Vol 3 no 1 march 2014 by ijlter.org

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p-ISSN: 1694-2493 e-ISSN: 1694-2116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.3 No.1

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 3

NUMBER 1

March 2014

Table of Contents Study of the Conceptions Related to Learning of Complex Concepts: The Case of the Ecosystem ............................ 1 Lamjed Messoussi, André Giordan and Mohamed Hédi El Aouni A Comparison of Experimental Designs for Assessment and Research in Higher Education ................................... 14 Jack T. Tessier, Nana-Yaw Andoh, Kristin DeForest, Matthew W. Juba, Akira Odani, John J. Padovani, Elizabeth F. Sova, and Lisa M. Tessier Designing Teaching Methods in Curriculum of Iran‟s Higher Education based on Development of Social Capital ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 21 Forouzan Tonkaboni, Alireza Yousefy and Narges Keshtiaray Autocratic and Participative Coaching Styles and Its Effects on Students’ Dance Performance .............................. 32 Desiree B. Castillo, Martina Alexandria V. Balibay, Jhuzel M. Alarcon, Justine M. Picar, Raniel R. Lampitoc, Ma. Crizandra Baylon Impact of Teacher-Gender on Primary Students‟ Achievement: A Case Study at Bangladesh Standpoint ............. 45 Dr. Kazi Enamul Hoque and Mosa Fatema Zohora Problem-Based Learning in Construction Engineering within a South African context ............................................. 69 Pauline Machika (Dr) and Chris Abrahams Teaching Competency of Secondary School Teachers In Relation To Emotional Intelligence ................................... 83 Dr. Mandeep Kaur and Mrs. Arti Talwar

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1-13, March 2014

Study of the Conceptions Related to Learning of Complex Concepts: The Case of the Ecosystem Lamjed Messoussi University of Tunis El Manar, Tunisia AndrĂŠ Giordan University of Geneva, Switzerland Mohamed HĂŠdi El Aouni University of Carthage, Tunisia Abstract. To what extend does the apprehension of a so-called "systemic" thought ensure success in the process of learning of complex concepts? That is the main question underlying this didactic research. This study tries to approach the conceptions of the teachers about the concept of the system and its complexity, by emerging modes of reasoning and by identifying the educational choices related to the learning styles. An approach to categorization of conceptions is carried out; it highlights particular complexity barriers in the case of the concept of the ecosystem. The analysis of educational choices related to this teaching of the ecosystem can be used to develop handson activities to introduce the systems approach as a didactic approach to the teaching of the concept of the ecosystem. Keywords: system, conceptions; complexity; ecosystem; systemic approach

Introduction Ecology, this 'science of ecological systems' as described by specialists, has been recognized by (Haeckel, 1866) as the science of the relationships between organisms and the surrounding world, (Dajoz, 1983) it was defined as the science of knowledge of the existence of interactions for (Buican, 1997) it was the science of the relationships with the environment. Its history dates back to nearly 150 years, introduced many inputs (concepts, methodology) to enable the understanding of the ecosystems, their diversity, their structures and their functioning. According to conventional physics, the second law of thermodynamics known as Carnot's principle states that any system evolves in the direction of greater disorder. This principle is used to measure the degree of disorder of a system at a microscopic level and applies only to closed systems. Discoveries in biology have shown that any open system naturally evolves into a more complex structure. The interaction "system - environment" can overcome this apparent contradiction. In the case of the ecosystem, emerging concepts as organization, order and Exchange, have been linked to translate a tangle and a layout of connection, paving the way for the complexity, recognized in other areas such as biology, sociology, economics, urbanization, organizations, etc. The complexity of

ecosystems cannot be understood without a comprehensive approach, taking into account the interactions between components while keeping the overall unity of the ecosystem; an approach based on the concept of system, so-called 'systemic approach', allows to better understand the various aspects of the complexity. In the field of education, the learning of the ecological concepts should, with references to the prescribed lead to understand the complexity of the ecosystem. However, do teachers have a conceptual approach, method, tools and techniques sufficiently adequate for shaping and addressing this complexity?

The concept of a system: A complex concept The idea of "system" is old; its use can be found in Arab science confused with the notion of model or tool which is used in everyday life. Management of water and irrigation of agricultural land, constituted a basis for reflection on the system model.

The premises The relationship between the systemic approach and the concept of system were reported by many specialists. De Rosnay (1975) considers that «the systemic approach is based on the concept of system." "This term often vague and ambiguous, [is] yet used today in a growing number of disciplines because of its power of unification and integration. Since the last century, Bertalanffy (1973) had sought to identify, in the General systems theory, the common concepts of system and its properties, and proposed to define a system as ' a complex of elements in interaction".". Taking this point of view, De Rosnay (1975) defines a system by « a collection of elements in dynamic interaction, organized around an objective ». Le Moigne (1983) considers a system as « an object in an environment with goals, which performs an activity and sees its internal structure evolving over time, yet without losing its unique identity». Based on the concept of complementarily between the elements of the system, the same author then defines «a set of interacting components where the modification of one of them causes the modification of all the others » (This modification is clearly based on the relationship and not on the elements) ». Emphasis on the interrelationships, Morin (1977), talks about ' An overall unit organized around interrelationships between elements, actions, or individuals '. Sketching the history of some of these definitions, Durand (1979) adds other definitions of Linguistics, relating them either to a classic rationalist approach, or to the systemic approach. This set of definition highlights the concept of the system which can be summarized as follows (it is not an arithmetic sum, but the characteristics of the interrelationships between elements):

(elt: element ;) Env: environment) Which can be boiled down to: System = set of structures + set of operating Understanding a system takes into account the structural aspects (elements) and the functional ones (interactions). Once one takes into account the interaction of new properties, so-called emerging, appearing as the flow of dynamics, reorganization and feedback, which gives the complexity of the concept of the system, the ecological system does not escape from this perspective. Understanding this complexity through

a process of conceptualization and description of links. That is the subject of the systems approach. What makes Le Moigne write in (1990) "the concept of the system, understood as an intelligible and finalized tangle of interdependent actions, was quickly adopted to describe the complexity"Âť. Macy conferences, organized in New York by the 'Josiah Macy Foundation' at the initiative of Warren McCulloch neurologist had met at regular intervals from 1942 to 1956 a group of specialists from various scientific backgrounds (mathematicians, logicians, anthropologists psychologists and economists) and their work has been the source of cybernetics and cognitive science, areas much used to the emergence of systems. Until then scientific research based on the method of Descartes advocated dividing and isolating each item or variable to be studied separately. With cybernetics it is, not to deal with elements taken in isolation, but to seek links between these elements, particularly through feedback. Already since the XXVII century, the complementarily between the part and the whole was a main concern. Pascal (1669), in his thoughts, part I, art. 6, said â&#x20AC;?the flame cannot exist without air: therefore, to find the one you need to know each other [...] I would not know the parts without knowing the whole, nor to know the whole without knowing the specific parts ".

The systemic: science or art? Walliser (1977) has engaged in an analysis for wondering about the scope and limitations of the systems approach and make clarifications. Donnadieu & Karsky (2002) evoke "the systemic exploration" as well as a practical conceptual approach, to 'think and to act in the complexity. The systemic appears as a methodology and an approach that seeks to define a rational system design approach (physical, biological or social) and analysis based on modeling. The challenges associated with the complexity that the systemic attempts to answer, faces obstacles under the designs around the notion of system, as well as those regarding didactics related to educational choices. The work of De Rosnay (1975); Walliser (1977); Le Moigne (1983); Durand (1979); Giordan & Souchon (1991, 2008); Donnadieu & Karsky (2002), have helped to conceptualize the systemic approach, its methods, its areas of application and its analysis tools. Aracil (1984) has described, for its part, the evolution of the systems in his Introduction to the dynamics of systems and even indicated that this dynamics was based on models such as theorized and symbolized by Forrester. Modeling is used in the systems approach as a means of conceptualization. One of the modeling techniques based on the schematisations, which can be found in the literature of the designations of the concept map type, introduced in the field of education by Novak (1990, 1991) and in the field of didactics by Giordan & Febvre (1990). Conceptual analysis of this approach, Giordan & Souchon (2008) describe it as a practical approach for " pass identification of major concepts to a conceptogramme Âť and clarify that in General," the systemic approach is much more a description and analysis of situations, structures and processes'.

Flow circulating between reservoirs

set of element in dynamic interaction

Limits and borders in the environment

System concept

Network of communication and traffic

reservoirs of material, energy and information

Set formed of whole elements

feedback loops

Functional approach

Structural approach : trained of,

Centers of decision

: to show,

related to

Figure 1: representation concepts defining the notion of system networked

Slightly present in the literature, the term systemic approach tends to refer to an educational dimension versus "systemic approach". In our case, we are actually applying the ecosystem approach in the classroom, in order to build an instruction based on scientific concepts functioning in system.

Issues and research methodology If several authors have focused on analysis conceptions (Giordan, 1978; Giordan & Martinand, 1988; Giordan, 2002, 1999; Giordan & Vecchi, 1987; Sanner, 1983) in understanding the mechanisms that they under tend in learning; and on the analysis of the issues of complexity (De Rosnay, 1975, Morin, 1977, 1990, 1999; Donnadieu & Karsky, 2002) in connection with the ways of thinking, few references are interested in interactions 'designs - complexity - learning '. On the educational front, the usual modes of learning are to rethink to introduce the systemic approach. This study chose to start with the main players in the process of teaching / learning: teacher. Analysis of their designs, about the concept of system, could provide information on their modes of reasoning. Similarly, analysis of educational tools selected by the teachers for the teaching of the concept of ecosystem following training on the systems approach can provide information on the degree of understanding of systems thinking in the learning of complex concepts. Beyond knowledge of the concept of system alone, this study sought to see the degree of influence related to this concept in the process of learning and especially if the only apprehension of systemic thought enough for learning of complex concepts. Works such as those of Giordan & Souchon (2008) developed the systems approach as a conceptual framework for the study of complex ecological concepts, that of sustainable development. Morin (1990) stresses that a disciplinary barrier prevents the assumption of multidimensionality. Relevant training and a practical guide available to teacher teaching resources to integrate the aspect of 'complexity' in learning.

Research on the conceptions of the teachers in connection with the systemic approach, the following research questions have been put forward in the below statements: 1. Doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t the notion of system appear in the teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; concepts as a limited frame with a structural dominance? 2. An education based on a teaching approach that is systemic allows a better understanding of the complexity of the ecosystem concept? A complementary training, predominantly "functional" would be more relevant? The methodology was of a qualitative type, it relies on semi-structured questionnaires. The structuring of the results is based on grids per items which allow to group responses to the various questionnaires. The questionnaires were made up by the following questions: A system consists of elements interacting. What is a system for you (Question 1)? Examples of systems (Question 2)? How does a system work (Question 3)? What are the types of interactions in a system (Question 4)? What are the relationships between the parties and the system (Question 5)? A system is in relationship with its environment: What are the nature, extent and density Exchange (Question 6)? What are the sensors in place (Question 6b)? Y' there the boundaries between a system and its environment (Question 7)? A system meets the disruptions that it receives from its environment. These disturbances modify the structure of the system (Question 8)? If so, how? If not, why? In the post-test questionnaire we have added the following questions: What is a systemic approach for you (Question 9)? How is it different from the classical approach (Question 10)? Beyond these issues, the study focused also on the modes of reasoning in relation to the concept of system in various areas of biology to the economy, and on the degree of involvement in the understanding of complexity. The study focused on teachers of SVT (life and Earth Science) 2nd year secondary Tunisian (17-19 years old) concerned with the teaching of the ecosystem. It is held during the school years 2008 / 2009 and 2009 / 2010. Pre-test questionnaires, conducted respectively with two groups: 19 teachers (Group 1) and 17 teachers (Group 2) of the Regional Directorate of Tunis 2 education. A training for teachers on the systemic approach took place in the same meeting, after the responses to the questionnaires. It focused on the basis of the systemic approach, its basic concepts, his educational contributions and some application domains. Practical examples were discussed. At the end of the training session, teachers were asked to apply the systems approach in a class situation during the teaching of the concept of the ecosystem, the didactic framework aimed at enabling students to build an instruction based on scientific concepts in operating in a system?.

At a second meeting, post-test questionnaires were conducted with the teachers of the same groups. A sheet of the teaching tools used in class, by each of the teachers of the group, described the chosen tool and its benefits. An interview was conducted with some teachers of each group on the issues listed in the pre-test and post-test to complement the written replies. In the descriptive profiles, and to determine the degree of understanding of the systems approach as a pedagogical choice by teachers, the following issues were raised. Where/which of the following teaching tools have you used in the classroom for the teaching of the concept of ecosystem (Question 1)? -A concept map or a conceptogramme -A folder prepared by each student on a theme chosen in advance -Output on the field with the students in the class -A debate in class from a specific document or topic -Another tool, to describe Describe the benefits of the educational tool that you used in the classroom: how did they allow you to help students understand the ecosystem, the network relationship between the components, the hierarchy of relationships, the exchange with the environment (Question 2)? Can you describe the contributions of the schematisations compared to other educational tools in the teaching of the ecological concepts (Question 3)? Which are the most successful teaching educational tools you can use according to the systemic approach ecological concepts (Question 4)? Selected teaching tool: Justify your choice: Our approaches to analysis are supplemented by a grid that allows you to categorize the replies to the questionnaires and analysis of educational choices, either in the structural approach or in the functional approach (see figure 2). Analysis of the conceptions

questionnaire of pre-test

The processes

1.System concept (definition, Operating modes, interactions…)

2.Système / environnement Relationship (borders, exchange, balance,…) 3.System and regulation (dynamic, reorganization, complexity,…)

Analysis Méthodology

The approaches

Questionnaire of post-test 1.Identification of conceptual change (structural and functional aspects ) 2.Research favorable / unfavorable factors of the complexity 3.Identification of modes of reasoning (emergent properties of the system, systemic approach and complexity,…)

Index cards pedagogical Research for new educational culture

Based on

1. Analysis of educational choices for teaching ecosystem (field trip on the ground, conceptogramme, debate, …) Research of educational objectives bound to choices (global vision, understanding of the complexity, research of links,…) 3.Identification of modes of thinking (systemic approach and pedagogical choice) Related to

Figure 2: analysis approaches and methodologies being used

Conceptions and modes of reasoning systems: previous barriers highlighted These studies showed significant numbers of results. Questionnaires for both the pretest and the pos-test responses benefit the structural approach with regard to the definition of the system, its operation and the complementarities between its parts. Double answers to questions about whether or not there are boundaries between the system and its environment, the lack of answers to some other questions about the dynamics of the system and its exchanges, express some uncertainty and number of ambiguity, in the way of thinking of teachers around the notion of system. Some emergent properties of the system, such as reorganization, regulation and flow, can be expressed loosely: feedback used to balance the system, relationship between the parties and the system that can be positive or negative, importance and density of exchanges at the origin of the survival of the system, which would prevent accession to the complexity of the system. Reference, often socio-professional order among teachers, appears to be an obstacle to think on the concept of the system outside the realm of teaching. The justification on the notion of borders, the sensors involved in trade and the reorganization due to external disturbances, is 'obvious' if the concept of a system is planned in areas other than biology.

Excerpt from the AO teacher responses

Excerpt from the CR teacher responses Examples of responses reflecting the blur and ambiguity around the concepts of borders and regulation in the concept of system.

Table 1: comparison of trends between the answers to the pre-test and the post-test for each group of teachers

Behavior change Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

Question 4

Question 5

Question 6 (a and b)

Question 7

Question 8

Group 79 % 1 to 74 % Set of elements 16 % (unchanged) Organized / structured

92 % to 89 % Physical biology 8% to 11 % Sociology

85 % to 88 % Complementarity 10 % to 5% Rules and laws

26 % to 50 % Action / retroaction 42 % to 33 % Positive/ negative

31 % to 25 % Complementarity 37 % to 31 % Exchange / balance

58 % to 83 % With border 42 % to 17 % Without border

85 % to 94 % Modification of structure (+) 15 % to 5 % Modifying structure (-)

Group 71 % 2 to 43 % Set of elements 12 % to 36 % Organized / structured

86 % to 84 % Physical biology 14 % to 16 % Sociology

35 % to 69 %

18 % to 23 % Action / retroaction 70 % to 54 % Positive /negative

36 % to 45 % Complementarity 36 % to 9% Exchange / balance

68.4% to 40.2% (SR) N: 81 % Exchange I: 46% to 19 % Balance D: 67% to 83 % Variability 6 (b) 50 % Relay (unchanged) 82.3% to 50% (SR) N: 46% to 50 % Exchange I: 43% to 20 % Balance D: 12% to 67 % Variability 6 (b) 42% to 50% Relay

81 % to 93 % With border 18 % to 7% Without border

94 % to 87% Modification of structure (+) 6 % to 13 % Modifying structure (-)

Complementarity 47 % to 8% Rules and laws

SR: no response; N: nature, I: importance, D: density Percentages expressed at the forefront are relative to the answers to the pre-test, those second place belongs to answering the post-test.

The configuration of the replies to the questionnaires of the post-test expresses a 'timid' change at the level of the designs incorporating the functional aspect of the system. The systems begin to be more recognized in sociology and economics, the complementarity appears in the mode of operation between the parties and the system, regulation and dynamics become source of equilibrium of the system. There is a possibility that the teacher adheres to a thinking taking into account the dual approach of the systems. Responses which continue to express a blur, ambiguity on notions such as feedback and reorganization, constitute a challenge and change of design may not be sustainable, it needs to be strengthened. The systems approach is a didactic approach meant to clarify to teachers with the ultimate objective to enable learners to achieve this change in way of thinking. When the situation is at the experimental level, we can recognize the results, but how to generalize them, to make them "educational" and put them within reach of all teachers? Educational tools selected by each of the teachers can be seen as 'limits' to changes in designs. Only the inclusion of the systemic approach as curriculum option and the training of teachers in this learning process can enhance the

understanding of the systemic thinking and address the complexity in the learning process of complex concepts. In responses to the post-test questionnaires, some teachers interviewed have changed the responses between questionnaires and interview. With the second group, this change reflects a "trend" towards answers and justifications related to a way of thinking taking into account the functional aspects of the systems. Appropriate training of teachers on the systemic approach could facilitate the understanding of the complexity of the systems and the development of its emergent properties.

Comment and discussion: Obstacles facing the generalization of the concept of system Teacher training on the systemic approach and analysis of case studies, participated in the change in SVT teachers' responses towards more functional aspects of the systems The notion of system is now thought into areas such as sociology and economics, and the types of interactions and relationships between the parties and the system, promote complementarily and exchange. The operating mode of the systems and their dynamic integrate regulation and balance. The major difficulty remains regarding the ability of teachers to put into practice the systemic approach and enable learners in their turn, to achieve a change in way of thinking that integrates complexity. Proposals for responses based on ‘global’ and ‘blurry’ ideas seem to prevent linking structural and functional aspects for a better conceptualization of the concept of system. The sustainability of a change the designs in support of functional system approach would need to be strengthened through training in the didactic approach promoting a way of thinking which apprehends the complexity of systems. The analysis of designs highlights 'what works' or 'adverse' factors in order to access the complexity of the concept of system (see figure 3). In connection with the notion of system, key concepts such as borders, dynamics and flows, are seen differently if we place ourselves on the side of the structural approach or the functional approach. In the case of designs promoting systemic approach borders are seen as ‘boundaries’ between elements or subsystems, the dynamics appears to be necessary interactions to ensure system balance and exchanges are expressed in terms' of 'tools' and 'relay'. Structural approach of system Subsystem, Element

Communicatio n network

Limits BORDERS

Interaction, balance

Tools, relay EXCHANGES

DYNAMIC OF SYSTEM Reorganization

‘Permeable’

Complexity

Flow : energy, matter, information Complementarity, Unit

Types of interaction, interdependence

Functional approach of system :

Consist of, leads to

: Related to

Figure 3: the complexity of the concept of system-related concepts

With the conceptual change, the same concepts are translated differently; borders are seen as non-watertight limitations to exchange. The dynamics of the system is related to the concept of reorganization which enjoys the system to ensure its survival and the exchanges are designed as energy, material and information flows. In the first category of designs, the key concepts appear as 'obstacles' to access the emergent properties of the system. Only the complementarity between structural and functional approaches to make the concepts of borders, dynamics and Exchange factors 'favourable' to the complexity of the concept of system. Table 2: summary of the results of the analysis of tools teaching of groups 1 and 2 Question 1

Group 1

Group 2

Question 2

Question 3

Question 4

Selected educational Tools

Benefits of the chosen educational tool

Contribution of the schematisation

Tool to foster systemic approach

Conceptual C. 3 % Folder 14% Output 42 % Debate 19 % Other 21 % Conceptual C. 11 % Folder 20% Output 25 % Debate 22 % Other 22 %

Understanding 5 % Research of network 31 % Exchange with the environment 19 %

Exchange 18 % Evaluation 29 % Network 47% Viewing 6%

Conceptual C. 9 % Exit 68 % Debate 5% Other 18 %

Understanding 50 % Search Network 29 % Exchange with the environment 21 %

Exchange 29 % P. emerging 15% Network 21% No answer 35%

Conceptual C. 12 % Output 50 % Folder 6% Other 31 % No response 3%

The choice of teaching materials remains in the same orientation as the designs. The field trips are the most widely used educational tool. On the one hand it is prescribed in the curriculum, and secondly the teacher 'dares' not try a new teaching tool, some have done at our request by trying other options such as the conceptual map. The benefits of applied educational tools focus on the understanding of the ecosystem, looking for links to establish a network of relations between its elements or the identification of the exchange between the ecosystem and the environment. Although teachers recognize that the schematisations have important educational inputs as emergent properties, the overall vision and evaluation, these contributions have not favoured with the chosen educational tools. The case of educational tools that promote the more systemic approach, recalls once again a usual paradox in teaching: a new educational choice still requires some time to be implemented. Although the conceptual map is a teaching tool selected and tried, the field trips that may help to conceptualize the ecosystem are a choice influenced by socio-professional appearance. A didactic strategy, as part of the systemic approach would encourage teachers to make use of this tool and to integrate the complexity in the learning process. Didactic aid may strengthen this strategy and enable teachers to learn about the systemic approach. The evolution of the designs must be 'worked' and a pass-line must ensure a certain 'transition', through socio-professional status and continuing education, to build up new pedagogical approaches to develop a new educational culture.

Projected evolution

Analysis of pre-test questionnaire

Analysis of post-test questionnaire

The dynamics space / time

Elements, subsystem (interrelation) Borders (limits)

‘Permeable’ borders (flow) Reorganization (complexity)

Interaction (exchanges)

Conceptions Adaptation (behavior)

Complementarity (unit)

Factors of choice: the socioprofesional status The in-service training, …

Mode of thinking including the complexity

Pedagogical choices

Process (conceptual approaches)

Exploring possible

The approaches

New pedagogical culture

Global approach, research links

The choices

Index cards pedagogical

Training

Strategy Objectives (learn about

Pedagogic practices

the systemic approach,

(cognitive, metacognitive: critical mind)

confront the complexity)

leads to

transition

related to

Figure 4: summary of the analysis of questionnaires and educational sheets

Complexity and systemic approach The McManus (1990) reported that the systemic used the theory of modelling to represent the complexity and model it. The schematisations constitute a model for complexity. Introduced in education by Novak (1990) and applied in the case of education to the environment and sustainable development by Giordan and Souchon (2008), the schematisations are tools to address the complexity of learning and assessment. Using computer tools, the use of the schematisations is commonplace in the field of education; however there is a teaching tool of limited application and a pedagogical choice unknown to teachers. The characterization of the systemic approach to the classical approach reveals that the 'complexity' aspect is difficult to recognize in the responses of Group 2. Table 3: summary of responses to questions 9 and 10 of the post-test Question 9 Characterization of the systemic approach

Question 10 Characterization of the classical approach

Group 1

Allows the vision overall 59% Establish a network of interactions 41%

Analysis by dissociation 88 % Ineffective facing complexity 12 %

Group 2

Allows the vision overall

73 %

Analysis by dissociation

90%

In the learning of the ecological concepts, 'a conceptogramme' can be a conceptual tool for non-linear thinking and explaining the interactions and feedbacks, so as to develop the 'circular causation' to clear the hidden face of the complexity of the systems, emergent properties.

Conclusion The vagueness and ambiguity appear when it is placed in the register of the common knowledge of systems: borders, exchange, regulation and dynamics. These knowledge-related designs are quite easy especially if the teacher is answering questions such as nature, importance and density of exchanges or regulating the system to disturbances which undergoes its environment. Obstacles arise to imagine 'leaky borders ' playing the role of limits, but at the same time allowing the exchanges between the system and its environment. Training on systemic and its foundations, offers teachers an opportunity to rethink the concept of system, broaden the scope of this concept in various fields. A new way of thinking, based on research of links, is now possible building on the interaction and the notion of 'all' characteristic of systems. Despite the reported difficulties, a 'shy' change of conceptions appears when issues of post-test, especially about the definition of the system, how it works, the types of interaction between components and boundaries. The spatio-temporal evolution, the reorganization of the system to the disturbances and Exchange fluxes are notions which are difficult for teachers to imagine using in various fields. These are factors described as "preventing" the apprehension of the complexity. This difficulty is especially found in the descriptive notes where the teacher persists in choices of classical approach methods, despite a request to apply the systemic approach in the teaching of the concept of ecosystem. Extending this research to other groups of teachers could reveal details of the ideas and modes of reasoning of each but would also make known this process as much as possible. Ultimately, it would be advisable that learning through systemic approach be reflected in educational objectives and practical steps included in the official Programmes, offering in parallel educational resources for teachers. Such a proposal should be supported by appropriate training of teachers in the functional approach to systems.

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Giordan, A. (2002). Another school for our children, 249 pages. Paris: Editions Delagrave, p. 137-153. Le Moigne, J. L. (1983). The general system theory, theory of modeling, 258 pages. Paris: col.decisions systems, PUF, second edition, p. 37. Le Moigne, J.L. (1990). Modeling of complex systems. AFCET systems, headed by Bernard Paulré Collection. Paris: Dunod, p. 24. Morin, E. (1977). The method,T1, 399 pages. Éditions du Seuil, p. 102. Morin, E. (1990). Introduction to complex thought, 158 pages. Paris: ESF, p. 68-69. Morin, E. (1999). The well head is made, rethink reform, reform thought, 155 pages. Éditions du Seuil, p. 11. Novak, j. d. (1990). Concept maps and Vee diagrams: two metacognitive tools facilitate learning meaningful to, In Instructional science 19, p. 29-52. SpringerLink.com accessed September 12, 2009). Pascal, B. (1669). Thought I, XV. Transition of knowledge of man to God. Editions presented, prepared and annotated by Michel Le Guern (1977). Editions: Gallimard, p.159. Sanner, M. (1983). From concept to the fantasy, 253 pages. Editions: PUF, p. 76-88. Walliser, B. (1977). Systems and models critical to the analysis of systems introduction, 248 pages. Paris: Seuil, p 9-10.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 14-20, March 2014

A Comparison of Experimental Designs for Assessment and Research in Higher Education Jack T. Tessier, Nana-Yaw Andoh, Kristin DeForest, Matthew W. Juba, Akira Odani, John J. Padovani, Elizabeth F. Sova, and Lisa M. Tessier SUNY Delhi Delhi, New York, USA

Abstract. Assessment continues to rise in importance along with the scholarship of teaching and learning. Educators must, therefore, choose among a range of experimental designs to make these quantitative measurements of student learning. We compared three different study designs for an assessment of embedding sustainability across the campus: comparing results to a predetermined goal, pre-semester vs. post-semester survey scores without a control group, and pre-semester vs. post-semester survey scores with a control group. Patterns in student success varied among the study designs, with pre-post with a control being the most reliable results, but comparing student knowledge and appreciation of sustainability to the pre-set goals was also valuable. Ours are the first results we are aware of to make such a direct comparison, and should be valuable to teachers and researchers as they seek to design assessment as well as teaching and learning research projects. We recommend that educators employ both the pre-post with control design along with comparing learning to a goal whenever possible when conducting assessment or education research. Keywords: Education Research; Research Design; Scholarship of Teaching; Sustainability; Undergraduate Education

Introduction Assessment of educational practices is becoming more and more important to college teachers.In one form, assessment is required for accreditation of the institution (Lubinescu, Ratcliff, & Gaffney, 2001;Middle States Commission on Higher Education [MSCHE], 2006;New England Association of Schools and Colleges [NEASC], 2012), and leads to important school-wide improvements based on those results (Scrivens, 1997).In another form, professors are increasingly encouraged to assess their own teaching and to treat it as a form of scholarship (Boyer, 1990;Richlin& Cox, 2004).These efforts give further credibility to the art of teaching and improve practices for the benefit of students, teachers, and society (Trigwell, Martin, Benjamin, & Prosser, 2000). In order to conduct assessment effectively, the teacher needs to consider the range of designs that are available and appropriate based on the item being assessed (Wiersma, 1991).These experimental designs range from those that include pre- and post-tests along with control groups to ones with a post-test only (Wiersma, 1991).The myriad designs yield a range of

data that allow the teacher to know different things about their students and their learning.Comparing these approaches allows teachers to see the benefits and limitations of the approaches. The objective of this study was to compare three different experimental designs for a scholarship of teaching and learning project to reveal the strengths and weaknesses of each approach.We analyzed data from pre- and post-test with control, pre- and post-test alone, and post-test designs within a single project to make this comparison (Tessier et al.,2013).

Methods Conduct of this study was approved by SUNY Delhi’s Institutional Review Board before the onset of data collection.We engrained the concept of sustainability across four courses (Architecture, Biology, Business, and Humanities disciplines), and three non-curricular activities (community service, learning center, and residence life areas) on the SUNY Delhi campus.With each course in which sustainability was embedded, we paired a similar course in which sustainability was not embedded as a control.We delivered a presemester and post-semester survey to all of these students assessing their understanding of the concept of sustainability and if they felt the concept was important to the course and their career.We used data from the control courses to compare the results for students who did and did not engage in the non-curricular activities in the project.Details of the approach can be seen in Tessier et al. (2013). This approach allowed us to compare three designs for the experiment and data analyses.All statistical tests were conducted using Minitab version 16 (Minitab, Inc., State College, PA USA) at α = 0.05.First, we compared the change in students’ knowledge of sustainability and their views on its importance between treatment (those in the class or activity that infused sustainability) and control groups (students who were not in a class or activity that infused sustainability) using t-tests.Second, we used t-tests to compare the pre-semester and post-semester scores for students’ understanding of and views on sustainability within the group of students who took a course or participated in an activity that infused sustainability.Third, we compared the average student score within treatment groups for understanding of sustainability and views on sustainability to a preset goal (knowing 2 or more tenets of sustainability and feeling that sustainability was important to the course and the students’ career).

Results Pre- and Post-Semester with Control:In the pre-post with control design, we found that the treatment courses helped students understand the concept of sustainability more than the control courses in every case (Table 1).In only one pairing did the treatment course increase the students’ perception of the relatedness of sustainability to the course more than the control (Table 1), and in none of the course pairings did the treatment course increase the students’ perception of the relevance of sustainability to their careers more than the control course (Table 1).In two of the three non-curricular areas, students who participated in activities increased their understanding of the tenets of sustainability more than those who did not participate (Table 2).In none of the non-curricular areas did participation in the activities increase students’ perception of the importance of sustainability to their careers more than non-participation (Table 2).

Pre- vs. Post-Semester:In comparing pre- and post-semester understanding of the tenets of sustainability, every course led to a significant increase (Table 3). In half of the courses, there was also a significant increase in the perception that sustainability was important to the course (Table 3). In none of the courses was there a significant increase in students’ perception of the relevance of sustainability to their careers (Table 3). In non-curricular areas, participation in one area led to a significant within semester increase in students’ knowledge of the tenets of sustainability, but participation in none of the areas led to a significant increase in students’ perceptions of the relevance of sustainability to their careers (Table 2). Assessment Goals:In comparing the results with our goal, students in two courses knew enough of the tenets of sustainability, students in two courses sufficiently saw the relevance of sustainability to the course, and students in three courses sufficiently saw the relevance of sustainability to their careers (Table 3). In non-curricular areas, student participation in activities did not help them to reach the goal of knowing the tenets of sustainability, but participants in one area sufficiently saw the relevance of sustainability to their career (Table 2). Table 1. Differences between (T) Treatment courses (those with sustainability embedded as a concept) and (C) Control courses (those without sustainability embedded as a concept) on students’ knowledge of sustainability and their view of its importance to the course and their career at SUNY Delhi, Delhi, NY USA. Comparisons in bold are significantly different at α = 0.05. Numbers in parentheses are standard errors. Course Name Mean Change in # Mean Change in Mean Change in Known Tenets of Students’ View of the Students’ View of the Sustainability Relevance of Relevance of (Post minus Pre) Sustainability to the Sustainability to Their Course (Post minus Career (Post minus Pre) Pre) ARCH 135 Architectural Design Fundamentals

T 0.524 (0.16)

T 0.04 (0.31)

T 0.38 (0.26)

C -0.11 (0.20)

C 0.11 (0.20)

C 0.33 (0.24)

P = 0.024

P = 0.850

P = 0.907

BIOL 110 Environmental Issues and Sustainability

T 2.04 (0.20)

T -0.64 (1.00)

T -0.04 (0.26)

C -0.13 (0.09)

C 0.31 (1.04)

C 0.11 (0.25)

P < 0.0001

P = 0.001

P = 0.685

BUSI 100 Introduction to Business

T 0.65 (0.29)

T 0.04 (1.15)

T 0.13 (0.26)

C -0.32 (0.15)

C 0.37 (0.76)

C -0.40 (0.26)

P = 0.005

P = 0.279

P = 0.156

T 1.78 (0.39)

T -0.65 (0.22)

T -0.35 (0.15)

C -1.14 (0.39)

C -0.17 (0.42)

C 0.21 (0.26)

P < 0.0001

P = 0.325

P = 0.075

HUMN 242 History of World and Western Architecture II

Discussion The results from the courses show a similar trend in learning using the pre-post with control or the pre-post without control designs (Tables 1 and 3). The courses were most effective at helping students learn the tenets of sustainability. The pre-post without control revealed more significant effects of the courses than did the pre-post with control, however. Comparing the students’ scores to a goal revealed the most successful findings including three out of four courses with students highly viewing the relevance of sustainability to their careers, which did not show up as significant in the other two study designs (Tables 1 and 3). The results from the non-curricular areas were more sporadic among study designs, highlighting the lower efficacy of the non-curricular areas relative to the courses (Table 2). In fact, there was no alignment of significant findings within areas across study designs. For example, the Resnick Learning Center helped students learn the tenets of sustainability based on the pre-post without control design but not in any other design (Table 2). Also, the O’Connor Center for Community Engagement helped students reach the goal of viewing sustainability as relevant to their careers, but there was not a significant change in that area when compared to control students (Table 2). Table 2. Effect of non-curricular activities related to sustainability at SUNY Delhi, Delhi, NY USA on students’ knowledge of the tenets of sustainability and their view of the importance of sustainability to their careers.“T” refers to students who experienced the activities and “C” refers to students who did not. Data in bold indicate that the result met the goal or the comparison was significantly different at α = 0.05. Numbers in parentheses are standard errors. Activity Mean # Mean Mean # Mean Mean Mean Change Known Relevance Known Relevance of Change in # in Students’ Tenets of of Tenets of Sustainability Tenets View of the SustainSustainSustainto Career (1 = Known Relevance of ability ability to ability (PreHigh, 5 = (Post minus Sustainability (PostCareer (1 Semester vs. Low; PrePre for to Their Career Semester) = High, 5 PostSemester vs. Treatment (Post minus Pre = Low; Semester) Postand Control for Treatment Goal of PostSemester) groups) and Control 2+ Semester) groups)

Resnick Learning Center

0.24 (0.07)

Goal of ≤2 2.18 (0.18)

Pre 0.60 (0.15) Post 0.24 (0.07)

Pre 1.91 (0.16)

T -0.37 (0.14)

T 0.18 (0.18)

Post 2.18 (0.18)

C -0.38 (0.17)

C 0.39 (0.13)

P = 0.280

P = 0.961

P = 0.347

Pre 1.82 (0.30)

T 0.08 (0.15)

T 0.09 (0.21)

Post 1.83 (0.37)

C -0.47 (0.13)

C 0.33 (0.13)

P = 0.975

P = 0.008

P = 0.351

Pre 1.83 (0.16)

T -0.13 (0.11)

T 0.10 (0.14)

P = 0.035 O’Connor Center for Community Engagement

0.42 (0.15)

1.83 (0.37)

Pre 0.33 (0.19) Post 0.42 (0.15) P = 0.732

Residence

0.30 (0.08)

2.03 (0.16)

Pre 0.42

18 Life

(0.11)

Post 2.03 (0.16)

C -0.60 (0.18)

C 0.47 (0.17)

Post 0.30 (0.08)

P = 0.479

P = 0.029

P =0.090

P = 0.407

Without a control, it cannot always be determined if changes in students’ knowledge and understanding came about because of the academic experience or because of something else that happened during the semester. For example, there was a significant increase in students’ view of the relevance of sustainability to the History of Architecture course (Table 3), but that change was not significantly different from the change observed in the control class (Table 1). The control, in this case, provided greater analysis capacity than would a pre-post without control study design. Without having a pre-post comparison, it is not always clear whether the experience of the course or non-curricular activity actually brought about the change in student knowledge or appreciation. For example, students in three of the four courses reached the goal of viewing sustainability as important to their careers, but in none of the courses was there a significant increase in that perspective during the semester (Tables 1 and 3). Therefore, simply comparing students’ knowledge and appreciation to a goal will not reveal the influence of the academic experience on those students. Table 3.Effect of embedding sustainability into four courses at SUNY Delhi, Delhi, NY USA on students’ knowledge of the tenets of sustainability and their view of the importance of sustainability to the course and their career. Data in bold indicate that the score met a goal or there is a significant difference in the comparison at α = 0.05. Numbers in parentheses are standard errors. Course Name Mean # Mean Mean Mean # Mean Mean Known Relevance Relevance Known Relevance of Relevance of Tenets of of of Tenets of Sustainability Sustainability SustainSustainSustainSustainability to Course (1 = to Career (1 = ability ability to ability to (Pre-Semester High, 5 = Low; High, 5 = Low; (PostCourse (1 Career (1 vs. PostPre-Semester Pre-Semester Semester) = High, 5 = High, 5 Semester) vs. Postvs. Post= Low; = Low; Semester) Semester) Goal of PostPost2+ Semester) Semester) Goal of Goal of ≤2 ≤2 ARCH 135 0.60 (0.15) 2.00 (0.17) 1.92 (0.18) Pre 0.11 (0.08) Pre 2.29 (0.14) Pre 1.79 (0.14) Architectural Post 0.60 Post 2.00 (0.17) Post 1.92 (0.18) Design (0.15) P = 0.199 P = 0.568 Fundamentals P = 0.007 2.28 (0.20) 1.32 (0.17) 1.96 (0.19) Pre 0.24 (0.09) Pre 1.96 (0.22) BIOL 110 Pre 2.00 (0.16) Environmental Post 2.28 Post 1.32 (0.17) Post 1.96 (0.19) Issues and (0.20) P = 0.004 P = 0.880 Sustainability P < 0.0001 BUSI 100 1.17 (0.26) 2.22 (0.23) 2.30 (0.23) Pre 0.52 (0.15) Pre 2.17 (0.16) Pre 2.17 (0.20) Introduction Post 1.17 Post 2.22 (0.23) Post 2.30 (0.23) to Business (0.26) P = 0.857 P = 0.623

HUMN 242 History of World and Western Architecture II

2.19 (0.24)

2.27 (0.12)

1.77 (0.13)

P = 0.032 Pre 0.42 (0.11) Post 2.19 (0.24) P < 0.0001

Pre 2.92 (0.19) Post 2.27 (0.12) P = 0.006

Pre 2.18 (0.15) Post 1.77 (0.13) P = 0.119

Ultimately, we want students to reach a sufficient level of understanding, appreciation, and capacity to learn (Fink, 2003; MSCHE, 2006; NEASC, 2012). Therefore, comparing students’ scores to a goal is a wise study design to employ. But if we want to know the effect of our courses and non-curricular activities on helping students reach those goals, it is imperative to include at least a pre-post without control design and to include a control when possible.

Conclusion To the best of our knowledge, this is the first direct comparison of experimental designs for assessment and the scholarship of teaching and learning. We hope that these results will be useful to those people who are designing assessment or education research projects. These results have demonstrated the importance of including pre- and postsemester data and using a control when conducting assessment or research on teaching and learning. However, the classroom is not a laboratory where every factor can be controlled. For example, control classes may not be available, a pre-test may bias a student’s approach to a course, or there may be insufficient time for all data collection. We encourage education scholars to employ the best designs possible given the constraints of their situation, and to employ pre-post with control to go along with pre-set goals whenever possible.

Acknowledgements We thank Ben McGraw for encouraging us to make this comparison among study designs at the outset of our research project and the students who agreed to let us use their data for the study.

References Boyer, E.L. (1990).Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate.Princeton, NJ: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED326149.pdf Lubinesco, E.S., Ratcliff, J.L., & Gaffney, M.A.(2001). Two continuums collide: accreditation and assessment. New Directions for Higher Education, 2001, 521.http://cyceduaccred.pbworks.com/f/10210956.pdf Middle States Commission on Higher Education.(2006). Characteristics of Excellence in Higher Education: Requirements of Affiliation and Standards for Accreditation.Philadelphia, PA:Middle States Commission on Higher Education. https://www.msche.org/publications/CHX-2011WEB.pdf New England Association of Schools and Colleges. (2012). New England Association of Schools and Colleges

20 Standards for Accreditation.Bedford, MA: New England Association of Schools and Colleges. Retrieved from http://cihe.neasc.org/standards_policies/standards/standards_html_version Richlin, L.,& Cox, M.D.(2004). Developing scholarly teaching and the scholarship of teaching and learning through faculty learning communities. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 2004, 127135.http://www.fresnostate.edu/academics/csalt/documents/RichlinCox2004.pdf Scrivens, E. (1997). Putting continuous quality improvement into accreditation: improving approaches to quality assessment. Quality in Health Care, 6, 212218.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1055496/pdf/qualhc00026-0036.pdf Tessier, J.T., Andoh, N.-Y., DeForest, K., Juba, M.W., Odani, A., Padovani, J.J., Sova, E.F., &Tessier, L.M. (2013). An assessment of sustainability across the campus.International Journal of Education, 5, 82-95. http://macrothink.org/journal/index.php/ije/article/viewFile/4318/3794 Trigwell, K., Martin, E., Benjamin, J., & Prosser, M.(2000). Scholarship of teaching: a model. Higher Education Research and Development, 19, 155168.http://www.fmhs.uaeu.ac.ae/ResearchGroups/MERG/journal/scholarshiptrigmwell .pdf

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 3, No.1, pp. 21-31, March 2014

Designing Teaching Methods in Curriculum of Iranâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Higher Education based on Development of Social Capital Forouzan Tonkaboni (Corresponding author) PH.D. student, Department of Educational Science, Khorasgan (Isfahan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran, E-mail: ftonkaboni@gmail.com Alireza Yousefy Associate professor, Medical Education Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Science, Isfahan, Iran Narges Keshtiaray Assistant professor, Department of Educational Science, Khorasgan (Isfahan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

Abstract: What today is called social capital implies other definition of capital that is critical besides other types of human and material capital. Social sciences scholars believe that one of effective institutions on formation of social capital is educational institutions and curriculums. Through changing curriculums social capital can improve. Accordingly the present research aims to design some teaching method to develop social capital within the higher education system. To do this, qualitative and field survey was used. Also, 12 scholars in the field of curriculum and social capital were interviewed with. Then, the content of interviews was analyzed and in the process of coding, the presented ideas were classified separately and the common ideas were placed in the similar groups. In this part, teaching method was identified as a major issue. Finally, the way this factor affects social capital was examined. So, for the major factor of the current research, its casual conditions, strategies and hypotheses were separated and provided within a paradigm model. The ultimate model was designed thorough generalizing the paradigm segments to social capital. Key words: curriculum; social capital; teaching method; higher education

Introduction Times prior to appearance of social capital, three types of capital were famous physical capital (facilities and infrastructures, dams, high ways etc.), national capital (stocks, bond, money etc.), and human capital (skills and personal abilities, specialists, distinguished managers etc.). Though, in modern literature the notion of social capital was added to the former types of capital (Mobasheri, 2008). According to Bourdieu, social capital is sum of the potential and actual resources that is the result of an ownership of a resistant network of institutionalized relations of familiarization and

mutual understanding (membership in the group).The network that benefits every member from the support of social capital and validates them. Social capital yet involves some conditions beyond existence of a mere network of connections. In fact, network connections must be in special form. That is it is positive and based on trust (Field, 2003). According to Putnam(2005) social capital comprises of the constructive elements of individuals‟ social life through their connections, individuals can efficiently achieve their goals. He believes that this form of capital has an identical significance with other forms of capital. Fukuyama (2006) describes social capital as a series of available norms in social systems leads to improve of cooperation among society members and decreases interactions costs. Considering different definitions of social capital, it sounds like they are overlap and in most cases they concentrate on the role of group, individuals‟ relations and their mutual trust. Actually, social capital as one type of capital has a great impact on the community success. Experts define many functions for social capital. Generally speaking, the effect of social capital on three domains of economy, politics and culture are more evident than others areas. Using from individuals‟ similarities in different aspects, social capital causes a sense of trust , serves economic benefits and makes the ground in which the cost of using human resources decreases, but their interaction increases. With its moral values and principles in economy obliges peoples to communicate, exchange and decide in different social groups (Woolcock, 2008). Taking the above points together, it is concluded that social capital in the current world is one of the most significant factor in development of countries and identification of the effective factors in strengthening or weakening it are strongly contributive to expansion of social capital and ends to increase of individuals‟ social and economic performance. In a natural process, as the scientific society grows, the social capital also develops in parallel. In such conditions, the university task is not education only. In fact, university is neither an economic enterprise nor emits academic degrees. So, formal educations are only a part of the academic programs. On the other hand, scientific, being critical and creative motives, ability to make scientific communications, reproduction power as well as the ability to combine different ideas among students and simultaneously a foresight, participatory and identity fixation in interaction with others have to reinforce in the academic environment. Therefore, university is not a mere educational center. Here since the higher education center and social capital are in communication, the university must be able to develop the social capital (ZakerSalehi, 2008). Accordingly, the current research concentrates on the formal section of education in general and on the teaching methods in specific. The previous studies have shown that in spite of quantitative development of the higher education system within the recent decades in Iran has been unable to expand social capital. This is true about teaching methods that are a main part of the curriculum. The current study aims to determine the teaching methods of curriculums in the higher education system in accordance with development of social capital. The significance of this study is because it is for the first time that the relationship between components of curriculum and social capital is going to be scientifically tested. Then, the effective factors on expansion of social

capital among students have to be identified and the appropriate teaching method is designed. Therefore, the purpose of the present research is to design teaching methods of the higher education with an emphasis on identification of effective obstacles, and strategies on development of social capital among students. So, the following research questions are addressed: 1. What are the obstacles before teaching methods of the higher education curriculum for development of social capita? 2. What teaching methods strategies in higher education curriculum cause the expansion of social capital? 3. What are the consequences of designing teaching methods based on social capital development? 4. Is it possible to design a model for teaching methods to develop social capital in the higher education system? Theoretical framework Theoretically social capital is one of the most prominent issues in social sciences and may not correlate with teaching methods. Though, since the individuals spend a considerable amount of their time in educational environments, the effects of happenings in such places on the peoples‟ behavior and life should not be ignored. So far many several definitions have been proposed for social capital that makes it difficult to achieve a consensus about the actual meaning of social capital. Though, what is understood from all definitions of social capital is “investment in social relations with expected ties “. According to Coleman(1990) social capital consists of a social framework that facilitates individuals‟ interaction within this framework, in a way that its absence may cause the individual more costs to reach his/her goal. Putnam (2005) believed that social capital is those characteristics of social life, networks, norms and trust that enable participants to follow their common goals more effectively. As he said, social capital is a means to create social and political development in different political systems as well as trust between people, governors and political elites that bring political development. Fukuyama (2006) considered social capital as one sociological phenomenon. According to him, participation in values and norm does not naturally leads to production of social capital as these values may be negative. In his definition, social capital has a close tie with degree of trust. How much the domain of trust increases in a social group, social capital will expand and consequently the mutual cooperation and trust among group members will maximize. Flora (1995) describes collective consciousness as social capital and introduces mutual trust as an index of collective consciousness. A series of available norms in the social systems end to increase of members‟ cooperation and contrarily leads to decrease of cost of interactions. In this definition, some concepts like civil society and social institutions hold a close relationship with social capital (Schiff, 2004).

Aisenschtat believed that the most important issue in formation of a community with proper social capital is concerning to individuals‟ trust, solidarity and social participation. Without solidarity and social participation besides lack of trust, the new social order would be impossible (Chalabi, 2007).

Curriculum As Mevish in his book “ an introduction to sociology “ discusses, some of the most fundamental functional needs of a society must be taken into consideration at time of specification of educational objectives, content and method in the curriculums. He stated that social institutions like higher education needs to prepare the required backgrounds for its members in field of making a correct communication with environment due to interacting with individuals (Yarmohammadian, 2012). However, in spite of extension of the curriculum major at universities, the curriculum scholars have not achieved to an agreement on its components. According to Klein introduced the element of objectives, content, learning activities, teaching methods, learning materials, assessment, time, space and classification as the core elements of the curriculum. The most common attitude yet in this regard sees curriculum document or a specific curriculum including some decision about four components of objectives, content, method and assessment (Mehrmohammadi, 2010). In its general form, the curriculum is described what is taught in educational institutions and in it specific form, it is an educational activity for the learner on the basis of a special attitude and in specific time. Curriculum can be known as a series of events have been previously designed that end to certain educational results for one or more learners (Eisner, 1979). The learners of educational system as the members of a society have to now that the community they are living in has what qualities, and how it would be possible to play their social role as much efficient as possible. In case of the instructors and curriculum designers of such problems, the curriculum objects and content probably contradict with social needs and problems and consequently the programs fail to succeed (Yarmohammadian, 2012). The current research focused on teaching methods as one elements of curriculum in the higher education system. Jiroux know instructors as transformational thinkers. That is, educational activity creates some form of thinking. Proper selection and implementation of teaching methods as one of important components of curriculum play an outstanding role in formation and strengthening of valuable concepts in the mind. In the process of teaching, professors have to select methods and materials help students in learning the content (Ornstein, 2005). In fact teaching has different variables that is necessary through manipulation, control or study of its variables, a better condition for students‟ learning is created ( Khorshidi, 2002). Familiarization with teaching methods and principles and applying them help educational objectives to be achieved more easily and in a shorter time. Generally, teaching methods are categorized in two parts. Firstly, methods were used in long past (historical methods) and secondly, methods are based on psychological and educational findings (new methods). ( Safavi, 1998).

Authorities that are granted to professors in order to change teaching conditions and make the effective factors on their teaching process applicable are teaching patterns. They include problem solving, pre-organizers, individual teaching, social patterns etc. Actually, these patterns work as a plan (Joyce, 2004). Marjaei (2004) in a study naming “social capital among university students” examined different rate of social capital among individuals with different educations. The results indicate that in most of components a meaningful relationship exists between rate of education and social capital. In other words, descending from PhD degree to associate degree, a considerable decrease is evident in many components of social capital. In addition, the students‟ social capital showed a reverse relation with number their study years. Sharepour (2004) in a study “empirical study of social capital in Mazandaran province” attempted to analyze the effect of educations on social capital. Using a questionnaire with 599 families as sample size, the following results were achieved: 1. no meaningful relationship was identified between individuals‟ education and informal networks ( e.g. friends, relatives and family members). 2. The individuals‟ education holds a negative correlation with social trust (trusting a stranger). That is with increase of education, social trust decreases. 3. There is a meaningfully negative correlation between rate of education and trusting social institutions (e.g. education, the judiciary, the legislature, etc). As rate of education increases, trusting social institutions and organizations decreases. Helliwell and Putnam (2007) worked on education and social capital in America. They concluded that increase of average education has maximized trust and it has not reduced level of participation as the second component of social capital. Park (2006) investigated the role of trust in creation of knowledge inside a artificial university. According to Park (2006), the main conditions for production of social capital are opportunity, motivation, and ability. It was conclude that trust affects knowledge creation through opportunity, motivation and ability of combining knowledge in an artificial university and a few factors like informal network, norms, common values and mutual trust are influential on creation of knowledge. Totterman and Wulff (2007) in their research explored the effect of sharing information at a university on social capital. They reasoned that sharing knowledge through three variables (social identity, effective trust, participation and personal interaction) affects social capital. William (2012) investigated on the relationship between professors‟ interaction with students and social capital. According to the researchers, hidden resources and expertise in social networks greatly affect social capital and it is via social interactions that access and exploitation from social capital advantages become possible. Method As the present research purpose to design teaching methods on the basis of social capital, the participants‟ opinions were asked via interview. To analyze the data and converting them to quantitative data, the Grounded Theory was used. The Grounded Theory is a deductive-exploratory method enables the researcher in different fields that instead of relying on the existing theories devises a theory personally. This method is a general research method for generating a theory (Flick, 2011).

The population consisted of all professors of curriculum major and sociologists were working at the higher education centers of Iran in 2013. Through purposeful sampling method with desirable cases besides considering the articles published, the participants were selected. They included 12 curriculum and social capital experts. After interviewing and ensuring about the bulk of mentioned ideas, the interview was stopped. The data were collected via semi-structured interviews. Before the session begins, complete explanations were given to the interviewee(s) about the research object, method and the desired conclusion. In order to have perfect information the interviews were recorded and the content written down. The procedure went in a way that first 2 to 3 general questions were asked and according to the answers of previous questions, the new questions were asked. During the interview sessions any probable deviation from the main subject of interviews were avoided and whole procedure was carefully guided. Moreover, the basis for determination of reliability and validity of the asked questions was the researcher. The obtained data from semi-structured interviews and theoretical information were gathered together. The interviews were conducted individually and lasted one and half to two hours. For analyzing the data, the open, axial, and selective data coding was used. In open data coding, the data related to the studied phenomenon were carefully named and categorized. The unit if analysis was paragraph and the content of interviews were first written down and after removing the irrelevant statements to the research subject, the data were classified in form of paragraphs. The similar paragraphs were written next to each other and the main points were extracted from. In the process of coding, two comparing and asking techniques were applied. In the axial coding, the data were previously analyzed to concepts and categories in the open coding, were integrated with a new method. In this stage, a major category and its sub-categories were connected to each other. This happened via a Paradigm model including â&#x20AC;&#x153;Causal Conditions, Phenomenon, Context, Strategies and Hypotheses â&#x20AC;&#x153;and juxtaposition of the similar concepts. This caused the concepts could shape the more basic category are identified and each one places in one of these categories. In the selective coding, the core category and its relation to other categories besides increasing validity of such relations would occur through searching for authenticated and not authenticated cases. In the selective coding, the categories are consistent in order to shape the theoretical framework. After specification of the central category, according to the Paradigm model, the minor categories were linked to the major categories. Then, the final model was drawn and the relation of core category with other categories was illustrated.

Findings In the open coding overall 104 conceptual codes from all intervieweesâ&#x20AC;&#x; opinions were obtained. The concepts were compared with each other and similar concepts with the same subject became a category and got labeled. For labeling the categories if the category was a known and clear name in the theoretical resources it was used in order

to prevent the participants‟ different perception when examining the results. Then, concepts were related were placed next to each other and a new series was formed. In the axial coding process, the second level concepts were achieved. Through this number of concepts decreased significantly. In the last stage, the central category of the research, teaching methods, were identified in selective coding. To draw the Paradigm model, the obtained 104 codes were divided into three sections causal conditions, strategies and hypotheses. The number of level one concepts reduced for causal conditions from49 codes to 14 codes in the second level, for strategies from 33 codes to 8 codes and for hypotheses from 22 codes to 5 codes. Fig.1 shows the Paradigm model. Fig 1. Paradigm model of teaching method

consequences Strengthening group activities Creation of a environment for discussion Strengthening the spirit of critical inquiry and criticism Strengthening students’ responsibility

Obstacles

Strategies Valued students’ activities Group –based teaching Presenting class projects and assignment related to industry and society

Context Higher education Educational degree

Using new teaching methods Up-to date class materials , adaptation of study resources with schedules Diversity of study resources Utilizing new electronic media for teaching

Student’ participation in teaching process

Major category (phenomenon)

Teaching method based on social capital

Interference conditions Type of university Educational

system

Unfamiliarity of professors to new teaching media no desire to use training aids Unfamiliarity of professors to English language not interested in getting engaged in group activities Professors’ disinterest in development of their scientific capabilities being dishonest about doing projects and assignments Lack of an atmosphere for class discussion Lack of actual participation of the student in the teaching process Being present in the class with a forcing disciplinary not introducing various resources to students for studying no introduction of up to date resources to students Students’ disinterest in supplementary study inflexibility of professors to change their teaching methods student’s desire to use old method of lecture notes

5. Discussion and conclusion The interviewees‟ statements indicated that among different educational institutions, only the university institutions considerably affect low levels of social capital. According to them, in spite of a great potential, the higher education system has failed to leave an appropriate effect on the students‟ social capital. Zaker Salehi (2008) in a study naming “examination of relationship between the higher education system and social capital in Iran” stated that the academic society has not established in Iran yet. So, this problem has prohibited the elites‟ social capital to develop. The teaching method was one of the most important issues the interviewees mentioned. The participants believed that quality of the teaching method affects social capital. In designing the curriculum it should be considered that the teaching method must be selected in line with its impact on social capital to increase components of

social capital. In fact, teaching method is a factor directly affects social capital. Therefore, it should be more inclined to be active in learning and teaching. Active learning is a type of learning occurs with the least possible external interferences. In this method, the instructor acts as a facilitator of learning. Hence, active learning is effective on social capital only when the student is actively involved in the process of learning and manages it. The results of first research question indicate that one of the most important obstacles before achievement of such program is the student‟s attitudes toward teaching method and the higher education. Inappropriate attitude here consists of three parts as improper attitude of students about teaching method, education and professors. This attitude then has a mutual relationship with social capital. From one hand, this indicates the students „to distrust of efficiency of classes and trained materials as well as not being ready to participate in the process of teaching. On the other hand, this type of attitude would decrease the students‟ participation in the class and so they miss the opportunity for increase of their participation and formation of a collective moral. The contemporary teaching methods not only fail to motivate the students to active participation and presence in classes, but also they greatly spoil the relation between social institutions and university and their shared trust. Some of obstacles that interviewees mentioned included unfamiliarity of professors to new teaching media, no desire to use training aids, unfamiliarity of professors to English language, not interested in getting engaged in group activities, professors‟ disinterest in development of their scientific capabilities, being dishonest about doing projects and assignments, lack of an atmosphere for class discussion, lack of actual participation of the student in the teaching process, being present in the class with a forcing disciplinary, not introducing various resources to students for studying, no introduction of up to date resources to students, students‟ disinterest in supplementary study, inflexibility of professors to change their teaching methods, and student‟s desire to use old method of lecture notes. Zaker Salehi(2008) in a study titling “ examination of relationship between higher education and social capital in Iran” pointed out that the education system and level of socialization of students are in a low level and universities only have taught academic materials have not scientifically socialized students. Considering the results of the second research questions, any change in teaching methods can significantly affect students‟ social capital. From among all elements of curriculum, teaching method holds the highest correlation with students and closes to social capital. According to the interviewees, to influence social capital some changes in the teaching methods seem critical. Teaching methods are important from two points of view. First, teaching method as a strategy for transferring the educational content. And these strategies enable any increase of social capital through content of the curriculum and type of teaching methods. Secondly, expansion of social capital among students in much extent depends upon students‟ communication methods with other academics especially professors. Overall, teaching methods can greatly facilitate this interaction or hinder it. Valued student activities, teaching based on group work, presenting class projects and assignment related to industry and society , using new teaching methods, up-to date class materials, adaptation of study resources with schedules, diversity of study

resources, utilizing new electronic media for teaching are a few strategies were mentioned by the interviewees. Flick and Williamson (2005) concluded that diverse teaching methods cause increase of students‟ social capital like group learning and learning services. With regard to the third research question, the first result after changing teaching methods and involving students in these methods was internalization of collective spirit among students. Assigning the responsibility of teaching or presenting assignment related to the student labor market needs makes him/her in connection to other social groups and institutions and consequently, consciously or unconsciously the individual practices socialization. As a matter of fact, the predicted programs for the curriculum enable planners that through other drivers affect the student‟s socialization process and facilitate it. Strengthening of group work, creation of an environment for discussions, reinforcement of inquiry and being critical, reinforcement of student‟s responsibility and students‟ participation in the process of teaching are of consequences the interviewees referred to. To answer the fourth question, the final research model, which is a combination of the main category and its causal conditions, strategies and hypotheses, was designed as follows. Fig 2. shows the final model. Fig 2. Final model of teaching method

consequences

Strategies

Obstacles

Strengthening group activities and creation of a environment for discussion

Valued students’ activities

Strengthening the spirit of critical inquiry and criticism Strengthening students’ responsibility

Group –based teaching Presenting class projects and assignment related to industry and society Using new teaching methods Up-to date class materials , adaptation of study resources with schedules Diversity of study resources Utilizing new electronic media for teaching

Student’ participation in teaching process

Social capital component

student in the teaching process being present in the class

with a forcing disciplinary

Social capital component

Increase of social capital

not introducing various resources to students for studying no introduction of up to date resources to Social capital students component students’ ‫سرمی‬ disinterest in supplementary study inflexibility of professors to change their teaching methods student’s desire to use old method of lecture notes

The research findings indicate that decrease of social capital components like trust, participation and integration among individuals after getting admitted at universities is taking place. Actually, university can function as a proper context for most of activities potentially increase social capital. Therefore, it is recommended that the curriculum designers do not distinguish teaching methods from social capital and integrate them together. It is much better than teaching methods that contribute to maximization of social capital are overtly included in the curriculum in order to prevent from any subjective judgment when teaching occurs. Moreover, the current method in implementation of curriculum is facing with recession. Here, a few modification need to be considered either for redesigning of the curriculum or in appropriate implementation of it. To make some positive changes in execution of the curriculum it is suggested that the active teaching method approach is utilized. Also, the constructionist theories have to be used when planning for learning to happen in the curriculums. According to the constructionist theory, curriculum includes not only specification of objects but deep learning process is also as important as the outcomes. Here, instead of presenting a series of sometimes unrelated concepts and facts to students, it is attempted the learning activities go hand in hand with engagement of students in problem solving situations. Additionally, when designing curriculums professors have to be free to modify partially or completely the curriculum on the basis of their studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; rate of knowledge, interest and perseverance and besides helping students to learn give them the opportunity to play their role in learning based on experience and learning they have. In this approach, the learner authority should be greatly concentrated and the learning process has to move from student to professor and vice versa. In the active learning and learner-based method, if the goal is to increase social capital, becoming a member of group highly matters. in this way, actual activity in form of a group and responsibility each member toward the ultimate outcome , allows the members to practice the key components of social capital such as trust, participation , and solidarity and get ready for the real life . References Chalabi, M. (2007). Sociology of Order. Tehran: Nei Press.{in Persian} Coleman, J. S. (1990). Foundations of Social Theory.Cambridge, M. A: Harvard University Press. Eisner, E, W. (1979). Educational Imagination, Macmillan publishing company Field, J. (2003). Social Capital, London and New York: Routledge Taylor &Francis Group Flick, B & Williamson, K., (2005). Frontiers in Education, FIE Apos, Proceedings35th Annual conference, 19-22 oct. Flick, O. (2011). Inteoduction in qualitative research. Translated : Jalili, H.Tehran: Nei Press.{in Persian} Flora, C.B. and J.L. Flora. (1995). The Past and Future: Social Contract, Social Policy and Social Capital. In Increasing Understanding of Public Problems and Policies, edited by S.A. Halbrook and C.E. Merry, pp. 53-64. Oak Brook, Illinois: Farm Foundation. Fukuyama, F. the end of order ( 2006 ) Translated: Tavassoli, G. H. Iranian society press{in Persian} Helliwell, J., F, Putnam, R.D., (2007) Education and Social Capital, Eastern Economic Journal, Vol. 33, No.1.

Joyce, B .(2008). Models of teaching. Translated: Behrangi, MR. Tehran: Kamal-eTarbiat.{in Persian} Khorshidi, A.(2002). Teaching, Methods and Techniques. Tehran: Yastoroon press{in Persian}. Marjaee, S., H. (2004). Social capital among students, the Institute of Research and Planning {in Persian} Mehrmohammadi, M. (1388). curriculum Theories Approaches and erspectives. Tehran: samt& Behnashr press.{in Persian} Mobasheri, m.( 2008 ). what is social capital?, Hamshahri Journal, Vol, 16. No, 4679. 16{in Persian} Ornstein, C, (2011). Curriculum foundation principles and issues, London: Mc Cutahan Publishing Park, Hihong. (2006). The Role of trust on knowledge creation in a virtual university: A social capital perspective. Journal of Knowledge management practice, 7(4). Putnam, Robert, 2005, Social Capital: Measurement and Consequencesâ&#x20AC;?, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University Safavi, A. (1998). Method of teaching. Tehran: Moaser press{in Persian}. Schiff, M.(2004). Labor mobility, Trade and Social capital. Review of International Economics, Volume 12, Issue 4, pp 630â&#x20AC;&#x201C;642 Sharepour, Mahmoud. (2004). An experimental project of social capital in the province of Mazandaran, Mazandaran University{in Persian} Totterman, A., & Wulff, G. (2007). what a social capital perspective can bring to the understanding of information sharing in a university context. Ir Information Research, 12(4). William, R. Penuel, M, Riel, Ann E. Krause & Kenneth A. Frank, (2012). Analyzing Teachers' Professional Interactions as Social Capital: A Social Network Approach Woolcock, M. (2008). Social capital and economic development toward a theoretical synthesis and policy framework. Theory and Society, 27. Yarmohammadian, Mh. (2012). Curriculum Planning Principles. Tehran:Yadvar-e-ketab press.{in Persian} Zaker Salehi, G. R. (2008). The Paradox of Social Capital of Iranian Educated People: Survey and Study on the Relationship Between Higher Education and Social Capital in Iran. Journal of Engineering Education,40(1), 25-51, Agah press.{in Persian}

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 32-44, March 2014

Autocratic and Participative Coaching Styles and Its Effects on Students’ Dance Performance Desiree B. Castillo, Martina Alexandria V. Balibay, Jhuzel M. Alarcon, Justine M. Picar, Raniel R. Lampitoc, Ma. Crizandra Baylon Psychology Area College of Liberal Arts and Sciences Colegio de San Juan de Letran Intramuros Manila, Philippines 1000 Allen A. Espinosa Faculty of Science, Technology and Mathematics, College of Teacher Development, Philippine Normal University, Manila, Philippines 1000 Abstract. Similar to sports, dancing is a skill that has to be mastered. Coaching styles, or the manner in which instructions are delivered, plays a factor in showcasing one's learning and mastery. Among the most commonly applied coaching styles are autocratic and participative. Autocratic style requires the coach to become directive and demanding. While participative style calls for a compassionate and considerate coach. The objective of this study was to determine which of the two coaching styles, autocratic and participative, significantly influence dancers' effectiveness in increasing dance performance. Samples of fourteen (14) college students who are interested in learning dancing, with mean age of 17.4, participated in the experiment. Two groups were formed with equal members obtained through random sampling. Then, they were exposed to their respective condition, autocratic coaching, or participative coaching, while learning dance performance. Effects of the condition to dance performance were gathered using the self-constructed evaluation instrument, which is made to measure the improvement of dance performance. Between-posttest research design was used to address the objectives. Effectiveness of the treatment to dance performance is thereby determined. The results of the study showed that the autocratic coaching style has a significant effect in influencing the performance of the individuals, who are still beginning to master a skill. In conclusion, autocratic coaching style affects the intrinsic motivation of an individual in increasing the person’s dance performance. Other coaching styles were not significantly used in this study. Keywords: coaching style; dance performance; autocratic; participative

Introduction Dance is a form of art that is very popular nowadays. People dance for many reasons. Through dancing, they can express their feelings and emotions, or represent and convey their own culture. It is a prime means of expression as human beings that may have originated in the form of rudimentary as early as 1.8 million years ago, when the bipedal anatomy of Homo ergaster can move the body fully which enhanced the communication and body language (Mithen, 2005 as cited in Sevdalis&Keller, 2011). Dance is a universal behavior which has a unique style (Niemitz, 2010 as cited in Fink et al, 2012). It is a complex sensor-action which comprises a set of rhythm, intentional, non-verbal body movements but culturally influenced (Fink, Weege, et. al., 2011). There are different theories or perspective that support dance as a sport. According to the normative-descriptive point of view by Nastase (2012, page 888), “it is the summing of the standardized structures, explained biomechanically by the skills become execution patterns with technical efficiency (particular technical elements)”. According to Piaget (1950; as cite in Nastase, 2012), “result of the personal experiences, an attitude transfers from the instructors to the performers, from the dancers to the spectators, knowledge of self and of the environment through the active intervention of the dance.” Dance is an art-sport, which originates in the social group or couple dance based on a time limited complex motion activity and as execution rhythm, by a melody, and spatially by a dance floor (Nastase, 2012). Coaching is a different occupation in the society because they are expected to give gentle and good persons to the society; this occupation needs different style in handling an individual or a team and a difficult job to master (Martens, 2004; as cited in Khalaj et al, 2011). Coaching is an organized-provision of assistance to a group or an individual to help them not only to develop but also to improve the performance in their chosen sport (Kent, 2005). Coaching is one of the issues in making a person perform better. There are two types of coaching types: Participation Coaching and Performance Coaching. Participation coaching is taking apart in the feelings of the team rather than preparing into the specific sport while the other type is focuses on long term goals for preparation in different competitions (Cross & Lyle, 2005). The success to achieve the goal and the preferred coaching types are supported by different coaching style or philosophies. Coaching style is defined where descriptive categorization of an individual aggregates the behavior of a coach. This could be a useful mechanism in analyzing coaching practice or it may be a superficial way of caricaturing the most obvious elements of the behavior of a coach (Cross & Lyle, 2003). Coaching style also reflect the value frameworks of coaches (Lyle, 2006). There are different coaching styles, such as laissez-fair and humanistic approach. But the most common styles used in sports are participative and autocratic coaching style.

Autocratic coaching style or “intense style” is applied when the coach assumes authority and decision-making is centralized. An advantage of this coaching style includes a directive and dominating coach who prepares the group or the individual for any type of competition. However, the down side of this coaching style is its one-way learning process. The coach tends to show lack of empathy and he is the only one determining the rules, rewards, and the standards (Lyle, 2006). While participative coaching style or “nice-guy style,” focuses more on allowing high levels of participation with the members of the group. The advantageous outcomes of this coaching style includes: a cohesive team and a relaxed atmosphere, which makes members more involved in the teaching-learning process. Contrarily, the coach may be seen as weak and there is a tendency for members to ignore his directives (Lyle, 2006). The effect of coaching style to dance performance is much related to, and may be supported by Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. Social learning theory focuses on learning through observation and modeling. In his experiment of Bobo Doll, Bandura concluded that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. Modeling can be classified into three, namely: a live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior; the verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior; and lastly, the symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media. In this experiment, observation and modeling through a live model is done. Participants observed how their coach executes the dance routine and try to imitate it. There are steps involved in observational learning and modeling process, these are: (1) attention, (2) retention, wherein the participants retain the information that they are seeing, and (3) reproduction, after the participants have seen and retained the steps of the dance routine, it is now their time to execute the steps that their leader had shown; and lastly, (4) motivation, in order to learn through observational learning, the participants should be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Thus, reinforcement and punishment is present (Bandura, 1971). In the study, the four process of social learning as provided by the two coaching styles involve participative coaching style and autocratic coaching style. For the Autocratic Coaching style, the first process was undoubtedly seen during the workshop. The participants were attentive and focused on the dance steps that their coach was demonstrating. Worried that the coach might get angry if they will not focus on each steps that was being demonstrated made them attentive. Thus the second process was achieved. Retention was done when each members who were attentively listening to their coach’s instructions retains the information in their memory. The third process, reproduction, was met when the members executed the dance routine taught by their coach. For these three (3) processes to happen, the participants must also undergo motivation. The motivation of the Autocratic Coach is through punishment, the participants of the workshop were not allowed to have a

water break, to lean or to even sit unless routines are properly executed. Hence, the participants were motivated to perform better for them to have a rest. In the case of the participative coaching style, the four process of observational learning was also present. Attention was visible in the participants although some members may not be able to focus consistently because the coach was hardly strict. The routine taught by the coach was retained in the memories of each participant and was executed. For the Participative Group, it was the reinforcement that was done in the experiment. The coach praised his member as they executed the routine well and encourage them to perform better. This can be seen in the Participative Coaching style. While in the Autocratic Coaching style, the coach will not give the participants a time to rest until they memorized the routine and execute it well.

Context of Current Research Research showed that one of the important foundations of influence in a group setting is leadership (De Cremer & van Knippenberg, 2002; Dirks &Ferrin, 2002. Indeed, Chemers (2001, p. 376) stated that leadership is a process of influence. Autocratic coaching is a style of a leader that takes “command” without an “asking” approach to his team. The autocratic coaching styles were used in a state where the participant needs to learn a specific practice to further enhance their skills. This coaching style is usually adopted in sports, military and etc… autocratic style leaders will do whatever they feel is necessary to provide the common good. They decide which group members should contribute how much without asking anyone for input. (Van Vugt, Sarah F, Jepson, M. Hart, & De Cremer, 2004). Autocratic coaching encourages his team to have a good discipline, a task-oriented and a respect for their leader. Thus, research also showed negative effects of being an autocratic leader. The team being handled by autocratic leaders are grimly aroused, thus the people do not favor autocratic leader because those types of leaders do not motivate their followers to show loyalty and dedication towards the leader and the team. Followers were only motivated to make the task accurate to impress their leader. This conclusion is in line with a motivational account suggesting that followers’ dedication and connectedness to the leader is only promoted if they are positively aroused (Bass, 1998). The other coaching style is the Participative style, a leadership style where the leader takes “asking” approach to his team and adjust the routine if majority of the team can’t get the right thing to do the task. Participative leaders also base their decisions on his team’s opinions and approach. Research proven that being intrinsically motivated to follow the welfare of the team is necessary to improve the quality of performance and cooperation (De Cremer & Tyler, 2005). A team performance depends to a large extent on how happy and motivated to follow the collective welfare its members feel (Kelly &Barsade, 2001; Smith, Caroll, & Ashford, 1995). Research also shows that interactive result on motivation to work with the leader was interceding by followers’ emotional reactions (De Cremer, 2006). © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Followers were motivated because of the empathy being showed by participative leaders, its ability to listen to the team, understand their feelings and thoughts on things, and respond positively.

Research Objectives The objective of this study is to determine which of the two coaching style, specifically autocratic and participative, will best influence dancers in increasing dance performance. The focus of the study is only geared to these two coaching styles. Other styles of coaching are not included in this study (Bandura, 1971).

Hypothesis Taken together, autocratic and participative coaching styles will determine the outcome of the individual’s performance after exposure to the conditioning done by both coaching style –– how well one’s exercised authority will determine its influence in group performance. To test its main effect is valuable. Null Hypothesis: Either of the two types of coaching style in this study will have no significant difference on dance performance. Hypothesis 1: Autocratic coaching style significantly increases dance performance. Hypothesis 2: Participative coaching style significantly increases performance.

Research Simulacrum

Coaching Style:  Autocratic  Participative

Dance Performance

Figure 1. Conceptual framework

The paradigm illustrates the conceptual framework of the study and what coaching style is more effective in a dance performance. The basis of conceptualizing the effectiveness of coaching style in dance performance is to provide an opportunity of understanding factors that may affect group performance. In this study, coaching style is the umbrella of performance. The coaching styles used in this study focuses on autocratic coaching and participative coaching. The two coaching style was tested to see which will best influence dancers by significantly increasing their performance.

Methods A. Procedure For the selection of participants, the sampling used was the Purposive Sampling, wherein the researchers set criteria on how they picked their participants. The criteria used were college students who were interested in dancing but have not joined any dance groups or dance competitions yet. The implementation of the experiment was done by conducting a free dance workshop to all college students with the fixed criteria. Recruitment of participants was done through posting. Twenty (25) students responded to the invitation. Number of members in each of the two groups was dependent on the number of participants who joined the said workshop, divided by two. It is to note that the number of participants must be even to have an equal distribution of samples. On the first day of experimental implementation, participants who have registered were assigned into two groups, namely: Group A (autocratic), and Group P (participative), through fishbowl method. Names of the participants were written on a piece of paper and handpicked for grouping. Those who fell under the first Group, Group A were handled by an autocratic coach. On the other hand, those who fell under the second group, Group P were handled by the participative coach. Before the start of the workshop, the two leaders were oriented by the researchers on how they will play the role of the autocratic and participative coaches. For the coach of Group P, he was instructed to do the Participative coaching style. The participative coach was more approachable than task-oriented. The coaches of this type were more supportive to the members, they were instructive and ready to reinforce, encourage and give positive feedback information to their members than other coaches, thus increasing their members’ sense of competence, independence, satisfaction and self-esteem (Chelladurai, 1993; Reimer &Toon, 2001; as cited in Baric &Busick,2009). The coach in Group A was also instructed to do the Autocratic coaching style. The coaches’ coaching style was more oriented towards task accomplishment and outcome than towards people; they were highly oriented towards results and winning. They were less supportive, less instructive and less rewarding (Reimer &Toon, 2001; as cited in Baric &Burick,2009). The researchers oriented them on the characteristics of the two coaching style that they will portray in their respective groups during the dance workshop. The dance workshop was held for two (2) days, each session has three(3) hours of practice. In the workshop, the coaches taught their respective group a modern dance, particularly a basic hip-hop dance, simultaneously. The dance routine was taught by the coaches with the use of their designated coaching style within the two-day period. On the last quarter of the second day, a “mock” dance competition was held wherein the two dance groups competed with each other by performing the dance routine taught by the two coaches. The dance performance of each group was measured using dance criteria that were filled-up by 2 judges or dance experts.

Using the given criteria, the winner of the mock competition was determined and announced.

B. Participants The workshop had 14 participants with a mean age of 17.21 and a ratio of 9:5 male and female who joined. All participants are college students who are interested in dancing but have not joined any dancing competitions or dance groups yet.

C. Sampling Procedures Purposive sampling was done in this study to set limitations on selecting participants. To be consistent with the procedure, purposive sampling via fishbowl method was done in dividing and distributing participants into groups for the conditioning of the experiment. This was to avoid bias and randomizing participants through subjective selection. This was also used to ensure that they were distributed “equally” ---- without intentionally putting specific individuals together by means of the researchers’ own judgment.

D. Research Design The researchers conducted a posttest, between participants design. This design is used to determine the effect of treatments to two different groups. It does not employ pretest measures when participants are randomly assigned to conditions considering some of the characteristics that they have. Since participants in the study satisfied the research parameters, they were randomly assigned into two groups and were exposed to different experimental treatment conditions: autocratic coaching and participative coaching style dance groups, respectively. These conditions were accounted for/by the definition of the independent variable which was leadership style. Then the difference in their performance after the treatment is determined.

E. Measures In judging dance performance, researchers made a self-constructed evaluation instrument. The following criteria were included in the instrument: overall performance, moves execution, originality, and uniformity of the group. Its content of this was validated by two (2) dance experts who have already judged in different dance contests. After validating the content, it was decided that the criteria be altered by focusing on the criteria for each individual. The criteria after validation were changed into: foundation and self-confidence. Foundation is operationally defined as the way in which the individual has established the execution of moves in the routine. While self-confidence is also operationally defines as the process by which the individual delivers his self during the dance. Measures for coach selection for the experiment were not included. Instead, confederates were oriented on how they will portray the character of the coaching style assigned to them. The researchers explained the main purpose of the study to the confederates and had them familiarized on the characteristics of the type of © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

leadership that they were to portray. To facilitate the display of participative coaching, the confederate was told to exhibit a light atmosphere among the participants and to build a relationship with them. This is to promote high level of participation among the members of the group. It also allows them to voice out their opinions and suggestions with regard to their coach’s approach to instruction. For the delivery of the autocratic coaching style, the confederate was encouraged to exercise a directive and dominating interpersonal behavior, maintain discipline, and employ task-oriented approach to the members of the group.

F. Data Analysis The Researchers used the non-parametric test specifically, Mann-Whitney U-Test. It is seen as more applicable than T-test of independent samples considering the small number of samples used in the study, which ranges from 5 to 20. The test is appropriate because of the two condition of the study in coaching style (Autocratic and Participative). The criteria to rate each sample will be used to determine which coaching style is more statistically effective. The mortality rate of the participants caused the sample to decrease in size, with a total of fourteen (14) for the two conditions.

Results Table1. Hypothesis testing Variable

Autocratic Participative

Mean

p-value

Level of significance

Decision rule

9.79 5.21

0.040

α = 0.05

Reject Ho

The results of the study shows that there is a significant difference between the two coaching style that employs 0.040 at 0.05 level of significance, which meets hypothesis 1: there is a significant increase on the performance of dancers in using autocratic coaching style.

Discussion and Interpretation The results obtained in the hypothesis testing showed that there is a significant difference between the two (2) coaching style used in the dance performance of Filipino adolescents. This shows that appropriate coaching style must be implemented to improve dancers’ performance. Some of the related studies used in the present research pertained to sports and since there is a dearth of literature on dancing and coaching style. However, Nastase (2012) has indicated that dance is an art-sport, which originates in the social group or couple dance based on a time

limited complex motion activity and as execution rhythm, by a melody, and spatially by a dance floor. Hence, literature on coaching styles and its relevance to sports have been used. Results of the experiment performed in the present study show that autocratic coaching style is better than participative coaching style in increasing dance performance. In addition to the statistical evidence, participants reported that they have perceived their coach’s strict stance in implementing rules and greater demand in compliance positively. Through that approach, they became motivated to learn the routine well. Some of the dancers in the autocratic group were very intimidated with their leader. But rather than be combative, they became cooperative so they performed better. Additionally, the possibility of appraisal from their coach once they perform better than the other group reinforced them to execute the dance routines competitively. From this statement, it can be concluded that dancers in the autocratic group depend on the rewards that may be given by their coach. On the other hand, this result negated previous literatures. Amorose and Horn (2000), in their research about athlete’s intrinsic motivation and its association with coaches’ behavior strengthened the hypothesis that higher intrinsic motivation stems from a leadership style that emphasized training and instruction with high democratic coaching behavior. Similarly, Jayasingam (2009) has proven that a participative and nurturant-task leader behavior is more effective than that of autocratic. Group members prefer supportive and considerate leaders to become more cooperative and functional in achieving group goals. Quality of performance and cooperation will be at its greater peak when the coach is compassionate and empathic (De Cremer, 2006; Kelly &Barsade, 2001; Smith, Caroll, & Ashford, 1995). Participative style of leadership, as used in this study focused on allowing high level of member participation, inspirational motivation, and very low intensity during practice. Statistical proof from this study stressed its insignificant effect on dance performance. The dancers’ attention was hardly focused on their coach. Rather, they were more into each other’s concerns. Simultaneously, the coach was lenient so dance routines were not accordingly executed as expected. Supported by the interview and observation made, researchers had generalized that participative coaches tend to give vague goals compared to autocratic leaders, who state more defined goals for accomplishment. Thus, this coaching style has not significantly improved dance performance. Although the autocratic coach was very strict, it increased the group members’ focus of attention in learning the dance routines. Moreover, they became more goal-oriented since goals were clearly set. An autocratic leader is a leader who is very strict, directive, and makes use of his power of influence from his position to control rewards and force the followers to comply with his instructions (Blau& Scott, 1963; Daft, 2005; Jogulu& Wood, 2006). This style of leadership is most appropriate for participants who are still in the process of learning and developing their skills (Van Vugt, Sarah F, Jepson, M. Hart,

& De Cremer, 2004). Given the sample parameters in this study, autocratic coaching style worked better in improving their dance performance. Since participants are still on the first stages of developing their dance skills, with only their interest to learn as their initial investment, task-oriented coaching style worked. Participants valued discipline and obedience so they were geared towards enhancement of their dance skills (Bass, 1998). Researchers also found out that Zone of Proximal Development or the ZPD, conceptualized by Lev Vygotsky, also has an association in the learning of the dancers. “The common conception of the zone of proximal development presupposes an interaction between a more competent person and a less competent person on a task, such that the less competent person becomes independently proficient at what was initially a jointly-accomplished task (Chaeklin, page 2).” The interaction between a more competent person to a less competent one have a direct impact on the latter on a specific field. Relating this aspect to the present study, it was evident that the dance masters and all the dance learners achieved harmony in order to finish a common task. In addition, people who have the willingness to learn or have the “properties of the learner” can focus on the task at hand. The participants’ interest to learn dancing has made a significant effect on dance performance in the present study. Their interest in dancing facilitated easier understanding of instructions and lessons given by the dance masters. They have ruled out the way in which it was delivered; that is, despite the autocratic style of coaching shown. Apparently, their readiness to learn inspired them to further their knowledge and skills in dancing. The limitations of this study provide some opportunities for future research. In this study, there was limited number of participants with only fourteen (14) college students. Age range was also limited to 16-19 years of age. Greater number of participants and another set of age range must be considered to generate better data and results. It will be of interest to employ a comparative study on the effect coaching styles on dance performance with age ranges as its point of comparison. Additional leadership styles in the future studies may provide more evidences to prove the effect of leadership style in dance performance. Thus, to enhance generalizability of findings, future research should examine how learning goal orientation and different genre of dance relate to leadership styles.

Conclusions Coaching style is an important factor for leaders of dance groups. This serves as their guide in instructing dance routines and providing motivation to their group to improve the performance. Based from the results, autocratic coaching style is an effective way to enhance performance of individuals who are still on the initial stages of skills development. Therefore, to facilitate beginners’ dance skills, a dance master should display a directive approach in delivering instructions. Beginners consider their master as a competent person who will most likely lead them to betterment. And so, they show effortless obedience to instructions. Alternatively, © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

participative coaching is less effective to beginners despite presence of interest to learn. When one’s current level of knowledge and skills on a certain task, particularly dancing, still falls short on the average, it results to mediocre input; thereby generating poor performance. A coach who shows high leniency to beginners may misdirect them towards goal accomplishment. Hence, aspects of the Zone of Proximal Development and processes of social learning involved in the facilitation of successful learning outcomes must be observed.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 45-68, March 2014

Impact of Teacher-Gender on Primary Students‟ Achievement: A Case Study at Bangladesh Standpoint Dr. Kazi Enamul Hoque and Mosa Fatema Zohora Faculty of Education University of Malaya, Malaysia Abstract: This study attempts to find the impact of gender in primary teaching profession on student achievement. The quantitative method of research was used for this study. This research uses test scores of primary grades for five consecutive years which is obtained from a school in Bangladesh. This study engages a total of 1 school, 20 classes, 20 teachers and 504 students. The overall finding in this study is that men are slightly better to teach in primary when the test scores are analyzed. Although there are some differences in the breakdown analysis, the combined result analysis do not find strong evidence to claim whether students have to be taught by teachers of same or alternative gender. The findings of this study provide important information for the policy makers and especially for the primary teachers‟ recruiters in primary schools of Bangladesh. Keywords: teacher-gender; primary school; student achievement

1.1 Background of the study The bulk of statistics around the world consistently confirms that teaching profession is predominantly held by the feminine gender. Congruently, growing concerns assert that boys have been continuously under performing in schools as compared to girls. This pattern of results led to the assumption that boys‟ underperformance is due to the underrepresentation of men in the teaching profession. As such, policies have being recommended to increase recruitment of male teachers in countries like UK, Australia, USA, Finland and New Zealand (Carrington, Francis, Hutchings, Skelton, Read, & Hall, 2007). As a result, research in education and gender which were previously much focused on gender differences in student achievement, has been diverted to the effect of teacher gender on student achievement. The present study is a contribution to the existing researches on the impact of teacher gender on student achievement examining the fundamental question of whether men or women are more suitable to teach in primary grades.

Despite the many challenges Bangladesh has made remarkable achievements in meeting local and international standards in terms of education. Early childhood care and education has been expanded, primary education has been universalised, secondary education has seen marked growth, illiteracy has been nearly eliminated, and higher secondary opportunities have been expanded by establishing several schools in the city (MOE, 2011). Moreover, Bangladesh has been successful in achieving the Millennium Development Goals far ahead of the target year (Planning Commission, 2009). Like most of the south-Asian countries, statistics for Bangladesh show that the number of males in the teaching profession far outweighs the number females. Based on statistics available (World Bank, 2010), there are a total of 365925 primary teachers in the country out of which 152956 are females. This represents 41.80% of the total teachers. Looking into the share of teacher gender in primary schools, it is found that 59.20% of primary teachers are still males. The government has taken initiative to give female more than equal opportunity having provision of 60% quota reservation for female teachers. This is because women are considered backward citizen and under the section 28(4) and 29(3) of the constitution, they deserve the special privilege. Immediately after this initiative since 1990, the number of female teachers has been increasing dramatically in primary schools. Table 1.1 Numbers of Teachers and Percentage of Female Teachers in Government Primary Schools:

Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Total 160,869 160,098 156,480 157,633 159,149 158,658 161,458 158,057 153,247 158,317 158,216 162,090 157,236 162,114

Male 127,777 126,341 122,700 120,104 119,325 115,950 116,250 113,655 105,392 105,072 104,588 101,082 98239 100,159

Female 33,092 33,757 33,780 37,529 39,824 42,708 45,208 44,402 47,855 53,245 53,680 61,008 58,997 61,955

Female (%) 20.57 21.1 21.6 23.8 25.0 26.9 28.0 28.1 31.2 33.6 33.9 37.6 37.5 38.22

Source: Primary Education Statistics in Bangladesh, 2003 The increasing trend shows that the number of female teachers will soon outweigh the number of male. The primary education is a sensitive issue for a country. To ensure the quality of education should be the priority rather than providing the platform for the backward section of people. That is because only quality teachers can ensure the quality education (Hoque et al., 2010). Recently, there have been several arguments that boysâ&#x20AC;&#x; under achievement in education is due to female dominance in the teaching profession (Driessen, 2007;

Carrington & McPhee, 2008; Skelton, 2002). The underlining argument for this is that lack of male role models could have negative consequences for the achievement and behaviour of boys (Driessen, 2007). If the argument is true, it indicates that immediate steps are necessary in order to ensure gender equity in education. As the statistics for gender representation in teaching profession and also the gender gap in student achievement in Bangladesh is consistent with the rest of the world, it became necessary that such a study be conducted in the context of Bangladesh. Owing to what has been explained in the preceding discussion, it is logical to appeal for policy recommendations that were put forward in the western countries. As such, a gender related study is significantly important before implementing such policies. Hence, the purpose of this study is to examine if the gender of the teacher has any impact on student performance in the primary. Although inspired by a good intention, due to limitations in time and resources, the study does not stand to generalize the results. 1.2 Objectives The specific objectives intended to achieve by this research are:  To find out whether there is any difference in the performance of men and woman in teaching to primary grades.  To examine if matching or differentiating the gender of the students from that of the teachers would bring in any significant change in student performance. 1.3 Research Questions In order to achieve the objectives of the research two fundamental research questions (RQs) have been deployed. The first research question compares the average marks of the classes against teachers‟ gender. The second research question compares the average of each group of students (i.e., boys and girls separate) against teachers‟ gender. 1.

Is there any difference between male and female teachers based on students‟ test results? 2. Is there any difference between male and female teachers based on students‟ test as compared to their gender? 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW Since mid 1990s the studies were found to be increasing focused on the concerns of feminizing the education especially in the primary which led to such arguments as under representation of male teachers lead to lack of male role models in education and hence lower boys‟ performance (Driessen, 2007). In this section, the findings of these studies are presented under three subheadings– (1) those studies which focused on finding the effect of matching teacher and student gender, (2) those which focused on teacher‟s gender and its impact on student achievement, and (3) those which focused on gender differences in the types of relationships between teachers and students.

2.1 The gender match The vast majority of studies in this line of research are concentrated in Britain due to the recommendation of the policy makers to increase recruitment of male teachers owing to the assumption that boys‟ under achievement in education is caused by underrepresentation of men in teaching. Almost all studies, however, find contrary evidence to the policy recommendation that matching students with the gender of the teachers does not necessarily bring in any positive outcomes in student performance. The study by Carrington et al., (2007) reported results which are contrary to the famous policy recommendation. In this qualitative study, the researchers interviewed 300 elementary school students in England in order to understand their perception of better teachers – whether males or females. The study revealed that the gender of teachers had little apparent effect on the academic motivation and engagement of either boys or girls. Instead, students value teachers who were consistent and supportive regardless of their gender. Research with similar types of designs in Holland confirmed that teacher sex has no affect whatsoever on the achievement, attitudes or behaviour of pupils (Driessen, 2007). The policy of recruiting more men into primary education to ensure demonstration of male role models has also been criticized by Jones (2003). By exploring the views of female teachers in the primary, the study concluded that recruiting more males should not necessarily improve boys‟ performance. The researchers postulated that the recruitment process should rather be focused on selecting the “right kind of men”. Similarly, the study by Skelton, (2002) also reported that both students and teachers reject the notion that students perform better when matched by the teacher‟s gender. Moreover, it was reported that the abilities of the individual teacher is more important than gender and sort of student teacher relationships (Francis, Skelton, Carrington, Hutchings, Read, & Hall, 2008). Although the majority of the researches report that gender matching does not necessary improve student performance, there are yet some studies which indicate positive impacts of gender matching. The study by Carrington & McPhee (2008) examined the commonly held belief that the gender gap in achievement stems from the shortage of male role models in teaching, especially at primary level. The researchers were much attracted by the existing literature on the influence of teacher gender on classroom interaction and educational outcomes which argue that students perform better when taught by teachers of the same gender. The(Carrington & McPhee, 2008) study found that the majority of those interviewed believe that increasing the number of male teachers would ultimately serve to reduce the gender gap in achievement by increasing boys‟ academic engagement. Other studies also found results supporting positive effects of gender matching. It has been reported that assignments of a same gender teacher significantly improves the performance of both boys and girls (Lam et al., 2010). The study by Dee (2007) investigated the prevailing beliefs that gender gap in student

outcomes is a result of interactions between teachers and students. The study reported that matching gender of the teacher with that of the students is associated with better student performance. 2.2 Teacher gender and student achievement Quite a number of studies have been conducted in this line of research. In this regard, after a collaborative study of 180 struggling boy readers in Grades 3 and 4 over a 10-week period, four professors from the University of Alberta and the University of Winnipeg (Canada) concluded that these students performed better when taught by a female teacher (ORegan, 2007). Although it is concluded as such the authors also highlighted some of the other factors such as the teaching materials used, the interest level of the students towards the subject, the family background and socio-economic status of the students and so on which could have some impact on student performance. Interestingly, all the 180 students who were chosen to participate in this programme were from low socio-economic status backgrounds, improved their performance regardless of teacher‟s gender although students from the female teachers were found to be more confident in reading. Karieg (2005) explored the impact of student and teacher gender differences on standardized tests using a large set of data on a longitudinal basis. This study reported three interesting findings: (1) boys perform worse and obtained less scores on maths, reading and writing as they move from third grade to fourth grade, (2) students of male teachers perform worse as compared to those of female teachers regardless of students‟ gender, (3) there is no significant difference between the performance of boys and girls of male teachers. Out of these findings, the final one is in strong support of what has been largely found by the researches on the impact of gender matching. After interviewing with a number of students (Myhill & Jones, 2006) found out that on one hand teachers of either gender tend to treat boys negatively as compared to girls while one the other and they also expect girls to perform better both in terms behaviour as well as academics. Based on this, it is more logical to appeal that boys‟ underperformance is due to differential treatments between boys and girls rather than being taught by a female teacher. The study also found out that male teachers tend to be biased by gender whereas female teachers are perceived to be less influenced by gender expectations. A large scale study done in Hong Kong with 148 primary teachers and 4867 grade 4 pupils found that students of both gender perform better when taught by woman (Lamet al, 2010). This study found contrary evidence to those studies which report that boys perform better when taught by men. The findings of a longitudinal study in Mexico showed results consistent with many other researches that there is evidence that students of female teachers perform comparatively better than those of males (Luschei, 2011). The researcher, however, argue that this does imply that male teachers are less effective – rather it could be due to some other related factors.

After examining data from longitudinal studies (Ehrenberg, Goldhaber, & Brewer, 1995) reported that test scores of white female students in mathematics and science did not increase more rapidly when the teacher was a white woman than when the teacher was a white man. The study, however acknowledged that white female teachers evaluated their female students more highly than did male teachers. The studies reviewed so far depict that females are somewhat better than males in teaching to primary students. Nevertheless, a fair number of studies have in fact found contrary evidence to this. A study conducted for year 3 elementary school pupils and their teachers revealed that both students and teachers perceive that the gender of the teachers does not matter as such with regard to student motivation and interactions, and consequently the performance of the students as well (Skelton, Carrington, Francis, Hutchings, Read, & Hall, 2009). The majority of the respondents believe that it is the traits and qualities of the teacher that play a more significant role than gender stereo-types. 2.3 Teacher gender and student-teacher interactions The gender differences in the interactions between students and teachers have been an interesting line of research on the topic. The vast majority of existing literature suggests that male and female teachers demonstrate different behaviour in their classroom interactions with the students. In this regard, females are found to be more approachable, easy to communicate and supportive whereas male teachers are found to be more strict and authoritative (Meece, 1987). A study by (Rodriguez, 2002) which involved a survey of teachers indicates that male teachers are likely to select a more aggressive disciplinary approach toward boys. The study also reported that teachers of both gender tend to consider minor disruptive behaviour of girls than that of boys. Hopf and Hatzichristou (1999) conducted a study to examine gender-related differences in student-teacher interactions in Greek classrooms focusing on teacher gender. Although the study was not an attempt to compare student results, it was found that teacher gender stereotyping has a greater impact on several factors such as perceptions, interactions, and expectations, as well as children's functioning and development. Carrington, Tymms, & Merrell (2008) studied empirical data from British primary education to test the hypothesis that male teachers produce more positive attitudes amongst boys and female teachers amongst girls. The results gave little support for those who advocate boys perform better when taught by male teachers and girls performs better when taught by female teachers. There have been a number of attempts to study the climate of the classroom as a means of student-teacher relationships. These studies depict mixed evidences. While many of these studies suggest that there is a gender biasness in such relationships – male teachers providing a more positive atmosphere for boys – some others report that female teachers provide a more positive climate overall. However, there are still some researches which found exactly the opposite – that male teachers tend to treat more equably whereas female teachers are biased in favour of girls.

An experimentally designed study of a group of boys and girls revealed that female teachers tend to give most of their sex-role connected rewards for feminine behaviour to both boys and girls while on the other hand male teachers rewarded more equably, masculine behaviours for boys, feminine behaviours for girls (McCandless, Bush, & Carden, 1976). On the other hand, after observing 11 female and 10 male elementary school teachers Stake & Katz (1982) concluded that female teachers were more positive than male teachers in their attitudes and behaviour towards their students – providing a more positive classroom atmosphere overall. Responses from teachers who took part in the Hong Kong study suggest that male teachers are more authoritarian, prefer to control pupils‟ learning, engage pupils in whole-class reading and like to read passages aloud while pupils follow the text (Lam et al, 2010). The same study found contrasting styles of interactions from female teachers where they prefer to teach reading in groups, to group pupils according to reading ability, set tasks that suit pupils‟ stage of learning, allocate more time for pupils to read books and use the school library and encourage pupils to discover for themselves the meaning of new vocabulary encountered in text. This gives strong support to the argument that differences in student achievement is more due to differences in teacher abilities rather than the gender of the teacher as such. The type of interaction between teachers and students is believed to have some impact on student motivation. This presumption is derived from the theories of social learning and gender stereotypic model according to which boys do better academically in classes taught by males and girls do better in classes taught by females. However, “academic motivation and engagement does not significantly vary as a function of their teacher's gender, and boys do not fare any better with male teachers than female teachers” (Martin & Marsh, 2005). 2.4 Hypotheses Based on literature review the following null and alternative hypotheses are developed accordingly. For Research Question 1 Ho : There is no significant difference between male and female teachers based on students‟ results. Ha : There is a significant difference between male and female teachers based on students‟ results. For Research Question 2 Ho: There is no significant difference between male and female teachers based on students‟ results, with regard to students‟ gender. Ha : There is a significant difference between male and female teachers based on students‟ results, with regard to students‟ gender.

3.0 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design The quantitative method of research was used for this study. According to Creswell (2009) the quantitative methods determine whether the predictive generalization of a theory or hypothesis is accurate. With this regard, quantitative approach is any kind of research that is mainly used to test or verify theories or explanations. Thus, it identifies variables to study and relate those variables in questions or hypotheses by using statistical standards of validity and reliability, and employ statistical procedures for analysis (Creswell, 2009). A researcher who uses quantitative approach generally has a very clear idea about what is being measured before they start measuring it, and their study is set up with controls and a very clear outline (Keith, 1998). Since the aim of this research is to find out whether man or women are more suitable for teaching in primary schools, which is a gender comparison, T test was believed to be the most appropriate. T test is used “when you have one “nominal variable” and one “measurement variable”, and you want to compare the mean values of the measurement variable. The nominal variable must have only two values, such as "male" and "female" (McDonald, 2009). 3.2 Population and Sampling This research uses secondary data (test scores) of primary grades for five consecutive years which is obtained from a school in Bangladesh. Two classes from grade four and two classes from grade five for a period of five years were then selected by considering the gender of teachers who taught those classes. Thus, this study engages a total of 1 school, 20 classes, 20 teachers and 504 students. Several criteria were considered in selecting the sample. The very initial idea is to obtain data for minimum of five years to make the findings accurate. Then the gender was considered in a way that tests the hypothesis as accurately as possible where both male and female teachers contributed teaching in these twenty classes during the sampled period. Grades 4 and 5 were chosen particularly due to this reason as there were all female or male teachers for some of the grades during the sampled period. Out of the seven subjects taught in the primary, only mathematics marks is used in the research. This is so because on one hand teacher gender has to be made as proportional as possible and on the other hand because of the nature of this study. 3.3 Data Collection The research is primarily based on quantitative method where secondary data or otherwise documented data is used to test the hypothesis. Merriam (1988) defines documents as any form of data not gathered through interviews or observations. As proposed by Neuman (2006) availability of document based data or the existing statistics are first analysed to creatively fit into the research context and is collected by considering the research questions and variables (set out for this particular research) in mind. Documented data inform research by

enhancing the credibility of the research findings and interpretations. Such data can be used to describe, understand and explain how things function at the sample sites (Merriam, 1998). The quantitative data collected for this research was obtained from a rural school located in the north province of People Republic of Bangladesh. The school principal was first approached through mobile phone to see the possibilities of obtaining the final mark sheets of their primary grades (levels 1 -5) for five years period along with the gender of the teachers who taught the specific subjects. Then, a phone call requesting for the data from the specified grades were made to make the inquiry more formal. The data was first provided for 2008, 2009 and 2010 due to unavailability of data in spread sheet format. However, upon a further request for the scanned copies of the data for 2006 and 2007, was later forwarded through email after compiling them in the spread sheet format. A further request was sent to one of the leading teacher through another phone call and a reminder was sent through a mobile text message as the data lacks the gender of the teachers who taught the various subjects for the primary grades classes during the sampled time period, i.e. from 2006 to 2010. There are many advantages and disadvantages in using secondary data. The obvious advantages in this case were the cost and time. This study used the final mark sheets of the above school for a period of five years. Although the initial design was to include all primary scores, due to limitations in obtaining data the study was narrowed down to grades 4 and 5 and also to one subject, that is Mathematics. The school mark sheets were the 5 years records of their studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; marks obtained in all the subjects â&#x20AC;&#x201C; of which Mathematics marks were chosen â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and there is no manipulation of the research setting necessary with this. 3.4 Data Analysis Since the objective of the study is to see if there is any difference between male and female teachers in the mean scores of their respective classes, the statistical analysis employed in this study is the T test. T test is calculated using a formula that has the difference between the means (of the males and females) in the numerator denoted by đ?&#x2018;&#x2039; means. This makes the value of t get larger as the means get further apart. The denominator is the standard error of the difference in the means, denoted by S2, which gets smaller as the sample variances decrease or the sample sizes increase (McDonald, 2009). Thus, the t value gets larger as the means get farther apart, the variances get smaller, or the sample sizes increase. Consequently, a small t value indicates the difference is statistically not significant. In order to reject the null hypothesis the probability of significance is set to 5% (p = .05) which is the standard used in most of the researches in social science. 3.5 Validity and Reliability Validity and reliability are two main characteristics of any set of data a researcher has to consider (Keith, 1998). The concept of validity is used to judge whether the research accurately describes the phenomenon that it is intended to describe. Since the primary aim of this research is to find out whether man or women are more suitable for teaching in primary schools, by considering the

academic achievement of the students and the gender of the teachers, the validity of the data is pursued as the data is documented for their own purpose. As suggested by Cohen, Manion, & Morrison (2007), the standards and criteria of validity and reliability is considered as authenticity and credibility of the data. The data (students test mark) obtained was produced from the students‟ test scores of various years which was printed in the students‟ progress report. In Bangladesh, primary schools provide students‟ marked answer scripts back to the students which they can take home where parents can go through and reflect and compare with the students‟ progress report. This pursues the issue of authenticity and credibility. In this context the data is very dependable as there is no manipulation and control of any variable as the data were produced and obtained for internal and official purpose of the school. 3.6 Limitations As the research is basically conducted by analysing students, academic achievement and gender of the teachers who taught them, a very fore fronted limitation is that the research does not address the other factors that might influence students, academic achievement. This includes the ability levels of the selected students‟ sample, socio economic background of the students, competency level and pedagogical knowledge of the teachers, and instructional support by the grade supervisors. Another limitation of the research is that it does not consider the lower grades (grades 1 to 3). Moreover, there is no attempt made to relate it to the other subjects since it is only the marks of Mathematics which is taken into account. As such, the researchers do not claim to generalise the findings to other subjects and even to the primary schools. 3.7 Ethical consideration The major ethical consideration with this research design was in the use of students marks. The school principal was first contacted in inquiring for the data and the purpose and how it would be used was explained during the first phone conversation. Later same information along with the people who would have access to the data was stated in the text-message inquiry. The confidentiality of the school was also ensured by not disclosing the name and their personal information in the research. Only relevant details that helped in answering the research questions were included. 4.0 FINDINGS Two research questions have been set out to achieve the objectives of this study. The first question was targeted to examining class averages (boys and girls mixed) based on teachers gender. The second question was aimed at refining the finding by examining the impact of teacher gender on student performance (gender wise). This chapter reports the findings for each of these questions. 4.1 Impact of gender on students’ test results In order to find the impact on students‟ test result, data was analyzed at two levels – first a grade wise comparison (grades 4 and 5 separately) and then comparing the aggregate results of the two grades.

4.1.1 Finding from grade 4 data Table 1 shows the mean performance of those pupils taught by male teachers and female and also the mean for the whole group of students. Table 4.1 Group Statistics (Grade 4) Table 4.1.1. Mean marks and standard deviaiton

Teacher (Gender) Male Female Total

Mean 57.0000 50.2500 54.3000

N 6 4 10

Std. deviation 8.64870 2.75379 7.49889

Based on table 4.1, the performance of male teachers is found to be better as compared to female teachers in which the mean for students taught by male teachers is 57.00 whereas for the female teachers it is 50.25. Moreover, the performance of female teachers is also found to be even less than the average for the whole sample (54.30) while on the other hand the average for the male teachers is higher. Even though men are known to perform better when referring to the arithmetic means, it is also necessary to find that the difference is statistically significant. Independent sample t test was performed for this purpose and the result is shown in table 4.2. Since that significance value is .176 (p > .05) the null hypothesis has to be accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference between male and female teachers based on the average of the class. Even though men are known to perform better when referring to the arithmetic means, it is also necessary to find that the difference is statistically significant. Independent sample t test was performed for this purpose and the result is shown in table 4.2. Since that significance value is .176 (p > .05) the null hypothesis has to be accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference between male and female teachers based on the average of the class. Table 4.2 Independent Sample T Test (Grade 4)

AVGMARKS Equal variances Assumed. Equal variances not assumed

Lev ene's t-test f or Equality of Means Test for Equality of Variances F Sig. t df Sig(2- Mean tailed) Dif f erence 6.7500 .176 0.051 1.485 8 6.7500 5.251 1.781 1.781 6.390 .122

Std. error Difference 4.54577 3.78979

b) Findings from Grade 5 Data Table 4.3 shows the mean performance of those pupils taught by male teachers and female and also the mean for the whole group of students of grade 5. Table 4.3 Group Statistics (Grade 5) - AVGMARKS

Teacher (Gender) Male Female Total

Mean 48.3333 34.7500 42.9000

N 6 4 10

Std. deviation 5.50151 8.99537 9.64307

Based on table 4.3, the performance of male teachers is found to be better as compared to female teachers in which the mean for male teachers is 48.33 whereas the mean for female teachers is 34.75. As compared to the group average (42.90) male teachers are found to be doing better than that of female teachers. Table 4.4 Independent Sample T Test (Grade 5)

AVGMARKS Equal variances Assumed. Equal variances not assumed

Lev ene's t-test f or Equality of Means Test for Equality of Variances F Sig. t df Sig(2- Mean Std. error tailed) Dif f Difference erence .843. .385 2.998 8 .017 13.5833 4.53047 4.514

.047

13.5833 5.02729

2.702

The independent sample t test confirms that the observed difference in mean is statically significant as shown in table 4.4. Since the significance value is .017 (p < .05) the null hypothesis can be rejected. Thus, in case of grade 5, there is a significant difference between male and female teachers based on the average of the class. The independent sample t test confirms that the observed difference in mean is statically significant as shown in table 4.4. Since the significance value is .017 (p < .05) the null hypothesis can be rejected. Thus, in case of grade 5, there is a significant difference between male and female teachers based on the average of the class. The independent sample t test confirms that the observed difference in mean is statically significant as shown in table 4.4. Since the significance value is .017 (p < .05) the null hypothesis can be rejected. Thus, in case of grade 5, there is a significant difference between male and female teachers based on the average of the class.

c) Finding from Combined data Table 4.5 shows the mean performance of those pupils taught by male and female teachers and also the mean for the whole group of students (grades 4 and 5 combined). Table 4.5 Group Statistics (Grade 4 and 5 combined) - AVGMARKS

Teacher (Gender) Male Female Total

Mean 52.6667 42.5000 48.6000

N 12 8 20

Std. deviation 8.26090 10.32334 10.24130

According to table 4.5 the performance of male teachers is found to be better as compared to female teachers in which the mean for male teachers is 52.67 whereas for the female teachers the mean is 42.50. The mean for females is also found to be lower than the mean for the whole group (48.60). When independent sample T test was performed, as shown in table 4.6, it is understood that the reported difference in mean is also statistically significant (level of significance is .025, p < .05). Thus, the alternative hypothesis can be accepted meaning that there is a significant difference between male and female teachers based on the average of the whole group of sample. Table 4.6 Independent Sample T Test (Grade 4 and 5 combined)

AVGMARKS Equal variances Assumed. Equal variances not assumed

Lev ene's t-test f or Equality of Means Test for Equality of Variances F Sig. t df Sig(2- Mean tailed) Dif f erence .559 .464 . 18 .025 10.1667 2.443 12.771 .037 10.1667

Std. error Difference 4.16203 4.35958

2.332

4.2 Male or female teachers’ performance based on students’ gender Results for this questions were also analyzed at two levels – a grade wise comparison (grades 4 and 5 separately) and then comparing the aggregate results of the two grades. a) Finding from Grade 4 Data Table 4.7 shows the mean performance of those pupils taught by male teachers and female and also the mean for the whole group of grade four students.

Table 4.7 Group Statistics – cross gender (Grade 4) - AVGMARKS

Teacher (Gender) Boysavg: Male/Female Girlsavg: Male/Female

Mean

Std. deviation

6 4 6 4

54.1667 51.0000 58.6667 49.5000

11.51376 4.69042 7.11805 7.72442

Std error Mean 4.70047 2.34521 2.90593 3.86221

From the above table it shows that when compared against the average of boys, male teachers‟ performance was better than female teachers‟ where the performance of males is 54.16 and that of females is 51.00. Similarly, when the averages for girls are compared it is also found that male teachers perform better with an average of 58.67 whereas the mean for female teachers is 49.50. Hence, when the teachers‟ performance is measured against the difference in achievement of boys and girls, in both the cases male teachers do better than female teachers. There is no indication that the average performances of the students when taught by teachers of alternative gender are better than the average performances of the students when taught by the teachers of corresponding gender. Although differences were observed in the arithmetic means, the t test results for the data show that the existing differences are not statistically significant (Table 4.8). Since the significant value for boys is .621 (p > .05), the null hypothesis has to be accepted. Thus, there is no significant difference between male and female teachers when the boys‟ performance is considered. Similarly, since the significant value for girls is .089, p > .05, the null hypothesis has to be accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference between male and female teachers when the girls‟ performance is considered Table 4.8 Independent Sample T Test – cross gender (Grade 4) Lev ene's Test t-test f or Equality of Means for Equality of Variances

BOYSAVG Equal variances Assumed. Equal variances not assumed GIRLSAVG Equal variances Assumed. Equal variances not assumed

Sig.

Sig(2tailed)

Std. error Difference

.621 .565

Mean Dif f erence 3.1667 3.1667

4.997

.056

.514 .603

8 7.069

.004

.951

1.932

.089

9.1667

4.74525

1.897

6.171

.105

9.1667

4.83333

6.16117 5.25304

The t test was also performed to see if matching teachers‟ gender with students‟ results in any significant difference. In order to do this, the results of boys and girls are compared against the teachers‟ gender. Table 4.9 shows the results of this comparison.

Teacher gender Female male

Table 4.9 Independent Sample T Test - same gender (Grade 4) Lev ene's t-test f or Equality of Means Test for Equality of Variances F Sig. t df Sig(2Mean tailed) Diff erence Equal 0.952941 0.366672 0.33197 6 0.751202 1.5 variances assumed 2.348266 0.156426 -0.8143 10 0.434434 -4.5

Std. error Difference 4.518481 5.5262

As seen from table 4.9, there is no significant difference between boys and girls irrespective of teachers‟ gender. When taught by female teachers the significance value is .75, p > .05 and for male teacher it is .43, p > .05. Hence, there is no significant difference between male and female teachers whether teach to students of same gender or otherwise. b) Findings from Grade 5 Data Table 4.10 shows the mean performance of those pupils taught by male and female teachers and also the mean for the whole group of students. Table 4.10 Group Statistics – cross gender (Grade 5)

Teacher (Gender) Boysavg: Male/Female

Mean

Std. deviation

6 4

45.1667 35.5000

6.70572 6.13732

Std error Mean 2.73760 3.06866

Girlsavg: Male/Female

6 4

51.8333 41.2500

7.90991 1.25831

3.22921 .62915

Table 4.10 shows that when compared against the average of boys, male teachers‟ performance is better with an average of 45.17 whereas female teachers produced an average of 35.50. Similarly, when the averages for girls are compared it is also found that male teachers perform better with an average of 51.83while the mean for female teachers is 41.25. Hence, when the teachers‟ performance is measured against the difference in achievement of boys and girls, in both the cases male teachers perform better than female teachers.

Table 11 Independent Sample T Test – cross gender (Grade 5)

BOYSAVG Equal variances Assumed. Equal variances not assumed GIRLSAVG Equal variances Assumed. Equal variances not assumed

Lev ene's t-test f or Equality of Means Test for Equality of Variances F Sig. t df Sig(2- Mean tailed) Dif f erence .026 .877 2.304 8 .050 9.6667 2.351 7.011 .051 9.6667

4.534

.066

Std. error Difference 4.19470 4.11231

2.602

.032

10.5833 4.06704

3.217

5.374

.021

10.5833 3.28993

The results of t test when the indicated mean differences are analysed are shown in table 4.11which shows that the significant for boys is .05, p = .05 and that for girls is .032, p < .05. Therefore, there is a significant difference in average performance of boys and girls when taught by teachers of alternative gender. As seen from table 4.12, there is no significant difference between boys and girls irrespective of teachers‟ gender. When taught by female teachers the significance value is .89, p > .05 and for male teacher it is .15, p > .05. Hence, there is no significant difference between male and female teachers whether teach to students of same gender or otherwise.

Teacher gender Female male

Table 4.12 Independent Sample T Test – same gender (Grade 5) Lev ene's t-test f or Equality of Means Test for Equality of Variances F Sig. t df Sig(2Mean tailed) Diff erence Equal 0.376045 0.562237 -0.13775 6 0.894947 -0.75 variances 0.16113 0.696562 -1.57475 10 0.14639 -6.66667 assumed

Std. error Difference 5.44799 2.76608

c) Finding from Combined data Table 4.13 shows the mean performance of those pupils taught by male and female teachers and also the mean for the whole group of students (grades 4 and 5 combined).

Table 4.13 Group Statistics (Grade 4 and 5 combined)

Teacher (Gender) Boysavg: Male/Female

Mean

Std. deviation

12 8

49.6667 43.2500

10.13844 9.70640

Std error Mean 2.92671 3.43173

Girlsavg: Male/Female

12 8

55.2500 45.3750

8.01277 6.75991

2.31309 2.38999

According to the table, the average performance of boys when taught by male teachers is 49.67 and the mean is 43.25 when taught by females. This indicates that by arithmetic mean male teachers are better in teaching to boys. When comparing the averages for girls it is again found that male teachers are doing better with an average of 55.25 whereas the mean for female teachers is 45.38.Hence, in the case of both boys and girls, male teachers perform better than female teachers. Another indication is that girls have performed better than boys when thought either by teachers of corresponding or alternate gender. Table 4.14 Independent Sample T Test – cross gender (Grade 4 and 5 combined)

BOYSAVG Equal variances Assumed. Equal variances not assumed GIRLSAVG Equal variances Assumed. Equal variances not assumed

Lev ene's t-test f or Equality of Means Test for Equality of Variances F Sig. t df Sig(2- Mean tailed) Dif f erence .000 .998 1.410 18 .176 6.4167 1.423 15.626 .174 6.4167

.050

.825

2.865 2.969

18 .010 16.848 .009

9.8750 9.8750

Std. error Difference 4.55187 4.51026

3.44622 3.32602

The table 4.14 shows the significant for boys is .176, p > .05 and the significant for girls is .010, P <.05. Therefore, there is a no significant difference between males and females when the average performance of boys is considered, but there is a significant difference between the genders when the girls‟ average is taken into account.

Table 4.15 Independent Sample T Test – same gender (Grade 4 and 5 combined) Lev ene's t-test f or Equality of Means Test for Equality of Variances Teacher F Sig. t df Sig(2Std. error Mean gender tailed) Difference Diff erence Female Equal 1.140377 0.303641 -0.50813 14 0.619271 -2.125 4.181966 variances male 1.100753 0.30549 -1.4967 22 014868 3.73042 assumed 5.58333

As seen from table 4.15, there is no significant difference between boys and girls irrespective of teachers‟ gender. When taught by female teachers the significance value is .62, p > .05 and for male teacher it is .15, p > .05. Hence, there is no significant difference between male and female teachers whether teach to students of same gender or otherwise. 4.3 Total Findings Table 4.16 displays the summary of all the levels of analysis that were carried out in the study with an indication whether there was any difference that is statistically significant. As per the table, the impact of gender on student performance depicts some mixed evidences. For RQ1, the combined results show that the finding - that males are better - is statistically significant. However for RQ2, there is no strong evidence to claim for gender differences. Table 4.16 Summary of the results

Grade level 4

Research Questions RQ 1 RQ 2

RQ 1 RQ 2

COMBINED

RQ 1 RQ 2

Level of analysis Class average Cross gender Same gender Class average Cross gender Same gender Class average Cross gender Same gender

significance No No No Yes Yes No Yes For boys „No‟, For girls „Yes‟ No

5 .0 DISCUSSIONS 5.1 Gender issue in primary teaching profession 5.1.1 Impact of gender on the test result of grade 4 students For the research question one which was aimed at studying if there is any difference between male and female teachers when their performance is measured in terms of the class averages, the results show that although men seem to be performing better as compared to women, this difference is not

statistically significant. Our results for this part are in contrary with many other studies around the world. Many of the previous researches found that females are better in teaching to primary for both boys and girls (Karieg, 2005; Lam et al, 2010; Luschei, 2011). It is anticipated that this difference in finding is due to other factors which might affect student achievement rather than the teachers‟ gender itself. In fact a number of researches which found that females do better also admitted the fact that it may not be the gender which is the key factor having the most impact on student performance, rather other factors such as teaching materials used, interest level of the students towards the subject, family background and socio-economic status (ORegan, 2007). One of the most important factors which could override the gender differences that is reported by the referred studies is the teacher qualification. Since in the data collection there was no attempt made to collect information on teacher qualification and experience, it is not possible to relate this to our findings. However, it is quite clear that in this study – despite the female dominance in the teaching field elsewhere – the number of male teachers is more than the females. As such, the performance of female teachers is less significant due to their underrepresentation in number. As for the second research question, when the student results were analyzed gender wise it is found that both boys and girls perform better when taught by the male teachers. However, the statistical analysis proved that the difference is not significant. This is to say that there is no difference in the performance between male and female teachers with regards to the students‟ genders. Although the difference is not statistically significant, our findings stand against the advocates that male primary school teacher has been variously regarded as morally suspect (Tubbs, 1946), out of place (Kaplan, 1947), or someone who should be actively dissuaded from making such a career choice (Levine, 1977). When tested for the effect of same gender treatment, the study did not show any significance between males and females meaning that the gender of the teacher has no significant effect whether teaching to the students of the teachers‟ gender or otherwise. Therefore, as far as the analysis from the fourth grade is concerned the gender of the teacher seems to be having no significant effect in student performance. This is supported by some studies that there is no need to struggle to improve male recruitment since solid evidence is not established on this ground (Carrington et al, 2008). In the past two decades many researchers have advocated that men should play a role in primary teaching in order to counter the “feminized” environment (Brophy & Good, 1973) or to help break down traditional gender stereotypes by acting as role models (Greenburg, 1977). According to Connell (1996) this provides a conceptual framework derived from research into the education of boys which clearly points to the need for such male role models in primary schools. However, our study did not support such arguments.

5.1.2 Impact of gender on the test result of grade 5 students Unlike the widely held beliefs and most of the research findings in this area, the results of the grade 5 data in this research show a significant difference between the performances of the students in relation to teachers‟ gender. This research shows that performances of male teachers are better than females for both boys and girls. One such contrary findings to this research as highlighted in the literature reveals that female teachers‟ performance is better than male teachers in standardized tests (Karieg, 2005). Another study done in Honhg Kong by Lam et al. (2010) also shows that students‟ performances are better with female teachers. However, a study conducted by Skelton et al (2009) proves that the teachers‟ gender does not make any difference to the students‟ performances as there is no gender influence on student motivation and interactions inside the classroom. They further said that teachers‟ personality and quality are largely considerable than gender stereo-type in the achievement of the students (Skelton et al, 2009). The results show that average performances of boys are better with the teachers of corresponding gender. This finding is quite similar to the findings of Carrington & McPhee (2008) who found that boys interact better with male teachers leading to reduce the gender gap in academic achievement. The results of t-test which show a significance value of .050 for boys and .032 for girls can be interpreted as there is a significant difference between the average performance of boys and girls when taught either by male or female teachers. A corresponding result was produced from the views of primary teachers by Jones (2003) is concluded as improvement in boys‟ performance is not with man but may be with the “right kind of men”. This could be due to the way boys and girls interact with teachers are different where teachers are more tally with their students of corresponding gender (Carrington et al, 2007). In association with students‟ gender and teachers‟ gender, results of t-test show that there is no significant difference between the gender match among teachers‟ and students‟ with the students‟ achievements. Similarly, Skelton (2002) has found that gender match does not make any difference in student performance. The study by Dee (2007) investigated the prevailing beliefs that gender gaps in student outcomes are a result of interactions between teachers and students. Alternatively, the study by Carrington et al (2007) revealed that the gender of teachers slightly impact the students of sexes in terms of their academic, motivation and engagement in studies. 5.1.3 Better classroom performer As for the first research question, when analysed for the gender differences while combing the results of both the grades, it is found that male teachers actually perform better than female teachers with a statistical significance of .025, p < .05. This is completely opposite to all the studies which have been revised for the purpose of this study. This finding is inconsistent with most of the previous findings. Although some studies reported that men are better in such matters as disciplining students (Rodriguez, 2002) most of the other studies

found that in general females are better in teaching to primary(ORegan, 2007; Karieg, 2005; Luschei, 2011). According to the findings of the present study, it could be said that although women might be better in certain kind of relationships and being with children due to their mother nature, they might not do so in terms of academic achievement of students. However, it is also acknowledge the fact that although in this study men are found to do better, it cannot be argued that it is the gender which had the greatest impact but rather other factors of teaching and learning could have had a greater impact (ORegan, 2007). The finding from grade four results stand in strong support of this argument where it is shown that there is no significant difference between male and female teachers. The combined analysis shows that in case of boys there is no significant difference between male and female teachers. However, in case of the performance of girls, it is found that they perform better when taught by male teachers. When analyzed for the effect of same gender on student achievement, the results show that matching teachers‟ gender with that of the students does not results in a significant change in student achievement. This means that it does matter whether boys are taught by women or girls are taught by men. The finding is consistent with the finding of many other previous studies, all of which reported that there is no need to struggle hiring male teachers just to compensate for boys under achievement (Carrington et al, 2007; Driessen, 2007; Jones, 2003; Francis et al, 2008; Skelton, 2002). Therefore, it would be better to focus on teacher qualities and school facilities which enhance students‟ understanding rather than merely debating about teachers‟ gender. Both genders are motivated equally in liking children, being willing to serve the school system (Seifert, 1985), but in this situation male teachers produced more productive result in the students‟ performance rather than female teachers. 6.0 CONCLUSIONS Since the statistics for teacher gender in Bangladesh is similar to the pattern around the world it was anticipated that the findings of the study will also be similar to other findings where the majority of literature on gender differences in teaching to primary grades show that females are better as compared to males. However, comparing the test scores this study found that men are better in teaching to primary. Despite this contrary evidence, when the data was analysed for the impact of same or opposite gender the study revealed mixed evidences. So it does not support any of the prevailing arguments whether students have to be taught by teachers of same gender or opposite gender. Base on the various analyses, it is concluded that teacher gender is of less importance than other factors as far as student achievement in test scores are considered. This is supported by a number of similar studies. In this regard, Jones (2003) concluded that instead of debating on teachers‟ gender as such, it is more logical to focus on choosing the “right kind of candidates”. Moreover teacher‟ personality and quality are largely considerable than gender stereo-type in the achievement of the students (Skelton et al., 2009).

References Azza, F., & Aishath, A. (2008): Education for all: Mid-dicade assessment - 2007. Male': Ministry of Education. Brophy, J. E. & Good, T.C. (1973): Feminization of American elementary schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 54, 564-566 Carrington, B., & McPhee, A. (2008): Boys' 'underachievement' and the feminization of teaching. Journal of Education for Teaching, 34 (2), 109–120. Carrington, B., Francis, B., Hutchings, M., Skelton, C., Read, B., & Hall, I. (2007): Does the Gender of the Teacher Really Matter? Seven- to Eight-Year-Olds' Accounts of Their Interactions with Their Teachers. Educational Studies, 33 (4), 397–413. Carrington, B., Tymms, P., & Merrell, C. (2008): Role Models, School Improvement and the "Gender Gap"--Do Men Bring out the Best in Boys and Women the Best in Girls? British Educational Research Journal, 34 (3), 315–327. Creswell (2009): Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed methods Approaches. New Delhi: SAGE Publications. Connell, R.W. (1996): Teaching the boys: New research on masculinity, and gender strategies for schools. Teachers College Record, 98(2), 206-235 Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007) : Research Methods in Education, Sixth Edition. Routledge: Madison Avenue, New York Dee, T. S. (2007) : Teachers and the Gender Gaps in Student Achievement. The Journal of Human Resources, 3 (XLII), 528-554. Driessen, G. (2007) : The feminization of primary education: effects of teachers‟ sex on pupil achievement, attitudes and behaviour. Review of Education (53), 183–203. Ehrenberg, R. G., Goldhaber, D. D., & Brewer, D. J. (1995) : Do teachers' race, gender, and ethnicity matter? evidence from the national educational longitudinal study of 1988. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 48 (3), 547-561. Francis, B., Skelton, C., Carrington, B., Hutchings, M., Read, B., & Hall, I. (2008) : A perfect match? Pupils' and teachers' views of the impact of matching educators and learners by gender. Research Papers in Education, 23 (1), 21–36. Greenburg, M. (1977) : The male early childhood teacher: An appraisal. Young Children, 37, 34-37. Hopf, D., & Hatzichristou, C. (1999) : Teacher gender-related influences in Greek schools. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68 (1), 1-18. Hoque KE, Alam GM, & Abdullah AGK (2010) : Impact of teachers‟ professional development on school improvement: an analysis at Bangladesh standpoint. Asia Pacific Educ. Rev., DOI 10.1007/s12564-010-9107-z. In press.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 69-82, March 2014

Problem-Based Learning in Construction Engineering within a South African context Pauline Machika (Dr) Vaal University of Technology South Africa Chris Abrahams University of Johannesburg South Africa Abstract. The aim of the article is to illustrate how using Problem Based Learning, together with the way in which the content is facilitated, prepares educationally under prepared students in an extended National Diploma over a four year period. A descriptive, exploratory study was undertaken using quantitative data derived from two cohorts of first-year students who enrolled in 2008 for the National Diploma in Construction Engineering and Extended National Diploma in Construction Engineering at a comprehensive university. The results of the extended national diploma shows that with adequate exposure to PBL success can be obtained for students who have not been previously exposed to science and the field of construction engineering. Through this process students are taught to discard old habits and to work accurately. By doing so, they realise the importance of quality work on a construction site. PBL ensures a closer relationship with the lecturer is developed and as a result students in the course feel free to ask questions and clarify understanding in order to make meaning of the problem. This article adds to the existing strategies to support educationally under-prepared students who are enrolled for extended programmes. Keywords: Problem-based learning; construction; engineering.

Introduction Students from under-prepared backgrounds often do not see a future for themselves in the fields of science and engineering when they are at high school. This is because the poor standard of mathematics and science teaching at school level produces students with gaps in knowledge and limited science-related experience (Scott et al 2007). Due to their poor schooling these students do not

have the required skills to work in a laboratory or engage effectively with tasks in the fields of mathematics and science. Mathematics and science teachers of schools in disadvantaged communities, as a result of their own level of knowledge and skills (Scott, Yeld & Hendry 2007, p. 42), are often not able to produce learners who perform well in these subjects. Consequently these students either do not meet the minimum standard required for access to selection programmes like engineering, or if they register for such a programme, they struggle to persist and attain an engineering qualification. This has placed the responsibility on higher education institutions to develop a learning environment that will maximise the potential of under-prepared students. Although some students may enter higher education with a history of “low achievement, this is not necessarily related to their capacity to benefit from higher education in the future” (Haggis, 2006, p. 527). Haggis further agrees that the relationship between the lecturer and the student within the learning environment is central to the development of under-prepared students. Recent studies from several different countries have shown that teacher‟ conceptions of and approaches to teaching correlate strongly with both students‟ deeper approaches to learning and their learning outcomes (Biggs, 2007; Entwistle & Smith, 2002; Prosser &Trigwell, 2002; Trigwell, Prosser and Waterhouse, 1999 in British Journal of Educational Research 2011). In response to the low graduation rates of students entering university in South Africa (Scott, Yeld& Hendry 2008, p. 9), higher education institutions have introduced new teaching and learning methodologies to foster the relationship between lecturers and students. Traditional lecturing methods of teaching content and facts no longer support the teaching and learning needs of students. It is argued that problem-based learning can be used to facilitate effective learning for under-prepared students. Extended Curriculum Programmes are first undergraduate degree or diploma programmes that incorporate substantial foundational provision that is additional to the coursework prescribed for the regular programme. The foundational provision that is incorporated must be equivalent to one or two semesters of full time study, it must be designed to articulate effectively with the regular elements of the programme and it must be formally planned, scheduled and integrated as a fundamental part of the programme (Department of Education, 2006:2). It is for this reason that extended curricula are offered over four years instead of three. Research results show that the understanding of teaching in higher education can be placed into two broad categories (Prosser, Trigwell & Waterhouse 1999 in British Journal of Educational Research 2011). The first category describes faculty who are concerned with teaching as essentially an organisation of the content of the teacher‟s knowledge for transmission to the students. The second category describes those who regard teaching as facilitating the students‟ understanding of knowledge and how it can be applied in real-life circumstances. Problem Based Learning provides opportunities to introduce students to new knowledge in the context in which they will encounter it in the world of work. To enable all students with the potential to be able to study engineering, South African universities need to adopt a fresh approach in

understanding which teaching and learning methodology best suits students in order to succeed in maximising their learning potential in the fields of Science and Engineering. The aim of the article is to illustrate how using Problem Based Learning, together with the way in which the content is facilitated, prepares educationally under-prepared students in an extended National Diploma over a four year period to complete successfully on par with students who were admitted to the National Diploma which is constituted over a three year period in the field of construction engineering. In the following sections an understanding is developed with regard tounderprepared students studying construction engineering at a South African university. A discussion follows concerning underlying principles of Problem Based Learning and how problems of under-prepared students could be addressed. The article concludes with a summary of why higher education institutions could use Problem Based Learning in a successful way for students who have been disadvantaged by poor schooling.

Theoretical Framework With very little exposure to construction work and sites, many under-prepared students have minimal understanding of what construction engineering is about and what it can offer them in terms of career opportunities. Without the correct introduction to the discipline as well as continuous relevant academic support these students may never experience success in higher education. Although the focus has shifted away from the „deficient student‟ in higher education institutions (Jacobs & Miller, 2002, p. 85) to how the practices, staff and curriculum of institutions should change in order to meet the distinct needs of non-traditional students, these needs still must be identified. Without full awareness of the problems students experience with regard to the study of construction engineering, a relevant and effective approach to teaching and learning is not possible. The development needs of under-prepared students are multifaceted and complex. They include factors such as difficulty to understand abstract concepts, insufficient academic language proficiency, a lack of effective study and learning approaches together with misconceptions in subject knowledge (Scott, Yeld & Hendry 2007, p. 42). It is necessary to ensure that innovative pedagogical strategies and teaching methodologies that encourage a deep approach to learning (Biggs2007) are employed to develop skills and competencies required for meaningful learning in higher education (HE). Problem-based learning is a teaching methodology that encourages a deep approach to learning (Yeo 2005). Further Yeo defines Problem Based Learning as a student-centred instructional strategy in which students collaboratively solve problems and reflect on their experiences. The „Problem Based Learning strategy‟ encourages students to become active and independent and to take responsibility for their own learning process. Central to the implementation of

problem based learning is the provision of learning opportunities that will address the diverse and individual needs of students while at the same time ensuring the development of lifelong learning skills. Problem based learning is aimed at helping students develop problem-solving, critical thinking, and selfdirected learning skills while gaining knowledge in a variety of subject matter areas (Barrows2009). Problem Based Learning is congruent with adult learning theory in that it is based on the use of a real-world problem to facilitate the learning process, encourages students to use their past experiences whenever applicable to solve the problem at hand, requires students to be self-directed learners, and focuses on presenting information in a way that knowledge gained is immediately applicable (Barrows 2009). Students entering into higher education experience several problems. They might find the Higher Education environment overwhelming and often have a limited understanding of what is required of them in their construction engineering studies. They lack appropriate study and time management skills and many students continue with the rote learning method with which they might have succeeded at school, but which is not sufficient for success in HE. Students enter Higher Education with misconceptions about science concepts (Scott, Yeld & Hendry 2007, p. 42), which hampers their learning in any sciencerelated subject, also in construction engineering. Apart from understanding basic concepts, students also need to learn to „talk‟ science, which means that they must learn to “communicate in the language of science and act as a member of the community of people who do so” (Scott, Yeld & Hendry 2007, p. 42). This principle is emphasised by Inglis, Kirkwood, Downs and Parkinson (2007, p. 95) who state that it is important that students learn to “write their way into science” by bridging the gap between the identity they bring from their own backgrounds and experiences and that of the new scientist identity that they need to develop. A number of studies (Scott, Yeld & Hendry 2007, p. 42; Pretorius2005) have shown that the level of many South African students‟ basic reading and writing skills and their ability to write in the style of the discipline do not meet the requirements of HE. This contributes to their learning problems, because they are not always able to understand the language and subject-specific language of the learning material, this also applies to understanding construction engineering text books. Students are often second-, third- or fourth-language English speakers. If no support is provided it could be difficult for students to master the contents of these text books. Krause (2006, p. 8) emphasises meeting students where they are and the need for scaffolding content in order to close the “articulation gap” that students come with from high school when entering higher education. Learning is meaningful only if the integration of previous and new knowledge is part of the learning process(Clayton 2006, p. 197). If students are studying in the construction engineering field implies that they will gain an understanding of construction terminology.

Students experience difficulty in applying the theory that they have learnt in class to real-life and business situations. In a Problem Based Learning setting, the boundaries between the facilitator and the participant are noticeably reduced. This provides opportunities for the participant to feel free to raise pertinent questions to challenge existing issues in relation to a Problem Based Learning problem (Lahteenmaki 2001).The method of teaching used in Problem Based Learning allows hands-on application of theory and exposure to the field.

Applying Problem-Based Learning in Construction Engineering Central to the field of construction is the ability to measure accurately and to be able to draw building elements as well as to construct three-dimensional models. Without the necessary mathematical ability students will find these kinds of tasks in the construction industry very difficult. At the basis of all skills or competencies that are required is the essential requirement of ensuring that students understand how important it is to produce accurate and quality work. Without this underlying skill construction students will not be able to be effective construction managers. Poor production in the construction field leads to poor productivity within the South African economy. Problem-based learning is a teaching method where students are constantly challenged to unlearn old learning habits to make way for new ways of learning (Yeo 2005, p. 5).In Problem Based Learning the lecturer provides students with a project in the form of an exercise. The aim of the exercise is to simulate what happens on a construction site by building models. This exercise provides the opportunity for students to learn to be accurate, which is important when ensuring quality on a building site after completion of their studies. Furthermore, it allows a student to develop his or her skills as a team player, which is essential when working as a construction manager. The exercise given to a group of students necessitates the understanding of each group member‟s role and responsibilities and thus promotes teamwork. It also develops the relationship amongst students as well as between the lecturer and the students. Within a Problem Based Learning setting students are able to ask the lecturer questions directly as they make meaning of construction engineering knowledge. The distance between the lecturer and students is closer as a result of the way teaching is structured within a Problem Based Learning setting (Enger et al., 2002). Through the teaching and learning methodology of Problem Based Learning students are given a task that challenges them to brainstorm and generate practical solutions. They are also given the responsibility of taking charge of their own learning, using the chosen „problem‟ in the exercise as a guide to decide how to approach the problem in the best possible way (Enger et al., 2002). Example of the procedure for teaching and learning through problem-based learning in construction engineering As the Problem Based Learning class commences the lecturer will explain to the class in construction engineering an exercise they would have to do as part of

the objectives or learning outcomes in assessing their mastery of the construction engineering theory. Problem-based learning is learning with a particular relevance to prior objectives set â&#x20AC;&#x201C; as opposed to conventional spoon-feeding rote learning, evident in trainer-designed didactic settings (Walker, Bridges & Chan, 1996 in Diagnostic Research, 2013) This teaching and learning style will give students an overview of the learning objectives and help them to understand what is expected of them in the teaching and learning process. Once the exercise is explained to students, the lecturer commences to teach as set out in the following steps: Step 1: It is essential for construction engineering students to be introduced to construction terminology at the commencement of the course during the first term. In the first term time should be given to helping students understand construction terminology. Apart from understanding basic concepts, students must learn to use the terminology and they must know the rules and values of the discipline so as to act as a member of the disciplineâ&#x20AC;&#x;s community. If students are poor English-language speakers who have no prior knowledge of construction engineering terminology, they require development that will allow them to engage with the subject field, hence the need to be taught in construction engineering terminology before they are introduced to construction theory. Step 2: To facilitate Problem Based Learning the lecturer provides students with the theory of a building site and how the underlying principles must be used to set out different constructions on a real building site. During this time students are afforded the opportunity to ask questions as well as to clarify their understanding of important terminology. Throughout the teaching of construction theory the lecturer is required to support the construction students so as to ensure that they increase their understanding of fundamental principles of the construction field. It is also an opportunity for students to address misconceptions that they might have developed in school or as a result of a lack of understanding. The role of the lecturer within the teaching and learning environment is to create a learning environment that supports the learning activities that are appropriate to achieving the desired learning outcomes (Biggs, 2007). It is important to introduce theory in small parts since students are still acquiring construction terminology; therefore they might become confused and will not yet be able to use high-order thinking to engage with technical knowledge of the subject field in a complex way. The scaffolding of theory helps students to make meaning of the content provided at each stage. This means that teaching needs to proceed from relatively simple to more complicated competencies. The existing knowledge of the students provides the base platform from which the information is scaffolded in order to provide the support that facilitates understanding (Biggs2007). Keebaugh, Darrow, Tan and ÂŠ 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Jamerson (2009, p. 118) report on the effectiveness of Problem Based Learning through sequential and cumulative tasks when students have the necessary support. Once the theory is taught, the lecturer applies what the students have learnt in theory to practice by developing and building an application model. Lahteenmaki (2001) emphasises that that this process is essential since it provides opportunities for the participant to feel free to raise pertinent questions related to the problem at hand. The lecturer brings all the necessary resources to class and proceeds to build the model. The lecturer uses questioning techniques to clarify understanding, to establish what the students know and to find out whether they are able to build the model on their own. Furthermore, the construction terminology associated with building the model is clarified. In this way the lecturer can ascertain if through their teaching and learning practice, students are able to make meaning of the field of construction. Problem Based Learning is a form of group mentoring and is defined by Barkham (2005) as a process through which a career may be guided, beginning with induction into a profession or institution through to progress and promotion with positive outcomes not only for individuals involved, but also for their universities or organisations. Through Problem Based Learning, lecturers are the most important change agents in their own setting and it is vital that they should feel that they have control over their situation (Knight & Trowler, 2009). Step 3: After the teaching of construction theory, the lecturer must identify the students‟ learning outcomes by assessing how they have applied and adapted the course content to reach a viable solution to the problem in the exercise given. An example of an exercise given to construction engineering students is seen in Exhibit 1. Exhibit1: The instructions to students are in the text box below: In the sketch provided to you as a group, the building lines of a gazebo are shown which has three walls. The one-brick wall is built on a 680 wide strip foundation. Draw the given top view of the building lines to a scale 1: 20, as well as the profile boards in position to mark off only the walls marked ‘A’ and ‘B’. Indicate the trench markings for the foundation trenches as dashed lines. In the example in Exhibit1, the students must accurately draw everything on scale 20 times smaller than reality. The problem, albeit a simple structure having only three walls, is designed to test if students are able to perform the essential steps in setting out a building on site. By the time the students do this exercise they will have learnt how to calculate the width of a trench when given only the wall thickness (220mm) as well as the strip foundation thickness (230mm). They will also have drawn to scale the profile boards which are used to mark off the excavation trenches and also to guide the bricklayer when he builds the first

course of the foundation wall. The use of a practical problem through Problem Based Learning develops learning from a concrete experience where students are able to reflect on existing facts to discover the different areas of the practical problem (Yeo 2005). Students are allowed to choose members of the class they wish to work with in a group. The lecturer then provides them with the learning outcomes for the exercise which the students are required to build while applying theory. Enger et al.(2002) state as an example that students are given a task through Problem Based Learning which challenges them to brainstorm and generate practical solutions. They are also given the responsibility of taking charge of their own learning, using the chosen „problem‟ in the exercise as a guide to decide, based on the scope, how to approach the problem in the best possible way. Step 4: Students need to realise that they are required to be innovative and creative when constructing assignments within the group they have chosen. This prepares them for teamwork in the construction industry. Problem Based Learning is prominent in human resource development, particularly in leadership training, with curricula directed at independent and team learning (Bridges and Hallinger, 2007). Since students are trained to be construction managers, Problem Based Learning is a relevant method in construction engineering. Rather than receiving a body of factual knowledge about the world, students are understood as agents, actively negotiating their way in the world (Yeo 2005). According to Kirkwood, Downs and Parkinson (2007, p. 83) group presentations at the end of the semester provide students with an opportunity to personalise their knowledge acquired during the course. These authors further state (2007, p. 89) that it is important to assess the students‟ ability to perform an authentic task. The exercise in Exhibit 1is given to construction students working in a group rather than assessing discrete skills in separate tasks. Knight and Trowler (2009) maintain that it is important for skills and academic components of each part of the course to be carefully integrated into practical simulations to ensure that students have the necessary academic knowledge and problem-solving skills to adequately address the particular exercise in construction engineering.

Step 5: Problem-based learning after grading focuses on giving students feedback to improve their learning (Biggs 2002). Feedback is an indispensable element of all assessment opportunities and the monitoring of students enables staff to implement timely support interventions. After the Problem Based Learning construction exercise is assessed it is important to provide feedback to each of the groups timeously. The feedback given provides students with an

opportunity to critically assess what they as students know and the manner in which they have translated theory into practice. Feedback from the lecturer is critical for the students and helps them to understand the construction context and what is expected of them within the field of construction engineering. Biggs (2007) states that students should be encouraged to develop increasingly difficult critical analytical abilities as they progress. However, under-prepared students must first master the basic learning objectives, namely knowledge, comprehension and application of the learning matter before higher-order thinking skills can be developed. By using Problem Based Learning and prompt feedback on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; performance, lecturers can help these students to achieve academic success (Yeo 2006).

Methodology This descriptive study used quantitative data derived from two cohorts of firstyear students enrolled for the National Diploma in Construction Engineering and Extended National Diploma in Construction Engineering at a comprehensive university. The data was extracted from the University's Management Information System and student record systems. The groups were the 2008 cohort of students who were admitted to the extended National Diploma in Construction Engineering and the 2008 cohort of students who were admitted to the extended National Diploma in Construction Engineering. Each student's record was analysed individually to see if they had already graduated within the minimum required time or had lengthened their period of study beyond the minimum duration of the programmes respectively or whether they were still in the process of completing.

Results and Discussion

Figure 1: Construction 2008 (Extended)

In 2008, 40 students were registered for the extended National Diploma in Construction Engineering (see Figure 1). Only 1(2,5%) of these students dropped out and 27(67,5%) were able to complete the National Diploma in a four period. The normal completion period for the Extended National Diploma is four years and includes foundational provisioning in the first year, followed by two years of theory and one year of work integrated learning. A further 12 (30%) students were able to complete the national diploma in construction engineering in five years rather than the required four years.

Figure 2: Construction 2008 (Mainstream)

In 2008, 40 students were admitted to the National Diploma in Construction Engineering. The normal completion period for the National Diploma is three years and includes by two years of theory and one year of work integrated learning (see Figure 2). Of the 40 students who were registered for the programme only 22(55% ) were able to complete the National Diploma in a three period. While a further 8(20%) were able complete the national diploma in construction engineering with an additional year. It was interesting to note that only 10 (25%) were not successful and were unable to complete their studies.

Figure 3: Construction 2009 (Extended)

In 2009, 49 students were admitted to the Extended National Diploma in Construction Engineering The normal completion period for the Extended National Diploma is four years and includes by three years of theory and one year of work integrated learning. (see Figure 3). It was of interest to see that only 20(41%) students were able to complete the extended national diploma in the allotted time. While a further 15(30%) added an extra year onto the allotted time provided for the qualification. From the total number of 49 students registered 15(30%) were unsuccessful and did not complete their studies.

Figure 4: Construction 2009 (Mainstream)

In 2009, a total number of 52 students were successfully admitted to the National Diploma in Construction Engineering. The normal completion period for the National Diploma is three years and includes two years of theory and one year of work integrated learning (see Figure 4). Of the registered number of students only 25(48%) were able to successfully complete in the stipulated time of the qualification. A further number of 21(40%) students completed with an additional year. While a number of 6(12%) students were unable to complete the qualification successfully.

Discussion of Results A comparison of Figures 1 and 2, as well as Figures 3and 4 shows that students completed the extended diploma in Construction Engineering with the PBL methodology on par with the mainstream students. With very little exposure to construction work and sites, many disadvantaged students possess minimal understanding of construction engineering. As a result of this, students may not experience academic success. There are several benefits in applying Problem Based Learning in construction engineering with students who have been under-prepared due to inadequate or

poor schooling. Students develop an understanding of what is expected of them in the course they are studying through PBL, and are engaged in the learning process as team members. Through this process students are taught to discard old habits and to work accurately. By doing so, they realise the importance of quality work on a construction site. This is supported by Biggs (2005) who explains that innovative pedagogical strategies and teaching methodologies encourage a deep approach to learning and are employed to develop skills and competencies required for meaningful learning in higher education. Barrows (2009) states that PBL is based on a real-world problem presented in class to ensure the facilitation of the learning process. Construction engineering students are taught terminology and how to apply it in the field. PBL ensures that a closer relationship with the lecturer is developed and as a result students in the course feel free to ask questions and clarify understanding in order to make meaning of the problem. Enger et al. (2002) supports the closer relationship between the lecturer and student as PBL provides opportunities for the participant to feel free to raise pertinent questions to challenge existing issues. Enger et al. further mentions that PBL gives students agency because they have the responsibility to take charge of their own learning by deciding how to approach the chosen “problem” in the exercise. By scaffolding theory through PBL, lecturers are able to assess students‟ gradual mastery of construction theory. Through working as a group while solving the problem in the exercise, students consider various options and understand how best to address the problem and find a solution to it. The PBL methodology furthermore ensures that, students are given feedback which helps them understand where they went wrong, how they can improve their performance and how to master the problems in construction engineering. Through the Problem Based Learning teaching methodology approach, students are able to be reflective of their own practice and are taught to work accurately, which is essential when working in a construction field.

Conclusion The focus of this article is to show how innovative strategies can provide underprepared students with the required knowledge and skills to be as successfully as mainstream students. To achieve this problem based learning was used in the extended national diploma in construction engineering. The study shows several benefits when applying Problem Based Learning in a construction engineering programme. Further research should be conducted concerning the impact PBL can have on the academic success of students who have registered in the mainstream. Consideration could be given to gathering data from both extended and mainstream student groups who had experienced PBL and compare the benefits of this method in different contexts. To ensure academic success for students from under-prepared backgrounds, teaching and learning should not focus on the organisation of the content of the teacher‟s knowledge for transmission but rather on innovative teaching methodologies like Problem Based Learning which can enable students to be successful in fields like construction engineering.

Acknowledgements: In memory of Mr Chris Abrahams who passed away tragically in 2013. Gone but not forgotten.

References Barkham, J. (2005). Reflections and Interpretations on life in academia: a Mentee speaks,Mentoring and Tutoring, (2), 49-52. Barrows, H. (2009). A taxonomy of problem based learning methods Medical Education, 20(1), 119-122. Biggs, J.B. (2007). Teaching for Quality: McGraw-Hill, International. Biggs, M.A.R. ed, (2002). Research into Practice. Bridges, E.M. & Hallinger, P. (2007). Implementing problem-based learning in leadership development. Eugene: University of Oregon, Educational Resources Information Center, Clearinghouse on Educational Management. Clayton, H.L. (2006). Concept mapping: An effective, active teaching-learning method", in Nursing Education Perspective, (27), 197-203. Department of Education, (2006). Funding for Foundational Provision in Formally Approved Programmes: 2007/8 to 2009/10. Enger, K.B., Brenenson. S., Lenn, K., Macmillan, M., Meisart, MF, Meserve, H., & Vella, S.A. (2002), “Problem-based learning: evolving strategies and conversations for library instruction”, Reference Services Review, (30)4, 355-358. Entwistle, N.J., & Smith, C.A. (2002). Personal understanding and target understanding: mapping influences on the outcomes of learning, British Journal of EducationalPsychology, (72), 321-342. Haggis, T. (2006). Pedagogies for diversity: retaining critical challenge amidst fears of „dumbing down‟. Studies in Higher Education, (31)5, 521-535. Inglis, M., Kirkwood, T., Downs, C.T., & Parkinson, J. (2007). Writing their way into Science: gaining access to the discourse of Biology. SAALT Journal for Language Teaching. (41)1, 82-99. Jacobs, C., & Miller, S. (2002). An integrated approach to Project Work – An Exploration of Assessment Practices from a Lecturer Perspective. Conference proceedings of the 3rd South African Conference on Engineering Education held in Durban, South Africa. Keebaugh, A., Darrow, L., Tan, D., & Jamerson, H. (2009). Scaffolding the science: Problem based strategies for teaching interdisciplinary undergraduate research methods. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21(1), 118-126. Knight, P, & Trowler, P. (2009). Department-level cultures and the improvement of learning and teaching. Studies in Higher Education, (25)1, 69-83. Krause, K. (2006). Transition to and through the first year: Strategies to enhance the student experience. Keynote paper at The University of the Sunshine Coast Inaugural Vice-Chancellor’s Learning and Teaching Colloquium, May. Lahteenmaki, M.L. (2001). Problem-based learning during the first academic year, in Little, P. and Kandlbinder, P. (eds), The Power of Problem-Based Learning, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne, pp. 73-84. Pretorius, E.J. (2005). What do students do when they read to learn?‟ Lessons from five case studies. South African Journal of Higher Education, (19)4, 790-812. Scott, I, Yeld, N, & Hendry, J. (2007). A case for improving teaching and learning in South African higher education. HEQC/CHED Improving Teaching and Learning for Success project report.

Trigwell, K, Prosser, M, & Waterhouse, F. (1999). Relations between teachers’ approaches to teaching and students’ approaches to learning. Higher Education, (37), 57–70. In British Journal of Educational Research 2011 Vol1 (2): 69-83. Walker, A, Bridges, E, & Chan, B. (1996). “Wisdom gained, wisdom given: instituting Problem Based Learning in a Chinese culture”, Journal of Educational Administration, (34)5, 12-31. In Preeti, B, Ashish, A & Shriram, G. (2013) Problem Based Learning (PBL) “An effective Approach to Improve Learning Outcomes in Medical Teaching”. Diagnostic Research, Vol (12)7. Yeo, R. (2005). Problem-based learning: a suitable approach in tertiary education?, In Tan, K, Mok, J, Lee, M & R Ravindran (2013) (eds), Problem-based Learning: New Directions and Approaches, Temasek Centre for Problem Based Learning.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 3, No.1, pp. 83-90, March 2014

Teaching Competency of Secondary School Teachers In Relation To Emotional Intelligence Dr. Mandeep Kaur Assistant Professor Khalsa College of Education, Ranjit Avenue, Amritsar Mrs. Arti Talwar M.Ed. Student Khalsa College of Education, Ranjit Avenue, Amritsar Abstract. The study was designed to examine the relationship between teaching competency and emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers. Participants were 100 secondary school teachers who completed the General Teaching Competency Scale (GTCS), and Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS). The findings of the study reveal a significant positive relationship between teachers' teaching competency and their emotional intelligence. But insignificant difference is found between teaching competency as well as between emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers teaching in government and private schools. The study also indicated that teaching competency and emotional intelligence are not influenced by gender. Keywords: teaching competency; emotional intelligence

Introduction No doubt intellectual ability is an important factor in predicting teacher’s success. But recent studies, however, have shown that a intelligence and teaching experience is not entirely indicative of the teacher’s success in teaching profession. Rather skills and teaching competency are essential ingredients to be professional teacher. In today’s world, teacher must develop the essential 21st Century competencies. A teacher’s competency in 21st century according to UNESCO (2008) is that a competent teacher should have firm knowledge of the curriculum of his/her subject and to use technology into the curriculum. Formal system of education depends on three components that are curriculum, student and teacher. Teaching competency refers to the knowledge, attitude, skills and self perception or the products that comes from by mixing these behaviors and resulting in consistent pattern of behavior leading to the attainment of expected outcomes. Teaching competency is the ability of a teacher manifested through a set of overt teacher classroom behaviours which is resultant of the interaction between the presage and the product variables of teaching within a social setting (Rama, 1979).

Teaching competency has different dimensions such as mastery of subject matter, enhancement of motivation of students, planning, presentation and evaluation skills and classroom managerial skills. Teacher possessing all these skills to reasonable extent can be a competent teacher. Teachers’ competency appears to be a significant contributor to school effectiveness. As suggested by Ornstein (1991), effective teachers are those with high competency in knowledge and skills. Wilson, Shulman and Richet (1987) note that teachers’ profound knowledge in curriculum content and pedagogy enhance students’ performance. Medley (1982) states that teachers’ competency such as behavior, skills and knowledge related to school performance. Each teacher has different levels of skills, abilities and competencies due to their different levels of teaching experiences and different educational background. Based on these differences, they will display different sets of motivation, commitment and engagement. Burgoyue (1993) employed a functional perspective to define a competency as how the goals of organizations were best achieved by improving members’ performance. Internationally and nationally, different organizations require different types of competencies. According to the New Mexico (USA) (2012) Public Education Department there are nine indicators/competencies of teachers. National Council of Teacher Education (1998) has identified ten competencies for making the teachers professionally competent. Quinn, Faerman, Thompson and McGrath (1996) indicated that competencies were associated with knowledge and skills for implementing certain assignments or projects effectively. To be effective in a particular competency, one must be able to accomplish the desired results of a job with specific qualifications and personal attributes. So besides teaching competency, temperament, leadership and attitude are the important attributes which are indicative of the capabilities generally known as ―emotional intelligence‖—are equally essential in teaching-learning process. The single most important factor for successful leader in the workplace is emotional intelligence. As suggested by Wright (2008), the skills, abilities and competencies coupled with the level of motivation, commitment and engagement act as drivers in terms of the employees’ actions. Emotions are expected to be assimilated into a thought which are influenced by cultural and environmental factors. These factors would include the place where the individual lives and work in. Emotional intelligence is the ability to sense, understand and effectively apply the power and acumen of emotions as a source of human energy, information, connection and influence (Cooper and Sawaf, 1998). According to the Genos EI (Emotional Intelligence questionnaire developed by Palmer and Stough, 2001), there are five key emotional competencies which are applicable to the workplace situation- Emotional Recognition and Expression, Understanding Others Emotions, Emotions Direct Cognition, Emotional Management and Emotional Control. Emotional intelligence helps a person in all spheres of his life through its various Components- Self Awareness, Managing

Emotions, Motivating Oneself, Empathy and Handling Relationships (Goleman, 1995). When applied to the workplace, emotional intelligence involves the capacity to effectively perceive, express, understand and manage emotions in a professional and effective manner at work (Palmer and Stough 2001). EI has been recognized as important for success in the workplace (Goleman, 1998b; Kirch, Tucker and Kirch, 2001; Rozell, Pettijohn and Parker, 2002) which has resulted in calls for the incorporation of EI skills in university curricula (Chia 2005; Holt and Jones 2005; Low and Nelson 2005). Pradhan, Mathur and Mishra (2001) reported that emotional literacy is positively related to general health and quality of life. People high on emotional literacy skills maintain better health and have a positive quality of life. Though the development of emotional intelligence is a natural process, yet it can be enhanced as it has been concluded that emotional intelligence can be learned and it should be a component of leadership training (Weisinger 1998). Further, new researches by Goad (2005) and Justice (2005) have indicated the importance and value of emotional intelligence in teacher preparation programs. According to them pre-service teacher education, induction experiences with mentoring, and alternative certification programs could be strengthened by providing emotional intelligence training in preparing new teachers. Dhull, Mangal, Goad and Justice (2005) who opined that success of educational program depends a lot on the level of emotional intelligence and teaching competency of teachers. Based on the literature review, teaching competency and emotional intelligence are found to be essential for a teacher to be competent. So, a need was felt to study teaching competency in relation to emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers. From the above literature review, following hypotheses are formulated

1. There exists no significant difference between secondary school teachers teaching in different type of schools (government and private) in relation to their (a) teaching competency and (b) emotional intelligence. 2. There exists no significant difference between male and female secondary school teachers in relation to their (a) teaching competency and (b) emotional intelligence. 3. There exists no significant correlation between teaching competency and emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers.

Methodology Research Design Quantitative approach is applied in this study. This study used a descriptive correlational design to examine the relationship between teaching competency and emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers.

Sample Adopting the non probability sampling technique, a sample of 100 teachers (Male and Female) from government and private secondary schools (100 from government schools and 50 from private schools) of Amritsar district was selected for the purpose of the present investigation.

Tools Used In the present study the following tools were used: 1. General Teaching Competency Scale (Passi and Lalita, 2011) 2. Emotional Intelligence Scale (Ayde, Pethe and Dhar, 2002)

Procedure After finalizing the tools and receiving the consent of the principals, the teachers of the government and private secondary schools were requested to fill the GTC scale and EI scale without omitting any item. All the completed tests were used for data analysis using statistical measures such as mean, standard-deviation, ttest and Pearson's product moment correlation.

Analysis and Interpretation Comparison of Means Hypothesis I In order to test Hypothesis I, difference in the mean scores on the teaching competency and emotional intelligence of teachers teaching in government and private schools were calculated. The results are presented in table 1. Table1: Difference in mean scores of different variables of teachers teaching in government and private schools

Variables Teaching Competency

Emotional Intelligence

Type of School

Government

Private

Government

Private

Mean

S.D.

72.22

11.46

75.48

17.01

132.20

10.595

127.80

15.413

t-value 1.124

1.664

Table 1 depicts that the values of Mean and SD of teaching competency of secondary school teachers teaching in government schools were 72.22 and 11.46 respectively and those of teachers teaching in private schools were 75.48 and 17.01 respectively. The t-value came out to be 1.124, which is insignificant. It means that there exists no significant difference in the teaching competency of ÂŠ 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

teachers teaching in government and private schools. This means that the teachers of both government and private schools are equally competent. Both use new methods and techniques in the classrooms to enhance the teaching and learning process. Thus the Hypothesis I (a) which states, ―There exists no significant difference between teaching competency of secondary school teachers teaching in different type of schools (government and private)‖ is accepted. Table 1 reveals the values of Mean and SD of emotional intelligence of teachers teaching in government schools 132.20 and 10.60 respectively and those of teachers teaching in private schools 127.80 and 15.41 respectively. The t-value came out to be 1.664, which is insignificant, indicating that the type of school does not play a defining role in the emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers towards their job. The reason may be that the quality of any educational institution depends mainly on the professional competence and emotional stability of teachers. Unhappy, frustrated, dissatisfied teachers cannot help their pupils to become happy and well adjusted young people. Emotionally stable teachers are able to find out their own short comings and try to remove them so that the students may be saved from the adverse influence of their unbalanced personality. Thus the null hypothesis, I (b) which states ―There exists no significant difference between emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers teaching in different type of schools (government and private)‖ is accepted.

Hypothesis 2 Difference in the mean scores on the teaching competency and emotional intelligence of male and female secondary school teachers was calculated. The results are presented in table 2. Table 2: Difference in mean scores of male and female secondary school teachers on different variables

Variables Teaching Competency

Emotional Intelligence

Gender

Male

Female

Male

Female

Mean

S.D.

76.60

16.57

82.46

15.99

127.48

11.89

131.54

12.52

t-value 1.80

1.66

Table 2 depicts that the values of Mean and SD of the scores of teaching competency of male secondary school teachers were 76.60 and 16.57 respectively and those of female teachers were 82.46 and 15.99 © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

respectively. The t-value came out to be 1.799, which is insignificant. It means that there exists no difference in teaching competency of male and female secondary school teachers. This means that secondary school male and female teachers do not differ significantly in terms of their teaching competency. Table 2 depicts that the values of Mean and SD of the scores of emotional intelligence of male secondary school teachers were 127.48 and 11.89 respectively and those of female teachers were 131.54 and 12.52 respectively. The t-value came out to be 1.663, which is insignificant. It means that there exists no significant difference in emotional intelligence of male and female secondary school teachers. The above findings suggest that there is no gender influence on the teaching competency and emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers. Thus Hypothesis 2 which states that ― There exists no significant difference between male and female secondary school teachers in relation to their (a) teaching competency and (b) emotional intelligence‖ is accepted. Correlational Analysis Hypothesis 3 To find out correlation between teaching competency and emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers, correlational analysis was employed. The results are presented in table 3. Table 3: Relationship between Teaching Competency and Emotional Intelligence of Secondary School Teachers

Variables

Correlation value of ‘r’

0.885

Inference

Teaching Competency

Significant

Emotional Intelligence * Significant at 0.01 level. From table 3, the value of coefficient of correlation (r) came out to be 0.885 which is significant at 0.01 level of confidence, indicating that there is a positive correlation between teaching competency and emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers, Thus the null hypothesis III which states‖ There exists no significant correlation between teaching competency and emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers‖ is rejected. This is due to the reason that the success of teachers depends both on their emotional intelligence and teaching competency. Emotional intelligence has been an important factor in © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

teaching learning process which demand teaching competency on the part of the teacher. Teachers who are emotionally balanced and intelligent have the capacity to generate new ideas and adopt new methods of teaching.

Conclusions The major findings of the present study are: i. There is insignificant difference in the teaching emotional intelligence of government and private teachers. ii. There is insignificant difference in the teaching emotional intelligence of government and private teachers with respect to their gender. iii. There is significant relationship between teaching emotional intelligence of secondary school teachers

competency and secondary school competency and secondary school competency and

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