Vol 6 no 1 june 2014

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p-ISSN: 1694-2493 e-ISSN: 1694-2116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.6 No.1

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 6

NUMBER 1

June 2014

Table of Contents Using Social Network Analysis to Examine Leadership Capacity within a Central Office Administrative Team .. 1 Robert M. Hill, Ed.D. and Barbara N. Martin, Ed.D. Implementation of a Teaching and Learning Model: Institutional, Programme and Discipline level at a University of Technology in South Africa. ........................................................................................................................................... 20 Dr Pauline Machika Effects of Bioethics Integration on the Critical Thinking and Decision-Making Skills of High School Students ..... 32 Sally B. Gutierez and Rosanelia T.Yangco Effects of Tissue Properties on OJT for Japanese Elementary School Teachers ........................................................... 43 Masaaki Murakami Revising the Imaginative Capability and Creative Capability Scales: Testing the Relationship between Imagination and Creativity among Agriculture Students ............................................................................................... 57 Yuling Hsu, Li-Pei Peng, Jiun-Hao Wang and Chaoyun Liang The Relationship between Upper Intermediate EFL Learners’ Critical Thinking and Their Listening Comprehension Ability ........................................................................................................................................................ 71 Samane Naderi and Hamid Ashraf Buying Our Lives with a Riddle:1 Adaptation as the “Female-Other” Perspective .................................................... 81 Lekan Balogun

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 1-19, June 2014

Using Social Network Analysis to Examine Leadership Capacity within a Central Office Administrative Team Robert M. Hill, Ed.D. Senior Analyst & Instructional Developer U.S. Army Information Operations Proponent Office Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, USA Barbara N. Martin, Ed.D. Professor of Educational Leadership University of Central Missouri Warrensburg, Missouri, USA Abstract. The purpose of this study was to investigate the ways in which Social Network Analysis (SNA) could inform leadership capacity within a small, Midwestern school district. Four findings were identified. The first was that hierarchical or formal structures continue to hold sway within educational institutions. The second was that ―birds of a feather‖ or people of common interest or equivalent status within the hierarchy do indeed flock together. The third was that collaboration, trust, and transparency are inter-dependent and undergird capacity. The fourth was that social networks are the organization, making SNA an essential diagnostic and decision-making tool. The findings led to a number of implications for practice, which were framed by Information Age imperatives arising from the literature.

Keywords: Leadership; Social Network Analysis; Leadership Capacity; Social Networks; Educational Leadership

1. Introduction Outdated organizational models and simplistic conceptions of leadership limit the ability of school leaders to tackle the thorny issues they face on a daily basis in the 21st Century (Bolman & Deal, 2003; Yukl, 2012). Theories of leadership suggest that new conceptions are essential if these problems are to be solved (Martin, 2007). These new conceptions must account for more collaborative and networked ways of making sense of things (Drath, 2003; Kelly, 2003). This study, framed by interrelated theories, among them constructivist leadership, leadership capacity, and social networks, sought to employ an Information-Age tool—social network analysis—to examine leadership and ways to expand its capacity within the administrative team of a district central office. The following

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research questions guided this inquiry: 1) What does social network analysis (SNA)—to be referred to as measures of connectedness—reveal about the nature of leadership capacity within the administrative team of a district central office?

2) How does leadership capacity—as measured by Lambert‘s Leadership Capacity School Survey—inform the outcomes of the SNA and vice versa? 3) How do the SNA results affect attitudes of the district‘s senior leadership concerning ways of working, organizing, interacting, and enhancing leadership capacity within the district? 4) How do the SNA results affect attitudes of the district‘s senior leadership with regard to solving its most intractable problems?

2. Conceptual Underpinnings of the Study Embedded in the discussion of the evolution of organizational and leadership theories were complexity theory and social network and small world theories, which expanded the possibilities for understanding leadership capacity, particularly through the use of Social Network Analysis or SNA (Andriani & Passiante, 2004; Barabási, 2002; Bar-Yam, 2004; Bolman & Deal, 2003; Cilliers, 2004; Cross & Parker, 2004; Lambert, 2002, 2003; Morgan, 1997; Wasserman & Faust, 1994; Watts, 2003).

2.1 Organizational and leadership theories Theories of organizations and of leadership tend to follow the prevailing philosophical orientation of both society and the researchers (Yukl, 2012). Thus, in the early years of analysis, organizations were viewed through a positivist lens as fixed entities that could be dissected and studied empirically to determine what made them tick. From this epistemological framework arose the first theories of organization and leadership, namely structuralism and scientific management (Foster, 1986). As positivist and structuralist views yielded to constructivist, post-structuralist and post-modernist views on the nature of reality and truth, theories of organizations and the leadership needed to govern them have become more complex (Bensimon, Neumann, & Birnbaum, 1989).

Morgan (1997) argued that theory is, at its root, a metaphor through which humans understand the world about them. More complex theories of organizations and leadership, which are needed to deal with both vexing problems and intriguing possibilities, are made possible only when ways of seeing are complicated, either within themselves or in combination (Bolman & Deal, 2003).

2.2 Constructivist leadership theory As its name implies, constructivist leadership theory emanates from a phenomenological worldview in which meaning arises–or is constructed– through what Wilson (2002) termed intersubjective—or shared—experience. ―Whatever meaning we create has its roots in human actions, and the totality of social artifacts and cultural objects is grounded in human activity‖ (¶ 14).

Constructivist theory views leadership as a dimension of the entire organization ―beyond person and role and embedded in the patterns of relationships we will refer to as ‗reciprocal processes‘‖ (Lambert, 2002, p. 42). These reciprocal

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processes subsequently ―enable participants in an educational community to construct meanings that lead toward a shared purpose of schooling‖ (p. 42).

Leadership is strongly tied to learning and ―addresses the need for sensemaking, for coherence, and for seeing educational communities as growth-producing entities‖ (p. 35).

2.3 Leadership capacity Within the context of education, Lambert (2003) posited that ―real communities ask more of us than merely to gather together; they also assume a focus on shared purpose, mutual regard, and caring, and an insistence on integrity and truthfulness‖ (p. 4). From this conviction arises the notion of leadership capacity, which Lambert (2005) defined as ―broad-based, skillful participation in the work of leadership that leads to lasting school improvement.‖ Capacity is therefore framed as the intersection of degree of participation and degree of skill, with low capacity schools scoring low in both dimensions and high capacity schools scoring high in both.

While broad-based and skillful participation characterizes a high-capacity organization and lessens the need for command-and-control leadership, formal leaders still play a critical role in fostering and sustaining capacity (Lambert, 2003). Most especially, they facilitate the creation of a shared vision and the conversations necessary to grow capacity.

2.4 Complexity theory Viewed another way, capacity is complexity or the ability to increase connections and reciprocal relationships, an essential tenet of constructivist leadership (Lambert, 2002). Bar-Yam (2004) noted that a hierarchical organization can be complex but only as complex as the person in charge. In an ambiguous and indeterminate world, the capacity of one individual becomes insufficient to deal with the challenges confronting human collectives. ―Complex challenges make it virtually impossible for an individual leader to accomplish the work of leadership, and individual leadership therefore reaches a distinct limit in the face of complex challenges‖ (Drath, 2003, p. 5).

The law of requisite variety posits that a complex environment demands a complex organism, which is comprised of not just a single brain but many brains (Andriani & Passiante, 2004; Bar-Yam, 2004, Kelly, 2003; McKelvey, 2004; Morgan, 1997), what McKelvey (2004) terms ―distributed intelligence‖ (p. 41) and Kelly terms ―hive mind‖ (Chap. 2, Asymmetrical invisible hands, ¶ 6). The value of complexity theory is that it provides a means to discover underlying order within highly diffuse and diverse organizations.

2.5 Network and small world theories Capacity speaks to the ability to harness communities to achieve common purpose (Lambert, 2005). Yet anyone who exists within such communities knows that they are complex hives of social interaction that often resist attempts to control and synchronize them (Drath, 2003). To build capacity, Lambert (2003) advocated creating structures for broad-based participation. She stated that ―full

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participation is first and foremost a function of design‖ (p. 18), which overlays a structuralist framework onto a post-structuralist vision of leadership. This inherent dichotomy is precisely the message that emerges from social network theory. Structure and chaos, complexity and simplicity, robustness and fragility are not polar opposites or mutually exclusive; they coexist in complex systems (Barabási, 2002; Bar-Yam, 2004; Watts, 2003).

What network and small world theories suggest is that capacity is both a function of formal design and structure (think hierarchical organizations) and informal networks that exist or co-exist within the formal structure but, until recently, have not been understood in a systematic way. According to Krebs (1996), organizational charts are prescriptive when it comes to work processes and information flow; as such, they fail to capture a ―complex web of informal interactions‖ that exists on a subterranean level within the formal structure (p.

397). Illuminating these informal interactions through Social Network Analysis (SNA) becomes essential ―in order to identify not only clear breakdowns in cooperation and sharing but also opportunities to strengthen viable but imperfect elements of the ‗collaborative fabric‘‖ (p. 397).

2.6 Social network analysis The means to illuminate these webs of interactions is made possible through social network analysis (SNA). Social network analysis blends quantitative and qualitative methods to examine an organization in terms of its ―patterns or regularities in relationships among interacting units,‖ most especially people (Wasserman & Faust, 1994). Wasserman and Faust noted several characteristics fundamental to SNA. First, actors and actions are considered interdependent, rather than as autonomous. Second, ties exist among these actors, which are channels for the transfer of material and non-material resources. Third, the network structure that exists between and among actors provides both opportunities for and constraints on individual action. Fourth, SNA models network structure that is viewed as lasting patterns of relationships among actors (lasting does not mean unchanging; structures will change but there will always be a structure of relationships that exists among actors).

Social network analysis offers a unique means to explore informal (and often invisible) networks within organizations, which are increasingly recognized as critical to the way organizations really function and optimize performance (Cross & Parker, 2004). For the purposes of this study, social network analysis was viewed as a way to explore complexity and capacity-building features that otherwise would be missed in an educational organization.

3. Methodology 3.1 Rationale for use of case study design Social network analysis (SNA), as an evaluative approach to visualizing and examining organizations, has broad applicability. Yet each SNA is unique to the organization it maps or x-rays, making SNA case-dependent. For this reason, a case-study approach was employed in this study. Merriam (1998) concluded that

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the ―single most defining characteristic of case study research lies in delimiting the object of the study, the case‖ (p. 27).

The researchers initially wrestled with whether this study was more appropriately a phenomenological one because social interaction can be viewed as an essential quality of all organizations, and phenomenological studies seek to explore the essence of shared experience (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). But this study does not so much seek to describe and bracket the essence of social-ness within a central office administrative team as it does to map and analyze its manifestation in this specific case.

3.2 Participants For this study, the unit of analysis was a medium-sized public school district located in the Midwest. This district was chosen purposefully. The participants were the personnel assigned to this school district‘s administrative team (all central office personnel plus school principals). The sample of the study was every person that comprised this team, minus those who opted out (N=15).

3.3 Instrumentation Several data collection instruments were used in this study. These included: (a) individual and small group interviews; (b) a hybrid subject-informant survey, the SNA survey; and (c) Lambert‘s (2003) Leadership Capacity School Survey (LCSS).

Several semi-structured interviews (Merriam, 1998) were employed. The first was an interview with the superintendent. The second was an electronicallydelivered interview with the remaining senior leaders, comprised of the deputy and assistant superintendent, and building principals. The third was a group interview with this entire group.

Social network analytic (SNA) tools rely on data sets of binary social interactions. These are captured through a questionnaire that required all participants to identify specific other actors with whom they have the kinds of interactions under scrutiny. Sample questions included: (a) To whom do you typically turn for help understanding and implementing the district‘s vision and mission? (b) With whom do you typically collaborate to align what the district does each day with this vision? (c) To whom do you typically turn for fresh ideas and innovation?

Lambert‘s Leadership Capacity School Survey (LCSS) is a subject survey that was modified to make it appropriate to a district administrative team. Pierce (2007) found the LCSS to be highly reliable, especially when used for self-assessment and collaborative reflection.

3.4 Data Analysis The researchers began by mining the transcript of the interview with the superintendent, using data codes not only to help shape the SNA survey but also to detect phrases and concepts that centered on leadership capacity. This was

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followed by analysis of the data collected from the SNA survey and LCSS. The researchers primarily focused on assembling the data in such a way that it led to productive and meaningful conversations during the group interview. Later, the researchers returned to the survey data to clarify insights that emerged from the group interview discussion.

4. Presentation and Analysis of Data The results of the SNA survey were entered into the Organizational Risk Analysis (ORA) software and yielded a series of network maps (using the software‘s embedded visualization feature) that were employed to facilitate and spur discussion among the district‘s senior leaders. These maps were anonymized in order to protect the identities of the participants; thus, no explicit correlation was made between the code and the person or specific position it represents. However, based on the literature review and insight that within networks birds of a feather flock together (Krebs & Holley, 2006, p. 4), the researchers differentiated the codes into three subgroups. Those nodes representing Central Office Administrators (superintendent, deputy superintendent, and two assistant superintendents) were designated with a COA code. Those nodes representing Central Office Supporting Staff (administrative assistants) were coded as COSS. Finally, those nodes representing Building Administrators were coded as BA. The ORA software application is freeware available from the Center for Computational Analysis of Social and Organizational Systems (CASOS), a center within the Institute for Software Research, School of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University. As the User‘s Guide states, ―Networks are ubiquitous.

Everyone and everything is constrained and enabled by the networks in which they are embedded‖ and everyone typically belongs to multiple networks, a fact for which ORA accounts (Carley, Columbus, DeReno, Reminga, & Moon, 2008, p. 10). The ORA application allows for robust and intricate network analysis far beyond the scope of this study but available to support expanded SNA research within the educational domain.

To recap the process involved, participants were given a set of questions that asked them to identify other members of the staff with whom they interacted in specific situations. A list of all members of the network was included and participants annotated those boxes beside the names that applied. For example, when asked who he considers his friends, Actor A might select Actors C, F, G and H. A spreadsheet was then created for each question, compiling all such actor-to-actor interactions, which looked like that in Figure 1. A ―1‖ in the box indicates an interaction was identified, while a ―0‖ indicates no interaction was identified.

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Figure 1: Example of ORA data input. [Note: The yellow diagonal highlights that an actor cannot interact with him or herself.]

Network visualizations or maps were then created for each question and other visualizations created to examine the correlation with Lambert‘s (2003) Leadership Capacity School Survey, as well as to reveal metrics unique to network analysis, such as Closeness Centrality. In all, the researchers created 22 such maps. Three examples will be examined in this paper in order to demonstrate how ORA visually displays data.

In the sample figures that follow, a consistent color coding is employed. Central Office Administrators (COA), consisting of the superintendent, deputy, and assistant superintendents are represented by blue dots. Building Administrators (BA), consisting of the school principals, are represented by green dots. Finally, the Central Office Supporting Staff (COSS), consisting of administrative assistants, is represented by red dots.

For the first set of maps in the study, the title of each figure is comprised of a keyword identifier for that network based on the core attribute being examined.

For example, Figure 2 is titled Vision network. Other networks examined such attributes as collaboration, trust, unvarnished truth, hope, courage and friendship.

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To whom do you typically turn for help understanding and implementing the district’s vision and mission?

Figure 2: Vision network depicting social interactions related to vision and mission.

[Note: COA are represented by blue dots; BA by green dots; COSS by red dots.

Arrows reveal the direction of interaction.]

Figure 2 depicts interactions related to understanding and implementing the district‗s vision and mission. COA personnel turned primarily to each other, although in some instances COA also turned to BA. BA turned primarily to COA but also each other. Of note, COSS turned exclusively to COA. Some turned only to a single COA, while others turned to multiple COA. There were no isolated nodes (isolates) within this network.

A stated intention of the study was to examine ways in which SNA might influence or foster the expansion of leadership capacity. Thus, visualizing the relationship between the results of the SNA survey and Lambert‗s (2003) Leadership Capacity School Survey was a means to foster discussion and discovery about how social networks and capacity are inter-related. Figure 3 reveals the ORA output showing one possible means to relate the two. The first aspect of the visualization to note is that it represents a combination of the Vision, Collaboration, and Innovations networks which ORA has the capability to perform. These three networks were chosen because each correlates to a construct within the LCSS (vision = focus on vision; innovation = reflection and innovation; and collaboration = shared governance). This composite network, therefore, reveals connections that might shape leadership capacity. Because of this fact, the researchers employed it as the default network for all subsequent visualizations.

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The second aspect of this visualization to note is that each node or actor has been color coded to reveal his or her score on the LCSS. The LCSS seeks to measure leadership capacity within an organization. Using a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 represents ―We do not do this at our organization,‖ 2 represents ―We are starting to move in this direction,‖ 3 represents ―We are making good progress,‖ 4 represents ―We have this condition well established,‖ and 5 represents ―We are refining our practice in this area,‖ respondents scored four constructs: Intense Focus on Vision, Reflection and Innovation, Shared Governance, and Monitors and Responds to Staff Achievement.

Leadership Capacity School Survey (LCSS) Connectivity

Legend Color

LCSS Score

0-1.0 1.1-2.0 2.1-3.0 3.1-4.0 4.1-5.0

A score of 1 or 2 in the survey represents areas of greatest need, 3 and 4 represent strengths, and 5 represents exemplary work that reflects high leadership capacity.

Figure 3: Relationship between Social Network Analysis of the combined VisionCollaboration-Innovation network and results of Lambert‟s Leadership Capacity School Survey. [Note: This visualization kluges the Vision, Collaboration, and Innovation networks, as these dimensions comprise three of the critical constructs within Lambert„s (2003) LCSS.]

While network visualizations can reveal who is connected to whom, they cannot always reveal with clarity the strength of those connections, or how central a person is to the network, or how far one actor is from another (within the typography of the network map). These quantitative details help to enrich understanding of the network and inform decisions that might improve network performance (Carley, Columbus, DeReno, Reminga, & Moon, 2008; Cross & Parker, 2004; Krebs, 1996, 2008).

ORA has the capacity to calculate and visualize over 100 such measures (Carley, Columbus, DeReno, Reminga, & Moon, 2008). These specific measures were chosen in consultation with Mr. Jeff Reminga (personal communication, May 21,

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2009) who also authored the boxed definition. Some of the more common measures include Boundary Spanner, Clique Count, Betweenness Centrality and Total Degree Centrality. Only one, Closeness Centrality (Figure 4), will be presented here.

Closeness Centrality

Finds nodes that can quickly reach other nodes. Most other nodes in the network can be reached in a few links from these nodes. Such nodes can communicate on average with the most other nodes in the shortest number of steps.

Figure 4: Closeness centrality. [Note: COA are represented by blue dots; BA by green dots; COSS by red dots. The larger the node, the higher the closeness centrality and the ability of that node to connect to the most other nodes fastest.]

Closeness Centrality assesses nodes based on their ―distance‖ to other nodes.

Nodes with higher closeness centrality are able to connect to other nodes in the network through the fewest number of steps. In this case, COSS15 has the highest closeness centrality, enabling it to link to more nodes in the network faster (in the fewest steps) than any other node.

4.1 Integrating themes From this data emerged a number of inter-related patterns and themes. The researchers realized that these themes emerged not only from the expected source of the interview transcripts; they also emerged from the Organizational Risk Analyzer (ORA) network maps. Finally, they emerged from field observations that occurred throughout the study. Each source of theme data informed the other.

The most compelling of these themes arose from the ORA network visualizations and the conversations that the district leadership had as they collectively viewed each one. They included a consistent, yet seemingly

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contradictory, pattern of fragmentation and isolation while simultaneously exhibiting a pattern of flocking or cliquishness among sub-groups. These two themes complemented four integrating themes that arose from all data sets.

These four integrating themes were framed in oppositional terms because they emerged as much through their negative manifestation as their positive, much like an x-ray can be revealing, if not more so, than the object it captures. These themes included vision as opposed to managed programs; collaboration rather than isolation and fragmentation; trust instead of suspicion and avoidance; and transparency versus opaqueness and guardedness.

4.2 Analysis in relation to study questions Because SNA is relatively new, the ways in which it can inform leadership capacity have received little attention. This study sought to examine capacity more descriptively and holistically as an organic dimension of school communities, with particular focus on the district administrative team. Social Network Analysis held the exploratory promise of unlocking leadership capacity and served as a catalyst to answer the four posed research questions: 1) What does SNA reveal about the nature of leadership capacity within the administrative team of a district central office? 2) How does leadership capacity, as measured by the LCSS, inform the outcomes of the SNA and vice versa? 3) How do the SNA results affect attitudes of the district‘s senior leadership concerning ways of working, organizing, interacting, and enhancing leadership capacity within the district? 4) How do the SNA results affect attitudes of the district‘s senior leadership with regard to solving its most intractable problems?

The SNA maps and data revealed that within the school district, leadership capacity was inhibited. Issues of trust, willingness to collaborate, lack of reciprocity, and isolation of both individuals and sub-groups resulted in a strong tendency among sub-groups to operate within their own circles.

With regard to the relation between SNA and LCSS, the data revealed that individuals to whom others turned on issues related to vision, collaboration, and innovation often lacked confidence in the district‘s capacity for broad-based and skillful leadership. The data also revealed that such confidence was greatest among the senior-most sub-group, who from atop the organization assessed the current state of capacity more optimistically than did the other sub-groups. The support staff was half as confident as its bosses in the degree of capacity that existed within the administrative team.

In terms of the way that the SNA affected attitudes of the district‗s senior leadership concerning ways of working, organizing, interacting, and leading, the data revealed a prevailing sentiment that current ways of doing business were not all that ineffective and, in some cases, were favored. To a limited extent, efforts were being undertaken to enhance capacity within the organization, and there was broad recognition that more needed to be done to involve the COSS sub-group.

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Insufficient data were obtained to answer the final question with sufficiency and confidence. While it was recognized that SNA offered a unique tool for organizational analysis and discovery, there was no explicit connection made between the SNA results and the ways these results could be leveraged to solve the problems surfaced by the district‗s leadership as inordinately challenging.

5. Findings Employing the insights just summarized, the researchers returned to the interrelated theoretical underpinnings of the study, which included organizational and leadership theories and their evolution, constructivist leadership and its sub-set of leadership capacity, complexity theory, and network theory, and drew out the findings that follow.

5.1 Finding 1—Hierarchical or formal structures continue to hold sway Breaking free of old habits is difficult. The data revealed that while efforts such as Professional Learning Communities were being undertaken to yield the benefits of collaboration and shared leadership, nonetheless the default response to most situations was to rely on existing structures and ways of working. Yukl (2012) concluded that organizations continue to privilege hierarchical structures and heroic leadership because they conform to the prevailing and unchallenged worldview that leadership equals leader, a form of circular logic from which it is difficult to break free.

A less polemical reason for viewing leadership heroically is the need for simplicity. The human tendency is to systematize the complex world and to ―exaggerate the importance of leaders in order to explain events in a way that fits [their] assumptions and implicit theories‖ (Yukl, 2012, p. 449).

The need for simplicity and rationality leads inexorably to the last and most compelling reason organizations cling to outmoded visions of leadership: the demand for accountability. The need for accountability carries with it the onerous implication that the formal leader can touch everything and shape all outcomes, which are tenuous and even dangerous assumptions to make.

Based on the data derived from this study, the school district implicitly defaulted to its formal structure in which there were clear lines of demarcation between the central office, the schools, and the supporting staff. It did so despite explicit efforts, such as adoption of PLCs, designed to break down silos or barriers between and among key sub-groups.

5.2 Finding 2—“Birds of a feather” do flock together Repeatedly in the ORA network visualizations, there was a clear pattern of individuals in similar roles, at similar levels within the organization, favoring each other in their interactions. This sub-group cliquishness supported what Krebs and Holley (2006) characterized as ―two simple, yet powerful driving forces [within networks]: (a) Birds of a feather flock together; and (b) those close by, form a tie‖ (p. 4).

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In the extreme, according to Krebs and Holley (2006) such clustering is both bad and good. On the negative side, there is little or no diversity within each cluster.

On the up side, ―the dense connections, and high degree of commonality forms good work groups—clusters of people who can work together smoothly‖ (p. 5).

The school district capitalized on the benefits associated with formal teaming by actively cultivating communities of practice and learning. At the same time, it recognized that further work needed to be done to overcome fragmentation, isolation, and cliquishness that were made more explicit through SNA.

5.3 Finding 3—Transparency, trust and collaboration are deeply interdependent and underpin capacity One study participant noted that in the physical world capacity is a measure of volume. If the ability to achieve greater volume is impaired, then so too is capacity. Transparency, trust, and collaboration all contribute to capacity and were, to some degree, impaired within the district.

Lencioni (2002) cited lack of trust or an unwillingness to be vulnerable to others as one of five dysfunctions of a team that can debilitate its ability to achieve optimal performance. Seen another way, dysfunction, especially dysfunction that can be remedied, shows a lack of skill, and skillfulness is essential to leadership capacity-building (Lambert, 2003).

In order to enhance skillfulness, transparency is necessary; otherwise, organizations run the risk that their collaborative efforts will seem superficial, as was the perception within the district. The potential value of a tool like SNA is its ability to make the inner workings of an organization more transparent and, as a result, guide and shape those inner workings with greater precision (Cross & Parker, 2004; Krebs & Holley, 2006). Still, even as SNA can create greater transparency, it also depends on transparency. In this study, the names were anonymized to protect the identities of those participating. In so doing, the full power of the application was diminished. A lack of comfort being vulnerable with each other meant that full transparency was not achieved. This condition, in turn, meant that collaborations (connections) could not be assessed fully for their strengths and weaknesses. Weak connections could not be strengthened; bad connections could not be fixed; new and necessary connections could not be created, etc.

It was noted earlier that capacity is complexity and vice versa. A fullynetworked organization is more complex than a hierarchical one (Bar-Yam, 2004; Kelly, 2003); therefore it follows that deliberative efforts, informed by SNA, to flatten the organization and expand, energize, and shape network ties will result in expanded capacity. This ongoing process starts with trust—the willingness to be vulnerable to others (Lencioni, 2002), which is a form of transparency—that in turn leads to greater transparency, smarter, more informed decisions, and enriched interactions and strengthened collaboration.

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5.4 Finding 4—Social networks are the organization, making SNA an essential diagnostic and decision-making tool The data gathered during this study, especially through interview responses and direct observation, made clear that the district‘s leadership team left many potentially powerful social interactions to chance. It did so because such interactions were largely invisible to them. According to Bar-Yam (2004), complex entities are characterized by emergence, ―the relationship between the details of a system and the larger view‖ (p. 27) and interdependence, the notion that every part of a system is integrally connected to another. The tendency is to see organizations by their complete outward manifestation, often captured by their formal organization chart. Yet solving organizational problems typically requires seeing them in terms of the complex interactions of their discrete parts.

Both views are necessary but it is the second one that is often overlooked (Cross and Parker, 2004).

Another way of explaining emergence is ―where local interactions lead to global patterns‖ (Krebs & Holley, 2006, p. 3-4). In other words, by understanding discrete connections, and energizing them in intentional ways, leaders can guide the patterns that emerge at the organizational or global level. ―Instead of allowing networks to evolve without direction, successful individuals, groups and organizations have found that it pays to actively manage [their] network‖ (p. 5).

Social Network Analysis (SNA), therefore, becomes an absolutely essential tool for organizational health and performance, just as an x-ray is indispensible in ensuring human health. SNA provides a diagnostic tool that allows leaders and organizations to peer beyond the surface of their organization and make decisions designed to make it healthier and smarter.

5.5 Heuristic arising from the findings The data analysis and findings made possible an integrating heuristic, presented in Figure 5. Collaboration, trust, and transparency create the environment in which candid conversations and meaningful connections can occur. These conversations and connections begin in the core of the network and expand outward to the periphery. They are ongoing and smartly managed by all, but especially by the formal leaders of the organization. Shared vision backgrounds everything and serves to bind, coalesce, and focus these conversations and connections across all levels, teams, sub-groups, and stakeholders. Capacity expands as a result of deliberate, ongoing, focused conversations and connections, within an open and encouraging environment, and shaped by vision.

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Figure 5: Leadership capacity integrating heuristic

6. Implications for Practice Complex challenges confront educational leaders in the Information Age, leading to the question: If the current global environment is indeed chaotic and uncertain, if complexity underpins every system and process and if determinism is no longer consistently operative, what are educational leaders to do? In reply, five strategies, derived from the literature, addressed the need to rethink the ways in which leadership is enacted. These five strategies offer a worthwhile platform for redefining practice in the 21st Century.

6.1 Think more complexly This study revealed that organizations tend to default to the status quo when it comes to structures and leadership. Despite efforts to enact more democratic or decentralized leadership, such as Professional Learning Communities, organizations still find it difficult to break free of the hierarchical structures that formally define them and discover that sweet spot on the continuum between rigid hierarchies and leaderless networks (Brafman & Beckstrom, 2006).

Breaking free and finding this ―sweet spot‖ are essential in an age that is increasingly inter-connected and flat.

Drath (2003) stated that the first step to dealing with complex problems may, at first, seem counterintuitive: to create even more complex capacity. ―A complex capacity to respond means something different from just a more complicated process. It means a more varied, less predictable, more layered process capable of greater subtlety‖ (p. 6). How might educational leaders create this complex capacity? Cultivating acceptable patterns will invariably lead to a more

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networked organizational structure, and leaders must be quick to embrace the network structure and its benefits, even as they work to minimize its shortcomings, such as dealing with accountability. What leaders today can ill afford is to revert back to default structures that prevent transparency, mitigate trust, and diminish collaboration.

6.2 Let go Counter-intuitively, letting go is not about less work but more. It is not about simply formulating programs and then decentralizing their implementation. Nor is it a laissez-faire approach to leadership. It is about letting go of ego and power trips, shedding inhibitions, and inviting broader participation in problem solving and sensemaking. In terms of practice, letting go starts with a compelling vision—a narrative that unifies every action and activity and enables this sensemaking. It becomes the lens through which meaning arises in acceptable forms. Creating such a vision is a difficult task but must be given the time and resources needed to make it happen.

6.3 Expand capacity at all levels Letting go cannot happen without the complementary action of expanding capacity. One must let go in order to create the conditions by which capacity can expand and by expanding capacity, one is able to let go more readily.

One Central Office Administrator in this study stated that if interactions were at their highest level, no work would get done because people would be constantly interacting and talking. Yet according to constructivist leadership, interactions and conversations enable the construction of meaning and learning, whether among students or among adults (Lambert, 2002). As was noted in the Findings, interactions and conversations are the organization; they are its essential work and business. The key to expanding capacity is to manage and focus the conversations and shape the connections in deliberate and disciplined ways.

Social Network Analysis becomes a powerful and essential tool for managing capacity-building activities.

6.4 Move toward profound simplicity Weick (2008) argued that dealing with complexity requires persistent sensemaking: ―sensemaking is dynamic and requires continuous updating and reaccomplishment. As a leader, don‗t let people languish in the feeling, ‗Now we have it figured out.‘ They don‗t have it figured out‖ (Leadership when, ¶ 6, bullet 6). Dealing with the inexplicable is about talking as you go, in the form of stories that describe what is being faced and how to deal with it. Profound simplicity means allowing these stories to unfold.

Here again, SNA provides a tool to start meaningful and informed conversations about how members of an organization habitually interact. Sensemaking and discovery are both affected by who is contributing to the conversation. The more perspectives that are included in the discovery process, the more transparent and fully-faceted the arrived-at solutions will be. Seen another way, SNA can be viewed as a profoundly simple way to view organizations. Through the

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examination of simple nodes and lines (edges), organizations begin to tap into and make sense of profoundly complex human dynamics.

6.5 Start small Social network analysis offers a first step towards understanding and harnessing invisible energy within an organization, energy that comes about as a result of social interactions, large and small. By employing a tool like ORA, educational leaders can begin to make these invisible force fields more explicit and align them with the vision of the organization. In so doing, the skill with which the work of leadership is accomplished is sharpened and broadened, expanding capacity to such a degree that the complex challenges confronting educational institutions can be met head on with greater hope of mastering them.

7. Conclusion The challenges confronting humans today in all fields of endeavor are complex in their nature. Educational institutions are faced with demands for improved student achievement against a backdrop of reduced revenue streams, increased diversity, mounting social challenges, changing demographics, and rising teacher attrition. Faced with these challenges, along with the impact of advancing technology and social media, new forms of leadership are becoming imperative. Bar-Yam (2004) and Drath (2004) both noted that in order to survive within complex environments, organisms must themselves become complex.

Kelly (2003) posited that the pure network was the most complex social configuration possible, while Brafman and Beckstrom (2006) recognized that fully-networked, leaderless organizations are more theoretical than practical.

Instead, organizations fall along a continuum between pure hierarchies and pure networks. In the Information Age, organizations need to move along the continuum closer to the pure network and find their sweet spot there.

Becoming a more networked organization demands new forms of leadership.

Bolman and Deal (2003) revealed that over time the ways in which organizations were understood have evolved from structural to symbolic, and the type of leadership needed for each has also evolved. Hierarchies and heroic leadership worked when organizations were viewed structurally. Now that organizations are viewed symbolically as hives or networks, heroic leadership can no longer work. Constructivist leadership and its subset of leadership capacity were examined as offering the type of leadership needed for organizations that today operate amidst complexity.

This study sought to examine the ways in which an Information Age tool, Social Network Analysis, could be employed to expand leadership capacity and move an organization along the continuum towards being fully networked. What the study discovered is that inertia continued to keep the school district leadership team under study from breaking free of its formal structures, despite its best intentions to open up lines of communication. The results indicated that participants continued to align themselves with like others and in so doing created isolation and fragmentation. The study found that transparency, trust, and collaboration were all, to varying degrees impaired, and thus hampered the

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expansion of capacity necessary to become more networked. Finally, it found that human connections are the core of the organization and that many of these connections and interactions were left to chance because they were unknown.

The power of SNA is the ability to uncover these interactions and manage them smartly.

8. References Andriani, P., & Passiante, G. (2004). Complexity theory and the management of networks. In P. Andriani & G. Passiante (Eds.), Complexity theory and the management of networks (pp. 3-19). London: Imperial College Press.

Bar-Yam, Y. (2004). Making things work. Cambridge, MA: NECSI Knowledge Press.

Bensimon, E. M., Neumann, A., & Birnbaum, R. (1989). Making sense of administrative leadership: The ―L‖ word in higher education. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1. Washington, DC: School of Education and Human Development, The George Washington University.

Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2003). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership.

(3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Brafman, O., & Beckstrom, R. A. (2006). The starfish and the spider: The unstoppable power of leaderless organizations. New York: Penguin Portfolio.

Carley, K. M., Columbus, D., DeReno, M., Reminga, J., & Moon, I. (2008). ORA user’s guide (CMU-ISR-08-125). Pittsburg, PA: Carnegie Mellon University Institute for Software Research. 191 Cilliers, P. (2004). A framework for understanding complex systems. In P. Andriani & G. Passiante (Eds.), Complexity theory and the management of networks (pp. 23-27).

London: Imperial College Press.

Cross, R., & Parker, A. (2004). The hidden power of social networks: Understanding how work really gets done in organizations. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Drath, W. H. (2003). Leading together: Complex challenges require a new approach.

Leadership in action, 23(1), 3-7.

Retrieved from http://www.ccl.org/leadership/lia/2003/v23n1.aspx?pageId=638.

Foster, W. (1986). Paradigms and promises: New approaches to educational administration.

Buffalo: Prometheus Books.

Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2003). How to design and evaluate research in education (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kelly, K. (2003). Out of control: The new biology of machines. Retrieved from http://www.kk.org/outofcontrol/index.php.

Krebs, V. (1996). Visualizing human networks. Release 1.0: Esther Dyson’s monthly report (12 Feb 96). Retrieved from http://www.orgnet.com/cases.html.

Krebs, V., & Holley, J. (2006). Building smart communities through network weaving.

Retrieved February 20, 2008 from http://www.orgnet.com/BuildingNetworks.pdf Lambert, L. (2002). Leading the conversations. In Lambert, L., Walker, D., Zimmerman, D. P., Cooper, J. E., Lambert, M. D., Gardner, M. E. et al. The constructivist leader (2nd ed., pp.34-62). New York: Teachers College Press.

Lambert, L. (2002). Toward a deepened theory of constructivist leadership. In Lambert, L., Walker, D., Zimmerman, D. P., Cooper, J. E., Lambert, M. D., Gardner, M. E. et al. The Constructivist Leader (2nd ed., pp. 34-62). New York: Teachers College Press.

Lambert, L. (2003). Leadership capacity for lasting school improvement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

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Lambert, L. (Spring 2005). What does leadership capacity really mean? Retrieved from http://www.nsdc.org/members/jsd/lambert262.pdf Lencioni, P. M. (2002). The five dysfunctions of a team: A leadership fable. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Martin, A. (2007). The changing nature of leadership: A CCL research white paper.

Retrieved from http://www.ccl.org/leadership/research/sharing/index.aspx#whitePapers McKelvey, B. (2004). ―Simple rules‖ for improving corporate IQ: Basic lessons from complexity science. In P. Andriani & G. Passiante (Eds.), Complexity theory and the management of networks (pp. 39-52). London: Imperial College Press.

Morgan, G. (1997). Images of organization (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Pierce, M. K. (2007). A determination of the reliability and construct validity of the Leadership Capacity School Survey.

Retrieved from edt.missouri.edu/Fall2007/Dissertation/PierceM-111907-D8644/research.pdf Wasserman, S., & Faust, K. (1994) Social network analysis: Methods and applications. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Watts, D. J. (2003). Six degrees: The science of a connected age. New York: W. W. Norton.

Weick, K. E. (2008). Leadership when events don’t play by the rules. Retrieved December 4, 2008, from http:www.bus.umich.edu/facultyresearch/research/TryingTimes/Rules.htm Wilson, T. D. (2002). Philosophical foundations and research relevance: Issues for information research. Keynote address delivered to the Fourth International Conference on Conceptions of Library and Information Science: Emerging Frameworks and Method.

University of Washington, Seattle.

Retrieved from http://informationr.net/tdw/publ/papers/COLIS4.html#spec62 Yukl, G. (2012). Leadership in organizations (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 20-31, June 2014

Implementation of a Teaching and Learning Model: Institutional, Programme and Discipline level at a University of Technology in South Africa.

Dr Pauline Machika Vaal University of Technology Centre for Academic Development Vanderbijlpark, South Africa

Abstract. To improve the quality of teaching in a university of technology and to produce the necessary graduate skills which will improve the economy of South Africa (Altbach, Reisberg and Rumbley 2009), a teaching and learning model should be implemented at three levels, namely the institution-wide, programme and discipline-specific level. Universities of technology are increasingly required to implement a teaching and learning model with an appropriate operational plan.

Based on research that was conducted at a South African university of technology, this article focuses on the importance of implementing a teaching and learning model with an operational plan, from the perspective of academic staff who experience tensions at the three above-mentioned levels. Within the state of flux due to the transition from technikon to university status, the university of technology in question has experienced difficulty in positively changing its institutional context to an enabling environment in terms of its teaching and learning model. Four individual interviews and nine group interviews were conducted with thirty-six academic staff members. The results show that a disenabling environment is created for teaching and learning at a university of technology if the teaching and learning model is not implemented at an institutional level and is not cascaded down to a programme and discipline-specific level within a university-wide operational plan.

Keywords: Implementation; Teaching Institutional Programme; Discipline Level

and

Learning;

Model;

INTRODUCTION The implementation of a new teaching and learning model for a university of technology is a direct response to improving the teaching quality within a university so as to produce the necessary graduate skills which will improve the economy of South Africa (Altbach et al. 2009). The teaching and learning model at the said university of technology is a policy document that outlines the Š 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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academic direction the university of technology will take in view of teaching and learning based on of an analysis of the social, economic, political, intellectual and cultural context it locates itself in. The teaching and learning model of the university of technology places an emphasis on pedagogical research and the scholarship of teaching and learning (D’Andrea and Gosling 2005:147). The aim of the teaching and learning model is to ensure that at an institutional, programme and discipline specific level that students are at the centre of the learning experience, control their own learning, assume responsibility for learning, initiate learning goals and regulate their performance towards these goals (Jonassen . 2004:75).

Any implementation of a teaching and learning model needs to be meaningful and not left embedded in a strategic document with very little impact. Should this occur the teaching and learning model becomes a vehicle of change for the sake of change with very little meaning at an institutional, programme and discipline-specific level. Hénard and Roseveare (2012) contended that for the quality of teaching to improve in a university it should occur at three levels, namely the institution-wide level (including projects such as policy design and support to organisation and internal quality assurance systems); the programme level (comprising actions to measure and enhancing the design, content and delivery of the programmes within a department or a school); and a disciplinespecific level (including initiatives that help teachers achieve their mission, encouraging them to innovate and to support improvements to student learning and adopt a learner-oriented focus). As a result focus is being placed on a university of technology to implement a teaching and learning model with an appropriate operational plan, universities are under pressure to offer institutional leadership when implementing a teaching and learning model by continuously adapting while upholding quality standards. The Teaching and Learning Charter formulated by Higher Education South Africa (HESA 2012) stated that it is the responsibility of the institution to create an enabling environment which will ensure quality interaction between teachers and students.

The dilemma arises when the lecturers have no clearly defined university-wide operational plan by which to implement the new teaching and learning model.

This article outlines why it is important to implement a teaching and learning model with an operational plan at a university of technology within a South African context. Sustained quality teaching policies require long-term, nonlinear efforts and thus call for a permanent institutional commitment from the top leadership of the institution (OECD 2012). The operational plan should embody the rules, regulations, policy frameworks, necessary infrastructure – physical, human resources and financial – as well as engagement with stakeholders who are involved in the implementation. An operational plan is able to create an institution-wide enabling environment for teaching and learning and provides the framework for implementation at an institutional, programme and discipline-specific level.

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In the following sections a theoretical framework is presented which highlights tensions experienced by academics working at a university of technology where a new teaching and learning model is being implemented without an operational plan (Abualrub, Karseth and Stensaker 2013). The results and discussion develop an understanding of the importance of implementing a teaching and learning model at an institutional, programme and disciplinespecific level at a university of technology. Further recommendations outline four underlying principles when implementing a teaching and learning model at the institutional, programme and discipline-specific level. In the conclusion emphasis is placed the impact for a university of technology when the teaching and learning model is not cascaded down from an institutional to the programme and discipline-specific levels.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The introduction of a teaching and learning model by higher education institutions is often a direct response to poor throughput rates and the need to produce a skilled workforce to meet the challenges of the 21st century (HĂŠnard and Roseveare 2012). Without good throughput rates South Africa will fail in its economic imperative to produce employable graduate skills. Higher education needs to play a strong role in helping the country meet the demand for skilled workers (National Development Plan 2012). As a result, higher education institutions have responded to this ever-growing demand by implementing new teaching and learning models (Kuh 2008). The report of the National Planning Commission (2012) concluded that higher education is the major driver of the information and knowledge systems linking it with economic development.

Approximately 30 percent of the students who enter the South African higher education system annually drop out during their first year of studies, while less than 50 percent of the students who enrol in diploma or degree programmes ever graduate at higher education institutions (Scott, Yeld and Hendry 2007.

Knapper (2003, 6) claimed that the broadening of access has brought a large number of underprepared students into higher education and as a result traditional teaching methods and practices have become unsuitable for enabling the underprepared student to meet the educational demands of the late 20th and early 21st century. Management of universities view the implementation of the teaching and learning model as a means of improving the throughput rates of students as well as meeting the needs of students who have entered higher education with insufficient capacity to engage with teaching and learning due to their under preparedness (Scott 2009). The introduction of a teaching and learning model allows universities to be responsive to the ever-changing needs of the student body at a strategic level. It further allows institutions to create an institutional climate and systems that values student learning, by creating an institution-wide ethos where learning is the focus of all academic and administrative work (Del Favero, 2002). Central to this is an understanding of the components of an institutional climate which includes the measurement of staff engagement and satisfaction and considering multiple levels of student engagement and satisfaction, institutional effectiveness, organisation, management which are aspects that have been largely neglected to date in Š 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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higher education (Chalmers 2007). Several factors impact the implementation of the teaching and learning model which focuses on the constructivist approaches to teaching by exploring the students’ current understanding and immersing them in authentic problem situations (Innes, 2004:107; Robbins; Judge; Odendaal and Roodt, 2009).

They are namely the flux experienced due to the technikon’s transition to a university of technology. The University of Technology is so often busy putting new rules and regulations into place and is struggling so hard to apply the rules consistently that it finds it very difficult to implement a new teaching and learning model. In the state of flux due to the transition from technikon to university status, the University of Technology has experienced difficulty in positively changing its institutional context to an enabling environment in terms of its teaching and learning model. Further factors include dwindling and overstretched resources, a reliance on traditional teaching methods and overburdened lecturers with large classes and with limited and insufficient infrastructure make it difficult to apply the principles and methods put forward in the teaching and learning model (Kuh, Kinzie, Shuh, Whitt and Associates 2010; Wolf-Wendel, Ward and Kinzie 2009). Another factor is a lack of understanding which exists concerning what an operational planning should look like and how it should be implemented in a university of technology. Many institutional leaders are reconsidering how to manage the balance in fulfilling their teaching and research missions and how to raise the quality of teaching and learning they deliver (Hénard and Roseveare 2012) Gibb (2009) further argued that there can be tensions between institutional leaders seeking to change the culture of the institution through centralised steering and the collegial culture that reflects the discipline-specific features of academia. If connections have not already been built between the two approaches namely the traditional teaching methods and the new constructivist approach advocated by the teaching and learning model, then these tensions will slow the progress that can be made on fostering quality teaching. Indeed, when strategies are implemented from the centre in a top-down approach, with little or no engagement academic staff tends to ignore them (OECD 2010, Chalmers 2007).

In response to the above-mentioned challenges the University of Technology under study has implemented a teaching and learning model based on social constructivism and active learning (Robbins, Judge, Odendaal and Roodt 2009).

Social constructivism and student learning is defined as encouraging a deep or mastery student learning approach and student experimentation in the learning process, as well as accounting for student needs rather than adopting a teachercentered, passive learning approach (Umbach and Wawrzynski, 2005). However, the implementation of this teaching and learning model at an institutional, programme and discipline levels has not proven to be effective. Cameron and Quinn (2006) stated that the transformation of an institutional context depends on culture change, because when values, orientations, definitions and goals stay constant – even when procedures and strategies are altered without the necessary resources – institutional contexts return quickly to the status quo.

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practice to ensure an enhanced learning environment which benefits students (Chalmers, 2007).

Special focus is placed on the creation of an enabling environment through the implementation of a teaching and learning model with an operational plan at the institutional, programme and discipline levels, as an institutional responsibility towards quality teaching and learning. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) outlined that the enabling environment surrounding teaching and learning can include the following: managerial and administrative structures and behaviour, collegial partnerships between lecturers, and the campus climate with resources provided to support the teaching and learning processes. According to Huang and Fisher (2011), an enabling environment consists of variables such as specialised teachers, resources and laboratories at the organisational level where learning is taking place. This definition highlights that for a teaching and learning model to be successfully implemented in an enabling environment it needs to be supported by arrangements at an organisational level (Abualrub et al. 2013).

Higher Education South Africa (HESA 2012) emphasised that academic success is promoted through the offering of institutional leadership which includes creating an enabling environment at an institutional, programme and discipline specific level that will ensure quality interaction between students and lecturers.

The role of institutional management in the teaching and learning process cannot be underestimated as they are often the stakeholders who need to motivate actions and processes for the development of an enabling teaching and learning environment through the implementation of a teaching and learning model at an institutional, programme and discipline specific level (OECD 2012).

Without an operational plan which can assist discipline-specific academics in implementing the new teaching and learning model change will not take place at the institutional, programme and discipline specific levels. Such a vacuum created by the lack of an operational plan and limited resources when implementing a teaching and learning model causes academics to function within a disabling environment which can cause tension between various stakeholders involved in teaching and learning.

When the teaching and learning model is implemented without an operational plan, academic staff will possibly compete for limited resources, and such a state of affairs will have an impact on the institutional values, rewards and behaviours. The lack of resources to implement an institution’s teaching and learning model could cause a shift in focus within the institution as the efforts to change teaching and improve learning might lead to battles over institutional values, rewards and behaviours (Lazerson, Wagener and Shumanis, 2000, 19). If appropriate resources are not provided, academic staff might display demotivating behaviour as they are not able to implement innovative teaching and learning practices and therefore resort to maintaining traditional teaching and learning practices. Watts et al. (2007) argued that at the individual level, both researchers and managers need to be more open to learning and change, since ultimately, institutional change can only occur through changes in behaviour, attitudes, relationships and activities, all of which depend on Š 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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individual insights and decisions. Thus examining and revising relevant policies’ and practices that impact on the quality of teaching and learning becomes relevant (Chalmers 2007). When the teaching and learning model is implemented at the discipline level, the institution and the programme levels cannot appraise teacher satisfaction and remedial actions cannot be considered.

Lecturers attempting to implement innovative teaching and learning methodologies often find their ideas and efforts being stifled and squashed (OECD 2010).

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research was based on qualitative research utilising an interpretivist paradigm with content analysis as research design. A document analysis of the strategic teaching and learning model was done to identify the teaching and learning model aims and the nature of the changes required. Group interviews were conducted with lecturers to establish the nature of the current teaching, learning and assessment discipline-specific practices.

PARTICIPANTS Ninety lecturers participated in the study and were identified as attendants of the in-house staff development conference at the university of technology during the first semester of 2012. Interviews were scheduled to take place during the last week of October 2012. Thirty-six academic staff members were available at the times scheduled for interviews. Four individual interviews and nine group interviews were conducted. The group interviews consisted of three to five people per group. Staff members were from the following disciplines: Accounting, Bio-Science, Chemistry, Communication, Education, Engineering, Information Technology, Legal Science, Management Science and Sport Management, and three participants were from various support services.

Each of the in-depth interviews with individuals lasted for 40 minutes while each of the group interviews lasted one hour. The interviews were conducted with lecturers who looked specifically at challenges encountered by disciplinespecific academics in teaching, learning and assessment at the university of technology where a teaching and learning model had been implemented without an operational level. The interview guide consisted of the following questions: 1. What is your opinion about current teaching learning and assessment in your department?

2. What do you think is important in terms of teaching, learning and assessment in your department?

3. What do you consider standard practice in terms of teaching, learning and assessment in your department?

4. What lecturer and student behaviour and practices are encouraged in terms of teaching, learning and assessment?

5. What lecturer and student behaviour and practices are rewarded?

(What is considered to be quality work?)

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6. What would you like to see changed in teaching learning and assessment in your department?

The questions were adapted for the interview process with participants from the support services. The word “in your department” was replaced with “at the University of Technology”. Permission to conduct the study was granted by the relevant institutional authorities. The purpose of the study was explained to the lecturers and their consent to record the interviews was obtained. Participation was voluntary and both anonymity and confidentiality were assured.

DATA ANALYSIS The qualitative data analysis of transcriptions of the in-depth interviews was done with the use of ATLAS.ti software. Qualitative content analysis according to the steps suggested by Henning, Van Rensburg and Smit (2004) was the method of analysis. These steps imply an inductive approach involving fine coding, categorisation of codes and identification of themes.

RESULTS The research results highlight the impact on a university of technology when the teaching and learning model at an institutional level is not cascaded down to a programme and discipline-specific level within a university-wide operational plan.

TENSIONS AT AN INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL Without the operational plan the teaching and learning model will possibly never shape the institutional context of the university towards innovating teaching and learning practice. The Teaching and Learning Charter formulated

by Higher Education South Africa (HESA 2012) noted that the promotion of academic success is realised through the offering of institutional leadership.

The teaching and learning model needs to be accompanied by operational plans that should be cascaded down from the institutional to the programme and discipline-specific lecturer level. A participant commented as follows: We have so many different types of policies … this one is coming with an academic plan, this one is coming with a research plan, this one is coming with a quality one … I have said so many times to my manager, identify two or three at the end of the year for the next year and try to implement it and also monitor it and measure it that it is working. You must have an implementation plan, not a general implementation.

The decisions relating to the provision of resources are taken at an institutional level. A participant stated: Definitely the facilities. Venues must be adapted for different learning styles … and different methods. Teaching methods to … it must be open for us to do all these things. © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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In a university of technology where proper resourcing is not provided by the institutional context to ensure the implementation of the teaching and learning model the teaching and learning environment becomes disabling. (Chalmers) 2007 agreed that institutional climates and systems are one of the four dimensions of teaching practice to ensure an enhanced learning environment which benefits students. The role that the institutional context plays in the implementation of a teaching and learning model is crucial, as is emphasised by Exeter et al. (2010) who argued that the lack of resources in support of teaching and learning needs to be addressed if the teaching and learning model is to be implemented.

TENSIONS AT A PROGRAMME LEVEL When a new teaching and learning model is introduced tensions are created for academic staff who struggle to develop new innovative teaching and learning practices at a programme level. Due to the lack of resources such as suitable venues for small group teaching, staff’ finds it very difficult to implement new teaching and learning methods together with or instead of the current traditional practices at a programme level. A participant noted: So that is a challenge, we don’t have resources in the form of assistance to help us with trying to get this students into smaller groups.

The response of the above-mentioned participant highlights the emergence of a lack of space to translate the teaching and learning model at a programme level.

The tension further increases among discipline-specific lecturers and management, especially when ideas are not cascaded down from the institutional to the programme level. Owing to the lack of support from the institution lecturers often find that translating the teaching and learning model at a programme level is overwhelming. One participant articulated this challenge as follows: With support now the problem is, here we are and I have to teach myself and if I have to be thrown into the deep end, having to manage designing and manage, I don’t know – it is overwhelming.

The above-mentioned comment highlights the need to understand academics at the programme level who are involved in teaching and learning. Chalmers 2007 stated that it is important for academics at a programme level to examine and revising relevant policies’ and practices that impact on the quality of teaching and learning. The Teaching and Learning Charter formulated by Higher Education South Africa (HESA 2012) acknowledged that the success of teaching and learning activities requires inputs and undertakings from a wide range of stakeholders.

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The academic staffs are of the opinion that if they are respected and valued by the institutional context the campus at a programme level will be enabling for teaching and learning. Receiving support by creating an environment that is conducive to learning therefore is essential to ensuring that teaching and learning model is implemented at a programme level. The lack of resources at a programme level to implement the teaching and learning model can become a hindering factor. A typical example is when lecturers discover that the lecture rooms are in a bad state of repair. This strengthens the belief among lecturers that the institutional context is not an environment that is conducive to teaching and learning at a programme level. A participant reflected: That you have to carry your computer, your projector, your files with whatever stuff in, and yes, we … then you have to be in the U-block and then in the B-block. There are problems with that … There is too much light for them to see the slide shows …

The environment often compromises the purpose of the teaching and learning model. This is evident in the following university of technology from a lecturer: You try to teach, but i think the environment at times could also hamper the learning in the process. The noises around the venues are also disturbing.

The above-mentioned views from the participants of the study show that lecturers require the university to work with them in a partnership by creating an environment that is conducive to teaching and learning at a programme level.

TENSIONS AT THE DISCIPLINE LEVEL The environment often compromises the purpose of the teaching and learning model at a discipline-specific level. A disabling environment creates and develops various kinds of behaviour from lecturers at the discipline-specific level. A disabling environment can cause lecturers to go to class unprepared.

This is reflected in the following comment: It is also true that some lecturers are not up to the task.

Lecturers are able to complete the lecture in 45 minutes but some lecturers do it in 20 minutes. He is supposed to be there for 45 minutes. But he decides to arrive late until the student starts complaining.

In a disabling environment teaching and learning often becomes information transfer from the lecturer to the student and this promotes a surface-level approach to learning with limited student engagement at a discipline-specific level. These kind of teaching and learning methods are not advocated and capsulated in the teaching and learning model. One of the participants argued as follows:

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… but then you find it difficult to move around, because the venues in most cases cannot hold the number of students, but the number of students can become a problem to them on its own. That is why I am saying most of the lecturers you find that they are stepping in front, just passing information; it is the most convenient way of teaching.

This kind of behaviour displayed by discipline-specific lecturers’ shows that when a teaching and learning model is implemented without an operational plan a lack of understanding concerning the role of the lecturer within the teaching and learning environment emerges. This is supported by (HESA 2012) that argued that the teaching and learning charter formulated by Higher Education South Africa stated that it is the responsibility of the institution to create an enabling environment which will ensure quality interaction between teachers and students. The behaviour cited in the above-mentioned comment shows that lecturers do not understand their role in enhancing student learning and contributing to the quality level of interaction in the class at a disciplinespecific level as capsulated in the teaching and learning model. Tinto (2007) emphasised that the interaction among students, as well as between students and the lecturer, should be of high quality otherwise it could result in the students failing or dropping out.

DISCUSSION The results of the study imply that without an operational plan the teaching and learning model will not be cascaded down from the institutional level to the programme and discipline-specific level. This inference supports the recommendations of a study by Watts et al. (2007) that, at the system level, operational paradigms may need to be examined and networks expanded or reconfigured. As a result the implementation of the teaching and learning model is left within the hands of few and becomes a disenabling process. Cameron and Quinn (2006) stated that when procedures and strategies are altered without the necessary resources, disabling environments for teaching and learning emerge rather than enabling environments.

The lack of an operational plan and limited resources creates a vacuum which results in academics competing for limited resources at a programme and discipline-specific level. This view is supported by Cameron and Quinn (2006) who argued that the transformation of an institutional context depends on culture change, due to the fact that when values, orientations, definitions and goals stay constant – even when procedures and strategies are altered without the necessary resources – institutional contexts return quickly to the status quo.

Central to the research results are four underlying principles when implementing a teaching and learning model at the institutional, programme and discipline-specific level. These principles are: 1. The institutional context can never be underestimated as it shapes the conceptual framework for a teaching and learning model but if it is not accompanied by an operational plan which includes the programme and © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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discipline-specific level the teaching and learning model will remain a conceptual framework at an institutional level (OECD, 2012).

2. The implementation of the teaching and learning model is interlinked at an institutional, programme and discipline-specific level and works together to ensure that the operational plan is implemented within a university of technology (OECD, 2012).

3. The teaching and learning model is shaped at the programme level because this is where the comprising actions to measure and enhancing the design, content and delivery of the programmes. Should the programme level not be implemented correctly, the lack of implementation will have a negative impact on the implementation at a discipline level. This will result in individuals having difficulty at a discipline level in achieving their mission, encouraging them to innovate and to support improvements to student learning and adopt a learneroriented focus (HĂŠnard and Roseveare, 2012).

4. When the teaching and learning model is not implemented with an operational plan which includes institutional, programme and discipline-specific level, a disenabling environment is created for teaching and learning at a university of technology (Adams and Granic, 2009).

CONCLUSION In conclusion it should be noted that teaching and learning model must be accompanied by an operational plan which includes the institutional, programme and discipline-specific levels. When the teaching and learning model is not implemented with an operational plan which includes these levels, a disenabling environment is created for teaching and learning at a university of technology. The insights from academics in of the current teaching and learning practices at a university of technology help towards understanding of how tensions have an effect at an institutional, programme and discipline-specific level when a teaching and learning model is implemented without an operational plan. It is recommended that further research be done on the content of an operational plan for a teaching and learning model at a university of technology. Such a plan should entail a step-by-step approach that includes the institutional, programme and discipline-specific levels to ensure that the operational plan is implemented successfully within a university of technology.

REFERENCES Abualrub, I., Karseth, B. & B. Stensaker. (2013). The various understandings of learning environment in higher education and its quality implications, Quality in Higher Education 19(1), 90–110.

Adams, R.G. & Granic, A. (2009). Cognitive learning approaches to the design of accessible e-learning systems. In: Cognitive and emotional processes in web-based education: integrating human factors and personalization. Mourlas, Constantinos and Tsianos, Nikos and Germanakos, Panagiotis , eds. Information Science Publishing. ISBN 9781605663920.

Altbach, P. G., L. Reisberg, & Rumbley, L.E. (2009). Trends in global higher education: Tracking an academic revolution. A Report Prepared for the UNESCO 2009 World Conference on Higher Education. http://www.unesco.org/tools/fileretrieve/2844977e.pdf.

Š 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Cameron, K. & Quin, R.E.. (2006). Diagnosing and Changing Organizational Culture: Based on the Competing Values Framework. Beijing: China Renmin University Press.

Chalmers, D. (2007). A review of Australian and international quality systems and indicators of learning and teaching, Carrick Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, Australia.

Gibb, G. (2010). Dimensions of quality. Higher Education Academy, September 2010.

Hénard, F. & D. Roseveare. (2012). Fostering Quality Teaching in Higher Education: Policies and Practices. Institutional Management in Higher Education, www.oecd.org/edu/imhe/.

Henning, E., W. van Rensburg & Smit, B. (2004). Finding your way in Qualitative Research. Van Schaik: Pretoria.

HESA (Higher Education South Africa). (2012). Response to the Green Paper for Post‐School Education and Training.

Haung, L. S. & Fisher, D. (2011). Association of the University Learning Environment with Academic Engagement and Satisfaction among Science Majors in Taiwan. The Asian-Pacific Education Researcher 20(2), 291-307 Knapper, C. (2003). Three decades of educational development. International Journal for Academic Development 8(1/2), 5–9.

Kuh, G.D. (2008). High-Impact Education Practices. Washington D.C.: Association of American Colleges and Universities.

Kuh, G., J. Kinzie, J. Schuh., E. Whitt,. & Associates. (2010). Students’ success in college: Creating conditions that matter. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Lazerson, M., U. Wagener & Shumanis, N. (2000). Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 1980–2000 Change 32(3), 2000, 12–19.

National Planning Commission. (2012). Our future make it work. National Development Plan 2030.

OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). (2012). Better Skills, Better Jobs, Better Lives: A Strategic Approach to Skills Policies, OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264177338-en.

Pascarella, E. T. & Terenzini, P.T. (2005). How College Affects Students, Volume 2, A Third Decade of Research. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Scott, I.R. (2009). Higher Education Studies in South Africa: Academic Development.

Unpublished manuscript.

Scott, I. R., N. Yeld & Hendry, J. (2007). Higher education monitor: A case for improving teaching and learning in South African higher education. Pretoria: Council on Higher Education.

Tinto, V. (2007). Research and practice of student retention: What next? Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice 8(1): 1–19.

Watts, J., R. Mackay, D. Horton, A. Hall, B. Douthwaite, R. Chambers & Acosta, A. (2007). Institutional Learning and Change: An Introduction, ILAC Working Paper 3, second edition, Institutional Learning and Change Initiative, Bioversity International, Rome : Maccarese (Fiumicino).

Wolf-Wendel, L., K. Ward & Kinzie, J. (2009). A tangled web of terms: The overlap and unique contribution of involvement, engagement, and integration to understanding college student success Journal of College Student Development, 50: 407–428.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 6, No.1, pp. 32-42, June 2014

Effects of Bioethics Integration on the Critical Thinking and Decision-Making Skills of High School Students Sally B. Gutierez National Institute for Science and Mathematics Education Development University of the Philippines Diliman Quezon City, Philippines Rosanelia T.Yangco College of Education University of the Philippines Diliman Quezon City, Philippines

Abstract. Students nowadays are becoming responsive and aware of their rights and privileges. As such, educational institutions started to develop the cognitive skills of students such as their critical thinking and decision-making skills across disciplines. This study focused on Bioethics Integration in high school Biology classes to determine its effects on the critical thinking and decision-making skills of the students. Using a quasi-experimental research design, results of the t-test on the pre- and post-test mean scores of students significantly revealed that Bioethics Integration is another useful approach in teaching high school biology.

Various teaching strategies were employed in teaching such as moral games, debates, and group case analyses. In this study, the positive effects of Bioethics Integration were influenced by factors such as interactive teaching strategies used, timeliness of the topics, and teacherâ€&#x;s questioning strategies. Group work and collaborative effort in most of the activities of students enhanced their capacity to communicate well allowing them to gain respect from their peers for their opinions–the first step in developing ethics in the learning environment.

Keywords: bioethics; biology education; critical thinking skills; decisionmaking skills

Introduction The continuous advancement of biotechnology and cell biology during the past decades has been coupled with ethical issues (Hails, 2004). The benefits and risks of these biotechnological advancements like genetic engineering, stem cell research, cloning, the Human Genome Project, Genetically Modified Organisms (Hails, 2004) and their social acceptance comprise most of the issues. This scientific dilemma has propelled educators to make their students more informed and critical in judging such issues. In scientific researches, ethics has emerged with the gruesome medical experiments on genetics concerning the Š 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

33

Human Genome Project and the clinical trials during its completion stages (Terec-Vlad & Terec-Vlad, 2013). Thus, there have been efforts to reinforce more of bioethics especially in research institutions.

Initially, with the aim to address and lessen public misinformation, bioethics education began to be included in the tertiary education curricula with emphasis on medical and health issues such as gene therapy and euthanasia. In these curricula, most of the topics are geared towards the training on heightened sensitivity of students on ethical issues and values in medicine. This is to ensure that science and technology are used to protect rather than endanger human dignity, health, well-being, and diversity (Selvakumar & Joseph, 2004).

Skills in dealing with ethical problems arising in the healthcare environment are given more emphasis and in fact taken as obligatory continuing medical education requirements (Robb, Etchells, Cusimano, Cohen, Singer, & McKneally, 2005). According to Turrens (2005), the inclusion of bioethics in the biomedical sciences program improved the awareness of students on the current bioethical problems and issues concerning professional integrity. In Malaysian Law schools, bioethics is simultaneously discussed with Medical Law courses focusing on medico-legal issues such as medical negligence, informed consent, euthanasia, abortion, organ transplantation, brain death, and stem cell researches (Kamilan, Ashiqin & Amin, 2011).

The burden of establishing morally acceptable practices falls on everyone. Thus, there is a need to extend beyond the professional communities of the bioengineering and biotechnology industries for thoughtful engagement in bioethical decision making (Lee, 2011). Since it has been offered in the tertiary education, secondary students also need to be informed not only about the significant facts and theories of the natural sciences but also the conflicts of values and ideals arising from the practical applications of these facts and theories.

Most of the time, studentsâ€&#x; curiosity is focused on the environment around them. In fact, the continuous advancement of biotechnology and bioengineering has caught a lot of their attention (Urker, Yildiz, & Cobanoglu, 2012). As a result, there is an inherent tendency for them to ethically question them and this can be answered e enhanced through bioethics integration in science classes.

This may set the role of bioethics education to impart a set of skills and attitudes that may give students the opportunity to explore current social and ethical questions in a professional and personal way.

Value judgments in terms of stimulating the moral imagination of students through analysis of key concepts and principles and recognition of ethical issues may help students develop the responsibility to deal with moral ambiguity and disagreement. In fact, recognizing social norms is a secondary measure of performance in value-assessment and is necessary when one reflects on what others think (Parker & Fischhoff, 2005). It is also important to increase public awareness on the newly emerging trends in genetics and biotechnology not only Š 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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through media but with well-structured information dissemination in the education setting (de Castro, 2000).

One of the basic goals of education is to train students to become critical thinkers and decision makers. This is to equip them with the ability to assess increasing amounts of information they are presented with from a variety of sources in their everyday lives (Butchart, Bigelow, Oppy, Korb & Gold, 2009). Critical thinking and decision-making skills are two of the skills which can be enhanced through bioethics integration in life science classes because the application of scientific knowledge is one of the primary concerns of the subject matter. In this teaching approach, students will share the responsibility of valuing inquiry on moral issues quite urgent in the world today. This can lead them to better understand and simplify on their own the growing complexity brought about by technology.

While various learning strategies and approaches for teaching ethical aspects of science have been developed in recent years, Asada, Tsuzuki, Akiyama, Macer, and Macer, (1996) mentioned that the exploration of socio-scientific issues helps develop studentsâ€&#x; self-confidence, enhance critical thinking, enable more balanced consideration of socio-scientific issues, and stimulate sensitivity to the rights of others. Greater understanding and tolerance of the religious, spiritual or secular beliefs, and the cultural traditions and values of others may also be enhanced. Classroom-based resources produced for bioethics education can help build frameworks within which these tensions may be explored in a culturally-informed and respectful environment.

This anticipates the involvement of biology teachers in raising controversial issues as well as stressing why decisions about science and technology are made (Jones, 2007).

Bioethics integration can therefore be a timely approach to enhance critical thinking and decision-making skills among secondary students. Science, which plays a major role in the changing physical world, can be taught in a proactive manner that aims to develop the critical thinking and decision-making skills of students.

Method This study used the quasi-experimental design with non-equivalent group of research participants who belong to the Grade 8 level from two intact classes in a Philippine public school in Region 4A. In the Philippines, grouping of students in sections is usually done prior to the formal start of classes in June. Because of this, the researchers were not able to do discretionary measures to re-group the students. However, according to the school officials, the student groups were heterogeneous, meaning; these students were not grouped according to intellectual capability.

During the study, one group was exposed to Bioethics Integration (Bioethics Integration Group) while the other group was not (Conventional Group). Both

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35

groups took the pre- and post-test of the Quantitative Critical Thinking Skills Survey (QCTSS) and Decision-Making Skills Survey (DMSS).

The QCTSS was an instrument designed around the cognitive processes of analysis, inference, and evaluation. Six passages on food biotechnology were presented followed by 2 to 4 multiple choice questions each. Each of the items in the instrument was worth one point with a maximum of fifteen (15) points.

The DMSS, on the other hand, is composed of items which were mostly focused on bioethical issues concerning biotechnology, environmental degradation and cancer research. Four scenarios with two (2) to three (3) open-ended questions were constructed that aims to measure the decision-making skills of students.

Each of the questions ranged from 2 to 5 maximum points as indicated. In this instrument, students were required to process the information presented and make decisions considering scientific, technological, ethical, moral, and public policies. Three raters assessed the student answers using a rubric which was subjected to inter-rater agreement (Cohenâ€&#x;s kappa).

The instruments were pilot tested to 30 peer-teachers in the field of Biology and 39 Grade 8 students of the school year 2011- 2012. Both groups were chosen based on the assumption that the lessons to where bioethics will be integrated were already familiar to them. Both instruments were subjected to item analyses followed by modifications based from the result of the pilot testing. Reliability and validity analyses were ensured prior to the start of the teaching intervention/data gathering. The difference between the pre-tests and the posttests were compared within and across groups to determine if the intervention had an effect on the critical thinking and decision-making skills of the students.

Results and Discussion The burden of establishing morally acceptable practices falls on everyone. There is therefore a need to extend beyond the professional communities of the bioengineering and biotechnology industries for thoughtful engagement in bioethical decision making (Sleeboom-Faulkner & Hwang, 2012). Since it has been offered in the tertiary level, secondary students also need to be informed not only about the significant facts and theories of the natural sciences but also the conflicts of values and ideals arising from their practical applications. In this quasi-experimental study, it was observed that the integration of Bioethics in the biology lessons of students significantly improved studentsâ€&#x; critical thinking skills as shown in the Table 1.

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Table 1. Independent samples t-test for the pre- and post-test mean scores for the Quantitative Critical Thinking Skills Survey (QCTSS).

Measure

Pre-test Post-test

Group

Mean

SD

BI Approach Conventional BI Approach Conventional

6.25 5.61 8.14 7.21

1.84 1.99 1.73 1.82

df

t-ratio

Sig. value

72

1.44

.153

72

2.25

.028

Aligned with the objective of the TIMSS which is to train students towards higher-order l thinking skills in science, Bioethics Integration is therefore a very timely effort to address this objective as seen from the results of this study. This is in accordance to the objective of science which is to prepare students to become active and responsible within a technologically-based society.

According to Nelson (1994), enabling students to think critically is one of the central objectives of liberal and professional education.

The results of the study support Kennedy, Fisher, and Ennis (1991) that the early training of students to think critically results to the appropriate use of their basic science process skills to find logical answers to everyday problems. It further supports the claim of Gleason, Melancon and Keline (2010) that the aim of scientific literacy should be the training of students to evaluate and express their positions on both local and international issues. In this study, the early exposure of the students to bioethical issues is a significant start to awaken their critical-mindedness in assessing socio-scientific issues.

Table 2 presents the related samples t-test which also supports the significant improvement of the critical thinking skills of students through Bioethics Integration.

Table 2. Related samples t-test for the pre- and post-test mean scores for the Quantitative Critical Thinking Skills Survey (QCTSS).

Group

QCTSS Pre-test Mean

QCTSS Post-test Mean

QCTSS Pre-test Standard Deviation

QCTSS Post-test Standard Deviation

BI Approach

6.25

8.14

1.84

Conventional

5.61

7.21

1.99

df

t-ratio

1.73

35

4.46

1.82

37

3.58

Sig. value .000

.001

Questioning is considered to be one of the most important tools for educators to encourage critical thinking among students (Khan & Inamullah, 2011). In this Š 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

37

research, the teacher‟s questions were mostly focused on developing the critical thinking skills of students. Because of this, students were forced to do higherorder thinking skills in order to answer their teacher. When questions are structured at higher levels, there is more opportunity for the students to engage in critical thinking. This leads to increased class participation.

In this study, the teaching method employed by the teacher was augmented by the teacher‟s questioning skills where questions were mostly focused on analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Kerry (2002) claimed that questions play an important role in the processes of teaching and learning. Moreover students‟ achievement and level of engagement depend on the types of questions teachers ask. It is therefore important that teaching and learning be set to a social activity where teachers and students construct and synthesize knowledge mutually through active processing, thinking about, and using information productively (Mauigoa-Tekene, 2006). This means that teachers‟ questions are imperative to students‟ learning. They mediate the interactive processes in the learning environment in a number of important ways and that questions that teachers formulate and ask are considered to be cues and clues which focus the students‟ attention on what needs to be learned.

Aside from higher-order questioning during lecture-discussions, the teacher also asked the students to do group analyses of socio-scientific issues with teacherinitiated questions and gave them the opportunity to do collaborative thinking.

Through this method, the students were able to respond in a positive, more elaborate, wider range of explanation, and in-depth manner indicating improved critical thinking and decision-making skills. This is aligned with the results of the study of Macer (2004) that the use of socio-scientific issues made students aware of the balanced risks and benefits of science and technology development with reasoned arguments. In this study, the teacher‟s prompted questions therefore, served and led students in preparing their own related questions that eventually enriched the classroom interactions. This supports the claim of Khan and Inamullah that “questions should be asked to individual pupils, to the whole class, or to small groups to arouse curiosity, focus attention, develop an active approach, stimulate pupils thinking, structure the tasks, diagnose difficulties, communicate expectations, help children reflect, develop thinking skills, help group reflection, provoke discussion, and show interest in pupils‟ ideas.”

According to Mauigoa-Tekene (2006), if students‟ learning is to be promoted in ways consistent with contemporary learning theories, then training teachers to ask high-level questions in appropriate ways is essential. Similarly, as the knowledge society dominates the new millennium, teachers need to make more informed decisions pertaining to students‟ learning for better achievement outcomes. Based from this study, by understanding the arguments and views of students through Bioethics Integration activities, students‟ academic performances can be improved.

© 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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In most of the group activities, case analyses of bioethical issues were presented to the students. This allowed them to experience real situations that offered them the chance for direct data analysis including consideration of the outcomes (Popil, 2011). This approach served as a venue for the students to experience a dynamic environment where they were exposed to decision-making and problem solving. Most of the time, students presented arguments that are in harmony with their group claims. According to Popil (2011), when students are subjected to analysis of issues in a democratic way, students give immediate feedback since it incorporates active learning and promotes decision making in a non-threatening environment. According to Kunselman and Johnson (2004), this approach is of great help in making teachers rethink their strategies of teaching, renew their interest towards the course material, and create a higher level of enthusiasm for them.

In the field of educational research, decision-making skills have gained attention. In science education, researches are focused on how studentsâ€&#x; decision-making skills would contribute to their values and enhance their critical thinking skills (Davies, 2004). Coles and Norman (2005) noted that these values have important influences on designing behavior. It can also be said that decisions are affected by preferences, opinions, emotions, and culture characteristics (Mettas, 2011). In this study, it is clear that since students were constantly trained to make decisions through class activities, they have developed the values necessary for positive cognition.

Since decision-making skills are considered higher-order thinking skills, it was assumed that only top performing students can acquire such skills especially in the basic education setting. In this study, results show that even students in the lower sections (students not included in the honors section) can also develop this skill if only given the chances by their teachers. Thus, teachers play a crucial role in developing this cognitive skill among their students. Their reflections about previous classroom interactions determine their plans and expectations of what they wish to happen next.

Similar to the results of the QCTSS, Table 3 reveals the significant improvement in the scores of the students in the DMSS. Table 3. Independent samples t-test for the pre- and post-test mean scores for the Decision-Making Skills Survey (DMSS).

Measure

Pre-test

Post-test

Group

Mean

SD

BI Approach

11.03

2.51

Conventional

10.39

1.65

BI Approach

22.39

1.78

Conventional

18.29

1.49

Š 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

df

t-ratio

Sig. value

72

1.29

.202

72

10.78

.000

39

Prior to this study, it was hypothesized that students could not possibly express their opinions on issues they were presented with. Because of this, the teacher decided to accept all students‟ responses to arrive at a unified decision during informal debates. Through this approach, students became more open and confident in communicating their opinions. This accounted for the positive effects of Bioethics integration on the students‟ performances. This result is supported by the study of Pomahac, Gunn, and Grigg (2007) that bioethical issues established deeper critical thinking and respect of the diversity of opinions among students. Moreover, Quitadamo, Brahler, and Crouch (2009) confirmed that when group work is applied in most classroom activities, students‟ performance is enhanced due to the opportunity to solve problems in an interactive manner.

Similar results were drawn from the study as shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Related samples t-test for the pre- and post-test mean scores for the DecisionMaking Skills Survey (DMSS).

DMSS DMSS Standard Standard Sig. Pre-test Post-test Deviation Deviation df t-ratio value Group Mean Mean Pre-test Post-test BI Approach

11.03

22.39

2.51

1.78

35

24.00

.000

Conventional

10.39

18.29

1.65

1.49

37

23.43

.000

In this study, Bioethics was integrated in the BI Group through various ways such as argumentation/debate activities, case analyses, and moral games to enhance the students‟ critical thinking and decision-making skills. It is the aim of Bioethics Integration to minimize rote learning and teacher-centeredness so as to make students more aware and responsible regarding the emerging trends in Biology.

During the early classroom sessions, it was observed that students were slightly passive but as the intervention went along, they openly communicated with their teacher leading to an active learning environment. This can be attributed to the teaching approaches used to which the students were exposed. Because of the constant interactive activities in class, students had sufficient opportunity to develop their critical thinking skills as they participate actively in the learning process (Yahya, Sidek & Jano, 2011). Studies claim that the social interaction between students has a positive effect on the development of critical thinking and decision-making skills both of teachers and students. Van Amburgh, Devlin, Kirwin, and Qualters (2007) claim that in this teaching approach, active learning is emphasized so that students think about what they are doing. As such, since students are trained to manage their own opinions, they develop the ability to work collaboratively with enough consideration of others‟ opinions which is a component of ethics in the learning environment. Proponents of collaborative thinking (Totten, Sills, Digby & Russ, 1989) claim that through collaborative thinking, “students are actively exchanging, debating, and negotiating ideas within their groups, thus increasing their‟ interest in learning.” © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

40

Most of the time, studentsâ€&#x; curiosity is focused on the environment around them. In fact, the inevitable advancement on biotechnology and bioengineering has caught a lot of their attention. As a result, there is an inherent tendency for them to make sense of it through ethical questioning which can be enhanced through Bioethics Integration. This may set the role of bioethics education to impart a set of skills and attitudes that may give students the opportunity to explore current social and ethical questions in a professional and personal way.

Value judgments in terms of stimulating the moral imagination of students through analysis of key concepts and principles and recognition of ethical issues may help students develop the responsibility to deal with moral ambiguity and disagreement. In fact, recognizing social norms is a secondary measure of performance in value-assessment and is necessary when one reflects on what others think (Parker & Fischhoff, 2005). It is also important to increase public awareness on the newly emerging trends in genetics and biotechnology not only through the media but with well-structured information dissemination through education (de Castro, 2000).

While various learning strategies and approaches for teaching ethical aspects of science have been developed in recent years, Asada, Tsuzuki, Akiyama, Macer, & Macer, (1996) mentioned that the exploration of socio-scientific issues helps develop studentsâ€&#x; self-confidence, enhances critical thinking, enables more balanced consideration of these issues, and stimulate sensitivity to the rights of others. Greater understanding and tolerance of the religious, spiritual or secular beliefs, and the cultural traditions and values of others may also be enhanced.

Classroom-based resources produced for bioethics education can help build frameworks within which biology lessons may be explored in a culturallyinformed and respectful environment. This anticipates the involvement of biology teachers in raising controversial issues as well as stressing why decisions about science and technology are made (Jones, 2007).

Conclusion One of the basic goals of education is to train students to become critical thinkers and decision makers. This is to prepare students to become more informed of the issues which the current society is facing because of biological advancements.

Critical thinking and decision-making skills are two of the higher-order thinking skills which can be enhanced in the life science classes because the application of scientific knowledge is the primary concern of the subject matter. In this teaching approach, students will share the responsibility of valuing inquiry on moral issues quite urgent in the world today. This can lead them to better understand and simplify on their own the growing complexity brought about by technology. Bioethics integration can therefore be a timely approach to enhance critical thinking and decision-making skills among secondary students. Science, which plays a major role in the changing physical world, can be taught in a proactive manner that aims to develop their higher-order thinking skills.

Š 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

41

References Asada, Y., Tsuzuki, M., Akiyama, S., Macer, N.Y., & Macer, D.R.J. (1996). High school teaching of bioethics in New Zealand, Australia and Japan. Journal of Moral Education, 25 (4), 401-420.

Butchart, S. Bigelow, J., Oppy, G., Korb, K., & Gold, I. (2009). Improving critical thinking using web based argument mapping exercises with automated feedback.

Australasian Journal of Educational Technology 25(2), 268-291.

Coles, R., & Norman, E., (2005). An exploration of the role values plays in design decision-making‟. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 15, 155-171.

Davies, L. (2004). „Planning, managing and teaching decision-making for 11-14 year olds‟, In I. Mottier & M. de Vries (Eds) Proceedings of 14 th PATT conference, New Mexico, USA. de Castro, L. (2000). Bioethics for dummies. Proceedings of the Seventh Session of the UNESCO International Bioethics Committee, Division of Human Sciences, Philosophy and the Ethics of Science and Technology of UNESCO, pp. 13-20.

Selvakumar, D., & Joseph, L. B. M. (2004). The importance of including bio-medical ethics in the curriculum of health education institutes. Education for Health 17(1), 93-96.

Gleason, M.L., Melancon, M. E., & Keline, K.L.M. (2010). Using critical literacy to explore genetics and its ethical, legal, and social issues with in-Service secondary teachers. CBE Life Sciences Education, 9(4), 422-430.

Hails, R. (2004). Bioethics for technology. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 15,250–253.

Jones, A. (2007). Research and development of classroom-based resources for bioethics education in New Zealand. Hamilton, NZ, Wilf Malcolm Institute of Educational Research, School of Education, University of Waikato.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 43-56, June 2014

Effects of Tissue Properties on OJT for Japanese Elementary School Teachers Masaaki Murakami University of Tsukuba Tokyo, Japan

Abstract. The aging of Japan’s elementary school teachers has made it necessary to implement more effective on-the-job-training (OJT) for junior faculty. Several approaches have been proposed to enhance the effectiveness of OJT for teachers. This study clarifies the effects of OJT on the tissue properties for elementary school teachers with one to two years of experience. Factor analysis is applied to questionnaire data to clarify a conceptual scheme. My proposed hypothesis about types of OJT includes indirect effects and differences in work experience. The hypothesis is verified by multiple regression analysis and t-tests. Results indicate that first types of OJT show indirect effects on tissue properties.

Second, differences emerging types of OJT, tissue properties and performance in the recognition of teachers who have one to two years of experience. The study clarifies the relationship between types of OJT and their effects on tissue properties.

Keywords: OJT type; performance; tissue property; indirect effect; difference in experience

1. Introduction The number of young faculty in Japan’s elementary schools has been rising as mass numbers of baby boomers retire (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, 2011, 2012). Human resource development for teachers is a critical issue in every municipality. In addition, teachers’ organizations face challenges in promoting diversity, which are complicated by current social changes in Japan.

The Tokyo Metropolitan Board of Education composed a human resource development policy in 2008 to address these challenges, and on-the-job training (OJT) guidelines were formulated based on this policy(Tokyo Metropolitan Board of Education, 2012). Goals and methods specified in these guidelines include building teachers’ competence, fostering their decision-making ability and enhancing their ability to contribute to their organizations. It is necessary to promote teacher development through intentional, planned and continued OJT. However, OJT is left to each organization, and neither its effect nor its effectiveness has been verified empirically.

© 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

44

2. Theoretical Framework 2.1 Previous Research Studies that examine OJT and competence formation fall into three categories.

The first involves research related to OJT. Jong et al. (2001) classified four types of OJT but did not demonstrate its effects. Empirical studies have examined factors that influence the effectiveness of OJT; however, its actual impact remains unmeasured. Takahashi (2011) and Koike (2005) revealed that the accumulation of OJT has been poorly demonstrated because of difficulties in measuring and distinguishing training from work. Sato (2010) showed it is difficult to understand the implementation of OJT through research conducted in offices and companies. Thus, there is insufficient validation and understanding of the actual circumstances of OJT. The second category of research into OJT concerns the impact of guidance and support by supervisors on the formation of a novice’s skills. Drawing from a free-form questionnaire targeting 46 novice teachers, Yoshizaki (1998) demonstrated that guidance and advice from senior teachers and supervisors influence competence formation. Using multiple regression analysis, Yonezawa (2011) demonstrated that a supervisor’s presence enhances competence formation among novice elementary school teachers. He suggested that young teachers recognize the value of life guidance and support; that is, they value training that instils competence in building relationships, teaching human development, making lesson plans, engaging in teaching practice and responding to pupils. He also performed statistical verification through a survey of 228 newly hired young teachers two to three years earlier.

Previous studies classify several types of OJT. Jong et al. (2001) identified four types according to the roles of the subject, the person in charge or the leader of training courses: workplace instruction, apprenticeship, problem-solving instruction and feedback. Workplace learning resembles the type of OJT discussed in Sekine (2012) and Nakahara (2010). It is learning that contributes to an organization’s operation and occurs through interaction with artefacts and others to deepen the experience (Nakahara, 2010). Relationships with others and with co-workers are interposed with workplace learning. It is considered to be 1N type of OJT discussed in Saito (2010). Workplace learning can include socialization and participant observation. Feedback and problem solving (Jong et al., 2001) are included in self-learning, defined as proactive learning to establish goals and objectives (Knowles, 1975).

Previous studies examined how various items can be measured for their effect on competence formation or OJT. Van der Klink (2002) examined attitude and skills. Sakakibara (2004) analysed attitude and ability, capacity building and skills. Sekine (2012) and Yonezawa (2011) addressed competence. Matsuo (2011) studied skills. Therefore, scales for measuring the effect of OJT in prior studies can be classified into ability, skills and attitude.

The third category of research into OJT concerns how organizational conditions influence competence formation. Kikuchi et al. (1993) found from a © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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questionnaire-based study correlations between a novice’s competence formation and organizational culture. Tokita’s (2009) free-form questionnaire and interview surveys of principals revealed the importance of creating a school guidance and support system, and fostering a culture wherein all faculty nurture novice teachers. Yonezawa (2010) showed by correlation analysis that faculty guidance and organizational climate in teacher training schools significantly affect competence formation. Matsuo (2011) demonstrated the need to revise teaching methods to make them congruent with young people’s stages of development. Previous empirical research revealed that guidance by supervisors and faculty promotes competence formation among novices. This study suggests that competence formation is related to conditions observed in the tissue properties.

2.2 Research Question Three issues emerge from previous studies of OJT. First, verifying conditions that enhance the effectiveness of OJT is required. Previous studies correlated competence formation and organizational conditions such as tissue culture and support systems but have revealed no causal connections. It is necessary to verify the effects of tissue factors which include tissue culture and supports systems. Then, such property of tissue means what tissue culture and how support by being planned on OJT. Second, competence formation through OJT warrants examination. OJT is intended for novice elementary and junior high teachers in Kikuchi (1993) and elementary school teachers with two to three years of experience in Yonezawa (2011).A study of early-career effects of OJT on competence formation among novice teachers is important for accumulating research and fostering practice.

Third, it is necessary to measure OJT’s effects on performance using a reasonable scale. Previous studies proposed scales that demarcate ability, skills and attitude; however, it is impossible to objectively determine the effects of OJT by using them. This study uses performance as a measure. Takahashi (2010) defined performance as behaviour adopted to perform specific tasks in a defined period and its results. Borman and Motowidlo (1993) classified performance into task performance and contextual performance. Task performance is job behaviour adopted when conducting business and a role expected by an organization; contextual performance is behaviour that supports organizational, social and psychological environments and improves organizational functioning (Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994).

2.3Hypotheses We propose two hypotheses raised by issues in previous studies. The first is that effectiveness of OJT is enhanced indirectly by tissue properties. It should not lead to the effect by simply implementing OJT. There should be indirect drivers to be effective in the practice. Then, following Kikuchi et al. (1993) and Yonezawa (2010), we hypothesized that teachers who receive OJT recognize the indirect effects on performance of tissue properties in the guidance provided by differing types of OJT. Figure 1 shows the direct effects model of types of OJT © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

46

and performance drawn from studies such as Yonezawa (2011) to demonstrate the indirect effects of tissue properties. In this model, types of OJT are the explanatory variable and performance is the dependent variable. Figure 2 illustrates an indirect effects model by tissue characteristics based on the hypothesis. In this model, we added the tissue properties in the direct effects model as parameter to each variable in the direct effects model.

OJT type

Performance Figure 1. Direct effects model

OJT type

Tissue properties

Performance

Figure 2. Indirect effects model

Then, we revealed how implementation of OJT affects teachers’ performance during their first year after being hired. My second hypothesis is that teachers in their first year and second years recognize a difference among types of OJT, performance and tissue properties.

3. Methods 3.1 Sample and Experimental Design We surveyed teachers who receive OJT to locate those in their first and second years of employment in a public elementary school in Prefecture A. The survey using the same questionnaire was conducted two times, in August–September 2012and August–September 2013.I was required to submit my request to mail the questionnaire to the targeted teachers the year before the survey was to take place. We distributed 418 copies (140 copies the first time, 278 copies the second time) to teachers extracted at random from Prefecture A. They returned questionnaires in a self-addressed envelope enclosed with the survey.

Attributes of teachers who received OJT are as follows. Of 109 responses, 58% were newly hired teachers with one year of experience and 42% had two years of experience. By age, 82% were in their 20s, 12% in their 30s and 48% in their 40s.

The gender composition was 33% men and 67% women. As an indication of organizational size, 63% of schools had fewer than 18 classes and 37% had more.

These measures also were analyzed by factor analysis, multiple regression and ttest by RGui. 3.2 Measures To investigate the hypothesis, we established three scales for measuring types of OJT, performance and tissue properties performance. Types of OJT were configured into job instruction, workplace learning and self-directed learning.

We set three constructs and 19 measurement scales based of Knowles (1975), © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

47

Jong et al.(2001), OJT guidelines (Tokyo Metropolitan Board of Education, 2012), Sakakibara (2004) and Yonezawa (2011). We asked respondents for evaluations ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5) for each item.

We used task performance and contextual performance to construct a scale measuring the effect of OJT. Task performance was examined as the lower dimension based on four job performance criteria that teachers must meet (Sakakibara, 2004; Tokyo Metropolitan Board of Education, 2008) and the six criteria for job performance in Nakahara (2010).I constructed 14 measurements on the basis of improvement in skills and knowledge, goal-setting, information collection and analysis, judgment and decision making and situational awareness. We constructed 13 measurements for contextual performance on the basis of two concepts—cooperation with colleagues and devotion to duties— found in Ikeda (2010). We constructed 16 measurements on the basis of two concepts concerning tissue properties in Kikuchi et al. (1993), Yonezawa (2010) and Tokyo Metropolitan Board of Education (2012). The two concepts are atmosphere and planning of OJT. 4. Results This section explains the factor analysis of data concerning types of OJT, task performance, contextual performance and tissue properties. We performed multiple regression analysis and t-tests for each factor according to the hypothesis.

4.1Configuration of Scale Table 1 shows results of factor analysis (Varimax rotation) using the maximum likelihood method for data related to type of OJT. Four factors were extracted.

The first is guidance by participant observation because it features items concerning guidance in problem solving, devising improvement plans and opportunity to observe work. Cronbach’s alpha (α coefficient), obtained by reliability analysis, is 0.919. The second factor is guidance in self-directed learning (α coefficient = 0.964). It primarily features items related to self-evaluation and goal setting on the job. The third factor is guidance in improving teaching skills(α coefficient = 0.67), because it primarily features items related to guidance in developing teachers’ knowledge and skills, students’ life skills and school affairs. The fourth factor is guidance in socialization (α coefficient = 0.891). It features items related to collaboration with colleagues and the transmission of significant information.

Table 1 Results of Factor Analysis on Scale of OJT Type Item Ⅰ I was given the opportunity to observe the nature .703 of the job and classes by my OJT supervisor.

I received guidance when observing the state of .628 work and classes.

I have been consideration to be received guidance .568 from colleagues and senior workers. © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Ⅱ

Ⅲ

Ⅳ

.15

.378

.144

.48

.309

.113

.264

.19

.227

48

My OJT instructor shared with members of the workplace situation.

I received guidance in collecting information needed to advance the work.

I received instructions in thinking the improvement plan at work.

I was given responsibility for a particular task.

I received guidance in problem solving.

I received guidance on setting professional and personal goals.

I received guidance about planning work for personal growth.

I received guidance in self-evaluation for professional and personal growth.

I received instructions in the knowledge and skills related to teaching.

I received instructions in the knowledge and skills related to lifestyle guidance of children.

I received instructions in knowledge and skills related to school affairs.

I received instructions in knowledge and techniques related to external negotiations.

I received advice on attitudes about life and work.

I was told the meaning and significance of the work.

I received guidance about sharing and performing duties in cooperation with colleagues.

Square sum of the load amount Proportion Var

.442

.358

.347

.368

.616

.438

.242

.191

.664

.343

.589 .565

.194 .416

.255 .185

.215 .315

.322

.832

.157

.32

.353

.824

.166

.296

.27

.782

.249

.353

.655

.138

.548

.376

.536

.101

.729

.109

.196

.288

.682

.499

.18

.334

.643

.365

.16

.263

.444

.688

.348

.342

.158

.789

.308

.359

.21

.624

4.31 .227

3.67 .193

2.91 .153

2.82 .148

Table 2 shows the results of factor analysis (Varimax rotation) using the maximum likelihood method for data concerning questions about task performance. Three factors were extracted. The first is goal setting (α = .917). It mainly features items corresponding to goals. The second factor is improving teaching skills (α = .868). It features items about planning, providing appropriate guidance and responsibility for duties. The third factor is information collection and analysis (α = .875). It features items related to collecting and analysing information.

Table 2 Results of Factor Analysis on Scale of Task Performance Item Ⅰ I can find the goal at work. .857 I can now consider concrete methods for achieving an .824 objective.

I can now address achievement of a target .752 independently.

Iam now better at planning and implementation of .568 teaching.

I can have a better life through guidance. .379 © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Ⅱ .257

Ⅲ .153

.253

.269

.311

.266

.428

.317

.499

.373

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I can now participate in school affairs.

I can support parents, community and outside agencies better than before.

I now grasp the progress of work.

I am more able to tackle the job on the basis of understanding the situation.

I can extract the problem by considering the contents of the work.

I became able to collect and analyze information necessary to work I can now determine the severity or urgency of problems.

I can now make decisions with respect to issues Square sum of the load amount Proportion Var

.243

.627

.29

.252

.615

.228

.28

.773

.175

.246

.711

.425

.177

.377

.774

.371

.324

.71

.242 .438 3.13 .24

.501 .226 3.08 .237

.453 .478 2.29 .176

Table 3 shows the results of factor analysis (Varimax rotation) using the maximum likelihood method for data concerning questions about contextual performance. Two factors were extracted. The first is dedication and cooperation (α = .88). It features items concerning efforts to improve duties, share information and collaborate with senior colleagues. The second factor is independence (α = .88).

It features items related to work commitment, management and self-discipline.

Table 3 Results of Factor Analysis on Scale of Contextual Performance Item Ⅰ Ⅱ I became able to complete my duties responsibly without .504 .24 supervision and instruction.

I began to undertake self-development at all times. .604 .219 Ibegan to be able to enthusiastically tackle the improvement of .761 .128 business and difficult business.

I began to continue to overcome the obstacles to achieve the .704 .208 object.

I began to solve work problems proactively. .669 .372 I began to pay closer attention to the important duties. .54 I was able to cooperate with colleagues and seniors. .522 .28 I now react and feel the sensitivity of requests by colleagues .677 .256 and seniors.

I am able to share information about duties in the workplace. .718 .211 I began to tackle positively difficult work. .56 .458 I began to work harder than expected. .151 .986 I have begun practice self-management and self-discipline. .54 .417 Square sum of the load amount 4.02 2.03 Proportion Var .335 .169 Table 4 shows the results of factor analysis (Varimax rotation) using the maximum likelihood method for data concerning questions about the tissue properties. Three factors were extracted. The first is integral atmosphere (α = .93).

It features items related to guidance and evaluation of colleagues, the recognition of group consciousness and pride in work. The second factor is © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

50

planned implementation (α = .898). It features items related to creation of OJT program documents, determination of content and ongoing implementation.

The third factor is cooperative atmosphere(α = .631). It features items related to awareness of educational objectives, opportunities for consultation and lively discussion.

Table 4 Results of Factor Analysis on Tissue Property Item There was an atmosphere of positive evaluation for the efforts of others.

Guidance and advice about school affairs and educational activities has been carried out each other.

Teachers are talking about the growth of children in various situations.

There was a collective sense of ‘we’ among teachers.

Teachers were proud to work for the school.

The general atmosphere was one of extending knowledge and skills required for work.

Teachers was working area and guardians would appreciate the policy of guidance.

A plan document has been created.

The person in charge of OJT and its subject had been determined.

The specific content and duration of OJT has been established.

OJT was implemented in stages.

OJT has been continuously implemented.

Staff was aware of the school’s goals in their respective duties.

It is possible to exchange ideas freely at meetings.

Faculty can discuss personal troubles with each other.

Square sum of the load amount Proportion Var

Ⅰ

Ⅱ

Ⅲ .272

.743 .708

.212

.502

.643

.314

.159

.729 .522

.177 .249

.454 .656

.637

.225

.47

.645

.319

.384

.136

.729

.188

.335

.555 .926

.196

.105 .4

.85 .748

.238 .142

.334

.272

.526

.234 .328 3.68 .225

.159 3.48 .144

.836 .487 2.72 .122

4.2 Relation of various factors in OJT In this section, the path analysis was a repeated using multiple regression analysis on two or three levels. The explanatory variable was the higher variable in the two-level context, and the objective variable was the lower variable. We use multiple regression analysis by successive selection. We sought combinations of variables having the highest degrees of freedom, adjusting the contribution rate by increasing or decreasing the variable from the maximum model. Figures 3 and 4 show the results. Results from the path analysis are as follows.

First, we consider direct effects, which represent the impact of types of OJT on performance, to compare with the indirect effects in Figure 3. Figure 3 shows the direct effects of OJT on performance. This supports previous studies of the © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

51

implementation of OJT and its effects. Guidance in improving teaching skills showed a significant positive path to improving teaching skills. Guidance by participant observation showed a significant positive path to information collection and analysis and to dedication and cooperation. Thus, these types of OJ are found to be effective without mediation by tissue properties. However, several factors do not show a significant path.

[Task performance]

[OJT type] .405**

Guidance in improving teaching skills

.345*

Guidance by participant observation

.318*

Improving teaching skills R2 = .354***

Information collection and analysis R2 = .316***

Goal setting

Guidance in self-directed learning

R2 = .339***

[Contextual performance]

Dedication and cooperation R2 = .24***

Guidance in socialization

Independence R2 = .127** ***

p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05

Figure 3. Path diagram showing the direct effects model of OJT

From the results in Figure 4, we considered two points. First, we considered indirect effects, which represent the impact of types of OJT by mediating the tissue properties towards performance. Three types of OJT displayed significantly positive paths relative to five performance factors by mediating three tissue properties. Guidance by participant observation and Guidance in improving teaching skills show indirect effects on goal setting and improving teaching skills by mediating integral atmosphere of tissue properties. Teachers receiving OJT recognize the effects of these three tissue properties on the organization. Further, guidance by participant observation indicates the indirect effects of improving teaching skills, information collection and analysis, goal setting, dedication and cooperation by mediating the planned implementation.

This shows that teachers receiving OJT recognize the effects of guidance by participant observation on improving teaching skills, information collection and analysis, goal setting, dedication and cooperation. Only guidance by participant observation showed an indirect and significantly positive path to information collection and analysis such as task performance mediated by planned implementation. Guidance in self-directed learning showed an indirect effect by mediating the cooperative atmosphere of tissue properties, to goalsetting, dedication and cooperation and independence. The effect of a cooperative atmosphere is acknowledged by teachers who receive guidance in selfŠ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

52

evaluation and setting growth goals. Only guidance in self-directed learning showed a significant positive path to independence. Goal-setting showed indirect effects mediated by all tissue properties. It is important in performing duties and is apparently emphasized in OJT. The second point concerns factors that show no path. Guidance in socialization shows no path to performance, although other factors might relate to it.

[OJT type] Guidance to improve teaching skills

[Tissue property]

[Task performance] .412***

.274*

Integral atmosphere

.244*

R2=.346***

.322*

Improving teaching skills R2=.333***

.266*

Guidance by participant observation

.137*

.529***

Planed implementation

.303***

R2=.479***

Guidance for self-directed learning

Guidance for socialization

.281*

Information collection and analysis R2=.261***

Goal setting R2=.414***

.267**

[Contextual performance] .232

Cooperative atmosphere R2=.248***

*

.257 .551

*

Dedication and cooperation R2=.371***

***

Independence R2=.127** ***

p<.001, **p<.01, *p<.05

Figure 4. Path diagram showing the indirect effect model by tissue property

Table 5 shows the results of t-tests using means for each factor rated by teachers in their first and second years of experience. We considered the following points.

Among the factors related to types of OJT, differences emerged in guidance by participant observations, guidance in self-directed learning and guidance in socialization. This indicates that first-year teachers receiving OJT are more aware than second-year teachers of implementation in three types of OJT. Among tissue property factors, a difference emerged in planned implementation.

This indicates that OJT for first-year teachers is better planned than for secondyear teachers. Among performance factors, a difference emerged in goal-setting under task performance and dedication and cooperation under contextual performance. This indicates that goal-setting and dedication and cooperation are recognized by first-year teachers receiving OJT. Their recognition of each factor was higher than among second-year teachers. This result indicates that OJT for first-year teachers affects performance. Recognition by second-year teachers was below that of first-year teachers. It is considered the effect of factors other than OJT and the required contents changed through improved performance, which

Š 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

53

is effectiveness of OJT in the first year.

Table 5 Mean and standard deviation of OJT subject teachers’ group about each factor Factor name / Experience 1st year 2nd year t(N:63) (N:46) val ues 2.05 OJT type Guidance by participant 4.25 (.69) 3.95(.82) * observation 2.02 Guidance for self-directed 3.96(.95) 3.58(.98) * learning Guidance to improve teaching 4.39(.77) 4.29(.81) 0.65 skills Guidance for socialization 4.29(.75) 3.85(1.02) 2.58 *

Tissue property

Integral atmosphere Planed implementation

4.11(.75) 3.96(.92)

4.09(.76) 3.57(.94)

0.17 2.17 *

Cooperative atmosphere Performance Goal setting

3.81(.70) 4.06(.73)

3.62(.85) 3.73(.77)

1.31 2.29 *

Improving teaching skills 3.98(.56) Information collection and 3.77(.61) analysis Dedication and cooperation 3.93(.45)

3.82(.61) 3.64(.58)

1.41 1.05

3.7 (.55)

2.39 *

Independence 3.57(.58) 3.42(.57) ***p<.001,**p<.01,*p<.05 () Standard deviation

1.34

5. Discussion This study seeks to reveal which types of OJT affect elementary school teachers.

Previous studies of competence formation among teachers such as Yonezawa (2011) focused on teachers’ awareness. Those studies employed guidance in competence formation as an explanatory variable and competence to be formed as the dependent variable. This study is the first based on an indirect effects model according to tissue properties such as atmosphere and planned implementation. In this model, the type of OJT is an explanatory variable, tissue properties are parameters and performance is the dependent variable. We examined the indirect effects hypothesis on the basis of the indirect effects model by tissue properties. In addition, we analysed the recognition of OJT factors by years of experience. We verified the difference in types of OJT, tissue properties and performance as recognized by first- and second-year teachers.

Results of the analysis supported the indirect effects hypothesis. Among teachers receiving OJT, guidance by participant observation and guidance in © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

54

improving teaching skills showed indirect effects on two performance measures mediated by the integral atmosphere. Guidance by participant observation showed an indirect effect on three measures of task performance and one measure of contextual performance by mediating systematic implementation. Guidance in self-directed learning showed an indirect effect on one task performance measure and two measures of contextual performance by mediating the collaborative atmosphere. Guidance in improving teaching skills and guidance by participant observation also show a direct effect on the three performance measures. The direct effects showed three paths and the indirect effects nine paths. These results establish that varying types of OJT enhance effectiveness by mediation by tissue properties. Thus, this study reveals that performance is enhanced through the indirect effects of tissue characteristics in the practice of OJT. Further, in the results of t-tests a difference is observed among first- and secondyear teachers in recognising the types of OJT, tissue properties and performance.

First-year teachers showed a high recognition of each factor. Therefore, the hypothesis regarding differences in years of experience with OJT was supported.

These findings suggest three implications with regard toOJT in Japan’s elementary schools. The first is that content planning, particularly as it concerns problem solving and observation of classes, is heavily required of faculty in charge of OJT. Doing so will improve teaching skills, goal setting, dedication to duties and cooperation with colleagues.

Second, development of the workplace atmosphere is effective in implementing OJT. An organization that shares a commitment to duties cooperates and displays a sense of unity, leads to improved task and contextual performance.

The third finding is that responsiveness to OJT corresponds to work experience.

First-year subject teachers showed a high recognition of three types of OJT. On the other hand, no difference was found in guidance in improving teaching skills, which was constant across teachers with one and two years of experience. We considered other types of OJT to be effective by intensive implementation in the first year. Implementation of OJT is effective with the plan of organization for teachers in the first year.

This study’s limitations reveal issues for future research. Firstly, 109 observations is an insufficient sample. An examination of differences due to personal attributes (e.g. job level and organizational size) would be possible by increasing the sample size. Surveys of only individual researchers are a very difficult period. It is necessary to secure cooperation by schools and boards of education to expand the number of samples by conducting a usefulness study.

This study’s second limitation concerns its measurement scale. Articulating factors of OJT made it impossible to establish a path via multiple regression analysis. There is a need to study factors not included in this study.

References Borman, W.C, & Motowidlo, S.J. (1993) Expanding the criterion domain to © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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includeelements of contextual performance, In N. Schmit & W.C. Borman(Eds.),Personnel selection in organizations. (pp. 71-98) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Ikeda, H., & Furukawa, H. (2008). The development of the contextual performance scale in Japanese organizations, Japanese Association of Industrial/Organizational Psychology Journal, 22(1), 15-26.

De Jong A., Thijissen, J. G. L. & Versloot, B. M., (2001). Planned Training on the job: A Typology Advances, Developing Human Resources, 3(4), 408-414.

Kikuchi, E., Yaosaka, O., Sakamoto, T. & Kawai, H., (1993). Quality Improvement of Beginning Teachers and the Organizational Climates of Their Schools: Focused on ‘Subject-Teaching’ Training, The Japanese Association for the Study of Education Administration, 35, 56-68.

Knowles, M., (1975). Self-directed learning, Press Follett Publishing Co. Koike K, (2005). Economics of work, Third ed., Toyo Keizai Inc. Van der Klink, M. R. & Streumer, J. N., (2002). Effectiveness of on-the-job training Journal of European Industrial Training, 26, 196-199.

Matsuo, M (2011). LEARNING FROM EXPERIENCE AN INTRODUCTION, DIAMONDO Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.

(2012). Implementation status of fiscal 2012 public school teachers’ recruitment test.

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Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2013).

Implementation Status of fiscal 2013 public school teachers’ recruitment test, Retrieved from http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/senkou/1343166.htm.

Motowidlo, S.J. &Van Scotter, J.R (1994). Evidence that task performance should be distinguished from contextual performance, Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(4),475-480.

Nakahara, J. (2010). The Workplace Learning Theory, Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.

Saitou,H, (2010). System of human resource development to promote learning and expertise of white-collar workers in organizations and desired functions of the human resource department in the future: Japan labour report, 595, 81-94.

Sato, H, (2010). Working and learning -Human resources and capacity development, Mineruba: Shobo Publishing Company.

Sakakibara, K. (2004). Effects of On-the-Job Training upon Self-evaluated Job

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Performance Skills: On the Local Government Employees, Japanese Association of Industrial/organizational Psychology Journal,18(1), 23-31.

Sekine, M. (2012). OJT behaviour of senior leaders who contribute to the capacity building of new employees, In J. Nakahara (Eds.),The Exploration of Workplace Learning: The Empirical studies to consider the growth of the corporate person (pp. 145167) Japanese Productivity Center.

Takahashi, K. (2010). Scientific Integration of Performance Appraisal Practices: Evaluation of Effort, Ability, and Behavior, Hakuto: Shobo Publishing Company.

Takahashi, H. (2011) Skill formation of white-collar through OJT: Waseda University Monograph, 51.

Tokita,E. (2009). A Study on the training of novice teachers:From the point of view of the training school principal, Academic Knowledge Archives of Gunma Institutes, 26, 169-175.

Tokyo Metropolitan Board of Education. (2012).The OJT guidelines Yonezawa, T., (2010). A discussion for the school organizational climate and the cooperating teachers' instructions & supports in teaching practice, Bulletin Of Nara University Of Education, 59(1), 245-251.

Yonezawa, T. (2011). Effect by guidance and support of instruction teachers on the formation of the novice's ability, The Japanese Society for the Study on Teacher Education Journal, 20, 89-97.

Yosizaki, S. (1998). The Path to full-fledged ,In T. Asada, T. Ikuta, & K. Fujioka (Eds.), Growth of teacher: Invitation to Teaching Science (pp. 162-173). Tokyo: Kaneko Syobou.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 6, No.1, pp. 57-70, June 2014

Revising the Imaginative Capability and Creative Capability Scales: Testing the Relationship between Imagination and Creativity among Agriculture Students Yuling Hsu National Central University Taoyuan, Taiwan Li-Pei Peng, Jiun-Hao Wang and Chaoyun Liang National Taiwan University Taipei, Taiwan

Abstract. We conducted three studies to revise the imaginative capability scale and creative capability scale, and to examine the relationship between imagination and creativity among college students majoring in agriculture. First, Study 1 was conducted to determine the most appropriate scale structure by performing an exploratory factor analysisof a sample comprising 390 students. A three-factor solution was used to identify the dimensions of imaginative capability (initiating, conceiving, and transforming imagination), and a two-factor solution was used to identify the dimensions of creative capability (originality and usefulness). Next, Study 2 was conducted to confirm the structures established in Study 1 by performing a confirmatory factor analysis of a sample comprising 520 college students. In addition, we tested the degree of measurement invariance of the scales across genders. Finally, Study 3 was conducted to further examine the relationship between imagination and creativity among 430 college students majoring in agriculture. The results show that originality is influenced primarily by conceiving and initiating imagination. In addition, transforming imagination has a slightly negative influence on originality. Finally, usefulness is influenced primarily by conceiving imagination, and it was slightly influenced by initiating imagination.

Keywords: agriculture students; creative capability; imaginative capability; measurement invariance; scale development.

Introduction Although engaging the imagination of students and fostering their creativity are crucial in modern society, Egan (2010) argued that typical classroom environments are not conducive to stimulating the imagination and creativity of Š 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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students. Swirski (2010) asserted that the manner in which society envisions, creates, and contributes to its educational, social, and cultural environments is limited only by human imagination. An imaginative approach to designing a learning environment frameseducational activities and facilitates innovative assessments that encourage students to explore, question, resolve, and understand the diversity and complexity of their environment. Although this research field is crucial for understanding the human ability to consider the future and promote human creativity, few studies addressed this field during the 21st century (Morosini, 2010, p. 43).

Previous studies have examined human imagination based on various approaches, such as visual imagery (Gordon, 1949; Richardson, 1969), philosophical inquiry (Emig, 1983; Warnock, 1976), spatial conceptualization (Thurstone & Thurstone, 1965), mental imagery (Marks, 1973, 1995), and imagery companions (Taylor, 1999; Taylor, Hulette, & Dishion, 2010); however, few studies have empirically examined both imaginative and creative capabilities, and few evaluation tools exist for assessing these capabilities. Liang and Chia (2014) conducted three studies to test the reliability, validity, and factor structure of the imaginative capability scale (ICS). The three-factor model of the ICS was confirmed by surveying college students studying in various domains.

In addition, Lin, Hsu, and Liang (2014) developed the creative capability scale (CCS), and they examined the effect of creativity and imagination on the academic performance of design students.

Humanity is adversely affected by global trends, including unprecedented climate change, over-consumption, social inequity, and inter tribaland interreligious conflicts (Ellyard, 2011). Compared with other academic fields, agricultural education is influenced the most by these trends. The research, curricula, and teaching practices used in this field have undergone substantial changes during the past 20 years. Moreover, the number of students enrolling in agricultural colleges and universities in industrialized countries is declining, and these institutions must evaluate alternative structures and functions carefully to ensure a sustainable food supply (Lieblein, Francis, & King, 2000). Numerous scholars have stressed the need to cultivate student imagination and creativity to address the dynamic challenges associated with developing and maintaining a globally sustainable society (Ellyard, 2011; Intarachaimas, 2012).

In this research, we conducted three studies to revise both the ICS and CCSto examine the relationship between imagination and creativity among college students majoring in agriculture. Study 1 was conducted to determine the most appropriate scale structure by performing an exploratory factor analysis with a sample comprising 390 college students. To confirm the validity of these structures, Study 2was conducted by performing a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with a sample comprising 520 college students. In addition, we tested the degree of measurement invariance of the scales across genders based on the sample data from Studies 1 and 2. Finally, Study 3 was conducted to further examine the relationship between imagination and creativity among 430 college students majoring in agriculture.

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Imagination and creativity Imagination is defined as ―a power of the mind‖ (Perdue, 2003) that enables people to transcend experience and construct alternative possibilities to organize fragmented situations into meaningful and complete concepts (Passmore, 1985).

Liu and Noppe-Brandon (2009) claimed that imagination is the ability to conceive something that either does not exist, or may exist yet cannot be perceived (p. 19). Many contemporary psychologists have described imagination as one of the ―higher mental functions‖ that ―involve the synthetic combining of aspects of memories or experiences into a mental construction that differs from past or present perceived reality and many anticipate future reality‖ (Morosini, 2010, p. 42). Furthermore, Liu and Noppe-Brandon (2009) and Liang and Chia (2014) have indicated that imaginative capability comprises three dimensions; initiating, conceiving, and transforming imagination.

Barron and Harrington (1981) noted that numerous studies have applied the following two definitions of creativity: (1) an ability manifested byperformance in critical trials (Guilford, 1975; Torrance, 1998); and (2) a socially recognized achievement that is supported through the development of novel products (Baer, Kaufman, & Gentile, 2004; Hennessey & Amabile, 2010). Regardless of which categories are applied, the concepts of originality and usefulness are considered core dimensions of creative capability (Runco & Jaeger, 2012). Many researchers have perceived originality as newness, novelty, surprise, and uncommonness (Barron, 1955; Sternberg, 1999). Similarly, usefulness has been perceived as adaptation, appropriateness, effectiveness, flexibility, practicality, utility, or value (Barron, 1988; Stein, 1953). Recently, Lin et al. (2014) empirically examined student creativity and confirmed that creative capability comprises two dimensions: originality and usefulness.

Regarding the relationship between imagination and creativity, Gaut (2005) explained that imagination can be considered a vehicle of active creativity. Gaut purported that creative people imagine various propositions and believe that subsequent developments could yield the most appropriate solution. Thus, this ―possibility thinking‖ can be considered a basis for cultivating creative thinking and driving innovation (Craft, Chappell, & Twining, 2008). Morosini (2010) analogized imagination as a conduit through which the unconscious self is expressed through creative mental imagery that can drive deliberate actions.

In this study, imagination refers to the capability of students to initiate, conceive, and transform their ideas intoschoolwork and/or perform related actions. In addition, creativity refers to the capability of students to do schoolwork that satisfies the criteria of originality and usefulness. In this study, the distinction between imagination and creativity is based on whether students engage in deliberate action. In other words, imagination involves conceptualizing something that does not exist, whereas creativity involves creating something derived from an imagined concept. In general, a person’s creativity is inspired by his or her imagination.

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The need for imagination and creativity in agricultural education Wilson and Morren (1990) reported that society demands ecological, ethical, and social dimensions to be considered in discussions on the future of agriculture and use of rural landscapes. However, the transition from focusing on agricultural productionto focusing on rural development presents difficult choices for traditional agricultural education systems. In addition to continually introducing professional knowledge and novel techniques, numerous studies have stressed the need to cultivate student imagination and creativity to address the dynamic challenges associated with developing and maintaining a globally sustainable society (Herrmann, 2011; Marshall, 2009). In particular, Marshall (2009) indicated that collective imagination is crucial to addressing widely held beliefs regarding climate change. Herrmann (2011) argued that harnessing student creativity and imagination to facilitate effective engagement in sustainable education would lead to deeper learning.

Lieblein et al. (2000) stated that the gap between knowledge and action in agricultural education must be bridged to facilitate major conceptual and structural changes that contribute constructively to a future complex and multifunctional agriculture sector, as well as to domestic food systems. Lieblein et al. (2000) hypothesized that agricultural colleges require imaginative planning and creative action to progress from being a narrowly oriented private food production sector to become a broad societal activity involving the management of natural resources and social concerns. Considerable changes are necessary regarding the management of human capital in the agriculture sector. Henry (2001) argued that creativity and innovation add more value to business than land, labor, or capital do.

Ellyard (2011) explained that a sustainable future cannot be created if it is not first imagined, and few imaginative efforts have been made to establish clear goals and objectives. Hope is the ideal quality for overcoming fear, and it is through imagination and vision that people can inspire hope; hence, an affirmative action approach to leadership thinking is necessary. Intarachaimas (2012) argued that practitioners of agricultural systems must be constantly changing, innovating, and reinventing themselves to remain competitive in an environment characterized by technological change, international competition, fluctuating consumer demand, and the pursuit for a globally sustainable society.

Herrmann (2011) claimed that adopting assignments or curricular activities to harness student imagination and creativity is critical, particularly in the context of sustainable education.

Study 1: Exploratory factor analysis Method: The ICS (Liang & Chia, 2014) was derived from 10 indicators of imaginative capability (Liang et al., 2013). However, the ICS items are unbalanced. Moreover, the CCS resulted in similar problems. Therefore, we revised both the ICS and CCS. The revised ICS (27 items) and CCS (16 items) were measured using a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The research participants were instructed to report the level at which they agreed with each imaginative and creative item.

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The 390 participants in Study 1 were students enrolled in various programs at three Taiwanese universities. The students were recruited as a calibration sample to test the number of factors in the data by performing an exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Most participants were women (53.8%); 25.9% were freshmen, 31.3% were sophomores, 25.1% were juniors, and 17.7% were seniors.

An identical investigation process was employed at each university. The surveys were conducted by graduate assistants who were accompanied by the class instructor. Participation was voluntary, confidential, and anonymous.

Furthermore, the participants were allowed to review their response results.

Results The data were analysed using SPSS version 17.0. An item analysis was performed to organize the measured items based on the formal survey data. The mean ICS scores ranged from 3.59 to 4.65, with standard deviations ranging from 0.70 to 0.99.The skewness and kurtosis values of the formal survey data ranged from −0.709 to 0.221and −0.821 to 0.928, respectively. In addition, the mean CCS scores ranged from 3.46 to 4.45, with standard deviations ranging from 0.78 to 0.99.The skewness and kurtosis of the data ranged from −0.476 to 0.228and −0.475 to 1.097, respectively. The analysis results of both scales indicated that the measured items were appropriate for further analysis.

The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was performed for the ICS (0.928) and CCS (0.917) items. In addition, the Bartlett’s test of sphericity was performed, and the results were statistically significant for both the ICS (χ2 = 55767.056, df = 351, p < .005) and CCS (χ2 = 3615.313, df = 120, p < .005) items.

Thus, the sample data were considered appropriate for factor analysis. Principal axis factoring (PAF) analysis with promax rotation was conducted to determine the dimensionality of both scales.

Based on the proven criteria (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001), three-factor solutions (eigen values greater than one) explaining 45.56% of variance were considered the optimal factor structure for the ICS. Factor 1(i.e., conceiving imagination) included items related to sensibility, concentration, effectiveness, dialectics, and intuition; Factor 2(i.e., initiating imagination) included items related to novelty andproductivity, and Factor 3 (i.e., transforming imagination) included items related to exploration, crystallization, and transformation. The correlation coefficients among the factors ranged from 0.483 to 0.850, and the Cronbach’s α values of Factors 1–3 were 0.837, 0.891, and 0.893, respectively.

In addition, two-factor solutions explaining49.82% of variance was considered the optimal factor structure for the CCS.The correlation coefficients among the factors ranged from 0.449 to 0.848. The Cronbach’s α value of Factor 1 (i.e., originality) is 0.918, and that of Factor 2(i.e., usefulness) is 0.817.The high level of internal consistency indicates that the revised scalesobtained appropriate reliability estimates.Tables 1 and 2 respectively show the ICS and CCS analysis results (mean, standard deviation, and PAF) obtained in Study 1.

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Table 1: Imaginative capability scale results Factor／item Conceiving Imagination I become excited when I expect to be successful.

I am emotionally stable because I expect to overcome difficulties.

I can concentrate while thinking without being distracted.

I can continually focus on a school project until ideas are formed.

I can formulate an approach to meet the teacher’s requirements.

I can formulate a needs-satisfaction approach under constraints.

I frequently set goals in accordance with my abilities.

I can deliberate on the contradictions of a problem to generate definite thoughts.

I can connect seemingly unrelated concepts.

I can absorb and integrate diverse perspectives.

I can formulate possible approaches quickly in accordance with an assigned project.

I can understand the implications of a concept by organizing fragmented information.

Initiating Imagination I formulate unique ideas more frequently than other people do.

I frequently develop ideas by examining unconventional perspectives.

I frequently generate new ideas by combining previous experiences.

I frequently have a rich diversity of ideas.

I can consistently formulate numerous approaches to complete a project.

I am proficient at adapting valuable elements into existing concepts.

Transforming Imagination I frequently perceive the world through various sensorial perceptions.

I enjoy deepening my understanding of concepts through personal experiences.

I enjoy testing products to learn how they function.

I can express abstract concepts by using examples from daily life.

I can explain unfamiliar concepts and provide examples relevant to a target audience.

I frequently use concrete images to explain difficult concepts.

I frequently apply my experiences to resolve new problems.

I can apply similar concepts to different school assignments.

I can resolve daily life problems by applying what I have learned.

Loading

M

SD

.305 .316 .614 .690 .674 .657 .632 .538 .496 .495 .317 .377

4.65 4.21 3.79 3.59 4.49 4.40 4.33 4.30 4.27 4.62 4.27 4.19

.96 .98 .96 .99 .83 .70 .89 .85 .80 .78 .82 .84

.915 .813 .581 .835 .699 .499

4.11 4.11 4.26 4.15 3.95 4.17

.99 .99 .92 .96 .99 .91

.462 .579 .621 .877 .862 .854 .748 .522 .495

4.47 4.65 4.43 4.58 4.54 4.50 4.65 4.53 4.46

.88 .95 .97 .97 .91 .93 .83 .85 .82

Loading

M

SD

.743

3.84

.78

.783

3.95

.78

.555 .721

3.71 3.98

.94 .89

.870

3.46

.88

.878 .642 .808

3.63 3.75 3.67

.96 .81 .88

.743 .566 .569 .706 .753 .815 .646 .378

4.26 4.06 4.33 4.35 4.32 4.25 4.29 4.45

.83 .86 .82 .81 .81 .85 .99 .94

Table 2: Creative capability scale results Factor／item Originality Teachers and classmates consider that my approach to school projects is inspirational.

Teachers and classmates consider that my approach to completing school projects is ingenuous.

I can generate various outcomes for a school project within a short period.

Teachers and classmates consider that my work expresses my personal style.

Teachers and classmates consider that I can produce work that did not exist previously.

Teachers and classmates consider that I can produce unique work.

Teachers and classmates consider that my work conveys multiple meanings.

Teachers and classmates consider that my work can stimulate diverse ideas.

Usefulness I can identify order in chaos.

I can identify problems with a school project quickly.

I can flexibly adjust approaches according to emerging changes.

I can practically adapt alternatives based on specific needs.

I can distinguish between the results of various practices.

I can adapt current work to fit various situations.

Typically, my work is completed after several revisions.

I can accept criticism of my work from other people.

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Study 2: Confirmatory factor analysis and measurement invariance Method The 520 participants in Study 2 were enrolled in various programs at five Taiwanese universities. These students were recruited as a validation sample to confirm the established factor structures by performing a CFA. Most students were men (57.1%); 36.9% were freshmen, 26% were sophomores, 27.9% were juniors, and 9.2% were seniors. In addition, we combined the sample data from Studies 1 and 2, and then selected 400 men and women to test the level of measurement invariance of the scales across genders (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000).The investigation followed the process used in Study 1.Participation was voluntary, and anonymity was guaranteed.

Results This study tested the factorial validity of the factor structures by using LISREL version 8.80 to perform CFA with maximal likelihood estimation. Wead opted indicators recommended by Hu and Bentler (1999) and Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) to assess the goodness of fit of the model. Regarding the ICS, the threefactor solution yielded a good fit (χ2 = 1288.36, df = 321, p< .005, RMSEA = .077, SRMR = .060, CFI = .96, NFI = .95, TLI = .96).Table 3 shows the factor loadings and composite reliability result.

Table 3: CFA results of the ICS and CCS Variable Item／Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Composite reliability

ICS

CCS

Conceiving imagination 0.52 0.51 0.70 0.73 0.60 0.73 0.67 0.74 0.75 0.63 0.67 0.66

Initiating imagination 0.78 0.72 0.73 0.77 0.78 0.74

Transforming imagination 0.59 0.68 0.67 0.68 0.73 0.67 0.71 0.67 0.65

0.897

0.888

0.882

Originality

Usefulness

0.73 0.72 0.70 0.71 0.81 0.78 0.78 0.83

0.71 0.74 0.78 0.73 0.73 0.71 0.64 0.48

0.916

0.882

In this study, construct validity was determinedbased on convergent and discriminant validity. The convergent validity of each factor was tested by assessing the standardized factor loadings. Factor loadings should be equal to or higher than .50 to achieve convergent validity (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). Discriminant validity wasassessed by calculating the confidence intervals of the interfactor correlation estimates, denoted asφ (Bagozzi & Phillips, 1982).

Where the confidence intervals do not equal 1, discriminant validity is achieved.

The results show that the φ values between Factors 1 and 2 range from 0.63 to 0.75, those between Factors 1 and 3 range from 0.67 to 0.79, and those between Factors 2 and 3 range from 0.72 to 0.80, thereby achieving discriminant validity.

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Regarding the CCS, the two-factor solution yielded a good fit (χ2 = 528.87, df = 103, p< .005, RMSEA = .079, SRMR = .042, CFI = .97, NFI = .96, TLI = .96). Table 3 shows the factor loadings and composite reliability results. Based on the criteria reported by Hair et al. (2010), each factor achieved convergent validity. The discriminant validity results show that the φ values between Factors 1 and 2 range from 0.72 to 0.80, thereby assuring discriminant validity.

We further tested the degree of measurement invariance of both scales across genders in accordance with Steenkamp and Baumgartner (1998). As shown in Table 4, configural invariance issupported. Subsequently, we examined whether various degrees of measurement were invariant across genders, including factor loadings (metric invariance), response tendency (scalar invariance), factor covariance, factor variance, and error variance.Except forχ2 and Δχ2, which are sensitive to large samples, other goodness of fit indices—including ΔCFI, which was proposed to test the measurement invariance—indicated that all models were acceptable under the assumption of various degrees of invariance (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002). Both the ICS and CCS exhibited a high degree of measurement invariance across genders. Furthermore, the relationship among the three covariates with three ICS factors was invariant (structural invariance).

The structural invariance of the CCS was also confirmed.

Table 4: Measurement invariance tests results of the ICS and CCS Problem ICS Configural Invariance Metric Invariance Scalar Invariance Factor Covariance Invariance Factor Variance Invariance Error Variance Invariance Structural Invariance CCS Configural Invariance Metric Invariance Scalar Invariance Factor Covariance Invariance Factor Variance Invariance Error Variance Invariance Structural Invariance

χ2

Δχ2

df

RMSEA

NNFI

CFI

ΔCFI

819.9692 831.0189 861.7500 867.4689 867.9413 927.7345 930.1504

11.0497 30.7311 5.7189 0.4724 59.7932 2.4159

206 220 234 235 237 253 255

0.08620 0.08321 0.08167 0.08178 0.08130 0.08060 0.08027

0.9634 0.9659 0.9671 0.9670 0.9673 0.9673 0.9575

0.9686 0.9688 0.9679 0.9677 0.9677 0.9655 0.9655

0.0002 -0.0009 -0.0002 0.0000 -0.0022 0.0000

2489.2106 2547.7527 2728.6642 2733.3754 2740.0651 2861.4761 2892.6420

58.5421 180.9115 4.7112 6.6897 121.411 31.1659

642 666 690 693 696 723 726

0.08682 0.08605 0.08736 0.08713 0.08735 0.08800 0.08812

0.9470 0.9481 0.9458 0.9460 0.9461 0.9455 0.9452

0.9515 0.9508 0.9467 0.9467 0.9466 0.9439 0.9434

-0.0007 -0.0031 0.0000 -0.0001 -0.0027 -0.0005

Study 3: Relationship between imagination and creativity among college students majoring in agriculture Method The 430 participants in Study 3 were students enrolled in an agricultural college in northern Taiwan. Most students were women (52.5%); 26.9% were freshmen, 28% were sophomores, 25.1% were juniors, and 20% were seniors. The investigation followed the process used in Study 1.Participation was also voluntary, and anonymity was guaranteed.

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Results This study tested the relationship between imagination and creativity by using LISREL version 8.80 to perform structural equation modeling (SEM) with maximal likelihood estimation. The results showed that the model fit was acceptable(Ď&#x2021;2 = 4645.71, df = 851, p < .005, RMSEA = .078, SRMR = .063, CFI = .92, NFI = .92, TLI = .93). The SEM results accounted for a substantial level variance for the dimensions of originality (R2 = .55) and usefulness (R2 = .72). Figure 1 shows the structural model.In the figure, the solid line indicates that the effect was statistically significant, whereas the dotted line indicates that the effect is not significant.

.65

.75

.66

.45

Conceiving Imagination

.37 .77

Initiating Imagination

Transforming Imagination

Originality

.51 .10

-.09

.28 Usefulness .01

Figure 1: Structural model of the imagination and creativity of college students majoring in agriculture (n = 430)

Discussion This study was conducted to address the problems of unbalanced items and cross-loading in the original ICS and CCS. The results of the revised ICS show that (1) the 12 items for measuring sensibility, concentration, effectiveness, dialectics, and intuition were combined into the capability of conceiving imagination; (2) the six items for measuring novelty and productivity were grouped into the capability of initiating imagination; and (3) the remaining nine items for measuring exploration, crystallization,and transformation were combined into the capability of transforming imagination. Although the problem of unbalanced items remained, the cross-loading problem was resolved.

However, the revised CCS results indicated that 16 items were equally structured into two dimensions (i.e., originality and usefulness), thereby indicating that both of the aforementioned problems were resolved.

Based on the results, conceiving imagination can be defined as (1) the capability to mentally grasp the core of a phenomenon by applying intuition and sensibility; and (2) the capability to formulate effective ideas for achieving a goal through concentration and logical dialectics; in summary, it is the capability to form mental images. Next, initiating imagination can be defined as the capability to productively generate original ideas; in other words, it is the capability to initiate new ideas. Finally, transforming imagination can be defined as the capability to explore unknown concepts, crystallize abstract ideas, and recreate

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mental images based on various domains and situations; in other words, it is the capability to apply previous experience.

Although the definitions of the aforementioned imaginative capability differed slightly different from the results reported by Liang and Chia (2014), the definitions of creativity capability supported the results reported by Lin et al.

(2014). Originality can be defined as the capability to generate thoughts, perform behaviors, or create works that are considered original, novel, or unique within a particular sociocultural and temporal context. In addition, usefulness can be defined as the capability to generate thoughts, perform behaviors, or create works that are considered appropriate, effective, or valuable within a specific sociocultural context, or useful to human society as a whole.

Based on the assertion that imagination functions as a vehicle of creativity, the results of this study provide a basis for empirically testing the relationship between imagination and creativity. Shin (1994) indicated that professionals in various domains may require varying levels of imagination engagement.

Therefore, we considered the following three questions: (1) which imaginative capabilities trigger which creative capabilities? (2) which imaginative capabilities may be required in various domains? and (3) what are the implications of these differentiations? The answers to these questions may provide insight into student selection processes and educational strategies employed by universities, as well as the employee recruitment and incentive policies applied in creative industries.

The results of Study 3 show that both conceiving and initiating imagination exert a significant influence on originality and usefulness, whereas transforming imagination has a negative influence on originality. The results can also be interpreted from the perspective of creativity. Originality is influenced primarily by conceiving and initiating imagination. Usefulness is influenced mainly by conceiving imagination, and it is influenced slightly by initiating imagination.

The results indicate that agriculture students who are competent at initiating new ideas and forming mental images are ideal candidates for initiating school projects, and they could play a crucial role in the ideation stage. By contrast, agriculture students who are proficient at forming mental images may be ideal candidates for executing school projects, and they could play a critical role in project implementation. Furthermore, students who excel in applying their previous experiences could hinder the initiation of novel ideas or actions, potentially because most agricultural projects are inherently complex, and they have become subject to greater uncertainty because of global climate change.

The findings of this study warrant further research. Furthermore, they provide insights for domains and/or settings where imaginative talent and creative performance are crucial.

Limitations and conclusion Before discussing the broader implications of this study, certain limitations should be clarified. First, we used self-reported scales rather than expert

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evaluations or behavioral measures. However, the decision to use self-reporting was justified by the preliminary nature of this study. The questionnaire items used in this study were not considered personally sensitive, which can result in social desirability bias. Because this study analyzed relatively large samples, the findings are generalizable to larger populations (Chan, 2009). The consistency between the EFA and CFA results, as well as the measurement invariance results, indicate that the factor structures of the measures are stable across the sample groups, and no indications of self-reporting bias were observed.

Second, no attempt was made to examine the opinions of instructors. All participants were college students in Taiwan. Out of respect for Confucian culture, the potential influence of instructors on student imagination and creativity was not examined, which may have resulted in the limited variance observed in the sample. Future research should consider extending this study by including the perspective of instructors, as well as the influence of other contextual variables.

Despite these limitations, the results of this study provide numerous directions for future research. Lieblein et al. (2000) asserted that agricultural research and education based on narrow details invariably fails to address broad problems that determine the long-term sustainability of food systems, the environment, and rural society. The tendency to focus on researching and teaching narrow details in agricultural industries has resulted in the establishment of specialized departments and disciplines in universities (Orr, 1994). Most agricultural scientists understand neither how the components of the food system are organized, nor the long-term effect that their work has on society. Numerous scholars have stressed the need for reform in agricultural education (Corbett, 2013; Enshayan, 1992; Lacy, 1993; Lieblein et al., 2000). Accordingly, this study was conducted to build on this foundation.

We revised the ICS and CCS to provide a framework for assessing the imagination and creativity of college students majoring in agriculture. We tested the predictive relationship between imagination and creativity to facilitate an ongoing discussion on innovative reforms in agricultural education. The findings of this study support assertions made by Lieblein et al. (2000); specifically, agricultural colleges must embrace a novel rural paradigm by acknowledging that agriculture and food systems cannot be developed without referring to the intelligence, imagination, creativity, and competence of students, farmers, and consumers. Our findings also support statements made by Intarachaimas (2012); specifically, the future prosperity of human society will depend increasingly more on their capacity to develop innovative ideas to create novel agricultural products, services, technologies, and production methods, and to introduce these products and services to new markets.

Preliminary studies such as this invariably identify numerous problem and research questions. Thus, further research must be conducted in this area.

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Acknowledgments The current study is part of the research project (NSC 102-2511-S-002 -009-MY2) supported by Taiwan’s National Science Council. The authors would like to acknowledge Wei-Sheng Lin for his valuable contributions in statistical analysis. The authors would also like to extend their gratitude to the insightful suggestions of anonymous IJLTER reviewers. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Chaoyun Liang, Department of Bio-Industry Communication and Development, National Taiwan University, Taiwan. Electronic mail may be sent to cliang@ntu.edu.tw.

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Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 233–255.

Corbett, M. (2013). Improvisation as a curricular metaphor: Imagining education for a rural creative class. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 28(10), 1-11.

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Henry, J. (2001). Creativity and perception in management. London, UK: SAGE. Herrmann, M. (2011). Harnessing students’ creativity and imagination as a means to effective engagement in sustainable education. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, 5, 73-85.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 6, No.1, pp. 71-80, June 2014

The Relationship between Upper Intermediate EFL Learners’ Critical Thinking and Their Listening Comprehension Ability Samane Naderi and Hamid Ashraf English Department, Islamic Azad University, Torbat-e Heydarieh Branch, Iran Abstract. This paper investigated the relationship between upper intermediate EFL learners‟ critical thinking and their listening comprehension ability. The aim was to find out whether learners‟ critical thinking ability has any significant relationship with their listening comprehension ability or not. For this purpose, at first one sample of FCE for listening comprehension was given to some upper intermediate EFL learners to homogenize the participants. One hundred and twenty participants were selected for the study. Then the researchers asked participants to answer the Watson Glazer Critical thinking questionnaire.

Moreover, they were asked to listen to another sample of FCE for listening comprehension and answered the multiple-choice questions. To fulfil the objective of the study, a Pearson Product Moment Correlation was conducted to investigate any significant relationship between the two variables. The results showed that there is significant correlation between learners‟ listening comprehension scores and their total scores in critical thinking. The results may be helpful for the teachers and teacher trainers to include the beneficial aspects of critical thinking in teaching listening courses.

Key words: critical thinking; listening comprehension ability

Introduction People should think of new methods of problems solving in coping with new technology, knowledge and information, they should ask questions properly, connect the new knowledge to their already existing information, be able to apply their achieved knowledge in new faced conditions, and promote their critical thinking ability, which is regarded as the aims of pedagogy. Critical thinking changes into a controversial issue nowadays. A critical thinker is able to ask relevant and suitable questions, distinguish and collect relevant data about things,

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divide the data appropriately, and achieve the worthy conclusions about his environment (Center for Critical Thinking, 1996a). Critical thinking (CT) practice can result in productive, ethical, happy, satisfying, successful and fulfilling life (Ellis, 2003). Many researchers have carried out some studies in the domain of critical thinking. For example, Keesing-Styles (2003) carried out a study to find out whether in teacher education, there is any relationship between critical education and evaluation. She argues that many studies have been carried out in finding out how critical thinking in education has promoted and what are its shortcomings.

Therefore, regarding the significance of critical thinking in the daily life of each person generally also in pedagogy specifically provoked the researchers to see whether there is any relationship between critical thinking ability of upper intermediate EFL learners and their listening comprehension ability which is regarded as a significant part of interlanguage communication, a kind of need for language acquisition (Swian, 1985).

Statement of the Problem According to Paul (2005), developing critical thinking ability is essential in all educational settings. Human thinking is integral part of learning. During learning of something, if we think in a good way, we can learn better. If we think in a poor way, we learn poorly. On the other hand, listening comprehension ability is an essential part of second language learning and its use cannot be ignored in various daily situations by the second language learners (Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor, 2006), it “is the Cinderella skill in second language learning. All too often, it has been overlooked by its elder sister-speaking.”)Nunan, 1997, p.1)

Research Question To fulfill the purpose of this research one research question was posed: Is there any significant relationship between upper intermediate EFL learner‟s critical thinking and their listening comprehension?

Significance of the study: Listening comprehension is the important part of language for EFL learners because the communication, which can be considered as the goal of EFL learning, fails by the lack of listening comprehension. Relatively, listening comprehension is the most problematic area for EFL learners. On the other hand, Gibson (1995, cited in Dam and Volman, 2004) states that critical thinking provides different kinds of abilities for learners which can enhance the process of learning and teaching. Strohm and Baukus (1995) believe that critical thinking can improve learners‟ ambiguity tolerance. They argue that ambiguity is a productive and internal part of critical

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thinking ability it means that if the learners have higher ambiguity tolerance, they can cope with the problems of listening comprehension in the better way.

Review of literature Critical Thinking “Critical Thinking involves recognizing and researching assumptions that undergird thoughts and actions” (Brookfield, 1991, p. 17).

Critical thinking is considered as a kind of thinking, which is essential in coping with some problems in life, recognizing the likely outcomes, making relevant inferences, and having appropriate decisions (Halpern, 1998). Simpson and Courtney (2003) believe that critical thinking is involved in a kind of process and it is not a method, which can be learned. Actually, it involves both affective and cognitive aspects in the mind.

Critical thinking ability provides the environment for us to present our ideas and beliefs, and change them based on different situations (De Boo, 1999). In fact, critical thinking is not a new idea. May be, our ancestors applied their critical thinking abilities to find food sources or a good place to live. It can be said that the critical thinking is referred to Socrates‟ idea in 2500 years ago. Socrates pointed out to the importance of making questions to think before doing the things and confirming the others‟ views. Now, his method of asking questions is called Socratic questioning which is the helpful way of instructing critical thinking. Many other scientists such as Aristotle, Plato believed in „Socrates‟ practice. Actually, they believe that usually the things differ from what they are appeared and they mentioned that an active and instructed mind only can comprehend the implied realities of things. (Center for Critical Thinking, 1996a).

Dam and Volman (2004) found that students lacked thinking ability deeply and that society needs to make the students think more critically. Because of that, critical thinking should be paid attention both practically and theoretically.

According to Cottrell (2005), Reasoning is the integral part of critical thinking process. Reasoning is our capacity for rational thought. Rational refers to using reasons for solving problems. Cottrell believes that, people start reasoning which includes: having reasons for what we believe and do, assessing our own beliefs and actions critically and having ability to present the reasons of our beliefs and actions to others.

The factors of Critical Thinking Goscik (1990) classified the factors of critical thinking in a hierarchal way:  

The observation by which a person can make facts The facts by which a person can inference

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    

The inference by which a person can make assumption The assumption by which a person can form his opinions The opinions by the use of which and the principles of logic a person can develop the arguments The arguments for which a person use critical Analysis In addition, the critical Analysis through which a person challenges the observation, facts, inferences, and so on, to analyze the arguments.

Listening Comprehension Ability Swian (1985) believes that listening comprehension ability is a significant part of interlanguage communication. Interlanguage communication is a kind of necessity for acquisition of language. According to Krashen (1985), listening comprehension ability is regarded as a way for understandable input.

In addition, Usó-Juan & Martínez-Flor (2006) believes that listening comprehension ability is an essential aspect of second language learning which the learners in different kinds of daily situations wildly use. In listening comprehension ability a kind of complex process is involved, which improves understanding the different spoken messages by applying different elements such as pragmatic, semantic, phonology, and syntactic.

Buck (1995) believes that if the teachers understand the listening comprehension ability‟s nature the learning of this skill for learners can be facilitated; however, usually teachers have problems with manipulating the listening processes. They can draw learners‟ attention to the important aspects of learners‟ listening comprehension by providing them with appropriate practices, and sufficient motivations and interests. Such kinds of practices, motivations, and interests can be created by the use of active learning instruction.

River (1966) states that listening comprehension of a foreign language involves two levels of activity. The first level is the recognition level, in which listener identifies the words and phrases in the structures and identifies sequences of the time, words and phrases which are used for modifying, and phrases which do not add something important to the idea of the message and are almost redundant. The second level is the selection level in which listener tries to get the main idea of the message.

According to Goh (2008), metacognitive teaching in listening comprehension has provided many worthy results. He mentioned that metacognitive teaching provides the promotion of confidence, motivation, and interests among learners. Moreover, he states that recently some studies have proved the positive effects of metacognitive teaching on enhancing listening comprehension ability.

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The previous studies about critical thinking and listening Pogonowski (1989) in his study of critical thinking and music listening found that dialogues and listening part that make the students engaged in analysis can change them into the better musicians and listeners. He asserts the role of critical thinking in improving music listening skill.

Johnson (2007) in his study investigated that whether the instruction of critical thinking has any significant effect on the music listening abilities of students in the fifth grade. The results showed that subjects with Critical Thinking Instruction (CTI) were more successful in music, affective, associative, and the whole result of pretest to posttest in comparison with the learners of Activity-Based Instruction (ABI).

According to Johnson in this study, listening instruction should include the opportunities for critical thinking for being better listeners of music.

Methodology Participants In this study, 120 participants are chosen from a private institute in upper intermediate level. They were 66 females and 54 males. Their ages were from 15-32 and their levels of education ranged from at least high school to at most Bachelor degree.

Instrumentations In this study Watson-Glaser questionnaire was applied to evaluate the learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x; critical thinking. This questionnaire includes 80 items and is consisted of five subtests: a) Inference b) Recognizing Unstated Assumptions c) Deduction d) Interpretation e) Evaluation of Arguments.

To evaluate listening comprehension ability of participants, some samples of FCE are used. The type of these samples is multiple choices.

Results For statistical analysis of the data, SPSS of version 19 was applied and the significance level was 0.05. Table 1 displayed the descriptive statistics of the listening comprehension ability and critical thinking scores.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics for listening scores and critical thinking scores Maximu N Minimum m

Mean

Std. Deviation

Critical Thinking

120

23.00

67.00

42.508

1.22529

Listening

120

5.00

15.00

10.091

2.39746

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The normality of the distribution of the scores was evaluated by a KolmogorovSmirnov test. The findings showed that the distribution of scores in each variable was normal (p< .05) (see Table 2).

Table 2: Test of normality Kolmogorov-Smirnova Statistic df Sig. Critical Thinking

.101

120

.004

Listening

.092

120

.014

To find the correlation between learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x; listening comprehension ability and their critical thinking scores, a Pearson Product-Moment correlation was applied. The results indicated that there was significant correlation between listening comprehension marks and total scores in critical thinking (r = .728, p< 0.05), so the null hypothesis can be rejected.

Table 3: Correlation between learners' listening and critical thinking scores Listening Critical Thinking

Sig. (2-tailed)

.728**

.000

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

To examine whether in predicting learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x; listening comprehension ability, critical thinking aspects has any predictive power or not a stepwise regression analysis was used.

Table 4: The results of regression analysis for listening and the subscales of critical thinking Unstandardized Coefficients

Model

B 1

(Constant) Critical thinking

4.031 .142

Std. Error

Standardized Coefficients Beta

.546 .012

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t

Sig.

7.387

.000

.728 11.540

.000

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Table 4: The results of regression analysis for listening and the subscales of critical thinking Unstandardized Coefficients

Model

B 1

Standardized Coefficients

(Constant) Critical thinking

Std. Error

4.031 .142

Beta

.546

t

Sig.

7.387

.000

.728

.012

11.540

.000

a. Dependent Variable: listening

As Table 4 displays that critical thinking was a positive predictor of the listening comprehension ability.

Table 5: R square table for critical thinking as the predictors of learners’ listening R

.728a

R Square

.530

Adjusted R Square

.526

Std. Error of the Estimate

1.64919

a. Predictors: (Constant), critical thinking b. Dependent Variable: Listening

The model summary statistics of variables was displayed in Table 5. The results showed that Critical thinking could predict 52 percent of the learners‟ listening comprehension. The R-value was .728, which revealed the correlation coefficient between students‟ listening and Critical thinking. Moreover, it indicated a large magnitude of effect size (Larson-Hall, 2010). Its square value was .530. It showed that about 52% of the differences in learners‟ listening comprehension could be described by considering their Critical thinking. According to the amount of the adjusted R square (Larson-Hall, 2010), it was found that Critical thinking ability could justify the variance of learners‟ listening comprehension to a large extent (see Table 5).

Discussion and Conclusion The researchers of this study investigated the relationship between upper intermediate EFL learner‟s critical thinking and their listening comprehension ability. The results of the correlation between critical thinking and listening

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comprehension showed that there was significant correlation between listening comprehension marks and critical thinking‟ s total scores. By examining whether critical thinking has any predictive power in predicting learners‟ listening comprehension ability, it was found that Critical thinking, can be the positive predictor of the listening comprehension ability. The results indicated that the model could predict 52 percent of the students‟ listening comprehension and they could justify the variance of learners‟ listening comprehension to a large extent.

The findings of this study confirm many studies in the critical thinking domain such as the study in which “the effect of critical thinking instruction on the music listening skills of fifth grade students” was investigated. The results showed that subjects with Critical Thinking Instruction (CTI ) were more successful in music, affective, associative, and the whole result of pretest to posttest in comparison with the learners of Activity-Based Instruction (ABI) (Johnson, 2007). Pogonowski (1989) in his study of critical thinking and music listening found that dialogues and listening part that make the students engaged in analysis can change them into the better musicians and listeners. He asserts the role of critical thinking in improving music listening skill. The results of the conducted studies in this area provide obvious proofs for effectiveness of critical thinking in learning process. Critical thinking includes some skills of researching, makes a person capable of investigating the different sources to make the appropriate decisions; therefore, a learner with these abilities can perform effectively in educational setting (Steven Brookfield, 1991). According to Dam and Volman (2004) critical thinking should be paid attention both practically and theoretically in learning and teaching process to make learners think deeply and logically.

The study has some implications: for teachers and teacher trainers to inject critical thinking in their teaching process including listening comprehension instruction, for students to apply different aspects of critical thinking in their learning process generally and acquiring listening comprehension ability specifically, for the providers and developers of educational materials, also for syllabus designers to include critical thinking in the syllabus of pedagogy.

There were some limitations, which the researchers faced during the study. For example because of the length and complexity of Watson Glazer questionnaire, in spite of the researcher‟s emphasis, some of the subjects did not answer questions with full attention. Participants‟ different ages and educational background were other kinds of limitations, which the researchers faced during the study. In this study the relationship between critical thinking and listening comprehension ability was investigated, other researchers can investigate this relationship with other language skills and components. In addition, this relationship can be explored with different ages and the proficiency levels. Moreover, other researchers can replicate this study in high school and university.

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References Brookfield, S. D. (1991). Developing Critical Thinkers: Challenging adults to explore alternative ways of thinking and acting. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass and England: Open University Press.

Buck, G. (2001). Assessing listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Center for critical thinking. (1996a). A brief history of the idea of critical thinking.

Retrieved March 2012 from: http://www.criticalthinking.org/aboutCT/briefhistoryCT.shtml Cottrell, S. (2005). Critical thinking skills: Developing effective analysis and argument.

New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Dam, G., & Volman, M. (2004). Critical thinking as citizenship competence: Teaching strategies. Learning and Instruction, 14, 359-379. Retrieved March 2012 from http://llt.msu.edu/vol14/article1.pdf De Boo, M. (1999). Enquiring children, challenging teaching. Buckingham: University Press.

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Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Goh, C. (2010). Listening as process: Learning activities for self-appraisal and selfregulation. In Harwood, N. (Ed.), English language teaching materials: Theory and practice (pp. 179-206). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Goscik, K. (1990). Teaching critical thinking. Retrieved April 2012 from: http://www.darthmouth.edu/~writing/materials/faculty/thinking.hml Halpern, D. A. (1998). Teaching for critical thinking: Helping college students develop the skills and dispositions of a critical thinker. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 80, 69-74.

Johnson, D. C. (2004). Music listening and critical thinking. International Journal of the Humanities, 2(2),1161-1169.

Keesing- styles, L. (2003). The relationship between critical pedagogy and assessment in teacher education. Retrieved March 2012 from: http://www.RadicalPedagogy.com Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. London: Longman.

Nunan, D. (1997). Listening in language learning. The language teacher, 23(9), 47-51.

Paul, R. C. (2005). Critical thinking: What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world. (2nd revised ed.). Santa Rosa, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking.

Pogonowski, L. (1989). Critical Thinking and Music Listening, Music Educators Journal, 76 (1), 35- 38. Š 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Rivers, W. (1966). Listening comprehension. The Modern Language Journal, 50, 196204.

Simpson, E., & Courtney, M. (2003). Critical thinking in nursing education: Literature review. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 8(2), 89-98.

Strohm, S. M., & Baukus, R. A. (1995). Strategies for fostering critical thinking skills.

Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 50 (1), 55-62.

Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Uso-Juan, E &Martinez-Flor, A. (2006). Current trends in the development and teaching of the four language skills. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

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81 International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 6, No.1, pp. 81-92, June 2014

Buying Our Lives with a Riddle:1 Adaptation as the “Female-Other” Perspective2 Lekan Balogun Theatre Programme, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand Abstract. The existence of a strong relationship between gender and class as well as other patterns of social inequality in African societies has been a major cause of conflict arising from human relationships. Myth and history have also been identified as some of the ways through which this social imbalance is promoted. Overtime various methods have been adopted in combating the malaise; one of such is literature. Such sensibility has equally found expression in adaptation and/or appropriation.This paper focuses on Ahmed Yerima‟s Otaelo, adapted from Shakespeare‟s original text Othello, deployed as a site of engagement to confront the condition of the Other, through recourse to feminist theory. The paper also finds in Euripides‟s Medea a material and prototype dramaturgy for basis of argument, which underlines patriarchy as a significant male-centred practice that militates against women‟s right and freedom.

Keywords: adaptation; appropriation; culture; otherness; patriarchy

Introduction “Othering”, as Onbelet (2004) asserts, “has been associated predominantly with marginalized people who, by virtue of their difference from the dominant group, have been disempowered, robbed of a voice in the social, religious and political world.” Otherness takes many forms and may not necessarily be determined by numerical figure as we had in the native Indians, who outnumbered the British during colonial rule but were still considered the “Other.” Essentially, our concern here is otherness determined by sexual orientation. The feminist scholar, Simone de Beauvoir concerns herself with all aspects of marginalization, especially of women.

She raises fundamental questions on the subject. She observes that the pattern of social structure on which society is built makes it imperative for women to struggle, under the whims and caprices of men, because “they live dispersed among males, attached to certain men (fathers or husbands) more firmly than they are to other 1This

paper is a version of the one presented at the International Conference on Africa and its Diaspora, with the theme; Africa and its Diaspora: Expressions of Local Knowledge, hosted by the African Studies Institute, University of Georgia, Athens, USA, in 2012.

“We buy our life with a riddle, and then afterwards […] we have to live it […] and a bigger riddle begins,” See; Osofisan, Femi (1977). The Chattering and the Song. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.

2

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82 women.” She argues that the social construction of woman as the “Other” is responsible for the cause of her oppression.

Gender and Otherness: two sides of the same coin Feminist theorists have espoused the connection between Otherness and Class in terms of the relationship which bothers on gender inequality in which the dominant group (male) imposes the value of its own particular identity, while at the same time devaluing the identity of the “Other” (female) through the imposition of corresponding discriminatory measures. From the perspective of gender ranking, Lorber argues that “when genders are ranked, the devalued genders have less power, prestige and economic rewards than the valued gender”(Lorber 2001:125).

According to Collins, this degrading situation is brought by the fact that “each of us lives within a system that vests us with varying levels of power and privilege [which] are structured along the lines of race, class, gender as well as sexual orientation that frame our relationships” (Collins1990: 76). Trinh Minh ha equally adds that within this kind of relationship, the postcolonial women‟s position is hard to define because: Not quite the same, not quite the other, she stands in that undetermined threshold place where she constantly drifts in and out. Undercutting the inside/outside opposition, her intervention is necessarily that of both, not quite an insider and not quite an outsider. She is, in other words, this inappropriate „other‟ or „same‟ who moves about with always at least two gestures: that of affirming „I am like you‟ while persisting in her difference and that of reminding „I am different‟, while unsettling every definition of otherness arrived at (Trinh 1997, 418).

To say that most scholars, who have written about feminism and female marginalization share similar concern as do Trinh is to state the obvious. For instance, in a related instance, Freedman offers an opinion that is rather more compelling. She states that: A girl is „merely a weed‟, in a Zulu saying. According to the Old Testament, “The Lord said to Moses, „Set the value of a male between ages of twenty and sixty at fifty shekels […] and if it is a female, set the value at thirty shekels.‟” A Dutch proverb declares that a “house full of daughters is like a cellar full of sour beer,” while Koreans learn that a “girl lets you down twice, once at birth and the second time when she marries.” Even contemporary parents usually prefer male children; a 1983 survey of forty countries found only two with daughter preference for boys to girls. Where strong sons‟ preferences persist, parents may selectively abort female foetuses and neglect girls, leading to higher mortality rates for female infants in parts of the world, such as India and China (Friedman 2002, 19).

The system of gender marginalization in most societies feeds on culture and the prevalent practice of patriarchy, by which the female species is continually

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83 oppressed under the authority of the male. Societies have continued to battle the patriarchal monster, whose origin lies very deep in perceptions that place men above women, especially those sanctioned by religion, cultural beliefs and practices. Most traditional cultures of the world revel in the practice, which presupposes that the problems they have are deep-rooted in female anomaly. And, in order to extirpate the “disorder”, the female species must constantly be locked under the guidance and watchful eyes of the male who is ordained to clean up her mess. Johnson argues that “no matter what other men do to a man or how deeply they control his life, he can always feel culturally superior to women and take out his anger and frustration on them”( Johnson 1997, 37); much as they (men) are prone to using women to cover their sexual inadequacy or abnormality in some cases. This is because “no woman isimmune to the cultural devaluing of women‟s bodies as sexual objects to be exploited in public and private lives”(19).

Aside these points, Friedman offers an argument that supports the intention of this paper. She says: “heterosexual men are encouraged to use women as badges of success to protect and enhance their standing in the eyes of men”(34), which essentially forms part of some seriously abnormal cases of female oppression. For instance, female domination and oppression take the form of gender inequality, which supports the strength and practice of misogyny prevalent in Western culture.

Johnson also explains that “not to be overlooked is the routine of insulting males with names that link them to females—sissys (sister), girl, pussy, son of a bitch, mama‟s boy”. She also adds that,“the worst way to insult a woman isn‟t to call her a man or a „daddy‟s girl‟; it‟s to call her a woman by another name by highlighting or maligning femaleness itself—bitch, whore, cunt” (38-9). Added to these points is the fact that contact with other cultures, with similar psychological perception results in heightened system and structure that often combine to stifle female initiative, except in the aspect of sexual gratification.

Deconstructing Thought

Otherness:

Adaptation/Appropriation

and

“Playful”

In tackling the menace of Otherness, adaptation and/or appropriation comes as a tool of re-invention, as an “act of imaginative rediscovery”, and the text as “an act of imaginary reunification”(Hall 1994, 224), in the struggle for the dismantling of every form of oppressive practice, legislation and perception. It is in this light that Yerima has engaged the subject of female domination through his appropriation of Shakespeare‟s Othello. Yerima‟s humanism, though locally derived, is expressed in some of his other literary works which address the condition of the oppressed “Female-Other”. An itinerant childhood3, and position as a cultural officer of high ranking have both combined to afford Yerima the rare opportunity to come in contact with several Nigerian cultures and practices4; and this unique experience has positively influenced the blossoming of his career devoted to engaging the same

3Yerima‟s

childhood was characterized by moving around with his father, a Police Officer, on national duties across the country. See; Adeoti, Gbemisola (2010). Muse and Mimesis: Cultural Perspectives on Ahmed Yerima’s Drama: Ibadan, Spectrum Books Ltd; Adeoti, Gbemisola (2010). Voices Offstage: Nigerian Dramatists on Drama and Politics. Ibadan: Kraft Books,Ltd. 4

Yerima was one-time Artistic Director, National Troupe of Nigeria; later Director-General, National Theatre/National Troupe of Nigeria and Director, Abuja Carnival,Nigeria.

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84 cultural practices in ways that have provided informed glimpses into the people‟s conduct.5 By engaging the gender politics that characterizes Igbo culture, specifically the Osu caste system issue, Yerima also alludes to other societies, where patriarchy and female marginalization have remained a significant way of life. For example, in another play entitled Aetu set in Yoruba land, he also engages the female issue. In that play, the audience is introduced to a central character, who “violently” challenges the destruction of her being through subjection to the dictates of culture and religious tradition that promote the practice of leviration. It is a custom that allows a woman, whose husband is deceased, to be “owned” by any other male family member (usually the son or brother of the deceased) and/or from the extended family in a heightened patriarchal society. He argues that significant problems related to women‟s role and position in most societies where they are marginalized often stem from patriarchy and can be cited as the central principle that nurtures the Osu caste system he engages in this particular appropriation of Shakespeare‟s Othello. According to him, no other cultural practice is as inhuman as the Osu caste system practiced in some parts of Igbo land the way it is focused in this retelling of the Shakespeare canonical text.

Historically, Igbo traditional belief system proved to be very effective in ensuring order in the communities before colonialism, but from the same system arose what Igwebuike describes as the “dehumanizing Osu caste system, which has divided and alienated the Igbos”, because by all standards, the Osu caste system is “a societal institution borne out of a primitive traditional belief system coloured by superstition and propagated byignorance”(Igwebuike 1986, 4). It can be argued that an average Igbo individual believes in the rationality and complementarity of both the male and female members of the society as basis for a peaceful and progressive co-existence judging from Onwubuariri‟s opinion drawn from local proverbs and oral narratives of the people, such as “Agbakota Aka nyuommamiriOgboufufu” which means “if all efforts are brought together, the desired goal will be achieved”. Also, the Igbo believed in the view of “Ibuanyidanda” which simply means “if everybody will bring their efforts together, there will be no load that is too heavy for them to carry”.

Moreover, they also believe in the mutual unity among all parts that forms the absolute or the whole. Thus the dictum “EgbebereUgobere”; and “Ka soma dina”, which simply shows their belief in the conglomeration and the mutual unification of every human being and their efforts (Onwubuariri 7).

However, the social condition of women of Umuagu community as the “Other” in Yerima‟sOtaelo, in the male-dominated Umuagu culture, given impetus by social and ritual practice which disempowers and robs them of a voice in the social, religious and political world, nullifies the above assertions. It not only casts serious doubt on them, but also puts to test Nwachukwu‟s description of the Osu as “a sacred and holy being that deserved to live a secluded life, a monk in order to salvage and save the people under him as a king and saviour”(Nwachukwu 1985,5). It also portrays that society, and wherever such is practiced, as glorifying in the celebration of the “inherited sin,” by which punishment for the “iniquity” of the parents are visited on 5Yerima

is the only Nigerian playwright, who has written plays set in several Nigerian ethnic/cultural backgrounds ranging from Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba, Igbo, Ijaw/Niger-Delta, Tiv, Igala, Itsekiri/Urhobo, Benin etc

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85 their children and/or the unborn as shown by Yerima in Otaelo, the central character of the adaptation. Otherness is portrayed by Yerima in Otaelo by his highlighting the gender victimization and domestic violence against women. It is also shown in the way the people ostracized Otaelo, who is considered and treated as an Osu, the “Other” in the society. It is the same society, which turns a blind eye to a man (his father), who batters his wife (his mother); the woman.

The extent of the dehumanization of the female species can also be seen in Otaelo‟s mother‟s “no identity” position in the text. She is not seen, but heard. The playwright appears to highlight this point by not even having her physically in the story or the community, except to be made constant reference to through her son, a male, who inherits from her, his own inconsequential position in the society. But, technically, not been physically present in the play does not diminish her importance to the plot.

In fact it is her decisive action against oppression that sets the tone for the entire dramatic experience. Heavily pregnant, she bore the pains of torture and maltreatment from her husband (men), like every other female members of the society, who have been cowed into silence and submission. But, as one can infer from her action to change the situation, she drew attention to a significant aspect of her character that becomes manifested through her equally condemned and ostracized son. She thus comes across to us, in the words of William, as “the philosophical soul of the community, one given to much reflection about the state of things and the actual condition on which human nature is judged and human acts defined”(William 1997, 292). The same society punishes her with death, for reacting in self-defense to the violence suffered in the hands of her husband.

Cultural practice is used as a social stigma to suppress her and destroy her child through condemnation at birth. After her being sentenced to death by Ala, the god of protection, she runs to for refuge, and executed accordingly as soon as she has given birth, her child is also made to bear the brunt of society‟s denigration and condemnation6. Ironically too, the Igwe (monarch) of the land, who attempts a redeeming act by wanting the Osu to live a normal life of struggle, hope and aspiration like every other freeborn in the society, also gets destroyed in the throes of a system that perpetuates male aggressiveness and domination. Though he (the Igwe) perfectly understands the cultural stipulation against flirting with the Osu, yet he gives him the chance to prove his worth by allowing Otaelo join the community's soldiers to do battle in the name of the land. His action is considered a taboo (a forbidden act according to the land'scustoms). Also, in order to express appreciation for Otaelo at the battlefront (he actually saves the Igwe‟s life twice by fencing off arrows with his chest), he decides to honour him with one of the most prestigious titles in the land, as well as giving his consent to Otaelo‟s request to marry his daughter whom he has been dating secretly.

For such “redeeming acts,” that is, mixing Osu and freeborn freely, theIgwe crosses the line between reason and irrationality. Igwe's “unusual” frame of mind, in a society taken over by irrationality sanctioned by a practice that is not only barbaric 6Ala

in Igbo culture (also sometimes referred to as Ani) is actually a female deity; the goddess of the earth, which alludes to the power of women to protect, nurture and bring to life. That Yerima refers to Ala as a god, a male deity appears to be a dramaturgical tool—an attempt to „manipulate‟ that aspect of the Igbo ethos, in line with the patriarchal sensibility of the play‟s world. Besides, it makes sense to see how Ala, a male deity, is complicit in the Osu tragic cultural practice.

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86 and inhuman, but also utterly debased to say the least, is regarded as a “curse from his late father” or as Agbo tells us of “rash spirit ruling his mind” (Otaelo 31).

Rather, Igwe's action makes him not to be a “real” or “man‟s man”, according to Ruth. She notes that if a man should decide to be different by not enforcing the patriarchal rule the “people will punish him for his deviation, through rejection, ostracism, ridicule or formidable signs of hostility. Because he is not a „man‟s man‟ or a „real‟ man, he is apt to find himself ill-received both in traditional male environments and among many traditional women” (Ruth,51) [emphasis added].But, liberal feminist concern for equal opportunity and welfare of all gender can be illustrated by Yerima‟s characterization of the Igwe. He also underlines this fact in the conversation between Otaelo and his adopted father, Ebuka: Otaelo: I don‟t understand.

Ebuka: I do son. Remember who you are.

Otaelo: Oh old man there you go again. Always you want me to grovel in the mud searching for who I am. Does blood not flow in my veins? Do I not cry, laugh or feel the pangs of pain like anybody?

Ebuka: But you are…

Otaelo: I know what you say I am. You think I can forget so soon? But can‟t I aspire, protected still by Ala, the great earth god, to become somebody else?

Ebuka: No. Otaelo: No? (Pauses) But what did I do that the air I breathe must also remain thick with shame?

Ebuka: Your mother‟s son…

Otaelo: Oh, old man unburden my heart with my mother‟s load of sin. It was her who killed my father, her husband by mistake when he beat her with me, their unborn child, in her womb. I was not even born yet. It was her in order to run from the punishment of death, ran to the shrine of Ala for protection.

There she became an Osu, and after I was born, she was still used for sacrifice to the god she ran to for protection. You brought me up like your son. Why must I always lose everything? Why can I not just be a man? (Otaelo34-35) [Emphasis added].

This conversation is very illuminating in a number of ways. First, it brings to light certain ontological views, which bother on the question of the essence and dignity of human beings, especially in relation to practices sanctioned by culture and other related ideology. Second, it questions the rationale behind the classification and treatment of women in the society as “underdogs”, who can only be seen and not heard; as the “Other” through whom the standard of the Centre, that is men, is measured; third, and most importantly, it engages the issue of the debilitating condition of women as mere objects and tools that men exploit and manipulate under the guise of cultural practice. These women always end up as victims of these „rites‟, and tragically too, with such fate being inherited by their children, especially girls as reflected in the fate of the other female characters in the play.

The operation of this system of heightened patriarchy is stressed by Li and Bolaria as “a societal phenomenon marked by the domination of certain men over other men, all women and children. A system of ruling where power is exercised as domination over others and stems from the historical emergence of the oppression of women”(Li and Bolaria 1994,84). The encounter also underscores Yerima‟spro-feminist stance, by

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87 his engagement with questions of violation, and the sense and dignity of the human person through some obsolete practice.

In the same light, Greek tragedy also provides a vivid background to an understanding of the tribulation of the “Other” in the drama and/or theatre of most African dramatists, who have somehow foundin Greek plays a great deal of “cultural diversity and specificity”(Taiwo 1997, 121), to their own experience in terms of an understanding which demonstrates the dynamism of a certain culture to mirror another. According to Hardwick, Greek drama in performance “acts as an agent of transformation enabling us to experience simultaneously and in tension, different cultural perspectives and aspects of being. This capacity is partly a function of Greek drama‟s creation of critical distance between ancient and modern, early modern, modern and postmodern traditions”(Hardwick qtd in Ferguson 2007,41-42). The “transformation” here connects classical Greek and Shakespeare/Elizabethan dramatic worldview with the African/Nigerian sensibility in Yerima‟s adaptation of Othello which, in engaging and speaking for and/or on behalf of the marginalized female, the “Other,” draws a parallel with Medea byEuripides. Such semblance subscribes to Hardwick‟s idea that “classical referents are a sign of a double consciousness which recognizes both the assimilationist impact of classical texts on colonized peoples [...] and also the capacity of writers to use texts and referents to create new works,” knowing that such efforts yield “double consciousness into a more pluralistic and multi-layered awareness”(Hardwick 2004, 42).

Following up on this line of thought, Padel observes that “in the Greek male worldview, anything female, dead, or wild is easily perceived as „Other‟”(Padel 1992,9).One fact of life in Greek society is that any non-Greek was the “Other” or a barbarian and Medea is both barbarian and female, woman, as the „other,‟ an anomaly that Euripides appears to repeatedly point out in his plays about women.

Vellacottt, a translator of Euripides‟s plays, has noted of the Greek dramatist's dramaturgy in regard to the fact of “the readiness of the Greek male to set the blame for everything upon a woman [...] a fact of which Euripides constantly, though nearly always ironically, reminded his contemporaries”(Vellacott 1956,15). With Medea as in the rest of his plays centering on women, Euripides challenges his society, through themes such as “the destructive folly of violence; the sordid ugliness of revenge, and the subjection and suffering imposed upon the female by the injustices of the male”(Vellacott,38). According to Vellacott, Euripides always questions the Greek perception on issues ranging from reason and irrationality, human and divine, civic order, virtue etc. As a result, the knowledge of the dynamics of a society “ruled by a certain kind of men wielding a certain kind of power [...] a society that reflects the underlying values of the traditional male ideal”(Ruth 1990,45), is often brought up in the hope that the imbalance and injustice can possibly be effectively tackled and addressed.

Thus the tragic universe which Zeitlen considers to be “one that is other than the self originally imagined it to be”(Zeitlen 1990,76) will serve to tie Medea to Otaelo judging from the peculiarity of experience shared by the two women at the centre of the conflict in the plays, namely, Medea and Otaelo‟s mother from whom he inherited his Osu/Other status. For a proper conception of the subject, we view Yerima‟s concern through its elaborate expression in Euripides‟s oriental (mis) fortune, so to speak, by connecting with Said‟s argument that; “Oriental mysteries will be taken seriously, not least because they challenge the rational Western mind to new © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

88 exercises of its enduring ambitions and power”(Said 1978,57), and, much more in the light of the fact Bajpaie expresses that within the text, lies the “life-giving power of imagination” (Bajpaie 2007, 1), which essentially “represents, animates and constitutes the otherwise silent and dangerous space beyond the familiar boundaries”(Bajpate,57), by which the text (Medea) has often been interpreted.

Medea‟s disposition toward Jason is more of love, devotion and dedication as a dutiful and supportive wife in all ramifications. In a background to the tragic play, we are made to be aware that she used her power to help Jason “discover” the Golden Fleece; she even bore him two sons which, in the Greek phallocentric society, is something of significant pride. But, Jason‟s betrayal changes all of that. Rather than be ashamed of his conduct and betrayal, or at least express some guilt, he exhibits the usual male ego that characterizes Greek way of life and boastfully tells her “I shall enumerate how much you gained: first, you joined the civilized; you live among the Greeks and not Barbarians; you have been taught what justice is, and how law rules in place of force. And you have gained a reputation for cleverness among the Greeks, a fine renown” (Medea 573-77). This kind of thought and arrogance permeates Greek life.The prevailing questions and tragic consequence that such perception and attitude to life bring about are dramatically underlined by Euripides in the play.

Medea‟s brutal reaction to Jason‟s betrayal, that is, the murder of the two sons she hadfor him and the princess he plans to marry after abandoning her, is not only tragic as Wilner and Azar explain it. Rather, it sends across a message about the danger in female marginalization and suppression, with enough clarity of purpose.

In their opinion, Wilner and Azar observe that “a veil of morality covers the brutality of vengeance[but] Euripides strips this veil away”(Wilner and Azar 1997,10), to show Euripides‟s “affinity for the feminine and some kind of new intellectual trend that confuses and unsettles the older, simpler values of the city” (Zeitlin,90). For Jason to have practically abandoned Medea to chase after another woman, a Greek woman, she (Medea) becomes a “sex-thing” (Ruth 225). Jason, however, also aptly fits into a broader perception of how males dominate females according to Ruth‟s outline; “in patriarchy, women in sexual roles are ideally to function not as self-affirming, selffulfilling human beings but rather as beautiful dolls to be looked at, touched, felt, experienced for arousal, used for titillation and ultimately used up and traded in for a newer model thing” (225)[emphasis added].

However, it is morality as opposed to irrationality that is called to question here and in Dodd‟s opinion“One is the ethical question concerning the source and the validity of moral and political obligation [and], the other is the psychological question concerning the springs of human conduct---why do men behave as they do, and how can they be induced to behave better?” (Dodd 1957,183). In this regard, Geddie (2005) assertion that Medea takes place “in a chaotic world where vows are broken, trust is impossible, and every human value is brought into question,” also alludes to the spate of irrationality in Umuagu of Otaelo. It is a community where vows of love and sanctity of marriage are broken at will; where nothing holds true for anybody, not even the Igwe who tries to lift the Osu beyond the society‟s debased standard; or the die-hard, fiendish “culture-activist,” Agbo, that finds in ritual practice a ready and deadly weapon to unleash destruction on a young man who intends to overcome the burden of his society‟s foible and grasps, and then finally with Ala the supposed god of protection “acting” as a willing collaborator in the eventual rapid death and melancholy that befall the society. © 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

89 In the play, Agbo personifies the chronic fatalistic tendency of the community and its incurable patriarchal system that combine to destroy the female members and the core emotional and physical cum psychological elements that will ensure continuity of life in the process. His sated desire to destroy the Osu, the use of dark manipulative schemes, firm twist of rational thought subjected under jealousy and rage fit into Bradshaw‟s summation of what occurs in a heightened patriarchal set up; “Blind obedience--upon which patriarchy stands; the repression of all emotions except fear; the destruction of individual willpower; and the repression of thinking whenever it departs from the authority figure‟s way of thinking” (Bradshaw, qtdfrm hooks 4). Still, a consideration of the thematic concern of another play by both Euripides and Shakespeare, through drawing from the characters who, in a critical perception, Clark (1978)humours as “heroes,” will provide a varied context to examine the nature of Yerima‟sOtaelo‟s humanity or tragic reality as a flawed character, whose hubris is either innate or foisted on him by society or even the combination of both. Otaelo‟s striking character as “a man so embroiled in his own bitterness”(Otaelo 31), connects with Othello in Othello and Richard, of RichardIII. That he (Otaelo) starts off on a noble note of courage and life that is full of promise despite his shameful past is commendable. Unfortunately, that he ends up succumbing to wicked thoughts and tragic actions which lead to the death of loved ones and his own ignominy, is definitely Shakespearean. Otaelo, like Othello, is by no means comparable to a character like Richard who is bad from the onset; he convinces his brother King Edward IV to imprison their brother Clarence whom he later has slaughtered while pleading his cause; captures his young nephew Edward V, whom he sends with his brother to the Towers of London, where both are murdered as he had their uncle. Remarkably so is his way with women; for example, the widow he woos after killing her husband and the mother of the boys he kills, and thereafter sweet tongues into agreeing for him to marry her daughter and niece to the murdered boys.

These character traits serve to draw a comparison between Shakespeare‟s heroic characters and classical Greek tragic heroes, especially Orestes. Brockett and Ball‟s argument that “Orestes shows the evolution of the concept of justice as personal revenge being replaced by the impersonal judgement of the state”(Brockett and Ball 2004, 64), obviously connects with Bowra‟s claim on heroism (heroic poetryspecifically) that “the admiration for great doings lies deep in the human heart, and comforts and cheers even when it does not stir to emulation”(Bowra, qtdfrm Clark 5). However, a closer look at Orestes shows a character who groans under the burden of guilt in the light of the tragic catharsis of a son who kills his mother to avenge his father‟s murder by her. Also, behind the facade of vengeance, one perceives the sated desire to massage the Greek male ego. We pity him more when he declares “None from outside can help; we must ourselves cure our own case,” and Euripides‟s suggestion that the gods of the Greek myth are morally corrupt comes handy to explain his irrationality. In the presence of a “sick” society like classical Greece which seems to applaud Orestes heinous act of matricide, and Richard‟s Shakespeare‟s Elizabethan/Jacobean era, Clark‟s remark, that they cannot be described as some “truly organized society where there is rule of law”(Clark 1978,13), becomes very relevant and apt.Yerima‟s awareness of gender classification, and the pains of seclusion of the “Other” should be applauded. Better still, the heroism of Otaelo and his mother; the nameless female-protagonist, should be acknowledged.

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90 Even if both of them do not measure up to the standard of Oedipus who suffers in the pursuit of truth, or Caesar who dies a stoic death, the fact that she is able to rise above suppression and fight back while other women and men watch in submission means a great deal; even if he fails at the end to make meaning out of his abused life, we must at least acknowledge that by drawing inspiration and fighting spirit from his mother to bring down Agbo, who symbolizes the society that oppresses the Osu and its‟ like, they should both be commended. Through his heroic death, Otaelo shows how the “freeborn and the Osu share the same level” (Otaelo 57). But, if Agbo‟s death is deserving, the same cannot also be said of Princess Chinyere, who must not be mourned or honoured with state burial according to custom and tradition. Rather, her body will be thrown into the bush and the hut she once lived in burnt to ashes, perhaps to completely obliterate her memory from the land of her birth, having died by the hands of the untouchable. She certainly deserves our sympathy for her innocence, and willingness to please and make her father happy in spite of everything; also for her loving willingness to marry Otaelo, anOsudespite the risk of ostracism by the community. Like her father, the Igwe, she breaks protocol, what political scientists call “class suicide” in order to follow her mind and show the entire corrupt and “sick” community a glorious example of how humanity should behave. However, Yerima shows the destructive depth of the Osu cultural practice and how it drives people to insanity by her death in the hands of the same Otaeloshe wants to “refine” and treat like a “real” human being that he so much wants to be, but who kills her out of jealousy and rage propelled by mere suspicion of infidelity orchestrated by Agbo. Also by closing Otaelo in a rapid end of deaths and melancholy is an ingenuity of dramaturgy which draws attention to the plight of the “Other,” pushed to self-immolation by a society that he devotes his whole life serving just for him to be accepted, to love and be loved in turn.

Conclusion Adaptations and/or appropriations as alternative vehicles of narration create “an ideology of relevance”(Irele1982,2) and by connecting Greek, Elizabethan and African societies through adaptations, much as this paper has tried to demonstrate, it shows the repetitiveness of human nature and how Otherness is perceived as a social construction which is experienced from gender and class perspectives across time and space. Yerima‟s gender consciousness is shown through his feminist concern for the plight of women in his play, Otaelo and their contribution to society in some of his other plays, such as Igatibi as well as the ululation of womanhood in Aetu. Kande, a character in the play, Aetu, offers an explanation for this artistic sensibility; “Some women stay with their husbands, who beat them, who abuse them, and who dehumanise them, yet they stay, for the children. Some even live for those moments of sanity, when the man thinks like a husband from his heart, not from his fat strong arms and private parts” (Aetu 44). Otaelo shows that male dominance has taken place, for the man‟s possession of a “phallus” with which he dominates the female body, and confines the female specie to take the back-seat status. Through ritual and cultural practice, he constructs the woman as “Other” and, according to Khalil Hammad (2009), such practice “suppresses and represses the female/feminine body and determines that what should prevail is male-related”.

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