more accessible to students, although the technology at the time was limited and certain instructional efforts were hampered. As technology advanced, higher learning institutions began to feature web based learning in their curricula. This led to the full development of online courses and degree programmes (Ferrer, 2019; Kubo, n.d.).
Online education has witnessed tremendous growth over a decade as both the internet and education have provided an opportunity for skills acquisition in unprecedented ways (Koksal, 2020). Specifically, online education became a well known method for increasing students’ access to learning opportunities, especially in higher education. It provided flexibility in how people learn, as learning can take place anywhere, anytime and at each learner’s pace. Also, online education offers an extensive opportunity for collaborative learning and redirects the focus of instruction to students, as opposed to the conventional teacher centred instructional delivery (Ray, 2017).
While online education has gained popularity worldwide, its growth has been most significant in countries such as the USA, India, China, South Korea, and the UK. However, in Africa, online education is still in its infancy (Palvia et al., 2018). South Africa is the most technologically advanced country of all other countries on the African continent. It is the only country in the continent that has a clear e education policy in place compared to others but a lot needs to be done for it to be on the same level as the developed nations of the world (Lelliott et al., 2000; Palvia et al., 2018). The adoption of online education in Africa faces a lot of constraints generally, mostly because of extremely limited telecommunication infrastructure.
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The available international bandwidth in the continent is insufficient due to high cost and lack of digital circuits. This often leads to slower internet connection in the continent compared to the developed countries of the world. Compounding the issue of access to the internet in African countries is the cost of a subscription to the internet. The cost of internet access is estimated to be ten times higher, whereas per capita income is ten times less in African countries, compared to what is obtainable in the USA (Lelliott et al., 2000).
The higher education gross enrolment rate in Africa is the lowest in the world, estimated at 12%, which is far below the global average of 32%. Though the enrolment rate varies across the continent, the potential for a rapid increase in higher education demand is huge considering the massive growth in the continent’s population and improved access to primary and secondary levels of education (USAID, 2014; Iqbal, 2015).
Unambiguously, online education is a rational, cost effective means to increase educational opportunities to the population that desires higher education in Africa. However, the use of online teaching and learning in most African universities is marred by a lack of infrastructural facilities, such as computers and internet networks to adopt online teaching; technical difficulties; inadequate human capacity; over reliance on foreign donors for education; ‘brain drain’; inadequate government funding of education; and corruption in the higher educational institutions. These factors impede the growth of online education in universities in Africa (Kotoua et al., 2015; Oyediran et al., 2020).
For instance, in Nigeria, inadequate infrastructure, including hardware and software; bandwidth access; lack of skilled workforce to effectively manage resources; and systemic resistance to moving from the conventional pedagogical instructional methods to modern and innovative student centred technology based teaching and learning methods have remained a great challenge to online teaching adoption in Nigerian universities. This has hampered the massification of higher education in the country (Adeyeye et al., 2014).
The emergence of the coronavirus (COVID 19) in China in December 2019 and its rapid spread across the world forced countries to take different policy actions to curb the rapid spread of the virus. Nigeria had its index case reported in February 2020 and, from this initial case, several other cases were reported (Itasanmi et al., 2020). To curtail the spread of the virus, the Nigerian government declared the closure of all educational activities in mid March 2020. This closure resulted in an abrupt end to academic activities in Nigerian universities, as students ranging from undergraduate to postgraduate had to leave their university campuses (Ifijeh & Yusuf, 2020).
Unlike other universities in developed countries that immediately shifted instruction delivery to online learning spaces to bridge the learning gap occasioned by the COVID 19, most African higher institutions, especially the Nigerian public universities were completely shut down. There are 193 universities in Nigeria (National Universities Commission, 2021), in which the prevailing mode of instruction is the traditional method, consisting of lecturers teaching face to face in a physical setting with students. With the ease of the
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coronavirus lockdown and the students’ safe return to learning activities, the emphasis was then placed on online teaching to limit the risk of transmission of the virus. While private universities in the country were quick to initiate remote learning for their students without disrupting the academic calendar, public universities averagely lost a full year academic calendar to the shutdown in due to the lockdown (Okocha, 2020)
As public universities in Nigeria gradually opened for academic activities and the adoption of online teaching and learning methodologies are being emphasized and embraced, its effectiveness lies heavily on the academic staff. The academic staff has an important role in students’ effective use of online learning (Palmer & Holt, 2009). Currently, many academic staff are still battling with balancing teaching, research, and community service obligations, as well as work life balance. Therefore, engaging in online teaching may add to their stresses and workload.
Online teaching requires the preparation of learning content and delivery of classes within the confines of a lecturer's home or office, with all the practical and technical challenges this entails, and mostly without proper technical support. This is likely to be compounded by a lack of pedagogical content knowledge, which entails technical and administrative aspects of online teaching, pedagogical foundations and knowledge of the principles needed to design and facilitate meaningful online learning experiences (Rapanta et al., 2020).
There is a changing of roles in the online learning environment by academic staff from the prevailing traditional face to face system that focuses on transferring knowledge (‘sage on the stage’) to a student centred approach ('guide on the side'), which is the hallmark of online teaching. This usually contributes to resistance to online teaching adoption among academic staff (Wright, 2011). Thus, understanding some of these concerns and undertaking a holistic assessment of factors that could make the academic staff feel motivated to use online teaching for instructional delivery may help, not only for online teaching adoption but to sustain and align staff with good practices in digital learning instructions. This will help them deliver the expected dividends to all stakeholders in the teaching and learning process over time.
What motivates academic staff to use online teaching may appear easy to understand but, in reality, it is somewhat debateable. Several studies which have been conducted to identify factors that motivate academic staff for online teaching have shown slightly different results based on the study population and environment (Hiltz et al., 2007; Keogh & Fox, 2008; Osika et al., 2009; Gautreau, 2011; Casdorph, 2014; Mohamad et al., 2015; Mohmedsali et al., 2017; Schifter, 2019; Itasanmi et al., 2022)
Schifter (2019) undertook an exploratory study to understand motivating and inhibiting factors for faculty members' participation in asynchronous learning networks (ALN) in a university in the USA. The result of the study found that personal motivation to use technology was a strong factor for the academic staff's participation in ALN. Similarly, Keogh and Fox (2008) found that flexible work schedules were the top motivating factor for academic staff’s adoption of e
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learning at Dublin City University, Ireland. Also, Hiltz et al. (2007), who sought to understand motivators and de motivators for teaching online among academic staff, identified flexibility in being able to teach 'anytime/anywhere'; improved personal interaction; the technical and creative challenges offered by online teaching; and the opportunity to reach more diverse students as the leading motivating factors for teaching in online environments.
Most studies on online education, especially e learning use in Nigerian universities, focus on faculty and students’ perception, intention, use, attitude, and challenges (Ajadi et al., 2008; Anene et al., 2014; Aboderin. 2015; Hamidt et al., 2017; Eze et al., 2018; Eze et al., 2020). However, there is a dearth of studies (to the best knowledge of this study's researchers) on what motivates academic staff for online teaching in Nigerian universities. This is the research gap that the current study intended to fill by undertaking an exploratory investigation of the academic staff's motivation for online teaching in Nigerian universities.
The following questions guided the authors in conducting this case study:
1. What is the frequency of online platform use among academic staff?
2. What is the extent of online teaching consideration among academic staff?
3. What is the degree of academic staff's perception of online teaching?
4. What motivates academic staff for online teaching with respect to resources?
5. What motivates academic staff for online teaching with respect to external factors?
6. To what extent are academic staff feel motivated to teach online?
7. What factors may hinder online teaching use among academic staff?
This study adopted a mixed methods case study research design to obtain more detailed information about the subject matter under investigation. According to Creswell and Clarke (2018), the mixed methods case study research approach is a form of mixed methods research design in which the “quantitative and qualitative data collection, results, and integration are used to provide in depth evidence for a case(s) or develop cases for comparative analysis” (p. 116). This mixed methods case study was conducted using a structured survey in form of a questionnaire and in depth interviews with participants of the study.
The main instrument used in this study was a questionnaire entitled “Academic Staff’s Motivation for Online Teaching Survey (SMOTS)”. The questionnaire focused on the seven domains of demographics; online teaching platform usage; online teaching consideration; perception of online teaching; motivation for online teaching with respect to resources; motivation for online teaching with respect to external factors; and a general feeling of motivation to teach online among academic staff.
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The demographic domain consists of closed ended questions about age, gender, marital status, and academic rank in the university. The online teaching platform usage domain is a binary question to assess if the academic staff has taught using an online platform before. Other domains are structured in accordance with the five Likert scale questions (ranging from Never to Always, and Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree). The SMOTS items were adapted from the “Readiness to Teach Online Scale” developed by Chi in 2015 to measure academic staff's motivation for online teaching, which was based on its close relevance to the objective of this study as it captured the measurement of the variables the researchers were looking through.
The SMOTS is unlike other instruments such as the “Online Teaching Readiness Survey” developed by Indiana University (n.d.), and “Faculty readiness to Teach Online” developed by Martin et al. (2019). These other instruments majorly focus on measuring online technical and organisational skills to teach in online environments among faculty members. SMOTS was validated by three expert reviewers from the fields of adult education, measurement and evaluation, and statistics. The questionnaire was pilot tested among 15 academic staff members of the University of Calabar, Nigeria. A Cronbach coefficient of .94 was obtained for the questionnaire.
The participants of the study were the academic staff from the University of Ibadan purposively selected for the study. The chosen university is Nigeria's premier university and it shares similar characteristics with other universities in the country. A total of 195 academic staff were randomly selected across various academic faculties and units in the university. The participants for the in depth interviews were recruited through a column on the questionnaire for academic staff to indicate their interest to participate in the interview session for further discussion on the subject matter. The essence of the in depth interviews was to solidify the data collected quantitatively, especially in gaining important information relevant to the study which could not be obtained through the questionnaire.
Of the 28 academic staff who indicated interest, only 16 participated in the interview session. The details of the participants are given in Table 1.
Table 1: List of Participants from Academic Faculties and Units Faculty N
Education 16 Public Health 13 Dentistry 4 Technology (Tech.) 19 Sciences 42 Clinical Sciences (Clinical Sci.) 24 Basic Medical Sciences (BMS) 18 Environmental Science 1 Pharmacy 5 The Social Sciences 16 Agriculture (Agric) 8 Arts 8 Veterinary Medicine 3 Renewable Natural Resources (RNR) 6 Institute of Education 2 Economics 3 Multidisciplinary Studies 1 Law 5 Institute of African Studies (IAS) 1 TOTAL 195
Paper based and Google Forms were used to administer the questionnaire. The Google Forms were designed by the researchers and its link invitation was sent to academic staff through emails and faculty social media groups. The paper based questionnaire was taken to academic faculties and units to reach academic staff who still come to the office despite the shutdown of academic activities due to COVID 19 and a Nigerian Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) strike.
The study’s researchers ensured that those who had not participated in the survey online were the target of the paper based forms. Data collection was done within three months from November 2020 to January 2021. A total of 120 academic staff participated via online Google Forms and 75 participated through the paper based questionnaire administration.
The in depth interview was conducted through WhatsApp. WhatsApp was chosen as the medium to engage academic staff in the interview session based on their preference. They expressed the need to make the interview session more flexible for them due to so many things competing for their attention. Equally, through WhatsApp, they were in greater control of their views during the interview session.
The in depth interview followed a pre established guide and consent was sought first at the level of interest indication and actual participation. The participants were also assured of the confidentiality of the information they provided. The
interviews were conducted under the following sub themes based on the study’s objectives.
1. Personal and institutional factors that can engender or enhance online teaching behaviour or adoption among academic staff
2. Major challenges or factors that may hinder online teaching among academic staff.
3. Suggestions on ways to improve or enhance online teaching behaviour among academic staff
Frequency distribution and simple percentages were used to answer research questions 1, 2 and 6, while the mean and the standard deviation were calculated for items in the perception of the online teaching domain to get a weighted mean to answer research question 3. The weighted mean is obtained through the respondent's scores against each item, multiplied by the scores under each Likert scale point. The decision criteria for the weighted mean score was <2.5 as low perception, while a weighted mean score of 2.5 and above was considered to be high perception. For research questions 4 and 5, the mean score of items in both motivation for online teaching concerning resources and motivation for online teaching concerning external factors domains were ranked based on the mean value of each item.
The qualitative data from the interview sessions were properly documented and thematically analysed and presented in verbatim quotations (in italics) to express the exact opinion given to certain questions by the participants. Gender, age, faculty, and academic rank were used as identifiers for each response.
3.1 Demographic Profile of Participants
Table 2: Demographic Characteristics of Participants
Variable Freq. Percentage Age 20 40 41 60 61 and above
35 145 15
Academic Rank Assistant Lecturer Lecturer II Lecturer I Senior Lecturer Reader/ Ass. Professor Professor
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6 184 5
16 24 53 45 23 34
3.1 94.4 2.6
17.9 74.4 7.7 Gender Male Female 128 67 65.6 34.4 Marital Status Single Married Divorced/Widowed
8.2 12.3 27.2 23.1 11.8 17.4
Table 2 reveals that most (74.4%) of the participants are within the age bracket of 20 40 years and the majority (65.6%) are male. The table further shows that 94.4% of the participants are married, while 27.2% of the participants are in the Lecturer I academic rank category. Other participants were Senior Lecturer (23,1%), Professor (17.4%), Lecturer II (12.3%), Reader/Ass. Professor (11,8%) and Assistant Lecturer (8.2%) categories
Figure 1 indicates that 44% of the participants have not taught using online platforms before, while 41% of the participants indicated that they have taught using online platforms. However, 15% of the participants did not respond to the question.
0.00% 5.00% 10.00% 15.00% 20.00% 25.00% 30.00% 35.00% 40.00% 45.00% 50.00% 0.50%
12.30%
47.70% 29.70% 9.20% 0.50%
Figure 2 shows that most of the academic staff (47.7%) sometimes consider teaching online, while 29.7% consider teaching online most of the time. The figure
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further indicates that 9.2% of academic staff consider online teaching always, while 0.5% of the academic staff never consider online teaching.
3.4 Academic Staff's Perception of Online Teaching
Table 3 reveals that the academic staff's perception of online teaching is high (WA = 3.95).
Table 3: Descriptive Statistics Showing Academic Staff’s Perception of Online Teaching
Items (Variables)
N Mean Std. D
Takes less time than face to face classes 195 3.28 1.209
Reaches new audience 195 3.98 .992
Flexible for me 195 4.05 .808
Flexible for students 195 3.96 .849
Diversify programme offerings 194 3.92 .833
Improves my teaching ability 195 3.72 1.014
Helps develop new ideas 195 4.0 .914
Helps professional development 195 4.07 .859
Motivates to learn new technology 195 4.37 .687
Encourages intellectual challenge 195 4.13 .879
Valid N (listwise) 194
Weighted Average = 3.95
Table also shows that academic staff perceive online teaching among others as a motivating factor to learn new technology (mean=4.37), encourages intellectual challenge (mean=4.13), helps professional development (mean=407), and helps them to develop new ideas (mean=4.0).
Table 4: Descriptive Statistics Showing Academic Staff’s Motivation for Online Teaching Concerning Resources
Items (Variables)
N Mean Std. D Rank
Availability of onsite design assistance 195 3.71 1.079 7th
Group training opportunity 195 3.92 .902 3rd
Individual training opportunity 195 4.04 .772 1st
Availability of coaching 195 3.79 .892 5th
Support group system 194 3.77 .970 6th
Personal decision 195 3.93 .859 2nd
Acceptance of own format 195 3.83 .850 4th
Strong administrative support 195 3.55 1.236 10th
Good technical support 195 3.61 1.257 9th
Adequate time off from work 195 3.32 1.136 14th
Course relief to have more time 195 3.35 1.177 13th
Stipendstocatertoonlineteachingexpenses 195 3.35 1.430 13th
Grants to support online teaching 195 3.42 1.424 12th
Institutional recognition 195 3.77 1.163 6th
Industry endorsement 195 3.63 1.120 8th
Promotion 195 3.45 1.189 11th
Valid N (listwise) 195
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Table 4 shows that individual training opportunity, personal decision, group training opportunity, acceptance of own format and availability of coaching are major resources that motivate academic staff for online teaching, as these were ranked 1st, 2nd, 3rd , 4th, and 5th respectively. Other resources identified as motivating factors include a support group system, availability of onsite design assistance, industry endorsement, good technical support, and strong administrative support.
Table 5: Descriptive Statistics Showing Academic Staff’s Motivation for Online Teaching Concerning External Factors
Items (Variables)
N Mean Std. D Rank
Colleague adaptation 195 3.65 .927 6th Students' enrolment 195 3.86 .922 3rd Programme priority 195 3.78 .948 5th Enhanced student skills 195 3.80 1.009 4th Institutional expectation 194 3.90 .824 2nd Introduction to new technology for teaching 195 4.16 .775 1st Valid N (listwise) 194
Table 5 indicates that introduction to new technology for teaching, institutional expectation and students' enrolment are critical external factors that motivate academic staff for online teaching, as they ranked 1st, 2nd , and 3rd respectively. Other external factors identified include enhanced student skills, programme priority and colleague adaptation.
Figure 3 indicates that academic staff generally feel motivated to teach online as they overwhelmingly agreed (86%, the summation of participants that agree and strongly agree) that they feel motivated to teach online.
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The following reactions were derived from the in depth interviews conducted for the study in which the participants claimed that itcan hinder their online teaching. From the results gathered, three themes were used in describing the factors that can hinder their online teaching, namely 1) Personal and institutional factors, 2) Challenges, and 3) Ways to improve.
Theme 1: Personal and Institutional Factors
Participants believed that both personal and institutional factors will engender or enhance online teaching behaviour or adoption among academic staff.
They believed that ICT skills and competencies, the right attitude towards online teaching, adequate infrastructural facilities in the university, capacity building of academic staff, and a good reward system amongst others are factors that can stimulate academic staff for online teaching. They remarked that:
Female/55yrs/Education/Prof: Intrinsic motivation to work, IT skills, optimistic attitude to problems of life, management buy in, top bottom approach to IT management, infrastructure, capacity building and reward system
Female/55yrs/FRNR/SL: Desire for improvement and change/ improved visibility, ranking relevance for the institution.
Male/57yrs/BMS/Prof: Provision of facilities such as efficient internet service, uninterrupted power supply, training of staff and orientation of students. Provision of appropriate software for robust online teaching
Male/46yrs/Dentistry/SL: Previous knowledge of the use of computers and information technology in regards to the use of online teaching aids e.g., Google Classroom, Google Meet etc., provision of good internet network in the office as well as a reliable backup by the university; provision of computers or iPad for academic staff perhaps by providing them for every department in the university; adequate training of staff in the use of online teaching aids.
Male/46yrs/Tech./Prof: Electricity/power, data subscription, IT/ Internet enabled computers, PC, mobile phones, and other devices. Funds for initial purchase, repairs, operational costs etc. and commitment and systemic concerns,
Male/50yrs/Education/SL: ICT skills and competencies, individual readiness for online teaching, possession of devices for online teaching, ease of accessing online platforms, and attitude towards online teaching etc. institutional policy, provision of
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infrastructure to support online teaching, training, and retraining of staff, ease of access to platforms for online teaching, and usability or user friendliness of platforms for online teaching
During the interview sessions, participants identified major challenges that may hinder their online teaching, namely poor internet connectivity, erratic power supply, lack of system support and limited knowledge of e learning among academic staff as major factors that could serve as a challenge to online teaching They said:
Female/55yrs/RNR/SL: Poor infrastructure, poor internet connectivity, no constant power source, affordability, and accessibility by students
Female/52yrs/Clinical Sci. /SL: Limited knowledge of e learning, erratic power supply and work overload.
Female/55yrs/Education/Prof: Lack of infrastructure, skills, and facilities for capacity building. Lack of commensurate reward system.
Male/48yrs/Education/LII: Lack of system support (technical support staff) and personal attitude of people
Male/57/BMS/Prof: Inadequate staff training on the use of online facilities for teaching. Lack of provision of data and epileptic power supply
Male/37/Tech/LII: The main challenge is the lack of staff's understanding of the use of a phone in disseminating knowledge.
Male/40/Arts/LII: Adaptation to digital technology, facilities, job satisfaction from adequate welfare.
The interview participants suggested some ways to improve or enhance online teaching behaviour among academic staff. They stipulated the adequate training of academic staff on online teaching, adequate infrastructural facilities, staff motivation, and a conducive working environment, as well as good support from the university management as means of enhancing online teaching behaviour among academic staff. They said:
Female/50yrs/Education/SL: More workshops on online teaching
Male/40yrs/Arts/LII: Provision of online teaching facilities
Male/63/Social Sci./Prof: Support from the university administration
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Female/55yrs/RNR/SL: Staff motivation, conducive working environment, set achievable goals, reward excellence
Female/52yrs/Clinical Sci. /SL: Provision of training workshops on e learning, availability of free and fast internet connectivity, a provision on training on course content development.
Female/55yrs/Education/Prof: Awareness training on capabilities of IT for Education. Provision of IT tools. Capacity building. Rewards
Male/40yrs/Agric/LII: Provision of financial incentives, provision of internet facilities, well planned and implemented capacity building programmes and an effective monitoring system.
Female/55yrs/IAS/RF: Adequate subventions from the federal government.
This study investigated academic staff’s motivation for online teaching in a Nigerian university using a mixed methods case study research design. The result of the study revealed that most of the academic staff have not taught using online platforms before and their frequency of online teaching consideration is occasional. However, the perception of online teaching is high among academic staff. The reason that most academic staff have not taught using online platforms is that it may be removed from the prevailing conventional face to face system of instructional delivery in place in the institution. The system makes academic staff play an active role in transferring knowledge (‘sage on the stage’) to the students and this contrast with what online teaching is. Online teaching takes a more student centred approach where the instructor only serves as a 'guide on the side' (Wright, 2011). Therefore, changing roles and moving from a comfortable teaching zone to an uncomfortable zone become a problem and this potentially affects the rate at which teaching online is considered among the academic staff.
This study’s researchers also attribute these results to inadequate institutional efforts to encourage academic staff to explore online teaching as there was no sensitization and adequate infrastructure that could make online teaching a viable option. This is despite a high perception of online teaching among the academic staff in terms of serving as a motivating factor to learn new technology, encouraging intellectual challenge, stimulating professional development, and bringing greater flexibility in the educational process. However, their high perception did not reflect in their use of the online platform for teaching. This result resonates with the findings of Palmer and Holt (2010), who reported that academic staff felt that online teaching enhances teaching skills and professional development especially when the student is engaged in the online environment. The high perception of online teaching among theacademic staff isconsistent with
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the result of Bhardwaj et al. (2015), who found that most of the Malaka Manipal Medical College faculty members held a positive opinion of e learning.
On academic staff’s motivation for online teaching concerning resources, the results reveal that individual training opportunities, personal decisions, group training opportunities, acceptance of own format, and availability of coaching are important ways to motivate online teaching among academic staff. These five factors could be summarised simply as constant capacity building of academic staff on online teaching and instinctive desire and acceptance of personal ways to engage in online teaching as major motivating resources that could promote online teaching among the academic staff.
Capacity building of academic staff to acquire basic competencies in online teaching is critical to facilitating online learning. Sufficient ICT skills and other competencies, such as being a content facilitator and designer, must be possessed by academic staff to effectively utilise online platforms for teaching, but this is lacking due to the prevailing traditional system of instruction. Therefore, there must be constant professional development of academic staff to cultivate or enhance these skills. Constant capacity building will help academic staff to become familiar with the online learning environment, have the requisite skills to use required technology and have a good knowledge of where to seek support when needed (Krull & Mallinson, 2013).
Also, due to various environmental and cultural differences between the traditional classroom and online learning environment, moving from traditional classroom learning to an online learning environment requires academic staff to change roles. This can be better done when academic staff are intrinsically motivated to adopt online teaching and allowed to choose technology or platforms considered suitable for both the instructor and students to have a balanced and effecting online environment.
It is worth noting that when interest to engage in online teaching evolved from the academic staff’s decision, continuance intention is high as they are personally involved and this may make it easier for them to adapt to crises, thereby reducing technocracy (Panisoara et al., 2020). This result aligns with the research findings of Bakare et al. (2018). This result is corroborated further by the factors given by academic staff as a stimulant to online teaching adoption during the interview sessions. They opined that ICT skills and competencies, capacity building, and a good reward system are factors that can stimulate academic staff for online teaching.
The study’s results also reveal that introduction to new technology for teaching, institutional expectation, and students' enrolment are critical external factors that motivate academic staff for online teaching. New and fascinating technology for teaching could motivate instructors to desire to engage in online teaching. New technology can help develop the competencies needed for the 21st century.
The new technologies have the potential to provide opportunities for creating learning environments that extend the possibilities of ‘old’ but still useful technologies. Also, most new technologies are interactive and, as such, it is easier
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to create learning environments that encourage hand on practice, feedback loop, and continuous refining of understanding that leads to new knowledge (Bransford et al , 2000).
Clear institutional expectations from academic staff as regards online teaching also play a critical role in motivating the faculty for online teaching. Teaching online requires realistic institutional support to facilitate quality online learning and, when institutions set expectations that help develop the talent, skills, and expertise of academic staff, they are likely going to be highly motivated to engage in online teaching (Tipple, 2010).
Equally, students’ enrolment in the online course could stimulate online teaching among academic staff. Through student enrolment and active online interaction, both the instructor and students become co creators of the learning environment, and this could enhance social, cognitive, and teaching presence that will enhance commitment to achieving learning goals (Law et al., 2019).
On academic staff’s general motivation to teach online, the result of the study reveal that an overwhelming majority of the academic staff feel highly motivated to teach online. This feeling may be necessitated by the urgent imperative to move the traditional classroom to the online environment because of the emergence of COVID 19. During the lockdown imposed to curtail the spread of the virus, all educational institutions in Nigeria were shut, especially public universities, and none were able to move classes online.
With the ease of the coronavirus lockdown and the need for the safe return of students to learning activities, the emphasis has now been placed on online teaching to limit the risk of transmission of the virus. While private universities in the country were quick to initiate remote learning for their students without disruption in the academic calendar, public universities averagely lost a full year academic calendar to the shutdown in academic activities (Okocha, 2020). To close the disparity with their counterparts in private universities and other universities in the world, public university academic staff are eager and desirous of adopting online teaching to facilitate learning. Also, online teaching presents a great opportunity for them to improve their technology and facilitation competencies and an opportunity to fit into the digital learning landscape that characterizes the 21st century. This high feeling of motivation for online teaching among the academic staff could therefore help to properly shape and reduce resistance to online education in the country.
Further identified as challenges to online teaching among the academic staff are inadequate online teaching facilities, lack of system support, work overload and low knowledge of e learning among academic staff. Generally, in Africa, the major impediment to online education, as documented in the literature, include lack of ICT skills, high cost of internet, inadequate infrastructure, rejection of e learning by faculty members and power supply shortage (Adarkwah, 2020).
The irregular power supply is an age long issue in Nigeria that has affected not just the educational sector but the economy of the country. A major impediment to technological advancement in many universities in the country is the unstable
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power supply as most technological tools require electricity to function whereas this is not readily available. Students who reside in rural areas are mostly affected, as most rural areas in Nigeria are off the national grid and, as such, utilising online platforms effectively in such an environment is difficult (Adeoye et al., 2020).
Equally, poor internet connectivity and lack of prior knowledge and experience of e learning often make faculty members sceptical about online teaching and this usually leads to resistance to the adoption of online teaching.Also, teachingonline requires a great amount of time and attention to develop learning content and, because of several academic and administrative duties and an acute shortage of teaching staff, academic staff are forced to shoulder responsibilities that take a great percentage of their time and attention, thereby making it difficult to devote time to online teaching (Mutisya & Makokha, 2016). These results are consistent with previous research findings (Al Wehaibi et al., 2008; Anene et al., 2014; Kisanga, & Ireson, 2015; Mutisya & Makokha, 2016; Adelore & Itasanmi, 2016; Eze et al., 2018; Adnan & Anwar, 2020).
The prevailing conventional face to face system of instructional delivery in place in Nigerian universities has affected the use of online teaching platforms for teaching and this possibly explains the reluctance in its adoption before the emergence of the COVID 19 pandemic. The academic staff’s perceptions about online teaching are high in terms of its potential to seamlessly provide flexibility in instruction delivery, enhance ICT skills and improve facilitation competencies. However, the actual use of online teaching by the academic staff is not a true reflection of their perception. The constant capacity building of academic staff to acquire basic competencies and meet favourable institutional expectations as regards online education in the universities remain critical motivational factors to encourage online teaching among academic staff in Nigerian universities. The major limitation to the effective adoption or use of online platforms for instructional delivery in Nigerian universities includes poor internet connectivity, erratic power supply, lack of system support, work overload and limited knowledge of e learning among the academic staff.
This study discovers the need for Nigerian university management to engage in rigorous awareness campaigns and sensitisation on the benefits inherent in online teaching and create a favourable environment for the use of online platforms to deliver instruction to students. Additionally, there is a need for universities to vigorously embark on capacity building of academic staff for online teaching to cultivate or enhance basic ICT skills and other essential competencies needed to manage an online learning environment. Likewise, the institutional expectation about online education must be set not only to project the universities as truly global ones but also towards developing the talent, skills, and expertise of academic staff with an adequate reward system to sustain academic staff's interest in online teaching overtime. Lastly, improvement in basic infrastructure, such as electricity supply, internet connection, ICT tools in the universities, and hiring enough technical support staff must become major priorities for all university stakeholders and management.
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The study is not exhaustive of all the factors that may motivate academic staff to adopt online teaching. This study only evaluates the likely factors, such as prior use of online teaching platforms, frequency of online teaching consideration, online teaching perception, resources, external factors, and a general feeling of motivation to teach online, and the factors that may hinder effective use of online teaching platforms. Thus, future studies may extend the scope to areas such as technical competence, e learning readiness, e learning practice and specific digital tools and resources that may be more suitable for use among the academic staff.
While the current study takes an evaluative approach, future studies may endeavour to adopt a correlational model for better quantification of factors. Also, the adoption of a case study approach limits the study to only one university, whereas future studies should explore multiple case design to make generalisation easier. Furthermore, the study adopted random sampling and this resulted in not having an adequate sample size in some groups. Hence, future studies should adopt cluster and proportionate sampling techniques for a sufficient sample size.
Ethical consideration: The study was approved by the Department of Adult Education, University ofIbadan. The participants’ informed consent was obtained before participation, and they were assured of the confidentiality of the information given
Declaration of conflicting interests: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest regarding the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 366 378, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.19
Received May 4, 2022; Revised Jun 27, 2022; Accepted Aug 2, 2022
Omar Chamorro Atalaya , Soledad Olivares Zegarra Facultad de Ingeniería y Gestión, Universidad Nacional Tecnológica de Lima Sur, Peru
Raquel Atoche-Wong , Marco Anton-De los Santos and Maritte Fierro-Bravo Facultad de Ciencias Económicas, Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal, Peru*
Kathy Ruiz-Carrasco Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Tecnológica del Perú, Peru
Elio Huaman-Flores Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Ica, Peru
Madison Huarcaya-Godoy Facultad de Ciencias Administrativas, Universidad Nacional del Callao, Peru
Carlos Chávez-Herrera Facultad de Ingeniería de Sistemas e Informática, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Peru
Abstract. Faced with Covid 19, and the need to adapt to environments that guarantee continuity of educational service in the context of social distancing, many universities did not initially plan the mechanisms for adapting to the virtual modality adequately. Therefore, this period of transition to e learning was characterised by a decrease in academic performance This article reports on a study that focused on determining
Corresponding author: OmarChamorroAtalaya,omar_chamorro1@hotmail.com
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
whether the transition from a classroom to a virtual teaching learning model had an effect or influence on the academic performance of university students in mechanical and electrical engineering at a public university in Peru during the period 2018 to 2021. The purpose of the study was to ensure the quality of the education system in the face of the implementation of a hybrid mode of teaching Methodologically, a descriptive type of investigation and longitudinal non experimental design were undertaken. The research methodology followed a hypothetical deductive approach. The number of participants was 157 and a registration form was used to collect data on the indicators that made up the academic performance variable. The results reveal that the switch to a virtual teaching learning modality significantly influenced the academic performance of the students. Student’s t test found a significance equal to 0.000. Passing grades were achieved by 98.57% of students under the virtual teaching learning modality, compared to 68.4% under classroom learning.
Keywords: academic performance; university engineering students; distance education; public university
With the purpose of guaranteeing continuity of university academic programs during the time of the Covid 19 pandemic, many Latin American countries evolved to a teaching learning modality that uses virtual environments (Alvarado Andino et al., 2021). Gervacio and Castillo (2021) describe virtual learning as taking place in an environment that is supported by technological means, to achieve synchronous or asynchronous education. However, Contreras Colmenteres and Garcés Díaz (2019) conclude that virtual environments for distance education at many public universities are limited by a lack of training, development of technological skills, and infrastructure. Consequently, it may be inferred that, although, virtual environments had experienced evolution before the pandemic, when the pandemic struck, their use and implementation required accelerated development and, in most cases in the public sector, virtual environments were implemented without planning (Ranjan et al., 2021; Taborda & López, 2020).
In this context of virtual education, questions arose from higher education in Latin America and the Caribbean about the efficiency and effectiveness of the virtual modality, despite it being the only alternative available to continue education during the state of emergency caused by Covid 19. The research carried out by Gervacio and Castillo (2021) maintains that efficient implementation of virtual environments requires not only the support of the education platform, which is specific to each institution, but also other tools, such as software simulation, design and analysis. However, Chee et al. (2022) argue that, in distance education, there are many factors that do not support the teaching learning process, these factors are related to a lack of technological resources and connectivity, which generate difficulties for students and, therefore, affect their academic performance (Pérez Lopez et al., 2021; Sánchez Almeida et al., 2021).
The academic performance of students is an aspectthat must be taken into account during the teaching learning process, regardless of whether knowledge is provided face to face or through a virtual modality (Medina et al., 2021). Higuera and Rivera (2021) point out that the academic performance of university students is an essential factor in addressing the issue of the quality of higher education, because performance is an indicator of the education reality. Although it is true that virtual education has promising possibilities, it is important to determine whether the results of this teaching learning modality are comparable to the results achieved before the health related state of emergency, under the classroom education modality (Gonzales & Evaristo, 2021).
Today, in an attempt to ensure the continuity and resilience of the education system in the face of possible new health crises, similar to that of Covid 19, many education institutions see the implementation of a hybrid teaching modality as a great opportunity (Carranza et al., 2021; Engel & Coll, 2021; Ríos, 2021). Hybrid teaching is a combination of classroom teaching and virtual teaching, which emphasizes individual and cooperative student learning (Liang, 2021; Prince, 2021). In this regard, Palma Orozco et al. (2022) point out that, in the face of the new normal, many universities are implementing a hybrid teaching model; however, for these models to contribute to the acquisition of skills and abilities that are reflected in the academic performance of students, they must have a number of fundamental components, one of which is that the pedagogical model must encourage the autonomy of students.
When we focus on the local level, the progressive implementation of hybrid education in Peru presents challenges that increasingly demand not only quality education, but an update of approaches, methods, infrastructure and tools, and, above all, a change in the attitudes of the protagonists of the teaching learning process. During the first two years of the Covid 19 pandemic (2020 2021), learning at institutions in Peru was carried out in the virtual modality, which revealed that, in the public sector, there was a lack of infrastructure, and both students and teachers experienced difficulties accessing the internet. This may explain why very few universities had presented lectures in virtual mode before the pandemic those that had, were institutions in the private sector (Criollo Hidalgo et al., 2021).
While it is true that problems will always be present in both teaching learning modalities (virtual and classroom), the aim of this research was to identify relevant aspects that could lead to the implementation of improvement actions for the hybrid modality in the future. The objective of this article was to determine if the transition from a classroom to a virtual teaching learning model generated any effect or had an influence on the academic performance of university students in mechanical and electrical engineering at a public university in Peru during the period 2018 to 2021. The objective of the research is related to the following question: Does the transition from classroom to a virtual teaching learning modality significantly influence the academic performance of mechanical and electrical engineering students?
Regarding the literature review, we start from the premise, as stated by Pérez López et al. (2021), that distance education implies the planning and design of online teaching and learning experiences. However, the speed at which higher education institutions had to close classrooms left no room to manoeuvre in transitioning to distance education, hence, the concept of emergency remote teaching arose. In general, distance education is a teaching learning process that requires the use of technologies (Ramírez Hernández et al., 2020). As various studies show, one of the central elements of online education is the interaction between the student and the teacher (Francescucci & Rohani, 2018), during which not only the quantity, but also the quality of the interaction is important However, the assessment of distance education is explained by the perceived relationship between the virtual methodology and the academic performance of students, which, in some cases, is affected by teachers' failure to adapt to the personal and academic circumstances of students (Pérez López et al., 2021).
Studies, such as that by Peña Estrada et al. (2020) on the influence of the teaching learning modality on academic performance, found that the flipped classroom method enabled students to improve their grades significantly. The results imply that this modality is more effective than traditional teaching methods Regarding methods and models of teaching, Saavedra et al. (2022) point out that the inverted classroom generates a collaborative work environment in class, and encourages participatory and cooperative dynamics by means of ICT. Academic performance in distance education requires the support of ICT, and teachers and students are required to have a set of digital skills (Medina et al., 2021). Calvo et al. (2020) and Prata et al. (2020) agree that a virtual teaching learning modality must be supported by methods, models, infrastructure, skills, and systems if it is to enable students at higher institutions to perform academically
Likewise, Santos et al. (2020) report on experiences of students studying for a Master’s in Education through differentiated application of teaching learning strategies that use ICT. The group investigated the achievement of better performance (grades) and student satisfaction in terms of the teaching relationship and class experience. According to Martínez et al. (2020), if the strategy of using ICTs is linked to personal learning environments, it creates an environment that generates a dynamic and integrating synergy and combines the advantages of traditional education and virtual learning, in which the independence of the student is manifested increasingly through meaningful and collaborative learning in network environments.
3.1.
The type of research is descriptive and used a quantitative approach, because the study focused on determining whether the transition from one teaching learning model to another (from classroom learning to virtual) had an influence or generated any effect on the academic performance of mechanical and electrical engineering students. A hypothesis test was used to validate this influence. The research design was non experimental and longitudinal, because data collected in
its natural form were analysed for different times (Hernandez et al., 2014) and, on each occasion, the academic performance was analysed through records of the students' historical notes in different academic semesters.
Given what has been described, the research methodology followed a hypothetical deductive approach, because it sought to confirm or reject a hypothesis. The hypothetical deductive method consists of elaborating a hypothesis that would explain a phenomenon, and seeking the solution for the problems posed (Bernal, 2010).
In the analysis of the results, the range of qualifications indicating academic performance comprised five levels a criterion established by the higher education institution. Performance levels according to the grade point average (PG) were as follows: excellent performance (18 ≤PG≤ 20), very good performance (16 ≤PG< 18), good performance (14 ≤PG< 16), regular performance (11 ≤PG< 14) and poor performance (PG< 11).
The population comprised all students of the professional school of mechanical and electrical engineering who were enrolled for the subject of industrial automation at a public university in Peru, numbering 157 students in the academic years 2018 2021. The student numbers varied in each academic semester, according to the number of entrants into a professional career per year.
Due to the nature of the investigation, students’ academic performance was investigated for the two years prior to the declaration of the state of emergency (2018 and 2019), and for the two years in which lectures used the virtual modality (2020 and 2021) Therefore, data were collected from 2018 to 2021. This criterion was applied because there had already been two years of development of virtual lectures due to social distancing and, for the study to have temporal symmetry, data were collected two years prior to the start of the pandemic. Each academic year comprised two semesters or academic cycles, which was typical of the university, which differentiates semesters as either I or II. Regarding the population limitation, the study focused on all mechanical and electrical engineering students in the eighth cycle, and enrolled in the subject of industrial automation. A professional career in mechanical and electrical engineering is developed over 10 academic cycles; students take two cycles per year, so, they can complete the degree in five years. This group of students was selected after consideration of the records of historical notes, which indicated that this specialty subject had one of the lowest student performance averages for several consecutive years. In relation to the spatial limitation, the study was carried out at a public university in Peru, in the department of Lima.
The technique used for data collection was documentary analysis. The data was obtained from secondary sources (records of notes), through a teaching management system, which stores historical grades for all semesters. The
instrument used was a registration form comprising four indicators (Id1: Average of qualification practices, Id2: Academic work, Id3: Midterm exam, and Id4: Final exam) that made up the academic performance variable. The registration form was completed with reference to the historical record of notes.
The academic cycle lasted 16 weeks; the general average of the qualification practices (Id1) comprised four notes: students were evaluated through tests in weeks 4, 7, 12 and 15. Information on academic work (Id2) was obtained at the end of each cycle. This work is of a practical nature, prescribed by the teacher, and developed in group context. Data relating to the midterm exam (Id3) was taken in the eighth week of the academic cycle, and was provided by a test that evaluated the first part of the subject syllabus. The final exam (Id4) was taken in week 16 and evaluated the second and last part of the syllabus.
The reliability of the data was determined with the statistics software SPSS V25, using Cronbach's alpha coefficient, of which the value was found to be an acceptable 0.701 (Oviedo & Campo Arias, 2005). After processing the data, we obtained the following results.
Figure 1 shows the variation in academic performance with respect to the qualification practices indicator. This analysis was carried out for the period 2018 to 2021, during which the from classroom learning (face to face) and virtual modality was being developed.
(Id1)
Figure 1 shows that, during virtual teaching learning (2020 I and 2021 II), the averages of the qualifications of the practices were within the range considered to be good A variation in academic performance can observed during classroom teaching learning, from regular (12.11 in 2018 II), to poor (8.09 in 2019 I), to good (15.65 in 2019 II). In the classroom teaching learning modality, only 67.51% of students achieved passing grades, while, in the virtual teaching learning modality, the percentage of students who passed increased to 97.31%.
Figure 2 shows the results of the variation of academic performance with respect to the academic work indicator, during the transition from the classroom to the virtual teaching modality.
Figure 2: Variation of the performance of academic work (Id2)
Figure 2 shows that, during virtual teaching learning (2020 I and 2021 II), student grade averages for academic work improved from regular to very good, achieving an improvement of 12.26%. In the academic semester 2021 II, a very good average of 17.26 was obtained. Regarding the improvement of academic performance of students, during the classroom teaching learning modality, 94.78% of students achieved passing grades, while in virtual teaching learning, 98.39% of students passed; this is an improvement of 3.6%. During virtual teaching learning (2021 II), 65.22% of students scored grades in the range considered as excellent performance, while in the classroom teaching learning modality(2019 I), only 6.45% of students achieved excellent performance
Figure 3 shows the variation of academic performance with respect to the midterm exam indicator, during the classroom and the virtual teaching modalities
Figure 3: Variation of the performance in the midterm exam (Id3)
Figure 3 shows that, during virtual teaching learning (2020 I and 2021 II), the averages of the midterm exam grades improved, from the good to the excellent range; in the academic semester 2021 II students achieved an average of excellent (18.2) In addition, an improvement in performance can observed compared to the grades obtained during classroom teaching learning, whenstudents’ grades were within the range of poor performance. Regarding the improvement of academic performance by students, it can be noted that, under the classroom teaching learning modality, only 73.08% of students had passing grades, while, under the virtual modality, the percentage increased to 100%.
Figure 4 shows the variation of academic performance with respect to the final exam indicator for the classroom and virtual teaching learning modalities
Figure 4: Variation of students’ performance in final exam (Id4)
Figure 4 shows that, during virtual teaching learning (2020 I and 2021 II), the averages of the final exam grades improved from the regular to the very good range; in the academic semester 2021 II a very good average of 16.15 was achieved. In addition, an improvement in academic performance can be observed, compared to the final exam grades obtained during classroom teaching learning, when the averages varied from good in 2018 II (15.96), to poor in 2019 I (9.95) and good in 2019II (14.42). Regarding the improvement in academic performance of students, it can be noted that, during the classroom modality, only 76.04% of students achieved passing grades, while in virtual teaching learning, the percentage increased to 98.39%.
Overall, in the virtual teaching learning modality, a passing academic performance of 98.57% was achieved, characterised by an average grade of between 16 and 17, which is higher than that obtained during classroom teaching learning, when it was 68.4%, which means a disapproving percentage of 31.6%, which is characterized by an average grade of lower than 10.5.
Finally, the influence of the academic performance study variable between the classroom and virtual teaching learning modalities was validated. The hypothesis test was carried out by means of Student’s t test, using SPSS software.
As a first step of this test, the hypotheses were formulated (H0: Null hypothesis and H1: Alternative or researcher hypothesis).
H0: The change to the virtual teaching learning modality did not significantly influence the academic performance of students of the industrial automation module.
H1: The change to the virtual teaching learning modality significantly influenced the academic performance of students of the industrial automation module
The level of significance was 0.05, and Student’s t test was selected, because it met the quantitative variable criterion and there was only one study variable (academic performance). Table 1 shows the results obtained.
Table 1: Student t test for a simple (academic performance) t gl Sig. (bilateral)
Id1: Qualification practices 51.436 156 .000
Id2: Academic work 63.635 156 .000
Id3: Midterm exam 30.420 156 .000
Id4: Final exam 45.298 156 .000
According to Table 1, the p value or Sig. (bilateral) is equal to 0.000 for the four indicators that make up the study variable (academic performance); consequently, the decision was made to reject the null hypothesis and accept the researcher hypothesis (H1), because the p value is less than the established significance level of 0.05. This validates that the change to the virtual teaching–learning modality significantly influenced the academic performance of students of the industrial automation module.
Regarding the indicators of Student’s t test, the bilateral significance (p value) shows the degree of compatibility between the proposed population value and the available sample information. In turn, the degree of freedom (df), is equal to the number of observations (157 participants) minus the number of relationships required between the observations (1); it is equal to 156, while the t value is the calculated difference represented in units of standard error.
The results obtained indicate that, in the virtual teaching learning modality, a passing academic performance of 98.57% was achieved, which is higher than that obtained during classroom teaching learning, when it was 68.4%. This finding is similar to that obtained by Santos et al. (2020), who conclude that using the virtual modality for teaching learning lead to an academic performance of 69.5%, which is reflected in a high pass rate, while in the classroom modality resulted in academic performance of 45.8%. Similarly, the results of a study by Sánchez Almeida et al. (2021) reveals that university students who entered the remedial course through the virtual modality achieved significantly higher academic
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performance than students who learnt through classroom teaching. Medina et al. (2021) compared the effectiveness of three online courses with the same courses presented in classroom format, and found the grades of students of the virtual modality to be higher.
In relation to what was estimated through Student’s t test, which validated that the change to the virtual teaching learning modality significantly influenced the academic performance of students, it can be indicated that the study carried out by Martínez et al. (2020) had a similar result. These authors conclude that there is a significant difference between the learning of students in a virtual modality and a classroom modality, with students in the virtual mode obtaining outstanding achievements. Likewise, Pérez López et al. (2021) validated a hypothesis that virtual education is a means to improve both skills and learning in university students. Sánchez Almeida et al. (2021) conclude that there was an improvement in academic performance, which demonstrates, through a hypothesis test, that switching to the virtual teaching learning modality as necessitated by the Covid 19 pandemic, had a positive influence on the academic performance of students. Carranza et al. (2021) carried out a study to determine the influence of virtual teaching on the learning of students. Through a mean difference hypothesis test for samples that were related, and with a 95% probability, they established that, with the application of virtual teaching, student learning improved
These results, however, differ from what was obtained by Gonzales and Evaristo (2021). They conclude that, when considering final average achievement, no significant statistical differences could be observed. Their results relate to others, that indicate that the modality, in itself, is not a determining factor in academic performance Regarding the improvement in academic performance observed during virtual teaching–learning, it is necessary to indicate that, although there was a significant impact on grades, the results show that the most relevant effect occurred in the academic semester 2021 II, that is, the year when the change to the virtual teaching learning modality was effected. Therefore, in the 2020 I semester, some indicators qualified practices and academic work showed a lower grade average than in the previous semester (2019 II), when the teaching learning modality was face to face. This finding can be explained by the adaptation to the virtual modality just having taken place, in terms of policies and infrastructure, in semester 2020I, which could have influenced academic qualifications and socioeconomic, institutional and family factors related to the health emergency caused by Covid 19. As noted by Chee et al. (2022), there were many problems related to student performance during virtual learning, many of which were due to the pandemic affecting the emotional wellbeing of students.
The results obtained by this study indicate that, in a virtual teaching learning modality, a satisfactory academic performance was achieved, which was better than that achieved under classroom learning. Likewise, Student’s t test, with a significance equal to 0.000, validated the hypothesis that the change to a virtual teaching learning modality significantly and positively influenced the academic performance of students. In the study, this validation is reflected in the difference
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between students’ academic performance under the virtual and classroom modalities. Therefore, it is concluded that the change to a hybrid teaching learning modality as an educational strategy will favour better learning and improve academic performance, therefore, its adaptation must be carried out progressively.
Although a positive improvement in academic performance was achieved under the virtual teaching learning modality, it is important to know whether students really acquired more knowledge and/or better professional skills in this period. In addition, because the classroom teaching learning situation presents the means to answer this question, teachers and institutional authorities will be in a position to take corresponding improvement actions. At the same time, it is important to point out that the development of digital skills of students and teachers is of the utmost importance. ICT is not only a virtual education tool, so teachers need to be aware of their responsibility as guides of students' learning. To this end, they must be trained and updated and acquire more knowledge, so that they can respond in the most appropriate way to the needs of the students, and generate a motivating environment. The first challenge is to recognise the need for training and updating, and the second is to dare to innovate, in order to achieve the educational transformation so long awaited by students in Peruvian public sector educational institutions.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 379 396, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.20
Received Apr 19, 2022; Revised Jul 6, 2022; Accepted Aug 2, 2022
Venuste Nsengimana University of Rwanda, Rwanda Opanga David University of Rwanda, Rwanda
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science, Rwanda St John’s University of Tanzania, Dodoma, Tanzania
Alphonse Uworwabayeho University of Rwanda, Rwanda
Evariste Minani University of Rwanda, Rwanda
Leon Mugabo University of Rwanda, Rwanda
Théophile Nsengimana University of Rwanda, Rwanda
Abstract. In Rwanda, social, economic, and educational activities have recently been affected by the COVID 19 pandemic. After its outbreak, schools closed, and one of the alternatives opted for was online learning. This study assessed the satisfaction of school subject leaders (SSLs) and school leaders (SLs) with online learning and identified opportunities and challenges for the improvement of online learning. The study was guided by a professional development framework and design for online teaching. Data were gathered through an online survey and a Zoom meeting with 158 SSLs and 120 SLs purposively chosen from the University of Rwanda's continuous professional development (CPD). Findings indicated that the most commonly used materials are laptops and mobile phones, while the most entertaining activities include doing online quizzes and interactive discussions. Furthermore, the study
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
revealed a high level of satisfaction with online facilitation, even though teachers still need support from facilitators. In addition, males are more motivated to continue with online learning than females. It was also revealed that both SSLs and SLs still have challenges in uploading assignments, contributing to forum discussions, and understanding the subject content. This study recommended the increase of videos, online quizzes, and face to face sessions to improve online learning.
Keywords: online learning; CPD; STEM; school leadership; subject leader
Currently, there is a global spread of the coronavirus pandemic, officially named COVID 19 by the World Health Organization (Nghiem et al., 2020). Later, the virus was named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SAR S CoV 2) by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (Gorbalenya et al., 2020). Education is one of the sectors most strongly affected by COVID 19. The untimely closure of primary and secondary schools, as well as universities, was an immediate response to protect students from the possible risk of contracting COVID 19 (Sintema, 2020). In Rwanda, schools have been in unusual temporary closure since March 15, 2020. In this regard, more than three million students from nursery, primary, secondary, and high school education stayed out of school and were expected to learn at home. In this case, the Rwandan Ministry of Education had to evaluate schooling programsand came up with an online learning program as a solution to the challenge.
With regard to the above, online learning involved the use of radio and television, using the lessons developed by primary and secondary school teachers in collaboration with the Rwanda Education Board (REB), Building Learning Foundations (BLF), and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). In addition, learning materials have been uploaded on online platforms such as Moodle and made freely available to students. As in other countries worldwide, the integration of e resources has since become the only alternative to supporting authorities to continue educating students during the COVID 19 emergency, which has profoundly impacted the global economy (Dhawan, 2020). In essence, face to face learning was gradually being replaced by online learning in the majority of African countries, in particular, Rwanda.
Moreover, programs that adopted online learning include all programs delivered by the University of Rwanda. One with an immediate start during COVID 19 is the CPD under the Multi Year Leading, Teaching, and Learning Together (LT)2 program, implemented in 2018. The program was supported by the Flemish Association for Development, Cooperation, and Technical Assistance (VVOB) in partnership with the University of Rwanda College of Education (UR CE) and the Rwanda Education Board (REB). Under LT2, the programs with immediate online learning include a Continuous Professional Development (CPD) diploma and certificate in educational leadership, mentorship, and coaching for school leaders (SLs) and school subject leaders
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(SSLs), respectively. Since neither institutions nor beneficiaries planned beforehand for the online mode of delivery, it is worthwhile to investigate the satisfaction of SLs and SSLs. This would enable institutions to identify the challenges and opportunities of CPD programs by means of online learning and make improvements.
Since the introduction of the aforementioned online programs, little is known about the perceptions of science school subject leaders and school leaders towards online learning. The study is being followed up by the following research questions: (1) To what extent are SLs and SSLs satisfied with the course delivery and online facilitation? (2) What are the challenges faced during the online learning and activities? and (3) What are the materials used by SLs and SSLs during the online learning?. The study provides the outcomes from a survey conducted on SLs and SSLs students supported by the LT2 programme. Specifically, the study was interested in identifying the extent to which SLs and SSLs were satisfied with the course delivery and online facilitation in order to determine whether they were motivated to continue the training using online learning. The main goal of the study was to flag any challenges and improve the online training sessions and activities.
In education, student satisfaction has been a concern in various studies as an important component in attracting and retaining students (Kotler & Clarke, 1987). In this regard, satisfaction is defined as the perception of enjoyment and accomplishment in the learning environment (Sweeney & Ingram, 2001). The assessment of education stakeholder’s satisfaction started around the 1970s in European universities with the aim of assessing stakeholders’ satisfaction with academic programs and learning achievements (Morstain & Kraft, 1979). At present, stakeholders’ satisfaction is assessed at all levels of education, and it is appreciated to help learning institutions adapt to the needs of students and to develop a continuous monitoring system to meet student needseffectively (O’Neil, 2003). Owing to the shift from face to face to online learning during COVID 19, there is a need to assess the satisfaction of SLs and SSLs students in the CPD program with the online learning mode in Rwanda in order to improve and comply with their needs.
2.2
CPD is defined as learning continuously throughout one’s career to improve performance (REB, 2015). People working in different professions participate in CPD to learn and apply new knowledge and skills to improve performance on the job (Chikari et al., 2015). Research indicates that an employer that provides good opportunities for CPD and a positive learning environment for staff is more attractive to clients and more successful (McDonnell &Zutshi, 2010). In this regard, CPD is of great importance for the professional and personal development of staff. CPD outcomes include improved skills, comprehension of new techniques, retention of previously learned knowledge, and the facilitation of creativity and innovation (Ukachi& Onuoha, 2013).
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Nowadays, teachers’ CPD is of international growing interest and keeps adapting to changes occurring in education systems to the extent that the needs for teachers’ in service professional development are top on the educationists’ agenda (Mphale, 2014). CPD is widely acknowledged to be important in the pursuit of improvement in teaching and learning processes (Harland & Kinder, 1997). Day (1999) argues that CPD consists of all natural learning experiences from conscious to planned activities intended to be of direct or indirect benefit to an individual or group of teachers and schools, leading to the quality of education. During CPD, teachers review, renew, and extend their teaching practices (Ucan, 2016). In this regard, CPD is an ongoing process of education, training, learning, and support to maintain the knowledge, expertise, and competence of education professionals both subject leaders and school leaders (Cleary et al., 2011).
According to Day and Sachs (2004), CPD serves three purposes in the education sector. The first is to align teachers' practices with educational policies. The second is to help teachers improve their performance to improve the learning outcomes of students, while the third is to improve the teaching profession. These are the reasons why CPD is being given increasing importance by various governments worldwide to respond to the needs of students (Swafford, 2000). In Rwanda, over the 2014 2016 period, the UR CE, REB, and VVOB initiated a certified CPD program for primary school leaders on effective school leadership and for sector education officers on enabling head teachers’ professional learning communities. At the same time, the program concerned tutors in teacher training colleges as well as trainers of pre primary teachers on improving learner centered pedagogy (VVOB, 2016). The program was later extended to a multiyear program (2016–2021) known as Leading, Teaching, and Learning Together (LT)2 to enhance the implementation of the competence-based curriculum (CBC) and the learning outcomes. This was concerned with secondary school subject (mathematics, science biology, chemistry and physics) teachers.
2.3
Online learning was first used by large companies and later adopted in academic teaching and learning (Hubackova, 2015). It refers to the use of information and communication technologies to support and enhance teaching and learning in secondary schools (Melchor et al., 2020) and higher education. It is therefore considered as a process of extending learning, delivering instructional resources, and sharing learning opportunities to locations outside of face to face classrooms (Valverde Berrocoso et al., 2020). The Internet, personal computers (Guri Rosenblit, 2009) and mobile devices (Panzavolta & Laici, 2017; Vázquez Cano, 2014) are some of the devices used in online learning. Online learning can be fully applied alone or combined with face to face teaching and learning (Rhema & Miliszewska, 2010). This combination is known as blended learning (Taghizadeh & Hajhosseini, 2020) and is appreciated as an innovative method for learners and a teaching process that is more comfortable and attractive for students (Kvavik, 2005).
Online learning offers institutions and students the flexibility of place and time for course delivery, reducing the travelling time and cost of attending classes (O’Donoghue et al., 2004), and enabling students to acquire new and upgrade existing skills at any time and place of their choice and availability (Arkorful&Abaidoo, 2014). It often involves audio chatting, video conferencing, and online discussions (Hrastinski, 2008) which are appreciated for offering opportunities for learners to interact among themselves and with facilitators. However, some disadvantages of online learning were also indicated. These include a lack of material equipment, a lack of Internet connectivity in some areas, and a lack of sufficient knowledge for teachers and learners to use the new technologies (Arkorful&Abaidoo, 2014). Furthermore, the online teaching environment has been identified as a challenge for STEM in service teachers who feel worried about their ability to succeed in what might be an unfamiliar learning environment.
Owing to COVID 19, the Government of Rwanda is speeding up the existing plans from face to face to online learning for all programs from undergraduate to postgraduate in higher learning institutions. Findings from this study clarify the opportunities and challenges related to changes in the mode of teaching and learning in higher institutions in Rwanda. They would specifically assist the Rwanda Ministry of Education (MINEDUC), the Rwanda High Education Council (HEC), and the administrators of Rwanda's various higher learning institutions, particularly the University of Rwanda, in creating an interactive and enjoyable online learning environment for all students. In addition, the recommendations from this study can be applied to the effective preparation of online learning. Globally, the study shows how particular individuals cope with unpredicted and non desirable circumstances in the education sector, such as those imposed by COVID 19. Furthermore, the study clarifies how CPD programs can be implemented through improved online content and available online learning materials.
2.5.
This research was guided by the professional development framework for online learning (Baran & Correia, 2014). The framework indicates how successful online teaching and learning are a result of the complex interplay among personnel, pedagogical, contextual, and organizational factors with high education institutions. The proposed framework intends to recognize successful online teaching in higher education as an outcome of teaching, community, and organization levels (Table 1). Its purpose is to provide online faculty, university administrators, and program coordinators with a support framework that can guide the design, development, and sustainability of support for professional development. The framework considers support at various levels as a critical factor for faculty members’ acceptance, motivation, and participation in online learning.
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Positive organizational culture towards online education
Community
• College learning groups
• Peer support programs (Peer observation/peer evaluation)
• Mentoring programs
Teaching (Technology, Pedagogy, Content)
Note:Baran&Correia(2014)
• Workshops/Showcases
• Training programs
• One on one assistance
By transposing the framework (Table 1) into the context of this study, the organizations were referred to as UR CE and VVOB, which had the responsibility to plan for the CPD STEM and CPD DSL programs, and hence organize and implement the online learning. The community was referred to as SLs and SSLs, the learning groups being students under the College of Education that collaborate for online learning. The community was also referred to as UR CE facilitators, who monitor and facilitate the program on a daily basis. Finally, teaching was referred to as technology, pedagogy, and online content. Specifically, the study was interested in assessing the teaching and learning materials used by SLs and SSLs, the level of satisfaction with the training program, and the assistance from facilitators. For effective monitoring of the program, the suggestions from the community members should inspire the organizational institutions to improve online teaching and learning.
The aim of the study was to investigate the satisfaction of school leaders (SLs) and school subject leaders (SSLs), who are referred to in this study as science school subject teachers. Therefore, opportunities and challenges of CPD programmes via online learning were identified and research with a professional development research design was employed (Baran & Correia, 2014). At the organization level, the study was interested in determining the level of satisfaction with the course design. At the community level, the study was interested in assessing the opportunities and challenges faced by SLs and SSLs towards online learning, while at the teaching level, it was concerned with technology, pedagogy, and subject content. Participants coming from 17 districts, distributed in Southern, Eastern, and Western Rwanda, were involved in the study. The subject and school leaders enrolled in two CPD programmeswere targeted by the study. These included 120 (Males: 83.33%, N = 100, Females: 16.67%, N = 20) enrolled in Diploma School Leadership (DSL) and 158 (Males: 82.28%, N = 130, Females: 17.72%, N = 28) enrolled in STEM (Mathematics and Science Biology, Chemistry and Physics)
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The survey questionnaire was administered through KoBo Toolbox, and a link was shared on the Moodle platform. For ethical purposes, when one of the SLs or SSLs did not want to participate in the study, the respondent was excluded from the next stage. SSLs and SLs willing to participate in the study were surveyed by completing the online survey. Data collected through online surveys were supplemented by the Zoom meeting with 20 SSLs and 20 SLs randomly selected from those who accepted to participate in the study.
The topics of discussion focused on opportunities, challenges, and satisfaction with online learning (Appendix 1). The survey questionnaire consisted of close ended questions and rating scales. Specifically, questions focused on identifying the activities with which SSLs and SLs were more satisfied and those in which they were interested, as well as the reasons for their interest in those activities, the challenges they encountered in those activities, and suggestions to improve online learning. The rating questions focused on the level of enjoyment with online learning (1 not at all, 5 very enjoyable), the usefulness and quality of videos and handouts resources (1 not at all, 5 very useful), and the level of satisfaction with facilitation (1 not at all, 5 very satisfied). Furthermore, SSLs and SLs were asked to indicate whether they were motivated to continue with online learning or not and to justify their decision. Furthermore, data were collected through an online Zoom meeting with 20 SSLs and 20 SLs, where open ended questions (Appendix 1) were discussed at length.
Quantitative data were analyzed using Excel 365 after removing duplicates. Percentages, means, and standard deviations were calculated and compared using bar graphs. Furthermore, thematic analysis was used for the analysis of qualitative data (Buetow, 2010).
The current section provides evidence for the main question under the study, namely to what extent SSLs and SLs are satisfied with the course delivery and online facilitation.
In relation to the opportunities for online learning, the majority of SSLs who responded to the survey (73.4%) use mobile devices. Others (39.9%) use laptops, and a small number (2.5%) use tablets. On the other hand, it was found that the majority of SLs (59.2%) use laptops, compared to 53.3% who use smartphones and 0.8% who use tablets. Results indicated that the activities preferred by SLs and SSLs are mainly the interactive content (H5P), doing quizzes, and learning the subject content (Figure 1). In this regard, the most enjoyable learning resources are handouts (4.23 ± 0.9) for SLs, and videos (4.06 ± 1.0) for SSLs.
Satisfaction with facilitation (Mean and Standard Deviation)
3.56 (1.1)
3.20 (1.3)
Note:1 notenjoyableatall,5 veryenjoyable;Meanscoresandstandarddeviations,FD: Feedback,H5P:InteractiveContent
4.07 (1.0)
4.18 (0.8)
4.00 (1.2)
4.08 (0.8)
3.91 (0.8)
4.02 (1.0)
4.25 (0.7) 3.84 (1.1)
3.89 (0.9)
4.16 (0.9) - 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50
Results also indicated that SLs and SSLs are more interested in participating in the webinars (SLs: 86.7%; SSLs: 82.9%). The reported motivations to pursue webinars include getting answers to questions from facilitators, improving knowledge and skills, peer learning and sharing ideas, improving ICT skills to learn effectively online, giving opinions, getting help for less understood subject content, and interacting with others. The majority of respondents (SLs: 4.11 ± 0.9; SSLs: 3.77 ± 0.8) feel comfortable with online learning, and most of them (SLs: 4.00 ± 1.0; SSLs: 3.77 ± 1.1) are motivated to continue with online learning. From this perspective, males were more motivated (SLs: 4.1 ± 0.9; SSLs: 3.78 ± 1.2) than females (SLs: 3.70 ± 0.9; SSLs: 3.75 ± 1.0). The motivations to continue with online learning are linked to the availability of resources, namely Internet connectivity, support from online facilitators, and course design. Despite the identified opportunities, doing some activities remains a challenge for some SLs and SSLs. The most challenging activities comprise uploading assignments, organizing and participating in forum discussions, and understanding some of the content of the lessons (Figure 2). As a result, some respondents (SLs: 13.3%; SSLs: 17.1%) stated that they are unmotivated to continue with online learning. SLs and SSLs indicated during the Zoom meeting that a lack of motivation to continue with online learning is related to a lack of electricity, Internet connection, time for online learning, limited knowledge, and skills to use online learning materials;thus a lack of interest and motivation.
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Handouts
Videos
H5P
Lesson
Feedback activity
Forum discussions
Uploading an assignment
Quiz
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Level of the support needed from facilitators (%)
The feedback from the Zoom meeting indicated that SLs and SSLS struggled initially and got used to it after a certain period of time. One of them stated that "At the beginning, it was hard as I did not even know which browser to use. As I could not move out of my home due to COVID 19, I had to call friends and facilitators to help me. From their guidance, I managed to log in for the first time and hence had access to the content. I followed the same process for the next time, until I got used to it”. Another participant explained that " online learning is enjoyable, despite some problems which might be linked with the lack of Internet and electricity. Several times, I failed to meet the deadlines for quizzes and assignments due to the lack of Internet access”
To improve online learning, SLs and SSLs suggested the organization of face to face sessions to support online learning. They also suggested the provision of more detailed training on online learning, particularly in scheduling and planning for onlinelearning activities. Furthermore, they indicated the need for daily continuous support and the provision of feedback from facilitators, in addition to more quizzes, videos, and webinars. They have also indicated the need for printed handouts, especially for those living in remote areas with limited access to the Internet and electricity. They wish they could go online only for submitting assignments and doing quizzes.
The feedback from the Zoom meeting revealed that SLs and SSLS struggled initially but got used to it after some time. However, only a small number of people showed up. This was also accompanied by SLs and SSLS dropouts from the survey. This finding confirms that of Narul et al. (2015), who point out that the dropping out might be associated with the online learning style, culture, pedagogy, lack of technological and technical training, and time management. However, SLs and SSLs who managed to continue with online learning used different tools, mainly laptops and mobile phones. The availability of ICT tools
is an opportunity for the success of online learning as they facilitate personal learning environments (Humanante et al., 2015), which is consistent with the professional development framework for online learning.
In particular, the availability of personal computers facilitates the development of the cognitive skills necessary for educational achievement (Kuhlemeier&Hemker, 2007). They enable personal work in relation to time and personal ability to use the computer. On the other hand, nowadays the use of mobile phones in education is on the rise. First of all, mobile phones are available and accessible to many teachers and students as a tool actually used for communication. Furthermore, they are appreciated for their portability and ease of use (Liu et al., 2008; Vázquez Cano, 2014). Modern Android phones can perform the same tasks as computers, such as receiving and responding to emails, downloading documents and videos, and taking photos (Mpofu, 2016) Therefore, they can be used for all of the activities planned in online learning programs. In essence, the possession of the mentioned devices requires personal willingness as one of professional development theoretical assumptions.
Nevertheless, the results of this study indicated a high level of satisfaction with online facilitation, even though teachers still need support from facilitators. This is in line with another study which indicated that a teacher’s assistance and presence encourage online learning, especially when they provide timely words of motivation, affirmation, or validation of student contributions (Fikri Zulfikar et al., 2019). Another study indicated that the cognitiveand socialfactors as well as the presence of teachers facilitating online learning may result in an increase in students’ social presence (Kozan& Richardson, 2014).This, in turn, motivates them to participate actively in various online activities through asking questions, joining forum discussions with peers and teachers, doing quizzes, and completing assignments (Blocher, 2005). The presence of facilitators is also helpful, especially when they have to provide technical support to learners, such as doing and submitting assignments and forum discussions, which are in line with the professional development framework guiding this study (Baran & Correia 2014).
Considering the satisfaction of the trainees, for effective CPD, SLs and SSLs recommended the organization of face to face learning to support online learning, a process known as blended learning (Karamizadeh et al., 2012). Several benefits of blended learning have been reported in the literature, the most common being flexibility (Shand &Glassett, 2017), reinforcement of learning, and engagement with peer students (Gedik et al., 2012). This is why blended learning is appreciated as an innovative method for learners, making the learning and teaching process more comfortable and attractive for learners (Kvavik, 2005). However, it has to be well organized and planned to avoid its over valuation by students, which may reduce online engagement (Lopez Perez et al., 2011). Moreover, teachers may be tempted to put less emphasis on the facilitation of the face to face part than on the online component (Jeffrey et al., 2014).
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Blended learning can also reduce the number of SLs and SSLs who are discouraged from continuing with female dominated online learning. It was found that blended learning increases learner satisfaction, which in turn leads to changes in attitudes and feelings (Wu et al., 2010). Furthermore, blended learning increases the motivation towards achieving learning outcomes (Kintu et al., 2017) as well as emphasising student characteristics such as gender (Hindal et al., 2013). In this regard, face to face sessions provide opportunities for students to learn from peers and facilitators. It is an opportunity to ask questions and get clarifications on the steps involved in online learning, such as accessing the content, doing quizzes, submitting assignments, and participating in forum discussions. It is also an opportunity to ask questions in relation to the subject content that seems difficult for them. This could enable SLs and SSLs to learn skills and access knowledge that would not be the case with online learning alone.Hence they could be motivated and encouraged to continue with online learning.
SLs and SSLs indicated the need for training on the use of modern technologies. Owing to the immediate shift from face to face to online learning, challenges related to modern technology are obvious. However, the success of online learning is mostly based on the experience and ability in using the Internet and computer applications. It also depends on computer literacy and management (Rovai 2003). We assume that the training could be provided before the start of the online learning. Owing to COVID 19, the training could be carefully prepared and provided online. During the training, all steps could be clarified, as could the structure of the online content, so that SLs and SSLs are skilled in all the steps followed in online programs.
In this study, the findings indicated that the design has a different influence on the preferences of SLs and SSLs. One program preferred the handouts, while another one preferred video. Course design was found to be of great significance in online learning (Kintu et al., 2017). It was found that design affects learning efficiency in ways such as technical quality, reliability, learning customization capabilities, ease of use, and effectiveness comprising system design, delivery, and outcome. In this regard, performance and self efficacy are measurements of learning effectiveness and learning efficacy (Renner et al., 2014). The preference for the handout might be more influenced by face to face learning, as was found in another study (Paechter& Maier 2010), where students attended the class and heard lectures from facilitators. In this regard, teaching is enhanced by reading handouts. On the other hand, the preference for videos might be related to their importance in helping learners understand complex concepts and procedures that are difficult to explain with text and graphics (Hartsell and Yuen 2006). Furthermore, the combination of videos with other learning services has great potential to provide students with an integrated online learning space (Giannakos, 2013).
A small number of SLs and SSLs provided feedback on the survey. The small number might be related to the mode of data collection used in this study. The analysis of recorded data during the registration indicated that the majority of SLs and SSLs who did not provide feedback are located in remote areas with limited Internet access, mobile phone networks, and electricity. Therefore, it was not possible for them to have access to online surveys, and it was not possible to reach them by mobile phone. The low number of responses could also indicate that most SLs and SSLs struggled with online learning and dropped out of the program. Other reasons that possibly caused the dropout might be associated with the lack of Internet access and devices such as computers, laptops, and smartphones. Limited access to the Internet was found to be a major challenge, hence the reason for giving up on online learning. This is because the Internet is a basic tool, without which the availability of other tools indispensable for online learning might be useless. With regard to dropping out, the personal motivation and resistance to mind change from face to face to online learning cannot be ignored. In this study, this can be associated with rapid change, as during the registration SLs and SSLs enjoyed face to face learning. The shift from this mode of teaching delivery to online was caused by COVID 19. Hence, the majority of SLs and SSLs might not be ready to cope with the changes.
COVID 19 affected the methods of teaching and learning in Rwanda. The shift from face to face learning caused more students to drop out of the program.This can be indicated not only by the number of SLs and SSLs who provided feedback from the survey, but also by the number of active participants in online learning. Those who have been able to participate in online learning, on the other hand, primarily use computers, laptops, and mobile phones to follow online courses. Furthermore, they are satisfied with the online facilitation they receive from facilitators, even though the support might be improved and be accompanied by face to face learning to enhance online learning. Despite the challenges identified in this study, SSLs and SLs are motivated to continue with online learning.
We recommend training on the use of ICT tools and steps followed in online learning before the program is applied in other CPD and higher learning programs in Rwanda. We also recommend the organization of face to face learning by the end of the lockdown to support skills and knowledge and to overcome challenges faced by SLs and SSLs from online learning. Therefore, these findings can serve as a reference to improve not only the planning and implementation of effective online learning but also that of face to face learning.
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Dear School Subject Leader and School Leader,
With COVID 19 pandemic, there was a shift from face to face mode of continuous professional development to online learning. The current study aims at assessing the satisfaction of the school subject leaders (teachers) and school leaders with the online learning and to identify opportunities and challenges for the online learning towards the improvement of the online learning. This study targets the trainees who are pursuing continuous professional development for school subject leaders and leaders (SLs).
We, researchers from the University of Rwanda, are interested in this particular study with intent of disseminating the outcomes of the study for improving the effectiveness of the new methodology in teacher education in the future. Further, anonymity will be kept throughout the report and your data will be only used for academic purpose. In this regard, we assure you that the provided information will be kept confidential. Therefore, feel free to provide frank and accurate information. For any question do not hesitate to contact the first author, Dr.Nsengimana Venuste (email: venusteok@gmail.com or Tel: 0788504218) or the main supervisor, Mr. Nsengimana Theophile (email: nsengimanafr@gmail.com or Tel: 0788614146).
We thank you very much for your cooperation.
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I. Respondent information
District: School: Age: Gender: Material used for online learning:
II. Rating questions
Instruction: rate by ticking (√) from 1: Not enjoyable at all – 5: very enjoyable in appropriate cell your opinion with the online facilitation 1. To what extent are you satisfied with the online course delivery and online facilitation?
Extent of satisfaction 1 2 3 4 5 Satisfaction with online course Satisfaction with the online facilitation
Rate your level of satisfaction with the following facilitation in online learning activities: Learning activity 1 2 3 4 5
content
Rate your level of satisfaction with activities and or learning resources in which you wish to get more support:
Learning activity/resource 1 2 3 4 5
Open questions
Instruction: Please elaborate on the following questions:
1. What are the opportunities for online learning which enable you to attain the learning outcomes during the continuous professional development? 2. Vis à vis material and facilitation for learning, what challenges do you face with the online learning?
3. In relation to online learning material and facilitation, what do you suggest for improving the online facilitation?
4. Any other information to improve online learning programs?
We thank you very much for your collaboration………
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 397 409, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.21
Received Mar 24, 2022; Revised Jun 23, 2022; Accepted Jul 28, 2022
Abstract. The current age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) brings together digital, physical, and biological awareness in ways never before seen. The transition has contributed to new technology and developments,suchasrobotics,theInternet ofThings,augmentedreality, and artificial intelligence. As a nation, Nigeria is still behind with preparations for its future through appropriate, unique educational practices in this era for its citizens. This is because the quality of Nigeria’ s higher education curriculum has not improved much. To boost the responsiveness of Nigeria’s curriculum in this technological era, this theoretical paper explores the itinerant curriculum as an alternative direction to other highlighted alternatives in the literature. The paper explains how the itinerant curriculum can be used to achieve economic, cultural, disciplinary, and learning responsiveness in the era of the 4IR. The paper concludes that the itinerant curriculum is an important tool that can help Nigerian higher education achieve curriculum responsiveness.
Keywords: curriculum responsiveness; Fourth Industrial Revolution; itinerant curriculum; Nigerian higher education
The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), which gained official traction in 2016, has paved the way for digital, biological, and physical transformation in our world. It has also allowed for the growing utilization of new technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI), cloud computing, robotics, 3D printing, the Internet of Things (IoT), and advanced wireless technologies. The 4IR is the current and developing environment in which disruptive technologies and trends are changing the way we live and work (Fomunyam, 2019). Fomunyam (2019) explained that the 4IR comes with high digitization and other features such as mobile supercomputing, intelligent robots, self driving vehicles, changes to the neuro technological brain, and genetic engineering.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
Despite the enormous benefits which the 4IR has brought and will continue to bring to our modern generation, Nigeria is still behind with preparations for its future, due to lack of relevant unique educational practices for its populace. This is because very little has changed in the Nigerian higher education curriculum, which is therefore very insignificant to the current realities (Agwu, 2019). Agwu (2019) continued that the current higher education curriculum used in higher education in Nigeria is very old, obsolete, and mostly irrelevant to the demands of the 4IR. This is confirmed by Igwe et al. (2021), who argued that most of the content of the curriculum cannot equip students with the necessary skills to perform in the emerging organizational workplace and settings. Nigerian higher education in this era of knowledge economy is still focused intensely on abstract knowledge acquisition This has gravely affected the quality of education, as graduates lack the skills necessary to operate seamlessly in this era of digitization. This explains Agwu’s (2019) assertion that the underdevelopment of Nigeria has often been related to the lack of investment in human development and the problems associated with educational reforms A resultant effect here is the churning out of graduates into a knowledge economy of the twenty first century. These graduates see the practicality of acquired knowledge as the greatest form of learning compared to other forms of economy which focus intensively on the acquisition of abstract knowledge. The question yet to be answered is: What type of curriculum will pragmatically improve the quality of graduates and make for responsiveness in the Nigerian society in the current era?
As highlighted earlier, the curriculum used in Nigerian higher education needs change/reform to make for better graduates who will be employable in the changing place of work (Ogunode & Musa, 2020). One of the approaches that can be used to resolve this challenge is the itinerant curriculum approach. The itinerant curriculum in the higher education sector in Nigeria will ensure its relevance in the present industrial and technological era. In addition, the itinerant curriculum will promote a global mindset, giving scholars the edge to be fully grounded for the future workplace, and the ability to deal with global situations regardless of where they are. The itinerant curriculum for Nigerian higher education will help scholars imbibe indigenous expertise, traditions, values, and adoption and adaptation of global best traditions to local settings where possible. Therefore, this paper explores how the itinerant curriculum can be used as a pathway in ensuring that Nigerian curricula become responsive to this current era of rapid industrialization, in light of the four dimensions of responsiveness (i.e., economic, cultural, disciplinary, and learning responsiveness).
This paper is split into sections for proper articulation. The first section of the paper concentrates on the 4IR and the impact it has and can have on higher education in Nigeria, while the second part is used to deconstruct the itinerant curriculum. The third section describes responsiveness as a concept, while the fourth part deals with the itinerant curriculum and how it can be used to achieve responsiveness in Nigerian higher education. The paper ends with a conclusion.
Before the advent of the 4IR, there were the First, Second, and Third Industrial Revolutions. The First Industrial Revolution used water and steam power to mechanize production (Schwab, 2016) and brought about cultural changes as people migrated from rural areas to live in big cities. It also sparked new innovations with regard to modes of transport and a better way of life. The Second Industrial Revolution was another great technological and social leap forward. The advent of public vehicles and aircraft contributed to new developments in steel manufacturing, petroleum, and electricity (Mohajan, 2020). The emergence of new technology contributed to the development of two world changing products: public transport and aircraft. The third revolution brought forth the rise of electronics, telecommunications, and, of course, computers (Fomunyam, 2019). Through the new technologies, the Third Industrial Revolution opened the doors to space expeditions, research, and biotechnology. The end of the Third Industrial Revolution ushered in the 4IR
The 4IR (sometimes referred to as Industry 4.0) is changing society like never before, building on the foundations of the first three industrial revolutions. The 4IR has brought and will continue to bring about technological breakthroughs in fields such as AI, robotics, the IoT, autonomous vehicles, 3D printing, nanotechnology, biotechnology, materials science, energy storage, and quantum computing (Schwab, 2016). Consequently, essential features of the 4IR are the possibilities of billions of people being connected by mobile devices with unprecedented processing power, storage capacity, and access to knowledge. According to Fomunyam (2019), the 4IR is a way of describing the blurring of boundaries between the physical, digital, and biological worlds. It is a fusion of advances in AI, robotics, the IoT, 3D printing, genetic engineering, quantum computing, and other technologies. It is the driving force behind many goods and services which are increasingly becoming central to everyday life (Schwab, 2016). Think of global positioning systems (GPSs) that suggest the quickest route to a destination, voice activated virtual assistants such as Apple’s Siri, customized Netflix recommendations, and the ability of Facebook to remember your face and tag you on a friend’s picture.
The 4IR as perfect technological storm paves the way for dramatic changes in how we live, and profoundly disrupts almost every sector of the economy, including higher education, and this transformation is taking place at an unprecedented rate. However, as a result of the unresponsive curriculum, the present Nigerian higher education graduate does not have the requisite skills and knowledge to adapt and keep adapting in the ever changing world of work. Until recently, Nigerian educational regulators also ensured that all higher education institutions strictly comply with and teach moribund and outdated curricular material that is substantially inconsistent with the needs of students in the 4IR. Affirming this, the Deputy Vice Chancellor of Crawford University, Igbesa, Ogun State, Prof. Patrick Yalokwu, posited that Nigeria’s education curricula are outdated and cannot prepare students for the present day, having been developed more than 30 years ago (Asabor, 2017). The greater percentage of higher education learning in Nigeria
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is abstract rather than practical, and more practical learning is needed in this era of digitization
Looking at the changes currently happening by reason of the 4IR, there is need for curricular change or reform in Nigeria in order to meet the demands of the new world of work (Enoch, 2020). In other words, Nigerian higher education has an important role in churning out active citizens who would lead in this era of the 4IR, particularly in terms of job creation. It is believed that specialist roles, such as AI, machine learning, and big data specialists; process automation experts; information security analysts; user experience and human machine interaction designers; robotics engineers; and blockchain specialists will be in very high demand in this era of digitization. Enoch (2020) confirmed this by arguing that it is evident that professionals with a combination of science, technology, and social sciences skills will be in high demand in this era of the 4IR.
The active participation of Nigeria in the 4IR depends largely on the dynamism of its universities and various institutes of learning. Inwalomhe (2019) stressed the importance of developing digital skills for Nigeria’s younger generation to respond to the challenges posed by the digitization of the labor market, education, and training. This needs to become a joint responsibility of employers, employees, policymakers at local and national level, and especially higher education and educators. This partnership should begin with a change in the educational curricula to ensure that responsiveness is achieved at all levels and under all circumstances One of the approaches to achieve this is by engaging the itinerant curriculum. To this end, this paper sees the itinerant curriculum as a possible and successful pathway which can ensure that the higher education curriculum achieves the necessary dimensions of responsiveness in this era of the 4IR.
3.
the Itinerant Curriculum Itinerant Curriculum Theory (ICT) offers a way to think about curricula from an information ecology perspective and moves the curriculum field down a radically new, innovative, and inter and transnational direction (Oliveira, 2017). ICT tries to map out an itinerant path to solve a problem and adds new terrains and theoretical circumstances. ICT advocates breaking the yokes of Western academicism challenging Western epistemicide curricula and advising on the need to accept and integrate non Western epistemes. ICT, according to Paraskeva (2016), is: “a new path that is sentient of the functionalism of both dominant and counter dominant Western Eurocentric positions, of the richness of non Western epistemological platforms, of the fallacy of the history fabricated by Western Eurocentric dominant and specific dominant traditions, of the fascism of the Western Eurocentric epistemological coloniality that failed, and it failed greatly, not only because of its crude limitations and fallacies but also given the immense power of non Western epistemological ways of reading and being in the world that always challenge Western Eurocentric dominant position ” (p. 16)
This means that ICT can create curricula guided by emancipatory epistemologies of contrast and reverberating otherness that give room to (re)imagine what is
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more, reforming the unbending and reductive ideologies that threaten our education and lives. Thus, through such emancipatory work, African lecturers can open themselves and their students to new ways of working through their differences, identifying, opposing, and undermining old ways of knowing that once made their lives quiet and invisible. ICT is thus a progressive way to reform the Western centric curricula. ICT is motivated by the importance of non Western curricula in the fight for a more appropriate and socially responsible curriculum and education. ICT is an unblemished claim against dominant multiculturalist forms that are: “Eurocentric, a prime expression of the cultural logic of national or global capitalism, descriptive, apolitical, suppressing power relations, exploitation, inequality and exclusion and have been legitimizing a monoculture of scientific knowledge that needs to be defeated and replaced by an ecology of knowledges.” (de Sousa Santos, 2007, p. 3)
In a nutshell, ICT challenges the coloniality of power, being, knowledge, and labor. ICT advocates deterritorialization and discusses the difficulties of English linguistic hegemony and avoids epistemicide. It is therefore assumed that if the curriculum achieves deterritorialization, challenges English linguistic hegemony, and avoids epistemicide, then the outdated, obsolete, and irrelevant curriculum currently used by Nigerian higher education would be able to respond to the 4IR dynamics.
Crispin (2019) argued that deterritorialization in Nigeria would entail the eradication from their native places and communities of any social, political, or cultural activities. Therefore, deterritorializing the Nigerian higher education curriculum simply means eradicating from the curriculum all limiting artefacts which are considered irrelevant in today’s ecosphere. Educational deterritorialization is an intervention that encourages chaos, reflection, analysis, breakdown of values, restoration, defragmentation again, but with new shades, aspects, and characteristics (Barone et al., 2015). The deterritorialization of Nigerian higher education would focus on breaking cultural, political, and social barriers both locally and internationally to build systems that are socially just and responsive.
The problem of English linguistic hegemony is another key tenet of ICT. The dominance of English has been documented. Fontana (1993) argued that the ultimate hegemonic structure demands that the leading structure maintain its role through the willingness and consent of the minority community. Furthermore, this consent is obtained through the creation of mass consent, a collective confidence in the naturalness and correctness of that social order. The manufacturing of this consent is largely focused on systemic, clear media and institutional persuasion, and this persuasion can penetrate ideas and values of normalcy in everyday life, so that they permeate and direct human interaction. According to Tietze and Dick (2012), hegemony means the rule of one social group over another that is achieved when the dominant group successfully projects its own particular ways of seeing the world and human and social relationships. This happens in such way that those who are actually subordinated by these views come to accept them as being “ common sense ” or natural The dominated group
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internalizes the norms and ideology of the dominant group, even though this is not necessarily in their interests.
Linguistic hegemony has been established and characterized as what is accomplished when dominant groups establish consensus by persuading others to adopt their normative or paradigmatic language norms. According to Wiley (2000), linguistic hegemony is often said to be achieved when some people or their agents can force others who fail to meet certain expectations to see their failure as the product of the inadequacy of their own language. English is a global language that has challenged every chance of achieving the highest status a language can achieve, namely integration into the education systems of most countries around the world. As a study subject, it is the most widely taught foreign language in almost all countries worldwide, and a medium of instruction in about 55 countries (Dearden, 2015). Breaking this hegemony in favor of African languages, among other languages, would go a long way in ensuring responsiveness.
Moll (2004) explained that curriculum responsiveness is the ability of curricula taught in schools or universities to address student needs as well as societal circumstances. This means that for a curriculum to be responsive, graduates should become productive members of the society by continually solving societal problems with relative ease. Curriculum responsiveness within this context would mean the ability of the higher education curriculum in Nigeria to produce graduates that have the capacity to be productive in the era of the 4IR
Fomunyam and Teferra (2017) argued that for a curriculum to achieve responsiveness in this 4IR era, it has to be economically, culturally, disciplinary, and learning responsive. Economic responsiveness deals with the ability of a curriculum to train skilled professionals in different sectors of the economy (Fomunyam & Teferra, 2017). Therefore, a curriculum is said to be economically responsive when graduates are highly skilled and ready for the job market. By being ready for the job market, they are able to develop long lasting solutions to organizational problems and to create new jobs where needed. An economically responsive curriculum will not just satisfy the current job market but will be able to proffer solutions to anticipated organizational problems and contribute immensely to the development of the general economy.
It has become very pertinent that African higher education curricula become economically responsive to the 4IR (Fomunyam & Teferra, 2017). This is because in this era of technological advancement, organizations will be confronted by new technological challenges that will threaten, affect, and change their business processes from little automation to highly automated business processes. To this effect, this will make organizations yearn for employees that are highly skillful and that have the capacity to operate in automated organizations. Economic responsiveness therefore moves beyond offering a degree in particular fields of study such as management or computer programming to how wholly or sophisticatedly skilled these professionals are (Moll, 2004). If they can move beyond dabbling with the problems in the field to developing solutions, then the
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curriculum can be said to be economically responsive. To this effect, revolutionary individuals need to be trained to be more than just fit to take on the economy They also need to be able to respond to the economic challenges of the time through job creation, inventions, and innovative approaches to better manage resources and avoid waste. Economic responsiveness in the curriculum therefore goes beyond satisfying the job market at the present but creating sustainable solutions to future challenges as well as the growth of the economy (Fomunyam & Teferra, 2017). What you learn, therefore, and how you learn it contribute to the deconstruction of the hegemonic processes that have been keeping the nation in an underdeveloped state.
On the other hand, cultural responsiveness is the ability of the curriculum to access and respond to the cultural dissonance in the classroom (Moll, 2004). Classrooms are always divided along cultural lines, and this could be in the form of race, ethnicity, religion, age, and sometimes gender. Ladson Billings (1995) argued that culturally responsive pedagogy is a student centered approach to teaching that includes cultural references and recognizes the importance of students’ cultural backgrounds and experiences in all aspects of learning. To this end, a culturally responsive classroom will promote engagement by embracing classroom diversity and nurturing students’ cultural strengths. Culturally responsive teaching is concerned with using cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant and effective for them. Thus, a culturally responsive classroom will see diversity and cultural differences as assets and values; challenge racial and cultural stereotypes, prejudices, racism, injustice, and oppression; and promote social justice and academic equity.
Globalization and internalization have made the classroom more culturally diverse as ever experienced before, which makes it important for classrooms to be culturally responsive. Researchers have found that culturally responsive classrooms motivate students to learn and help them become effective learners. Moll (2004) argued that a nation such as Nigeria with a corrosively discriminating past requires a curriculum that would not only respond to cultural challenges but also recognize the diversity within the classroom. This recognition empowers the teacher to tap into the diverse social and cultural capital within the classroom to enhance the learning experience. Gumbo and Williams (2014) added that cultural responsiveness is the teacher’s ability to demonstrate knowledge of the cultural characteristics of different groups within the classroom, and how these cultural differences affect the teaching and learning process. Knowledge is built on experiences, which itself are culturally shaped. As such, recognizing the cultural differences in the classroom from a curricular standpoint is a way of decolonizing the educational space and giving everyone a voice.
Third, disciplinary responsiveness is a type of responsiveness that is very cogent in this era of the 4IR. Ferdinand (2009) argued that disciplinary responsiveness is the ability of curricula to be up to date with the research in the field as well as promote new discoveries within the discipline. This means that for a curriculum to be disciplinary responsive, it must continually incorporate new knowledge in
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the field into the curriculum. A disciplinary responsive curriculum allows for specialization and depth of content knowledge; is specific, current, and factual; and develops skills in students as it emerges from experts of the discipline. As a result of the current technological advancement, there is the need for new knowledge to be continually embedded in the curriculum, for it to remain responsive to the drastic changes in the workplace. Hence, Moja (2004) explained that disciplinary responsiveness will ensure that what is happening locally and internationally as far as any discipline is concerned is duly embedded in the curriculum. This will encourage students to think globally and act locally to develop the discipline and solve current and anticipated organizational problems.
A higher education curriculum is intricately bound up with a community of scholars or scholarship who produce new knowledge according to the dictates of the discipline. However, most academic disciplines or curricula are often highly systematized forms of inquiry that evade everyday life practices for which education is supposed to prepare people and inform and challenge them (Moll, 2004). For the higher education curriculum to be disciplinary responsive within the context of Nigeria, it should not only be up to date in relation to research in the field but structured in ways that are applicable to everyday life, especially since knowledge is largely for application. Disciplinary responsiveness will as well encourage students to think globally and act locally to develop the discipline.
Finally, learning responsiveness, otherwise called pedagogical responsiveness, is the ability of the curriculum to respond to the needs of the student (Fomunyam & Teferra, 2017). Learning has to take into serious consideration the individual needs of students, without which students may find it difficult to learn. The idea here is to help students develop their academic, social, and emotional skills in a learning environment that is developmentally responsive to their strengths and needs. In this age of technological advancement, it is important that learning becomes responsive to the respective needs of students, so that students do not become disinterested in class lessons. Students need to be excited and keen to learn the rudiments of becoming successful employees in the future workplace. According to Moll (2004), students entering university are at a disadvantaged one way or another, especially since they have to adapt to an institutional and epistemic context unfamiliar to them. Making the curriculum responsive to their needs fosters the course for decolonization, especially since decolonizing the mind is the first step to ensure freedom and critical engagement to whatever material it receives.
To this effect, the ultimate question is: How can higher education curricula in Nigeria achieve economic, cultural, disciplinary, and learning responsiveness to prepare students in Nigeria for the 4IR? This paper proposes the itinerant curriculum as an alternative curriculum pathway to making Nigerian higher education responsive to the demands of the 4IR.
5. The Itinerant Curriculum as a Key to Responsiveness in the 4IR Era Paraskeva (2016) argued for three key factors within the frame of ICT: deterritorialization of the current curricula, challenging of English linguistic
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hegemony, and prevention of epistemicide. This section discusses these three factors in line with the responsiveness agenda. To deterritorialize Nigeria’ s higher education curriculum for responsiveness will require moving away from Eurocentric viewpoints and breaking all boundaries and barriers which have held knowledge within the curriculum stagnant. Deterritorialization of the curriculum will create room for disciplinary responsiveness. In concurrence, Fomunyam (2019) argued that when this happens, we will begin to see less of biology, mathematics, and English and more of big data, innovative studies, and decision sciences in the next 10 years. Deterritorialization will create room for the continuous renewal of the curriculum, making it fit for purpose as well as for the current dispensation. In support, Mustapha (2022) cited the Nigerian Minister of Higher Education, who purported that:
“It has become important that the education sector should be increasingly more relevant and the changing role of the teacher being a facilitator rather than absolute harbinger of knowledge … the type of curriculum that will now focus more on skills, entrepreneurship, we want to enhance employability. As we have been preaching, we don’t want to produce graduates that are looking for government employment ” (p. 1)
Deterritorialization of the curriculum will make room for new possibilities and innovation within the curriculum in particular and higher education in general to engineer the development of new skills which hitherto has been impossible. The Nigerian Minister of Communication and Digital Economy, Professor Isa Pantami (cited in Mustapha, 2022), concurred with this when he argued that:
“We always complain about unemployment, I agree that there is unemployment, but the percentage is not as we think. The significant challenge we have in Nigeria is the problem of unemployability, this is the major problem particularly when it comes to sciences, engineering, technology. We need to provide the relevant skills so that they will be able to confront any challenge and can be able to apply for any job globally. Today if you apply for a job in a global tech giant, they hardly ask you about the university you attended or class of degree but are interested in knowing your hard skills and soft skills this is what they are interested in ” (p. 1)
Secondly, dismantling the hegemony of English language will cater for pedagogical and cultural responsiveness. Mustapha (2014) identified language ecology as being a counterstrategy to English hegemony. Suarez (2002) proposed for the sensitivity and resistance of individuals to linguistic hegemony and the preservation of language heritage (language usage driven by antihegemonic ideologies). Although it might appear at first that resisting linguistic hegemony is resisting the dominant language which might be detrimental in the now, the future possibilities for such resistance are endless. Suarez’s (2002) paradoxical strategy of linguistic hegemony resistance advises that in order to be successful, resistance necessitates acquiescence to this hegemony on a certain level, namely proficiency in the dominant language. At the same time, this resistance fuels the conviction towards heritage language maintenance. As such, it is important to promote the local languages of Nigeria within the purview of Suarez’s paradox of linguistic hegemony (Mustapha, 2014). Language is the principal tool for
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pedagogy or learning and also resides at the very heart of culture. As such, breaking the hegemony of English would ensure not only that cultural capital is tapped to its fullest but also that knowledge construction is at its best as all students are able to participate.
Mustapha (2014) argued that the increased usage of African languages would contribute to the growth of more inclusive individuals, both culturally and educationally. This is because those educated in their mother tongues tend to have a more positive self image and greater respect for other languages and their speakers. In reference to language and education, Matola et al. (2019) argued that language is the vehicle through which meaning is constructed Since English is the medium of instruction for universities in most parts of Africa, students are therefore forced to construct meaning in English regardless of their level of proficiency with the language. If new skills are going to be developed and students are expected to be at their best, then the hegemony of English must be broken. This will give room for a multiplicity in mediums of instruction for the construction of meaning such that teaching and learning can be more effective and cultural capital can be engaged with at its best. Kembo (2000) added that bilingualism or the use of multiple languages in the teaching and learning sphere has been known to produce more culturally adaptive students who are more socially integrated. The growth in languages has also been known to spark technological advancements, such as in the cases ofChina, Germany,Japan, Spain, and France, among other countries.
Lastly, putting an end to epistemicide is necessary to ensure that Nigerian higher education is sensitive to the 4IR. Applying ICT would mean drastically altering the curriculum to bring in alternative knowledges which have been relegated to the fringes, or in the process of epistemicide either as way of maintaining neo colonialism or hindering economic advancement. Masaka (2018) argued that: “It appears to be beyond questioning that the epistemicide that has been instituted by some people from some quarter has stunted the growth and flourishing of the epistemological paradigm of the indigenous people of Africa. This is exemplified by its near total exclusion from the school and university curricula. At worst, Africa’s contribution to the knowledge canon has been denied altogether with the dominant culture presented as the only authentic producer of knowledge ” (pp. 284 285)
With the destruction of the African knowledge canon, it becomes increasingly impossible to mastermind economic transformation, because the knowledge which was supposed to orchestrate said transformation has been destroyed. This is confirmed by de Sousa Santos (2005), who argued that: “In the name of modern science, many alternative knowledges and sciences have been destroyed, and the social groups that used these systems to support their autonomous paths of development have been humiliated. In short, in the name of science, epistemicide has been committed, and the imperial powers have resorted to it to disarm any resistance of the conquered peoples and social groups ” (p. xviii)
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Bringing an end to epistemicide will create room for economic responsiveness, as the right kind of knowledge needed for skills development locally will be liberated and made available. Ntihirageza and Ibrahima (2022) concluded that if epistemicide is not ended, the continuous development of Africa is impossible. Epistemicide is partly what is hindering the development of the right kind of skills needed in this era of the 4IR, and putting an end to it would be a major step towards achieving economic responsiveness.
The purpose of this paper was to promote the adaptation of the itinerant curriculum in higher education in Nigeria to achieve responsiveness in this era of the 4IR. The itinerant curriculum enables responsiveness at all levels and in all dimensions If the Nigerian higher education system is going to meet up with the demands of the age, changes are needed in the curriculum to drive the process. Enacting the itinerant curriculum becomes much more critical with the advent of the 4IR, which has generated euphoria for market driven economies and technological growth. According to Schwab (2016), there will be a demand for professionals who can blend digital skills with traditional subject enterprise. The Nigerian higher education curriculum needs to be structured to encourage cognitive flexibility and emotional intelligence, as these are the skills vital for the future. The ability and resilience to jump into different skill based opportunities requires cognitive flexibility, and such flexibility does not come from the type of curriculum currently in place. The curriculum must be culturally attuned, creating adaptive and flexible minds, as these are the demands of the projected fast paced future. To achieve this objective of curriculum responsiveness to the 4IR, the itinerant curriculum must be adopted.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 21, No. 7, pp. 410 448, July 2022
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.7.22
Received May 17, 2022; Revised Jul 28, 2022; Accepted Aug 5, 2022
Abstract. Students enter biology coursework with various misconceptions needing revision. However, achieving conceptual change of these misconceptions in the classroom is notoriously difficult and requires specific instruction. Self explanations can promote conceptual change, but their effects can depend on the content produced. This study investigates how the content of learners’ explanations of photosynthesis processes affects learning. We examined data from an online assignment in introductory biology where 118 college undergraduates answered multiple choice questions related to commonly misconceived processes inphotosynthesisand respiration and were thenprompted toself explain the correct answer. One week later, students took a test that measured learning in the activity. Using mixed methods analyses, we qualitatively explored the types of explanations learners made, categorized the different types of explanations, and performed quantitative analyses to examine relations between explanation content and test scores. We identified five categories of self explanations that varied in engagement, accuracy, and focus. Accuracy of the explanation mattered; accurate explanations predicted higher test scores, and inaccurate explanations predicted lower test scores. We also identified three different groups of learners: highly performing learners who were actively engaged and accurate; moderately performing learners who were engaged but often paraphrased or explained inaccurately; and low performing learners who were disengaged and avoided explaining. We provide implications for use of self explaining misconceived material.
Keywords: self explanation; misconception; conceptual change; mixed method; biology
At the college level, introductory biology courses serve a wide range of students, with varying abilities, interests, and background knowledge. The content
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0).
delivered in these courses typically assumes students are equipped with high school level biology understanding. Yet, despite K 12 instruction in biology, college students bring and maintain inaccurate knowledge and misconceptions about core concepts (Gregory, 2009; Heddy & Sinatra, 2013; Meir et al., 2007; Oliver et al., 2018). Correcting these misconceptions requires conceptual change of the prior knowledge, and this is both a difficult and necessary task for science educators (Sinatra & Taasoobshirazi, 2011; Vosniadou, 2007). Conceptual change is a complex process of knowledge revision that typically does not occur spontaneously, and instruction must be tailored to facilitate this process when needed (Nadelson et al., 2018). Refutation texts can be effective at inducing conceptual change in the classroom (Sinatra & Broughton, 2011; Tippet, 2010), but self explanation prompts may be a more effective strategy in actively engaging students in this process online (Oliver et al., 2018).
In this study, we explore the use of self explanations to promote conceptual change in an online activity covering commonly misconceived content on photosynthesis and respiration. While self explanations are generally a recommended practice and can be effective at promoting conceptual change, characteristics of the explanation produced, like the accuracy and engagement (Chi, 2018; Rittle Johnson & Loehr, 2017), can mediate the effectiveness of the strategy. Understanding the role of explanation accuracy is particularly important in scenarios where the content being learned is already highly misconceived and inaccurate explanations are likely. We investigated undergraduate biology students who held misconceptions about photosynthesis and respiration (Oliver et al., 2018) and assessed what types of explanations students produced about this material and how different types of explanations affected learning. To accomplish this, we designed an activity to activate existing misconceptions using questions with misconceptions embedded as answer options. We then provided students with correct answer feedback, prompted them to self explain the correct answer provided, and measured learning one week later with a test covering information from the activity.
To assess what types of explanations students were producing and how each type related to learning, we first identified features of learners’ explanations through an exploratory qualitative analysis of explanation content. We then coded those features and used them to predict performance on the test. We addressed two research questions with this mixed methods analysis:
RQ1: What types of self explanations do learners provide of commonly misconceived biology content?
RQ2: How do different types of self explanations relate to test performance?
We hypothesized that students would produce explanations that varied in accuracy and engagement, with inaccurate explanations being common. We further hypothesized that accurate explanations would predict increased test performance, but inaccurate explanations would predict decreased test performance. Our research questions and hypotheses draw from literature on conceptual change, biology misconceptions, and self explanations, and ourresults
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have direct implications for the design of online self explanation tasks in introductory biology courses.
Knowledge building is most often associated with learning, where new information is added to existing knowledge. A different type of learning is associated with knowledge correction and is referred to as conceptual change (Sinatra, 2005). The process of conceptual change is necessary when a learner has a misconception, which can be a hindrance to further learning if left unrevised (Nadelson et al., 2018; Sinatra & Pintrich, 2003). A misconception is defined as inaccurate prior knowledge that conflicts with the knowledge currently accepted by experts (Tippet, 2010), and it could involve incorrect knowledge of various types and scopes (Chi, 2013; Vaughn et al., 2020). Learners cannot simply replace or delete misconceptions from their knowledge structures, and conceptual change involves a complex learning process that typically must affect the use of multiple types and layers of knowledge (Vaughn et al., 2020). Modern models of conceptual change vary slightly based on whether they describe processes of permanent knowledge restructuring and shift (Chi, 2008; Vosniadou, 2007) or the addition of new knowledge paired with the inhibition of relatively unchanged erroneous knowledge (Kendeou & Van Den Broek, 2007; Vaughn et al., 2020).
While theories surrounding the nature of conceptual change vary according to ideas about how the new information is situated in knowledge structures and what happens to the old information, researchers agree that the process of change must begin with the learner recognizing that their knowledge conflicts with the information they are learning, believing in the accuracy of the new knowledge, realizing a need to change their existing knowledge, and being willing to do so (Kendeou & van den Broek, 2007; Nadelson et al., 2018; Vaughn et al., 2020; Vosniadou, 2007). As such, instruction must be specifically tailored to guide students through these processes when conceptual change is necessary.
In science domains, misconceptions are common because students have their own personal, but naive and often misconceived theories to explain natural phenomena (Chi, 2005; Guzzetti, 2000; Sinatra & Taasoobshirazi, 2011; Vosniadou, 2007). As such, an inherent part of learning science is encountering information in the classroom that conflicts with one ’ s pre exiting ideas (Sinatra & Chinn, 2012). While conceptual change is an important goal for all science educators, this study focused on misconceptions found in introductory biology students, namely misconceptions related to photosynthesis and respiration. These topics involve a number of interrelated and sometimes abstract concepts, which can make these biological processes some of the most difficult for students to correctly understand no matter their age (Galvin et al., 2015; Svandova, 2014). Despite years of prior formal instruction, undergraduate college students and pre service science teachers still maintain misconceptions about these processes (Galvin et al., 2015; Karakaya et al., 2021; Oliver et al., 2018; Södervik et al., 2015)
Research has documented a number of common misconceptions regarding photosynthesis and respiration, including the incorrect beliefs that: plants get their food to grow through their roots; plants do not respire; plants respirating is similar to breathing in animals; and respiration only takes places when photosynthesis does not (AAAS, 2016; Galvin et al., 2015; Oliver et al., 2018). Students learn the correct explanations for these processes in class, but they do not undergo conceptual change of their related misconceptions and sufficiently incorporate the correct information into their conceptual knowledge (Tas et al., 2012). As a result, these misconceptions often persist after instruction. This poses a significant problem in biology education because correctly understanding the broader concepts of plant nutrition and ecology relies on the correct understanding of photosynthesis and respiration (Kohn et al., 2018). Instruction must be tailored to guide students through the revision of these misconceptions, and this can be particularly challenging in college level introductory biology courses that must serve class sections with large enrollments of students with varying abilities, interests, and background knowledge. Add in the increased need and demand for online instructional environments, and you are left with a critical need for conceptual change instruction strategies that can serve a wide population of students in an online format.
Refutation texts, which identify common misconceptions and usually directly refute them, are a common instructional strategy for prompting conceptual change (Sinatra & Broughton, 2011; Tippet, 2010). However, they may not be as effective as self explanation tasks, at least in online biology education environments, where passive activities like reading text may not sufficiently engage students in conceptual change processes (Oliver et al., 2018). Previous work with introductory biology students indicated that adding in short refutation texts as retrieval practice feedback activity did not promote conceptual change but adding in prompts to self explain correct answer feedback did (Oliver et al., 2018). Thus, self explaining appears to be a useful tool for engaging students in the conceptual change online.
Prompting students to produce explanations of content, referred to as self explanations, is an effective instructional strategy across ages and disciplines (Bisra et al., 2018; Fonseca & Chi, 2011; Renkl, 2014; Rittle Johnson & Loehr, 2017; Roy & Chi, 2005). Self explanations are a generative learning activity that can facilitate learning by encouraging the learner to construct new information or manipulate presented information (Fiorella & Mayer, 2016). Self explaining can also promote the integration of incoming and prior knowledge (Fiorella & Mayer, 2016; Fonseca & Chi, 2011; Lombrozo, 2006).
The instructional means used to prompt self explaining vary. Sometimes, learners are given instructions to read text and then explain it (e.g., Chi, 2000). Other times, learners are instructed to provide an explanation of each step while solving a problem (e.g., Aleven & Koedinger, 2002), to explain a worked example (e.g., Hausmann & VanLehn, 2007; Renkl, 2014), to provide an explanation for category membership (Williams et al., 2013; Williams & Lombrozo, 2010), or to explain the
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correct answer to a question (e.g., “Why is X the correct answer?”; Oliver et al., 2018).
Although research and practice have documented the effectiveness of self explaining, leading to broad recommendations for use (e.g., Common Core, 2022; Dunlosky et al., 2013), there are conditions where self explaining may not be helpful (Rittle Johnson & Loehr, 2017). As with any instructional task, interactions between specific task demands, content, and learner characteristics in any given situation may or may not result in the desired learning outcome (Lee & Kalyuga, 2014; Van Merrienboer & Sweller, 2005). The effectiveness of self explaining can be influenced by a number of factors related to the learner, like prior knowledge and motivation (e.g., Linnenbrink Garcia et al., 2012; Vosniadou, 2007), academic self concept (Roelle & Renkl, 2020), or engagement (Chi, 2018). It can also be influenced by task characteristics, like instructions (Bisra et al., 2018) or what material is being covered (Rittle Johnson & Loehr, 2017)
The content of learners’ self explanations can provide insight into the cognitive processes occurring, or not occurring. Some explanations are better than others because they elicit more germaine learning processes (Sweller, 2010) and produce greater learning gains. High quality explanations indicate active engagement by the learner and deep processing of the content being explained (Chi, 2018; Chin & Brown, 2000; Rittle Johnson & Loehr, 2017). They may include inferences, link new and prior knowledge, and reference key principles relevant to the topic (Roy & Chi, 2005), meaningful connections to the facts, deductive reasoning from given examples, or application of the knowledge to future examples (Renkl, 1997). Conversely, low quality explanations indicate shallow processing and little engagement from the learner. They may consist of simple paraphrasing or demonstrate avoidance of the task itself (Roy & Chi, 2015). Low quality explanations are typically produced by learners who are disengaged from the act of self explaining and employ minimal effort (Kwon & Jonassesn, 2011; Renkl, 1997).
The accuracy of students’ self explanations is an important factor to consider, and it is most helpful for students to produce accurate explanations of information (Chi, 2018; Rittle Johnson & Loehr, 2017). However, in large introductory biology classes where students hold persistent misconceptions, inaccurate explanations should be expected. In the context of conceptual change, producing an inaccurate explanation may serve to further reinforce students’ existing misconceptions and deter learning, or, conversely, maybe the effort associated with producing an inaccurate explanation is still beneficial to learning. Thus, understanding if students are commonly producing inaccurate explanations, and whether those are detrimental to learning, has important implications for instruction. The roles and utility of accurate and inaccurate self explanations have not yet been investigated in relation to conceptual change in introductory biology classrooms.
In the current study, we aimed to assess what types of explanations students produce when self explaining misconceived content, with a focus on accuracy, and how different types of explanations related to learning We assessed this in a
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population of students, who, according to a previous analysis (Oliver et al., 2018), held persistent misconceptions about photosynthesis and respiration by using a computer based conceptual change activity that combined retrieval practice with correct answer feedback and self explanation prompts. Our work responds to calls by biology education and learning science research by providing insight into how naive and immature ideas about phenomena interact with conceptual change intervention (Cordero & Lineback, 2013; Leonard et al., 2014), and also responds to needs for computer based self explanation activities (Bisra et al., 2018).
This study employed a sequential mixed methods approach that collected qualitative data in one session and quantitative data in another and further utilized a data transformation design This approach is a powerful way to both describe and measure learning in biology education (Warfa, 2017) while capturing the complex representations of knowledge (Chi, 1997) that would be associated with misconceptions and conceptual change. We collected students’ typed self explanations of questions related to photosynthesis and respiration and then measured their performance on an associated test one week later. We then conducted an exploratory qualitative analysis of explanation content to identify categories, quantitized the self explanation data using the category schema developed, merged the two datasets, and finally used the quantitized explanation categories to predict learning on the test in a quantitative multiple regression analysis.
One hundred and eighteen undergraduate college students (Meanage = 21 years) from a large urban Southeastern university participated in this study. Of the 118 participants, 70% were female, 26% were male, and 4% chose not to provide information. Furthermore, 39% reported being African American, 24% Caucasian, 18% Asian/Pacific Islander, 7% Hispanic, 8% other/multiracial, and 4% chose not to provide information. All students enrolled in the nine Introductory Biology II course sections offered during the associated semester were invited to participate in this study. Students must complete and pass Introductory Biology I, which covers photosynthesis and respiration, at this university before taking Introductory Biology II. Traditionally students take Introductory Biology I the semester before taking Introductory Biology II, but this can vary. Students enrolled in the associated classes received course credit for completing activities described here, and students who opted to participate in the study by having their data collected did not receive any additional credit or compensation.
3.3.1
We compiled a short 15 item multiple choice assessment to generally measure relevant domain knowledge from participants’ prior Introductory Biology I course The multiple choice questions were acquired from the Capturing Solar Energy: Photosynthesis chapter of an introductory biology textbook test bank (Audesirk et al., 2013). To support ecological validity of the items selected, we asked biology instructors to select questions covered in the previous Introductory
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Biology I course, and these items were moderately reliable in this sample (α = .61). Of note, none of the questions from the prior knowledge assessment were used in the revision activity or test described below. The questions did not have misconceptions intentionally designed into the answer choices as lures as did the revision activity and test questions. See Appendix 1 for questions from the prior knowledge assessment.
The revision activity aimed to activate, refute, and promote change of common misconceptions relating to photosynthesis and respiration if present. More specifically, the activity was designed to: 1) Activate common misconceptions by asking multiple choice questions and embedding the misconceptions as potential answer options; 2) Refute the misconceptions (if present) by providing immediate correct answer feedback; and 3) Promote learning by prompting students to self explain the correct answer feedback. This activity was a learning tool comprised of 12 multiple choice questions selected from previously validated measures of respiration and photosynthesis misconceptions (AAAS 2061, 2016; Amir & Tamir, 1994; Boomer & Latham, 2011; Galvin et al., 2015; Haslam & Treagust, 1987). Questions that targeted the common misconceptions identified in this population were selected and adapted for activity formatting only; the question content did not change from the original sources.
Throughout the revision activity, the following misconceptions were expressed as answer options in a number of ways: when plants photosynthesize, they do not respire (Haslam & Treagust, 1987; Galvin et al., 2015; Svandova, 2014); plants do not respire (Amir & Tamir, 1994); plants are able to grow because of food they get from the soil (AAAS 2016, 2016; Galvin et al., 2015; Svandova, 2014); and respiration in plants is tantamount with breathing in animals (Anderson et al., 1990; Galvin et al., 2015). Each misconception was included as an answer choice in multiple activity questions to provide numerous opportunities for activation of the misconception and potential revision. A combination of knowledge and application questions were both included in the revision activity. Application questions asked participants to apply their knowledge to answer questions about a specific scenario (e.g., in the experiment shown above, what happened to the mass lost in the ‘water, no light’ treatment?). Knowledge questions asked participants to accurately identify basic concepts or facts (e.g., which of the following about respiration is true?). Every multiple choice question had at least one misconception embedded in the four or five answer choices. More than one misconception was included in some of the question answer choices. See Appendix 2 for activity questions.
To measure the learning from the revision activity one week later, a 24 item multiple choice test was utilized. Included in the test were 12 new near transfer questions and the 12 original questions from the activity. Like the original activity questions, the 12 new near transfer questions included both knowledge and application questions. The near transfer knowledge questions covered the same content, just asked in a different way. The near transfer application questions
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maintained the same structure as the original activity questions, but varied the scenarios provided. Reliability for the test was adequate (24 items; α = .71). See Appendix 3 for test questions.
Participants completed two separate online sessions, one week apart, conducted through Qualtrics Online Survey Software. Session one included a prior knowledge assessment and revision activity and took approximately 30 minutes to complete (SD = 11 minutes). Session two included the test and took approximately 20 minutes to complete. Both sessions were assigned at the beginning of the semester as online homework activities. Participants completed the assessments either at home or in class from a computer. Instructors provided the link to each of the sessions one week apart to ensure the one week delay between the first and second sessions. Qualtrics Survey Software also sent each participant reminder emails for the second session with the link exactly one week after completing the first activity.
3.4.1 Session 1
Once entered into the Qualtrics survey using the link provided from their instructor, participants were directed to first complete an informed consent and then routed to the assessment on prior knowledge. Before starting the assessment, participants received the following instructions: “We are interested in how much you know about photosynthesis. In the following section, you will answer 15 multiple choice questions. Please answer all the questions to the best of your ability. Please do not look up the answers. If you do not know an answer, try to select the best option you can.”
After completing the prior knowledge assessment, the survey routed participants to the revision activity. The revision activity presented questions in a randomized order. The procedure for each individual question spanned across two Qualtrics pages. On the first page, participants were prompted to read the question and select the best answer. After selecting their answer, the survey routed participants to a new page that presented the question again with correct answer feedback (i.e., correct answer highlighted and pointed out in the question). Directly below the correct answer feedback, participants were provided with a text box and prompted to “in 3 5 sentences, please explain why X is the correct answer to the question” and subsequently entered their explanation into a text box. After completing a question, participants were routed to the next question and the activity continued like this for all 12 questions. After completing all 12 revision activity questions, participants were prompted to provide information to receive credit. Credit was based on completion.
3.4.2 Session 2
The following week, instructors and Qualtrics Survey Software both provided participants with the link to the second session. Upon entering the survey for the test, participants were informed we would be assessing their learning from the activity the week prior and were then presented with test questions. Each question was presented on a separate page and in randomized order, but without correct
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answer feedback. After answering all 24 test questions, participants answered demographic questions and read a debriefing statement
Participants’ data from session 1 and session 2 were downloaded from Qualtrics Survey Software, linked together using IDs, and subsequently deidentified. Participants who had not completed both sessions were dropped from analysis. We conducted a qualitative analysis of explanation data, which included 12 typed self explanations for each student, to answer our first research question that asked what types of explanations participants provided. We then qualitized the self explanation data by assigning each explanation with a code according to the category schema developed. We subsequently computed counts for how many of each explanation type participants produced. These explanation category variables were used in a quantitative regression analysis to answer our second research question that asked how different types of explanations related to learning. Both the qualitative analysis with results (RQ1) and the quantitative analysis with results (RQ2) are described below.
Using a method outlined in Chi (1997) for exploring and coding verbal data, we developed a formal coding scheme to categorize the types of explanations students were producing through four rounds of collaborative and reiterative qualitative analysis across three researchers. The generation of categories was an entirely bottom up process with the exception of two aims: 1) identify inaccurate explanations and 2) create mutually exclusive category descriptions to be used for predictive quantitative analysis. Each round of this process involved short coding assignments, collaborative reflection on the process, and reiteration of the coding scheme. In the first round of coding, raters examined the verbal data provided by the participants to identify trends and possible categories for explanations. Based on various trends observed in the data, seven initial categories were created: off task, shallow, paraphrase, explains accurately, explains inaccurately, and reflection of knowledge. Each category was defined and assigned concrete examples. Explanations for activity question 10 were unable to be worked into a coding scheme or understood, likely because of the low reliability of this question, as was indicated by a low reliability coefficient across participants (Cronbach’s alpha; α = .5). As a result, in this round of analysis, question 10 explanations were dropped from qualitative and quantitative analysis. The associated question on the test was also dropped.
During the second round of coding, it became necessary to provide specific instructions for coding categories across particular questions. For instance, the answer choices to activity question two were all diagrams of the carbon cycle, and raters had to determine what qualified as paraphrasing of the information illustrated in the diagram. These determinations were then included as instructions for coding. The categories were given a numeric designation for
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coding and another round of coding was conducted with the codebook to assess reliability.
During the third round of coding, raters further defined the categories with more detailed descriptions based on the different types of explanations raters found in each question. The raters discussed each question individually to identify any confusion and develop explicit rules where needed. Ultimately, discussions led to the creation of specific coding instructions for questions 2, 3, 7, and 11. In addition, the categories off task and shallow were combined into an avoidance category due to the explanations provided being similar in style and engagement, with explanations such as “I don’t know” being combined with avoidance (e.g., “sfjndfa”) and incomplete responses (e.g., “the plant”). An uncodeable category was also added because a few explanations were difficult to interpret or understand.
Finally, raters applied the coding scheme detailing the final six categories to a randomly selected group of 35 participants’ explanations. Interrater reliability (IRR) was determined for explanations within each activity question as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha. Initial IRRs for category assignment in each question were .80 or greater. The final codebook consisted of six mutually exclusive categories: avoidance, paraphrase, explains accurately, explains inaccurately, reflection of knowledge, and uncodeable. The codebook is located in Appendix 4.
Using the finalized categories, each rater coded explanations for three to four activity questions in SPSS 24. Each explanation was assigned to a single category, a mutual exclusivity made possible by the category definitions and instructions developed. We chose to use mutually exclusive categories in which only one code was assigned to each explanation with our quantitative analysis and research questions in mind.
Our qualitative analysis indicated six categories of explanations during the revision task.
Avoidance. The avoidance category was composed of responses that did not include explanations of content. These types of responses were seen in learners who were disengaged from the task, did not complete the task as instructed, or commented they “don’t know.” Responses demonstrating disengagement from the task included responses where the learner randomly filled in the textbox with letters and characters (e.g., “kdjfnv”), made comments irrelevant to the task (e.g., “I like food”), or made grossly incomplete explanations (e.g., “the plant lives”). Responses demonstrating the learner did not follow the instructions which were to explain the correct answer indicated typically included comments on whether the learner initially got the answer correct (e.g., “Heck yea! I was right”), or incorrect (“got it wrong”) Responses only indicating the learner did not know (e.g., “idk/I don’t know/I’m not sure”) were also common in this category. Some “I don’t know” type responses may have demonstrated the learner did not have enough prior knowledge to attempt to explain the answer and others may have demonstrated another way for learners to disengage and simply fill in the textbox.
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In some cases, responses in the avoidance category included some combination of these features (e.g., “I don’t know I got it wrong”). In all cases, explanations in the avoidance category lacked any mention of relevant content or lacked a complete thought. Thus, if a learner stated they did not know or explained how they chose the answer but then also further explained by introducing additional information (e.g., “I’m not sure, I thought that light energy and c02 were correlated”), it would not fall into this category since content, whether accurate or inaccurate, was introduced.
Uncodeable. The uncodeable category contained responses that demonstrated some attempt to explain (i.e., they did not demonstrate avoidance) but were incoherent and unable to be understood enough to reliably categorize or determine accuracy. Explanations were uncodeable because they were either incoherently written (e.g., “Carbon dioxide earths dinner need to surevhvr “) and/or were hard to pull meaning from (e.g., “oxygen and sunlight give off each other”). These explanations were rare, with only a few uncodeable explanations occurring within each question and not necessarily within the same learners. That is, no learners consistently provided uncodeable explanations across questions.
Paraphrase. The paraphrase category included explanations that only summarized or restated parts of the question and/or answer without adding any additional information from prior knowledge. Paraphrased explanations included responses that restated part of the question or answer verbatim or that simplified part of the question or answer into lay terms. For instance, the explanation “Plants give off oxygen during photosynthesis” was considered a paraphrase of the correct answer “Oxygen, because it is a byproduct given off by plants when photosynthesizing” because it restates content from the answer without incorporating any novel terms or additional information not presented in the question or answers.
Paraphrased explanations were common and demonstrated relatively low levels of engagement in the task because they lacked the “why” aspect intended by the explanation prompt; that is, they only restated the correct answer in some way without elaborating to explain why the answer was correct. Paraphrased interpretations of the information had to be accurate statements to be considered in this category. From a cognitive perspective, while paraphrased responses demonstrate the rehearsal of accurate information, they did not demonstrate the learner was engaging any conceptual change processes by monitoring the accuracy of their prior knowledge, since no prior knowledge was introduced.
Accurate. The accurate category included explanations that added additional, correct information not included in the question and/or answers. Accurate explanations ranged from paraphrased responses that incorporated technical terms not present in the question/answers to responses that explicitly explained why the indicated answer was correct using additional information from prior knowledge. For instance, accurate explanations of the correct answer “The plant makes its food from carbon dioxide and water” ranged from paraphrasescorrectly applying unmentioned terms (e.g., “In photosynthesis, the energy is acquired from
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carbon dioxide and water”) to explanations that added additional information to explain why the answer was correct (e.g., “Plants are autotrophs which mean they make their own food through the usage of CO2 and water in photosynthesis”), and sometimes included explanations that made accurate comments about the other, incorrect, answer choices (e.g., “It's the two requirements for a plant to live. Mineral rich soil would aid but it isn't absolutely required”). Thus, the main difference between paraphrased and accurate explanations was the incorporation of additional, correct information or technical terms in accurate explanations.
Inaccurate. The inaccurate category included explanations that explicitly stated any level of incorrect information The levels of inaccuracy varied widely in this category. Inaccurate explanations could range from the incorrect usage of a term, to the statement of an incorrect fact, to the application of multiple pieces of inaccurate information. Most inaccurate explanations demonstrated the incorporation of incorrect prior knowledge. Others demonstrated inaccurate paraphrases where the learner tried to paraphrase but misinterpreted what the answer said. In all cases, inaccurate explanations included the rehearsal or application of incorrect knowledge and demonstrated misunderstandings (i.e., they lacked sufficient prior knowledge to understand the correct information enough to accurately explain, but attempted to explain anyway) or misconceptions (i.e., the information was interpreted using inaccurate prior knowledge and resulted in a misconceived explanation). For instance, for the question “Which of the following is the most accurate statement about respiration in green plants?” that had the correct answer “It is a chemical process in which energy stored in food is released using oxygen,” the following explanations were considered inaccurate:
Example 1: Plants prefer photosynthesis but can perform respiration as well. Respiration is more so a last resort effort”
Example 2: “Energy is needed to provide the plant with fuel to grow. Food for plants is absorbed through the roots in the ground.”
Example 3: “Respiration is just an old change of gases ”
The first example demonstrates the application of incorrect prior knowledge that was not necessarily related to any of the common misconceptions identified in previous research.
Examples 2 and 3 demonstrate the application of common misconceptions in the explanations, namely the misconception that food/energy is absorbed through the roots and the misconception that respiration is the same as breathing. Even if explanations contained features of other categories (e.g., it also included a statement of correct information or indications that they “did not know”) in addition to any level of explicit inaccuracy, they were categorized as inaccurate. In this way, we applied a hierarchy of coding to ensure mutual exclusivity for the analysis that follows.
Reflection of Knowledge Explanations in this category demonstrated the learner was remembering the source of their knowledge, monitoring their confidence in the accuracy of their prior knowledge, or acknowledging a conflict between their
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knowledge and the information presented. In responses where the learners recalled the source of their knowledge, the explanations spoke directly about how the learners came to have certain knowledge These explanations typically involved comments indicating the answer was correct because they learned the information in the answer from a credible source (e.g., “If I can remember correctly, last semester we did a respiration lab where it showed that seedling uses respiration. All plants uses photosynthesis because that is how they get their food”), and at times that credible source was a previous activity question (e.g., “The last question just said that respiration is always taking place so the answer could not have been D”).
In responses where the learners correctly acknowledged a conflict between their prior knowledge and the information presented, learners pointed out what they previously thought was different from the correct answer and oftentimes went on to acknowledge their prior knowledge was inaccurate. Sometimes this included the learner simply comparing their incorrect prior knowledge with the information presented in the question (e.g., “I thought plants absorbed CO2, not oxygen”). Other times it included the learner explicitly pointing out their prior thinking was misconceived and acknowledging the correct information (e.g., “I put C because I wasn’t thinking about how plants output CO2. However, they do. Through the process of photosynthesis, they create a small amount”). However, explanations that introduced the source of inaccurate prior knowledge, but then did not correctly monitor the information as incorrect (e.g., “we learned in lecture last semester that only the leaves of a plant can breathe”) would be categorized as inaccurate since the explanation contained the explicit statement of inaccurate information.
The frequency counts for each explanation type are depicted in Figure 1 Avoidance, paraphrased, and accurate explanations were the most common type of explanation produced. Inaccurate explanations were also common. The counts of explanations in the Reflection of Knowledge category were relatively low.
4.2.1
To determine how each type of explanation related to learning, we utilized counts of each explanation type within participants (avoidance, paraphrased, accurate, inaccurate, and reflection of knowledge) and prior knowledge scores (i.e., number of items correct) as predictors for test scores in a multiple linear regression model. Initial assumption checking indicated multicollinearity between the avoidance explanations and all other explanation types, and thus avoidance explanations were excluded from the model. The correlation between counts of avoidance explanations and other explanation types occurred as a result of the coding scheme. Since learners were only prompted to generate 11 explanations and categories were mutually exclusive, as the number of paraphrased, accurate, inaccurate, and reflection of knowledge explanations a learner made went up, the number of avoidance explanations automatically went down (and vice versa).
After removing avoidance explanations, multicollinearity was not a concern in the resulting model (all VIF’s > 2.0; all tolerance > 0.8). Assumptions for independent errors (Durbin Watson value = 1.97), normality, and homoscedasticity were also met. Upon meeting assumptions, five predictors of test scores were entered in to a multiple linear regression model predicting test scores: prior knowledge, paraphrased, accurate, inaccurate, and reflection of knowledge. Initial results indicated that prior knowledge scores (p = .10) and reflection of knowledge explanations (p = .51) were not significant predictors nor did they increase model fit, leading to their exclusion from the model. The final model used the number of accurate, inaccurate, and paraphrased explanations each participant produced to predict the percentage of answers they got correct on the test
Our final model predicted a significant amount of variance in test scores, F(3, 117) = 39.63, p < .001, R2 = .51. Specifically, counts of accurate explanations (β= 5.06, p > .001) and inaccurate explanations (β= 2.10, p = .01) were significant predictors of test scores. Paraphrased explanations were marginally significant (β = 0.96 p = .08). The resulting model accounted for 51% of the variability in test scores and is illustrated by the following regression equation:
Y = 28.65 + 5.06accurate 2.10inaccurate + .96paraphrase.
Out of 100 test points, each accurate explanation corresponded with a 5 point increase on the test; whereas each inaccurate explanation corresponded with a 2 point decrease on the test, and each paraphrased explanation corresponded with a one point increase on the test.
4.2.3
While our model was able to establish the relationship between accurate and inaccurate explanations and test scores, the high frequency of avoidance explanations makes it pertinent from an instructional standpoint to also identify how avoiding the task (i.e., not attempting to explain) plays a role. This analysis was motivated post hoc since the avoidance category had to be removed from the
regression model due to multicollinearity. We conducted a two step cluster analysis to identify if and how learners clustered into different groups based on their levels of prior knowledge, counts of explanation types (including avoidance), and test performance. A two step cluster analysis is used to identify learner profiles that may not be apparent in predictive models (Yu, 2010). It is exploratory in nature and useful for identifying groups of people based of cognitive or behavioral variables (Benassi et al., 2020).
Initial cluster analysis indicated that the reflection of knowledge category was not a significant input, and it was dropped from the final cluster analysis to increase the analysis’s measure of cohesion and separation. We included the following six inputs into a final two step analysis in SPSS 24: test (percentage correct), prior knowledge (percentage correct), number of accurate explanations, number of inaccurate explanations, number of paraphrased explanations, and number of avoidance explanations The two step cluster analysis resulted in three clusters of learners that were characterized by natural cohesion of patterns in the six inputs (cluster quality = 0.6). We conducted a series of one way analyses of variance (ANOVA) comparing means for each input across the 3 clusters to validate the clusters identified. ANOVA results indicated significant differences across clusters for all inputs, supporting the validity of the cluster analysis. Tukey HSD post hoc tests on pairwise comparisons indicated significant differences across all 3 clusters (p’s < .05) for all inputs except paraphrased explanations, in which the means for the high and low performing groups were not significantly different (p = .12). Results for these confirmatory ANOVA’s are displayed in Table 1.
Input Sum df MeanSquare F Sig.
Test Between 1173.09 2 586.54 49.03 .000 Within 1375.73 115 11.96
Total 2548.62 117
Prior Knowl Between 46.73 2 23.36 5.81 .004 Within 461.74 115 4.01
Total 508.48 117
Accurate Between 573.77 2 286.88 117.41 .000 Within 280.98 115 2.44
Total 854.75 117
Inaccurate Between 97.11 2 44.55 26.86 .000 Within 207.88 115 1.80
Total 304.99 117
Paraphrased Between 281.11 2 140.55 38.67 .000 Within 418.04 115 3.63
Total 699.15 117
Avoidance Between 950.01 2 475.01 209.10 .000
Within 261.24 115 2.27
Total 1211.25 117
Once the cohesion and separation were confirmed, we examined how each of the inputs contributed to the formation of clusters. Results from the two step cluster analysis indicated the importance of each variable using a Relative Importance
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Index, which identifies the variable that contributed the most to clustering cohesive groups and relates the other inputs to it. The relative importance of each input is seen in Figure 2.
Relative Variable Importance
Prior Knowl
Accurate Test Paraphrased Inaccurate
Avoidance
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
The number of avoidance explanations each participant had was the most important factor when clustering them into groups. Relative to the number of avoidance explanations, the number of accurate explanations and performance on the test were the next two most important predictors. Interestingly, prior knowledge was not a particularly important input for clustering participants. Since test scores were significantly different across the three clusters, we opted to conceptualize and label the clusters according to their test performance. That is, we labeled the clusters according to whether that cluster had the highest (high performing), second highest (moderately performing) or lowest (low performing) average test score. For each cluster, the average percentage correct on the test, average percentage correct on the prior knowledge assessment, and average number of accurate, inaccurate, paraphrased, and avoidance explanations can be seen in Table 2 below
Table 2. Means for Inputs (i.e., Learner Characteristics) Across Clusters Means
Learner Characteristics High Performing Moderate Performing Low Performing Test 71% 40% 32%
Prior Knowl. 62% 45% 40%
Accurate 8.5 2.85 1.15
Inaccurate 0.78 2.76 1.12
Paraphrased 1.39 4.04 1.45 Avoidance 0.33 1.34 7.27 N 21 58 39 % 18% 49% 33%
As seen in Table 2, the high performing group was the smallest cluster (n=21) with an average test score of 71%; the moderate performing group was the largest cluster (n=58) with an average test score of 40%; and the low performing group was the second largest cluster (n = 39) with an average test score of 32%. Prior knowledge varied across each cluster in predictable fashion and aligned with test
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performance. However, differences in prior knowledge were small, and overall levels of prior knowledge were relatively low for all clusters, with the highest performing cluster averaging only 41%. Thus, these clusters were not characterized by large differences in incoming prior knowledge, which is likely why prior knowledge was the least important input, as indicated by the relative importance illustrated in Figure 2.
The difference in inaccurate explanation counts across the three clusters was statistically significant (see Table 1), but perhaps not practically significant. Both the high performing and the low performing clusters averaged around one inaccurate explanation (M=.78 and 1.12, respectively, out of 11 explanations).
Rather, the most notable different across the three clusters was engagement in the activity, as was indicated by the number of avoidance explanations. The students in the high performing cluster were the most engaged with the fewest number of avoidance explanations (M=0.33 out of 11 explanations avoided); on average, this group engaged in each explanation opportunity. Conversely, the low performing clusters had the highest number of avoidance explanations (M=7.27 out of 11 explanations avoided); on average, this group avoided at least half of the explanation opportunities. What appeared to characterize the moderate performing group were paraphrased explanations and inaccurate explanations; moderate performing learners had the highest number of paraphrased explanations (M=4.04 out of 11 explanations) and also had the highest number of inaccurate explanations (M=2.76 out of 11 explanations).
Undergraduate students have misconceptions about the biological processes of photosynthesis and respiration that persist through traditional instruction (Anderson et al., 1990; Galvin et al., 2015; Karakaya et al., 2021; Oliver et al., 2018; Södervik et al., 2015). Instructional activities that promote conceptual change are necessary to correct these misconceptions and pave the way for further knowledge building. In this study, we designed an online retrieval practice activity that would activate relevant misconceptions if present and facilitate conceptual change through correct answer feedback and self explaining. A previous report indicated that self explaining correct answer feedback is more effective than just receiving it or reading instructional explanations about it (Oliver et al., 2018), and this study explored the types of explanations students produced and which ones were most effective. As such, we asked introductory biology students to complete an online homework activity that prompted them to answer multiple choice questions about photosynthesis and respiration, and we included common misconceptions in the answer options. After selecting an answer and receiving correct answer feedback, learners were asked to explain why the answer indicated in the feedback was correct. Through a mixed method analysis, we qualitatively analyzed the explanations and developed categories to assign them to. We subsequently coded those explanations and employed quantitative analyses to predict learning outcomes on a test one week later.
Our first research question and qualitative analysis aimed to identify the different types of explanations that students provided about the highly misconceived
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concepts of photosynthesis and respiration. Using a qualitative to quantitative coding process we assessed the explanations learners provided and outlined five categories that explanations fell into: accurate, inaccurate, paraphrase, reflection of knowledge, and avoidance. Accurate explanations occurred when the learners actively engaged in answering the explanation prompt by using their prior knowledge to help explain. Inaccurate explanations occurred when learners actively engaged in answering the prompt and incorporated their prior knowledge into the explanation, but their explanation contained an incorrect statement of facts. These inaccurate explanations were oftentimes the result of incorrect prior knowledge being applied, demonstrating a misconception and the need for conceptual change. Other times, inaccurate explanations resulted from misreading or misunderstanding the question, likely demonstrating inadequate prior knowledge or inattention. Even though students in this study had already learned this content in a previous introductory biology course, inaccurate explanations were not uncommon. In both accurate and inaccurate explanations, the learner added information beyond what was presented in the question or answer.
Paraphrase explanations occurred when students simply restated, either verbatim or paraphrased, parts of the question or answer without adding any additional information from their prior knowledge. These were the most common type of explanation, and they demonstrated a moderate level of engagement with the activity. The learners engaged with the prompt but could not or did not attempt to address “why, ” which required some amount of elaboration with information from prior knowledge Avoidance explanations occurred when the learner put something irrelevant in the textbox or otherwise avoided explaining. These explanations served to move the learner through the activity without effort. In some cases, though, these explanations may have indicated that the learner felt incapable of explaining (e.g., “I don’t know, I didn’t get it right). Avoidance explanations were common in this study, which may not be surprising considering that students were not graded on self explanation completion or quality.
Reflection of knowledge explanations occurred when learners did not strictly explain the concept but opted to comment on the source of, confidence in, or thoughts about their knowledge. In some cases, these responses demonstrated that the learner was monitoring their prior knowledge and detecting a misconception. In other cases, the learner was simply describing where they learned the information. This category of explanation was an uncommon response type to our self explanation prompt. The types of self explanations observed in this study are in line with previous research describing qualities of selfexplanations in science. The accurate and reflection of knowledge explanations identified here demonstrate a desirable deep level of processing, while paraphrased explanations demonstrate more shallow processing (Chinn & Brown, 2000); albeit they still demonstrated more engagement than avoidance. Like other qualitative descriptions of self explanations, our explanations varied primarily according to engagement and application of prior knowledge (Morrison et al., 2015; Rittle Johnson et al., 2017; Roy & Chi, 2005). Thus, it appears that the
variations in computer based self explanations are similar to those observed in other self explaining formats, but it may be easier for students to avoid engagement with self explaining on a computer. Our qualitative analysis identified a couple notable findings that deserve further exploration in future work, like the potential interaction between accuracy and engagement.
Our second research question and quantitative analyses predicted test performance based on the types of explanations the student produced. The final multiple regression model weighed the contributions of accurate, inaccurate, and paraphrased explanations, but avoidance explanations and reflection of knowledge explanations were excluded to do multicollinearity and lack of significance, respectively. The model confirmed our initial hypothesis that accurate explanations would have the largest benefit to learning. Indeed, each accurate explanation predicted incremental increases to test performance. the model also confirmed our hypothesis that inaccurate explanations would have no benefits to learning, and they appeared detrimental here Each inaccurate explanation in our model was associated with a small incremental decrease in test score. Thus, it is important that learners not only explain the correct answer (Rittle Johnson & Loehr, 2017), but that their explanation of the correct answer is also accurate.
Paraphrased explanations were predictive of learning, albeit their effects on test scores were modest. The distinction between paraphrased explanations and inaccurate explanations here warrants attention. Inaccurate explanations required more engagement from the learner than paraphrased explanations, but that engagement, at least in this online activity covering highly misconceived material, did not result in greater learning. Our results suggest that, if students cannot elaborate on the answer accurately, then it may be better to stick with paraphrasing if additional instructional support is not available.
Reflection of knowledge explanations did not significantly predict learning in our model. This is somewhat surprising, considering that these explanations often included processes key to conceptual change, like the monitoring of prior knowledge accuracy or identifying a conflict between prior and incoming knowledge (Van Den Broek & Kendeou, 2008). It was not particularly common for learners to spontaneously generate this type of explanation in our activity though, and the infrequency of these explanations, relative to the other explanation types, might have contributed to its lack of predictive power in our model. Additionally, conceptual change is not a brief one and done process. If these learners were actually engaging in the beginning stages of conceptual change through these explanations, this may not be indicated on the test after a single activity. Some research suggests that meta cognitive explanations are less effective because they can take attention away from explaining the content itself, but this work was not specific to conceptual change (Bisra et al., 2018). Future work should explore the effects of more deliberate metacognitive selfexplanations on conceptual change by directly comparing their effects on conceptual change learning through the experimental manipulation of prompt type. Further, this should be done across multiple instructional sessions to allow
sufficient opportunity for the complex process of conceptual change to occur in a measurable way.
Another perspective on the relationship between explanation type and learning was provided by our cluster analysis, which we performed to better understand the role of avoidant explanations. Our two step cluster analysis categorized learners into three groups Through these clusters,we were able to see the patterns of explanation types across learners who had high performance, moderate performance, or low performance on the test. Unsurprisingly, high performing students were the most engaged in the activity, had the most prior knowledge, and produced the most accurate explanations. Low performing learners were the least engaged and avoided many of their explanation prompts. They did not tend to produce many inaccurate explanations, but it is unclear what types of explanations they would have produced if engaged.
The most notable of the clusters was the moderately performing group, as they demonstrated an interesting pattern of explanations. This group had both the most paraphrased explanations and the most inaccurate explanations. They had slightly less prior knowledge than the high performing group and generally engaged in the activity. While the mean scores for each group in our cluster analysis are simply descriptive, these trends suggest that the moderately performing group could have benefited from a more open book format of self explaining, perhaps that also provides instructional explanations (Hiller et al., 2020). Since the moderately performing group of learners had the highest rate of paraphrased explanations, it is reasonable to assume that they were heavily relying on the information provided in the question and answer to generate an explanation. When they did pull from their own knowledge, they sometimes produced inaccurate explanations. Providing these engaged, yet struggling learners with additional content to aid in the development of their self explanation likely would have led to more accurate and effective explanations by supplementing inadequate prior knowledge, resolving confusions due to incorrect prior knowledge, and helping alleviate a potentially overburdened working memory load (Leppink et al., 2012)
While it appears that our learners could have benefited from additional instructional support to aid in self explaining, possible ramifications of doing this should also be considered. Providing unneeded support can hamper learning in high performing learners (Ayres & Paas, 2012). Additional instructional support can benefit learning in students with low levels of prior knowledge, but sorting through unneeded information can distract students with high levels of prior knowledge from more productive learning processes; this interaction between knowledge level and instructional support is known as an expertise reversal effect (Kalyuga et al., 2007; Sweller et al., 2013). The work on expertise reversal effects is not specific to conceptual change processes or instruction, but it does directly address the use of instructional explanations and self-explanations. Future work should investigate interactions between prior knowledge and instructional support more specifically in the context of conceptual change learning, where
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both the level of prior knowledge and the accuracy of prior knowledge are important considerations.
In the findings presented here, it is worth noting that, while we classified the highest performing students as the high performing cluster, they still only averaged 71% on the test in session 2. None of the participants demonstrated high levels of prior knowledge in session 1. The overall low levels of performance suggest that learners did not remember much knowledge about these concepts from their previous introductory biology course, and a previous report documenting their performance on the session 1 activity questions indicated that the misconception lures were commonly chosen as answers (Oliver et al., 2018). Thus, at the beginning of their second introductory biology course, these students still had persistent misconceptions about respiration and photosynthesis and had relatively low levels of prior knowledge.
The observed prevalence of avoidance explanations suggests that motivation to fully engage in the activity was low. Students earned credit for sessions 1 and 2 simply by completing them. Both sessions were assigned and described as homework assignments that reviewed content from Introductory Biology I. In an attempt to keep students from looking up the answers online, we made it clear in the instructions that they were not graded on accuracy. Thus, there was no extrinsic motivation for students to perform to the best of their ability. In both practice and research, there is often a trade off in online asynchronous instruction between disincentivizing cheating or other shortcuts while still motivating high performance. In this study, it is clear that additional extrinsic motivation was needed to incentivize students to engage and perform to their highest ability.
The lack of motivation evidenced by the commonality of avoidance explanations is a limitation of our study. Designing the compensation and framing of these activities to more closely mimic the motivation induced by more formative assessments will be important for future work. Another limitation of our study is the mutually exclusive nature of our categories. With our quantitative analysis in mind, we intentionally designed a single tiered coding schema during qualitative analysis in which definitions were created so an explanation would only qualify as one category, even if it had components of more than one category. The potential for an explanation to qualify as more than one category only occurred for responses that introduced incorrect prior knowledge (e.g., included knowledge reflection or “I don’t know” statements in addition to the introduction of inaccurate prior knowledge). Since inaccurate explanations took precedence over other applicable categories present in the explanation, it could have minimized the frequency of other the categories in doing so (i.e., reflection of knowledge). The use of our single tiered coding schema may have limited the information we were able to capture from a single explanation, but its purposeful design allowed us to run predictive quantitative models and prioritize the assessment of explanation accuracy—an important focus of our second research question.
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We draw several conclusions from the results of our qualitative and quantitative analyses of self explanations content. First, undergraduate students produce a variety of explanations when prompted to self explain the correct answers to photosynthesis and respiration questions on a computer, and these explanations vary according to engagement, accuracy, and whether they focused on content or reflection. Second, it is ideal for students to use their prior knowledge to elaborate on content in their explanation, but only if their prior knowledge is accurate. Students with misconceptions may apply inaccurate prior knowledge while self explaining, even if it conflicts with the information they are explaining, and this is detrimental to the learning process. To avoid reinforcing misconceptions with inaccurate self explanations, students who are unable to produce elaborative and accurate explanations should receive additional instructional support and immediate feedback on the accuracy of their self explanations. If this is not possible, they would be best advised to focus on accurate paraphrasing. Third, students sometimes opt to spontaneously reflect on their knowledge in self explanations, but rarely. The types of reflective and meta cognitive explanations that we observed did not have any effects on learning, perhaps due to low frequency, but their potential utility in conceptual change instruction should be further explored and compared directly with content based explanations in future work. In conclusion, conceptual change is a complicated process. Without proper feedback and support, instructionally embeddedself explanation tasks may serve as a double edged sword in conceptual change instruction, depending on the learners’ ability to produce an accurate explanation
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Correct answers are indicated in bold
1) Imagine that a scientist discovers a mutant plant seedling that appears to lack stomata. What would be the effect of this?
A) CO2 would not be able to enter the plant as a reactant for photosynthesis
B) Water would not be able to enter the plant as a reactant for photosynthesis
C) Visible wavelengths of light would be unable to reach the chloroplasts
D) Additional ATP would be produced by the seedling, and the plant would grow taller
2) Albino corn has no chlorophyll. You would expect albino corn seedlings to A) capture light energy in the white end of the visible light spectrum
B) fail to thrive because they cannot capture light energy C) synthesize glucose indefinitely, using stored ATP and NADPH D) switch from the C4 pathway to the CAM pathway E) use accessory pigments such as carotenoids to capture light
3) The energy required for photosynthesis to occur is
A) glucose
B) ultraviolet light C) visible light D) air E) oxygen
4) In the chloroplast, energy in sunlight is passed around different chlorophyll molecules until it reaches a specific chlorophyll molecule that can transfer energy in sunlight to an energized electron. This chlorophyll molecule is called the
A) reaction center B) photoelectric point C) electron carrier molecule D) accessory pigment E) nucleus
5) Carotenoid pigments are found in the
A) mitochondria
B) stroma of the chloroplasts
C) thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts D) nucleus
6) The replacement electrons for the reaction center of photosystem II come from
A) photosystem I
B) H2O
C) glucose
D) O2 E) NADPH
7) Which sequence accurately describes the flow of electrons in photosynthesis?
A) Photosystem I → photosystem II → H2O → NADP
B) Photosystem II → photosystem I → NADP → H2O
C) H2O → photosystem II → photosystem I → NADP
D) Photosystem I → photosystem II → NADP → H2O
E) H2O → photosystem I → photosystem II → NADP
8) The ATP and NADPH synthesized during the light reactions are
A) dissolved in the cytoplasm
B) transported to the mitochondria
C) pumped into a compartment within the thylakoid membrane
D) transported into the nucleus
E) moved to the stroma
9) What is produced in the electron transport system associated with photosystem II?
A) NADPH B) ATP C) Glucose D) O2 E) CO2
10) Suppose you are studying photosynthesis in a research lab. You grow your plants in a chamber with a source of water that has a radioactively labeled oxygen atom. What photosynthetic product will be radioactive?
A) ATP B) Glucose C) O2 gas
D) NADPH
E) CO2 gas
11) You are carrying out an experiment on several aquatic plants in your fish tank. You decide to expose two of the plants to green light and two to blue light. You want to determine which type of light is best for the light reactions, so you decide to record the amount of oxygen bubbles produced to reach your conclusions. Which of the following results would be expected?
A) There would be more bubbles from the plants in green light than from those in blue light.
B) There would be more bubbles from the plants in blue light than from those in green light.
C) There would be the same number of bubbles from plants in blue or green light.
D) No bubbles would be produced in either green light or blue light.
12) Photosynthesis could be considered as a series of biophysical and biochemical reactions allowing:
A) water photolysis and subsequent flow of protons along a donor acceptor chain until oxidation of NADPþ
B) utilization for biomass production of part of the energy resulting from the process of fusion of hydrogen atoms in the Sun
C) electron transfer from a molecule of negative redox potential (water) to another molecule of positive redox potential (NADPþ)
D) reduction of organic carbon, producing inorganic carbon
13) If water labeled with 18O is used in photosynthesis by a green plant, the 18O will be found in:
A) starch in chloroplasts
B) carbon dioxide produced in respiration
C) oxygen produced
D) cellulose in the cell wall
14) Which of the following statements about the light reactions of photosynthesis is FALSE?
A) The splitting of water molecules provides a source of electrons.
B) Chlorophyll (and other pigments) absorbs light energy, which excites electrons.
C) An electron transport chain is used to create a proton gradient.
D) NADPH becomes oxidized to NADP+.
E) ATP is formed.
15) The ATP and NADPH synthesized during the light reactions are
A) dissolved in the cytoplasm.
B) transported to the mitochondria.
C) pumped into a compartment within the thylakoid membrane.
D) transported into the nucleus.
E) moved to the stroma.
Correct answers are indicated in bold
1) Where does the food that a plant needs come from?
A) The food comes in from the soil through the plant’s roots.
B) The food comes in from the air through the plant’s leaves.
C) The plant makes its food from carbon dioxide and water.
D) The plant makes its food from minerals and water.
2) Which of the following drawings shows the cycling of carbon dioxide and oxygen in nature?
A) B) C) D)
3) Which of the following comparisons between the process of photosynthesis and respiration is correct?
A) Photosynthesis takes places in green plants only, and respiration takes place in animals only.
B) Photosynthesis takes place in all plants, and respiration takes place in animals only.
C) Photosynthesis takes place in green plants in the presence of light energy, and respiration takes place in all plants and animals at all times.
D) Photosynthesis takes place in green plants the presence of light energy, and respiration takes place in all plants, only when there is no light energy, and all the time in animals.
4) Respiration in plants takes place in
A) The cells of the roots only, because only roots have small pores to breath
B) The cells of the roots only, because only roots need energy to absorb water
C) In every plant cell, because every cell has pores to exchange gas.
D) In every plant cell, because all living cells need energy to live
E) In the cells of the leaves only, because only leaves have special pores to exchange gas
5) In the presence of sunlight, what gas is given off in the largest amounts by green plants?
A) Carbon Dioxide, because plants only photosynthesize and don’t respire in the presence of light energy.
B) Oxygen, because plants only photosynthesize and don’t respire in the presence of light energy.
C) Oxygen, because it is a byproduct given off by plants when respiring.
D) Oxygen, because it is a byproduct given off by plants when photosynthesizing
6) Which gas is taken by green plants in large amounts when there is no light energy at all?
A) Carbon dioxide, because it is used in photosynthesis, which occurs in green plants all the time
B) Carbon dioxide, because it is used in photosynthesis which occurs in green plants when there is no light energy at all
C) Oxygen, because this gas is used in respiration which only occurs in green plants when there is no light energy to photosynthesize
D) Oxygen, because this gas is used in respiration which takes place continuously in green plants
7) A mature maple tree can have a mass of 1 ton or more (dry biomass, after removing the water), yet it starts from a seed that weighs less than 1 gram. Which of the following processes contribute the most to this vast increase in biomass?
A) Absorption of organic substances from the soil via the roots.
B) Incorporation of H20 from the soil into molecules by green leaves
C) Absorption of solar radiation into green leaves
D) Incorporation of CO2 gas from the atmosphere into molecules by green leaves
8) The following question is based on this experiment: Three batches of radish seeds, each with a starting weight of 1.5g (dry), were placed in petri dishes and provided only with light or water or both, as shown in the photo. After 1 week, the material in each dish was dried and weighed. The results are shown here for each petri dish.
Where did the mass go that was lost by the seedlings in the "No light, Water" treatment?
A) It was converted to CO2 and H2O and then released.
B) It was converted to heat and then released.
C) It was converted into ATP molecules.
D) It was eliminated from the roots as waste material.
E) It was converted to starch.
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9) A potted geranium plant sits in a windowsill, absorbing sunlight. After I put this plant in a dark closet for a few days (but keeping it watered as needed), will it weigh more or less (discounting the weight of the water) than before I put it in the closet?
10) [Dropped from analysis] A potted geranium plant sits in a windowsill absorbing sunlight. How does a root cell (which is not exposed to light) obtain energy in order to perform cellular work such as active transport across its membrane?
A) ATP is made in the leaves via photosynthesis and moved to the root.
B) Sugar is made in the leaves via photosynthesis and moved to the root.
C) The root cell makes sugar using the dark reactions (Calvin cycle) of photosynthesis.
D) The root cell makes ATP by photosynthesis and cellular respiration
11) Which of the following best describes how a plant cell gets the energy it needs for cellular processes?
A) The chloroplasts provide all the ATP needed by the plants.
B) In the light, the ATP comes from the chloroplasts, in the dark, from mitochondria.
C) Most ATP comes from digestion of organic matter absorbed by roots, some comes from chloroplasts.
D) The sugars produced in photosynthesis can be broken down during respiration to make ATP.
12) Which of the following is the most accurate statement about respiration in green plants?
A) It is a chemical process by which plants manufacture food from water and carbon dioxide.
B) It is a chemical process in which energy stored in food is released using oxygen.
C) It is the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen gases through plant stomates.
D) It is a process that doesn’t take place in green plants when photosynthesis is taking place.
Correct answers are in bold
1) Where does the food that a plant needs come from?
A) The plant makes its food from minerals and water.
B) The food comes in from the soil through the plant’s roots.
C) The food comes in from the air through the plant’s leaves.
D) The food comes in both from the soil and the air.
E) The plant makes its food from carbon dioxide and water.
2) Which of the following drawings shows the cycling of carbon dioxide and oxygen in nature?
A) B) C) D)
3) Which of the following comparisons between the process of photosynthesis and respiration is correct?
A) Photosynthesis takes place in green plants in the presence of light energy, and respiration takes place in all plants and animals at all times.
B) Photosynthesis takes places in green plants only, and respiration takes place in animals only.
C) Photosynthesis takes place in green plants the presence of light energy, and respiration takes place in all plants, only when there is no light energy, and all the time in animals.
D) Photosynthesis takes place in all plants, and respiration takes place in animals only.
E) Respiration in animals is the same as photosynthesis in plants
4) Respiration in plants takes place in
A) In the cells of the leaves only, because only leaves have special pores to exchange gas
B) In the cells of the leaves only, because only cells that photosynthesize can respire
C) In every plant cell, because all cells have pores to exchange gas.
D) In every plant cell, because all living cells need energy to live
E) The cells of the roots only, because only roots need energy to absorb water
5) In the presence of sunlight, what gas is given off in the largest amounts by green plants?
A) Oxygen, because plants only photosynthesize and don’t respire in the presence of light energy.
B) Oxygen, because it is a byproduct given off by plants when respiring.
C) Oxygen, because it is a byproduct given off by plants when photosynthesizing
D) Carbon Dioxide, because plants only photosynthesize and don’t respire in the presence of light energy.
6) Which gas is taken by green plants in large amounts when there is no light energy at all?
A) Oxygen, because this gas is used in respiration which only occurs in green plants when there is no light energy to photosynthesize.
B) Oxygen, because this gas is used in respiration which takes place continuously in green plants.
C) Carbon dioxide, because it is used in respiration, which takes place continuously in green plants.
D) Carbon dioxide, because it is used in photosynthesis in the presence of light energy.
7) Each spring, farmers plant about 5 10 kg of seed corn per acre for commercial corn production. By the fall, this same acre of corn will yield approximately 4 5 metric tons of harvested corn. Which of the following processes contributes the most to this huge increase in biomass?
A) Absorption of organic substances from the soil via the roots.
B) Absorption of mineral substances from the soil via the roots.
C) Absorption of solar radiation into green leaves
D) Incorporation of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into molecules by green leaves
E) Incorporation of H20 from the soil into molecules by green leaves
8) The following question is based on this experiment: Three batches of radish seeds, each with a starting weight of 1.5g (dry), were placed in petri dishes and provided only with light or water or both, as shown in the photo. After 1 week, the material in each dish was dried and weighed. The results are shown below each petri dish.
Which of the following processes contributed the most to the increased biomass of the "Light, Water" treatment?
A) Absorption of mineral substances from the soil via the roots
B) Absorption of organic substances from the soil via the roots
C) Incorporation of carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere by green leaves
D) Incorporation of water from the soil into molecules by green leaves
E) Absorption of solar radiation by green leaves
9) Where did the mass go that was lost by the seedlings in the "No light, Water" treatment?
A) It was converted to heat and then released.
B) It was converted into ATP molecules.
C) It was converted to carbon dioxide and water and then released.
D) It was eliminated from the roots as waste material.
E) It was converted to starch.
10) A basil plant has been absorbing sunlight in window for several days. I then put the plant in a dark closet for the next few days and kept it watered. What will happen to the weight of the plant after having it in the closet?
A) It will weigh the same since no biomass is produced
B) It will weigh less because no photosynthesis is occurring.
C) It will weigh less because it is still respiring
D) It will weigh more because the Calvin cycle reactions continue.
E) It will weigh more because it still has access to water and soil nutrients
11) [Previously Activity Item 10 Dropped from analysis] A potted geranium plant sits in a windowsill absorbing sunlight. How does a root cell (which is not exposed to light) obtain energy in order to perform cellular work such as active transport across its membrane?
A) ATP is made in the leaves via photosynthesis and moved to the root.
B) Sugar is made in the root via photosynthesis.
C) Sugar is made in the leaves via photosynthesis and moved to the root.
D) The root cell makes sugar using the dark reactions (Calvin cycle) of photosynthesis.
E) The root cell makes ATP by photosynthesis and cellular respiration
12) Which of the following best describes how a plant cell gets the energy it needs for cellular processes?
A) Solar radiation provides the energy needed for metabolic processes in cells.
B) The chloroplasts provide all the ATP needed by the plants.
C) In the light, the ATP comes from the chloroplasts, in the dark, from mitochondria.
D) Most ATP comes from digestion of organic matter absorbed by roots, some comes from chloroplasts.
E) The sugars produced in photosynthesis care be broken down during respiration to make ATP.
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13) Which of the following is the most accurate statement about respiration in green plants?
A) It is a chemical process by which plants manufacture food from water and carbon dioxide.
B) It is a chemical process in which energy stored in food is released using oxygen.
C) It is the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen gases through plant stomates.
D) It is a process that doesn’t take place in green plants when photosynthesis is taking place.
E) It is a process that only takes place in the presence of light energy.
14) Euglena are single celled, photosynthetic eukaryotes. How do Euglena obtain energy to do such cellular work such as active transport across membranes?
A) They transport ATP from the chloroplasts.
B) They utilize inorganic nutrients from the surrounding water to make ATP.
C) They use sugars made in the chloroplasts to make ATP.
D) They use the ATP made during photosynthesis.
E) They utilize organic molecules from their surroundings.
15) Which of the following choices about the respiration in plants and animals is true?
A) Respiration in plants is photosynthesis.
B) Plants respire only at night, animals respire all the time.
C) Respiration in plants and animals is similar.
D) Plants make anaerobic (without oxygen) respiration, animals make aerobic (with oxygen) respiration.
E) While respiration in plants occurs in leaf cells, in animals, it occurs in lung cells.
16) 20 small circular pieces, whose diameter is 1 mm, were cut from the leaves which have similar properties from a geranium plant at three different times. First it was cut at 04:00 am (group A), second it was cut at 04:00 pm in the same day (Group B), and last one was at 04:00 am in the next day (Group C). Then, the pieces are dried (dehydrate) at 105 o C and weighted. Which of the following results can be obtained?
A) Group A has the most dried weight
B) Group B has the most dried weight.
C) Group C has the most dried weight.
D) Group B has the least dried weight.
E) Groups A and C have the same dried weight.
17) Which of the following is TRUE about the sugar molecules in plants?
A) The sugar molecules come from the soil.
B) The sugar molecules are one of many sources of food for plants.
C) The sugar molecules are made from molecules of water and minerals.
D) The sugar molecules are made of carbon atoms linked to other carbon atoms.
18) Which of the following is food for a plant?
A) Sugars that a plant makes
B) Minerals that a plant takes in from the soil
C) Water that a plant takes in through its roots
D) Carbon dioxide that a plant takes in through its leaves
19) The most important benefit to green plants when they photosynthesize is
A) The removal of carbon dioxide from the air through the leaves stomates.
B) The conversion of light energy to chemical energy.
C) The production of energy for plant growth
D) The production of oxygen into the atmosphere
20) Which of the following is true about photosynthesis and respiration in plants?
A) Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves, and those leaf cells respire.
B) Photosynthesis takes place in the green parts of the plant, and the leaf cells respire
C) Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves, and every plant cell respires
D) Photosynthesis takes place in the whole plant, and the leaf cells respire
E) Photosynthesis takes place in the green parts of the plant, and every plant cell respires
21) Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between photosynthesis and cellular respiration?
*Upon further analysis, both B and D were graded as correct answers.
A) Photosynthesis occurs only in autotrophs; cellular respiration occurs only in heterotrophs.
B) Photosynthesis uses solar energy to convert inorganics to energy rich organics; respiration breaks down energy rich organics to synthesize ATP.
C) Photosynthesis involves the oxidation of glucose; respiration involves the reduction of CO2.
D) The primary function of photosynthesis is to use solar energy to synthesize ATP; the primary function of cellular respiration is to break down ATP and release energy.
E) Photosynthesis and cellular respiration occur in separate, specialized organelles; the two processes cannot occur in the same cell at the same time
22) Which of the following equations best represents the process of respiration in plants?
A. Glucose + oxygen energy + carbon dioxide + water.
B. Carbon dioxide + water energy + glucose + oxygen.
C. Carbon dioxide + water light energy oxygen + glucose. Chlorophyll
D. Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water.
23) Which of the following equations best represents the overall process of photosynthesis?
A. Glucose + oxygen chlorophyll carbon dioxide + water light energy
B. Carbon dioxide + water chlorophyll glucose + oxygen light energy
C. Carbon dioxide + water + energy glucose + oxygen
D. Oxygen + water chlorophyll glucose + carbon dioxide light energy
24) Which of the following statements is TRUE about the carbon dioxide that is used by plants?
A) It is combined with oxygen to make sugar molecules.
B) It is absorbed through the roots of plants.
C) It comes from the air.
D) It is food for plants.
1 Avoidance
Includes:
• Non answers that were filled in to skip the task.
• Shallow responses relating to their method (the answer they selected “I chose A”; whether they were right or wrong “I got it right”),
• I don’t know type responses
• Responses that did not contain a complete thought “Plants live”
2 Uncodeable Any explanation that attempted to introduce relevant content but was incoherent and could not be comprehended enough to assign to a category.
3 Paraphrase Restates or explains without adding new info or referring from prior knowledge. Includes verbatim restatements of parts of the question or answers and paraphrases from the question or answers. These explanations cannot include the introduction of any new information not presented in the question or answers, including the introduction of technical terms not presented.
4 Explains accurately Explains the correct answer accurately and adds relevant info (terms, concepts, details). The response should be coherent without any inaccuracies.
5 Explains inaccurately Adds information but contains some level of inaccuracy. Besides introducing incorrect facts/statements, explanations can also be considered inaccurate because they explain the wrong answer as being correct, misunderstood/misread the correct answer/question, or paraphrasing in a way that make it inaccurate. Takes precedent over reflection of knowledge if applicable.
6 Reflection of knowledge May discuss the source of their prior knowledge or their confidence in their prior knowledge. Prior knowledge could be from a previous question. Knowledge discussed should be accurate.
May explains confusion/conflict between their knowledge and the content or point out their own error. Also includes pointing out the misconception without having it (most people think that…).
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Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez
Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela
The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, educators, teachers, trainers and other practitioners on all aspects of education to publish high quality peer reviewed papers. Papers for publication in the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research are selected through precise peer review to ensure quality, originality, appropriateness, significance and readability. Authors are solicited to contribute to this journal by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, original surveys and case studies that describe significant advances in the fields of education, training, e learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit papers to this journal through the ONLINE submission system. Submissions must be original and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being evaluated by IJLTER.
