Vol 7 no 1 august 2014 by ijlter.org

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p-ISSN: 1694-2493 e-ISSN: 1694-2116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.7 No.1

PUBLISHER London Consulting Ltd District of Flacq Republic of Mauritius www.ijlter.org

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 7

NUMBER 1

August 2014

Table of Contents A Comparative Study of Multicultural Awareness among In-service School Teachers .............................................. 1 Brian Vassallo A Multicultural view of Mathematics Male-teachers at Israeli Primary Schools ........................................................ 23 Eti Gilad and Shosh Millet Discovery Learning with the Help of the GeoGebra Dynamic Geometry Software ................................................... 44 Trung Tran, Ngoc-Giang Nguyen, Minh-Duc Bui and Anh-Hung Phan Impact of Culture on Communication Interactions: Case of Mixed Ethnic Secondary Schools in Botswana ......... 58 James G. Chisambi Organizational Justice Influences Foci Commitment of Teachers via Trust ................................................................. 78 Shueh-Chin Ting The Contribution of In-Service Training Programs to the Professional Development of Mathematics Teachers .. 93 Ilana Levenberg and Dorit Patkin The Coach-Athlete Relationship and Self-Determination: Assessing an Athlete Centered Scale in Sport ............. 105 Frode Moen and Roger A. Federici A Close Study of the Effects of ESP Learners’ Beliefs on the Choice of Language Learning Strategies ................. 119 Abbas Zare-ee and Malihe Salami Do Children Accept Virtual Agents as Foreign Language Trainers? .......................................................................... 131 Manuela Macedonia, Roland Kern and Friedrich Roithmayr The Role of Social Appearance Anxiety in Metacognitive Awareness of Adolescents ............................................ 138 Eyüp Çelik, Mehmet Emin Turan and Neslihan Arıcı Bridging the Cultural Gap: Strategies for Multicultural Teaching and Learning in Malta ...................................... 148 Brian Vassallo

Assessing Principalsâ&#x20AC;&#x; Coordinating and Controlling Strategies for Effective Teaching and Quality Learning Outcome in Secondary Schools in Ondo State, Nigeria ................................................................................................ 180 Adeolu Joshua Ayeni, Ph.D. and Comfort Ayandoja Akinfolarin, Ph.D. An Evidence-based Approach to the Design of a Learning Program: Evaluating Preliminary Data Sets ............. 201 Andrea Carr, Jo-Anne Kelder and Juliet Sondermeyer

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 1-22, August 2014

A Comparative Study of Multicultural Awareness among In-service School Teachers Brian Vassallo Abstract. The paper examines Multicultural Awareness as perceived by in-service school teachers across three different countries. After conducting a review of literature on multicultural awareness, the author realized that 1) literature on multicultural awareness seems to focus almost entirely on pre-service teachers and 2) different circumstances have prompted different countries to catalyze measures to accommodate the changing multicultural contexts. The study aims to provide scholarship for school teachers on the complexity of multicultural education. Using the Cultural Diversity Awareness Inventory (Henry, 1986, modified) the study highlights various aspects of awareness namely cultural awareness in the classroom, cross-cultural communication, culturally diverse families, multicultural learning environment, and assessment criteria. These are then analyzed using Chi Square statistics. Results indicate disparities in some areas of cultural awareness in the classroom and culturally diverse families. Conclusions and suggestions for future research follow, based on findings. Keywords: Cultural Awareness, Multicultural Education, Chi-Square, Analysis.

Introduction While a lot of research is currently being conducted and published in the realm of multicultural education, multiethnic awareness, diverse attitudes, multiple skills and multilingual environments, such research seems to be focused almost entirely on pre-service teachers (Eg: Watson, Park and Lee (2011); Brown, (2011), Premier and Miller (2010)). Research conducted by Larke (1990) and by Milner et al. (2003), has shown that pre-service teachers' attitudes with respect to cultural diversity are improving. Milner et al. (2003) also revealed that pre-service teachers were not quite sure about how to integrate their learning programs with the changing multicultural environments, assessments, and curricula in order to support all children present in the classroom. They conclude that teacher education programs must continue to focus on issues of multicultural education, ever though an improvement has been registered. This claim of improvement has prompted the researcher to investigate the current state of multicultural awareness among in-service teachers by undergoing a literature review on the subject which proved to be rather scarce. @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

This paper attempts to do justice to a missing link in a chain of research aimed at highlighting the experience of in service teachers in environments which are more heterogeneous in nature than any other unprecedented epoch. The study also aims to whet the appetite of teachers and other educational stakeholders who are always on the lookout for up to date research and who aim to use that research as a platform for more apt classroom environments which is inclusive of diverse cultures. It is also the aim of the paper to provide scholarship for novel researchers willing to embark on the „new‟ and exciting praxis of multicultural teaching and learning. The study also aims to increase our understanding as to how teachers currently teaching students of diverse cultures are experiencing everyday cultural diversity and also provides a comparison of this experience across three different schools in three different continents namely North America, Europe, and Australia. The study uses the same subscales of the Cultural Diversity Awareness Inventory (Henry, 1986; Larke, 1990) namely Cultural Awareness in

the classroom, Cross-cultural Communication, Culturally Diverse Families, Classroom Environment and Assessment Criteria. Some modifications were deemed necessary to reflect to reflect the nature of the study. Literature review follows by highlighting the various aspects of Cultural Awareness. Literature review Banks (2007), in his study on American classrooms claims that the increased diversification in classrooms has brought additional challenges for school teachers in the dynamic world of teaching. Today‟s classrooms are no longer homogenous but host within them students of different cultural backgrounds, racial compositions, socio-economic statuses, and linguistic backgrounds. Cultural Awareness in the Classroom Today‟s classroom environments are no longer homogenous but look more like a rainbow of different hues which blend together in a kaleidoscopic array of radiant faces ready to learn. Society at large expects schools to function like clog wheels in a clock, synchronized to perfection, and governed by beliefs and behaviors which, in turn, affect the academic prowess and social skill development of all students. Within this rather complex but rich scenario teachers need to become aware of their own cultural biases and inclinations, demonstrate apt cultural competencies, possess adequate cultural knowledge, foster a positive and cultivate the skills necessary to work in harmony with students from diverse backgrounds. Being aware of one‟s own cultural legacies, principles, moral imperatives and prejudices and the extent to which these impinge on our interactions with diverse groups is an important precept in the development of teachers‟ perception of multicultural competence. (Sue et al., 1982). Multicultural awareness "is central to what we see, how we make sense of what we see, and how we express ourselves" (DuPraw & Axner, 1997 quoted in Multicultural - Welcome to NACADA (n.d.). Conflicts may arise if we fall short of understanding what constitutes cultural identity. As DuPraw and Axner (1997) note, "often at times we aren't aware that culture is acting upon us. Sometimes we are not even aware that we have cultural values or assumptions @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

that are different from others!" (pp. 293).

Cross-cultural Communication Disparities in teachers‟ and students‟ cultural background do not automatically mean the ineffectiveness a of teacher-student communication. However, research shows that the teachers‟ knowledge of their student‟s cultures, as well as the infusion of culturally sensitive pedagogy and materials has an influence on students‟ academic performance (Pope and Wilder, 2005). Other research conducted by Cho and DeCastro-Ambrosetti in 2006 shows that teachers' attitudes improved as they developed an increased awareness of and appreciation toward other cultures and that this had an effect on the attainment of students. Studies conducted by Pope and Wilder (2005) and Taylor and Whittaker (2009) showed that cross-cultural communication programs are not urging pre-service teachers to acquire knowledge, awareness, attitude and skills which deliberately address the needs of culturally diverse students. Furthermore, these researchers indicate that many teacher education programs are failing to acknowledge the various contributions of different cultural groups and lack the necessary skills to equip teachers to critically examine their attitudes toward student diversity. The beliefs and values that teachers impart on their students have an effect on their daily interaction with culturally diverse students which, in turn, has an effect on how students perceive their learning environment and academic attainment. Culturally Diverse Families Establishing effective meaningful relationships is a process requiring a commitment from all educational stakeholders. It involves sharing and sustaining open lines of communication and understanding. Culturally Diverse families need to be provided with relevant school information in their language of origin. Also translators and interpreters need to present and able to work in close collaboration with school authorities to promote active family participation in their child's education (Harry, 2008) Classroom Environment Different circumstances have prompted different countries to adopt strategies to infuse cultural adaptations in the curriculum. In the United States, the growing number of immigrants in the 1960‟s, spurred the country towards a continuous change in demographics (Daniels, 2008). In 2007, one in five children in the US spoke another language other than English (US Census Bureau, 2009). In 2050 this number is expected to be 50% (National Centre for Education Statistics, NCES, 2010). Of primary concern is the fact that the rapid change of ethnic composition is placing additional demands on teachers who need to foster a multicultural environment into a classroom (Baeten et al. 2013). For such a challenging enterprise, a teacher has to promote changes in the academic curriculum, in the learning environment and also in the approach of the teachers toward the students. Children coming from different cultures have different understanding levels and hence require for different teaching methods. It is the teacher‟s primary duty to cultivate an environment which aims at bridging cultural gaps. @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

The late 1970‟s saw educational authorities in various European countries heading towards the creation of new subjects due to the growing numbers of diverse students in schools. In France this led towards the Ausländerpädagogik (pedagogy for foreigners) and the pédagogie d’accueil (pedagogy of reception), whose aim was to cater for the educational needs of foreign children. However, this approach has been criticized as being „assimilatory‟ in scope rather than inclusive. Later, in the 1980‟s theoretical frameworks have been put forwards and strategies investigated paving the way for the beginnings of intercultural pedagogy (Portera, 2003, 6–26; 2006, 89–100). The teachers‟ ability to look through the lenses of students with diverse cultural backgrounds, study and purport culturally relevant pedagogies, select and propose culturally relevant material, all contribute towards the attainment of students. Banks (2007) argues that teacher preparation programs are failing to design cultural courses that fit into existing curricula. In Australia, the Bracks government came into power with a clear agenda of eliciting benefits from the state‟s cultural diversity, and to promote racial and religious tolerance and social cohesion. To promote his agenda, the Bracks government introduced a number of laws. The Racial and Religious Tolerance Act (2001) was introduced in the government‟s first term while the Multicultural Victoria Act (2004) was introduced in the second term of the government legislation. It established overarching principles of multiculturalism for the state, and set up mechanisms of accountability for government departments in relation to multiculturalism. According to former Premier Bracks, these legislative innovations were advocated by many community groups, who were concerned about the federal government‟s stance on multiculturalism. Later, in 2006, the Howard government spearheaded the introduction of the Human Rights and Responsibilities Act which stated that “people of all cultural, religious, racial or linguistic backgrounds have the right to enjoy their culture, declare and practice their religion and use their languages”. A new multicultural policy was then launched in 2009 recognizing the importance of minority groups as important contributors to the Australian economy. This new policy recognized the rapidly changing international learning environment and the impact of globalization on Australian society. The Council of Europe started to adopt strategies of multiculturalism and multicultural education in the 1970s focusing almost exclusively on a „double track strategy‟ aimed at integrating children from diverse cultures within their host nation, urging schools to maintain linguistic and cultural links with students of multicultural origin, thus fostering integration between students. In 1983, The Council of Cultural Cooperation unanimously passed a resolution where it recognized the importance of Intercultural Education. It also highlighted the importance of schooling for migrant children and the importance of the „intercultural dimension‟ of education. This „intercultural perspective‟ has contributed to the development of co-operation and solidarity among nations. @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

Later, the Council of Europe expanded its cooperation across all Europe voicing human rights and the rights of minorities (Foucher, 1994). After the September 11 events, the Ministers of Education across European countries launched a number of initiatives to foster „intercultural and inter-religious dialogue‟ amongst which were the „Intercultural dialogue and conflict prevention‟ (20022004); „Youth building peace and intercultural dialogue‟(2004); „Heritage classes‟ international exchanges (2010)‟ and „The new challenge of intercultural education, religious diversity and dialogue in Europe‟. Today, „intercultural education‟ and „intercultural pedagogy‟ are regarded as a more appropriate response to the new context of globalization and the increasing convergence of different languages, religions, cultural behavior and ways of thinking. New assessment criteria are being advocated and are replacing previous approaches. Hence, the education of children from multicultural backgrounds can now be seen as an opportunity rather than as an obstacle. The development of personal and social enrichment was recognized as being the result of effective synergy between people from different cultural, ethnic, and religious backgrounds. Teachers have now the possibility of capitalizing on the experiences of their counterparts in other European countries, study models and stratagems employed and infuse them in their daily interaction with students. Such was the case in Malta, in the document entitled „For all children to succeed‟ (2005), the minister of education has proposed a new network organization for schools and colleges in Malta and Gozo, whose sole purpose was to deliver quality education for all children. In the document (ibid: 2005), he emphasized the need of putting the child at the centre of every educational reform, giving particular attention to the teaching-learning process. In his own words: „(The reform)…….. intends to spur a critically constructive and mature debate and an implementation process that aims at radically improving the quality of education in Malta where the child remains the central hub of all our plans. Our focus in this restructuring and renewal process is the child who will benefit from enhanced teachinglearning process. The expectations of all of us in the education system are high; we expect standards to be raised; we expect the quality of education to heighten; we expect people in every community to experience a refreshing change and to take an active role in the process‟ (ibid, 2005: xiii). This new reform presented itself with particular challenges amongst which, is the issue of increasing numbers of students from different cultures in our schools and classes. Children from different cultures through mixed marriages, foreign adoption, immigration (legal or illegal), have become a salient and permanent feature of the school milieu in Malta. This increasing diversity of students in Maltese classrooms, has urged Maltese educators to cultivate interest in the dynamics which make up a multicultural class (Vassallo, 2008). Moreover, The Maltese National Minimum Curriculum document, entitled Creating the Future Together, endorsed the new reality of multicultural education and stated that: „Importance should be attached to the principles of a holistic education and education for diversity‟ (1999 p.78). @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

Assessment Criteria All children, irrespective of gender, race, cultural orientation or socio-economic status, have a right for a fair, non-discriminatory assessment which enables pupils self-assess their achievement in learning. Assessments should reflect the cultural composition present in the classroom in a way that no child is disadvantaged. It must be stated that it is difficult to find complementary assessments designed for specific cultural groups. However it is the role of researchers and other educational stakeholders to include all cultures. For example, it should not be assumed that English Language is understood by everybody and children whose first language is not English should not feel left out or considered as low-achievers. It is our duty as teachers to celebrate uniqueness in diversity and hence make students proud of their achievements. The study aims at providing inservice teachers with scholarship on multicultural awareness, using the five aspects outlined above. These five aspects provided the framework against which results from the questionnaire are compared

Methodology Quantitative methods of investigation were used in the study. Creswell (1994) pointed out that a quantitative approach is context free and the intent is to develop generalizations, relying heavily upon statistical results represented with numbers and is done to determine relationships, effects, and causes. Furthermore, Creswell (2009) describes quantitative research as a method for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables. These variables can be measured on instruments so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures. As the purpose of this study was to investigate aspects of awareness and how these vary across three different schools, it was determined that the quantitative method was best for the study. Participants and Procedure An extensive internet search was carried out to establish the ideal schools in which to carry out this particular research. Interested schools were then contacted and a pilot study was conducted. Then three particular schools hosting within them students between the ages of eleven and sixteen were then chosen based on the multiethnic diversity and cultural richness present in the schools. Questionnaires were then forwarded by email to and subsequently returned. Fifty-four teachers out of a total of 96 from a multicultural school (School 1) in the northern part of the United States participated in the study. Hence 56% of the questionnaires were returned with actual participants being 35 females and 19 males. Forty-eight teachers out of total of 105 teachers from a multicultural school (School 2) located in Southern Europe participated in the study. Hence 45% of the questionnaires were returned with the actual sample consisting of 28 females and 20 males. Ninety-four teachers out of a total of 119 teachers from a multicultural primary school (School 3) in Australia participated in the study. Hence 79% of the questionnaires were returned. This amounted to a total of 76 females and 18 males. Therefore the average return rate of the questionnaire was 60% with a total number of 139 females and 57 males. Since @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

data consisted of frequencies with which subjects belong to different categories of one variable the CHI SQUARE TEST was to examine the relationship between the different categories and the frequency with which subjects fall in each category. Instrument The instrument consisted of a questionnaire divided into two parts (see appendix). The first part consisted of basic demographic data and this was used to obtain background information of the participants. The second part consisted of the Cultural Diversity Awareness Inventory (adapted). The Cultural Diversity Awareness Inventory (CDAI), originally created by Henry (1986) consisted of 28 statements in which the respondents had to register their self-perception in regard to their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors towards multiethnic students. The adapted version of the inventory however consisted of 27 opinion statements using a 5-point Likert scale (5 = Strongly Agree 4= Agree, 3= Neutral, 2=Disagree, 1= Strongly Disagree). Statements 1-4 consisted of statements examining Cultural Awareness, statements 5-9 tested cross-cultural communication, statements 10-15 examined perceptions towards culturally diverse families, statements 16-23 examined the extent of which the classroom environment is conducive to multicultural education, while statements 24-27 tested assessment criteria. These five areas provided the basis for analysis from which a discussion emerged. A statistical analysis follows, based on findings.

Results and Discussions Raw data from the CDAI inventory were computed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Results were organized in tabular form to ensure easy comparison between results. Tables 1 (see appendix) shows the results of demographic data as resulted from the questionnaire while table 2 to table 6 (see appendix) show the quantitative results of Awareness subscales as exemplified by the modified version of the CDAI. Five mean amalgamated scores derived from the percentage scores were computed for each of the five areas. The composite scores were computed by finding the mean for all of the strongly agree/agree, neutral, and strongly disagree/disagree responses in each of the five areas measured. Table 2 (see appendix) provides a quantitative summary of responses generated from Cultural awareness in the classroom. A Chi Square test (χ2) was used to determine whether the schools differ in scores from each other. This resulted in χ2= 18.291 (at χ2crit = 13.28, df =4, p = 0.0011, α=0.01).This means that the three sets of data differed significantly from one another. A closer look reveals that data from school 1 compared to that of school 2 was the major contributor to the disparity (χ2obt = 15.101, at χ2crit = 9.21, df = 2, p= 0.0005, α=0.01). Scores indicate that school 1 was more inclined to give strongly agree or agree than the other two schools (65.7%). School 2 (Southern Europe) placed the majority of responses in the neutral scale (41.6%). Table 3 (see appendix) analyzed the area of cross-cultural communication among teachers, parents, and students. A chi squared (χ2) analysis reveals that scores @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

did not differ across the identified schools in the area of cross cultural communication (χ2=10.547 < χ2crit= 13.28, df= 4, p =0.0332, α=0.01). Similar amalgamated scores were registered across all subsets of the cross-cultural communication area. Table 4 (see appendix) displays a tabular representation of teachers‟ perceptions towards Culturally Diverse Families. A chi squared (χ2) analysis was performed across the three identified schools to identify teachers‟ perceptions towards Culturally Diverse Families. Results show disparity between the three groups of teachers (χ2obt=15.868, at χ2crit =13.28, p= 0.0032, α=0.01). Since χ2obt > χ2crit, the three sets of data are significantly different from one another. A closer look reveals noticeable disparities in the amalgamated scores (see italics) between the SA/A percentage of school 1 and the SA/A percentage of school 2. Similarly a noticeable difference in scores is registered between the D/SD segment of school 1 and the D/SD segment of school 2. A χ2 test was carried out to examine difference in responses between school 1 and school 2 show a statistically significant disparity between the two sets of data (χ2obt = 9.585 (at χ2crit =9.21, p= 0.0083, α=0.01), the largest difference being registered in the Disagree/ Strongly Disagree responses of the two sets of data. Table 5 (see appendix) gives a tabular representation of the scores obtained within the area of Multicultural Learning Environment. A χ2 test was conducted to examine whether the three sets of data achieve a level of statistical difference as this would show that the schools differ statistically from each other. The results show a χ2obt of 5.912 (at χ2crit =13.28, p= 0.2058, α=0.01) and hence χ2obt < χ2crit which means that the three sets of data do not differ significantly from each other. Table 6 (see appendix) shows a quantitative representation of Assessment Criteria as one of the factors which constitute Awareness of cultural differences in the classroom. A χ2 test was used to test whether the three sets of data differ significantly from each other. The test revealed that there are no statistically significant differences between the three sets of data χ2obt =5.222 (at χ2crit =13.28, p= 0.2652, α=0.01). Discussion Multicultural self-awareness among 196 in-service school teachers (teaching 1116 year olds) was determined using the CDAI (Henry, 1986, adapted). The inventory measures five areas of multicultural awareness: cultural awareness, culturally diverse families, cross-cultural communication, creating a multicultural environment and assessment. In the area of cultural awareness in the classroom, more than half of respondents in schools 1 and 3, agreed/ strongly agreed with the statements outlined in the questionnaire. A statistically significant outcome resulted in school 2 (χ2obt = 15.101, at χ2crit = 9.21), with the majority of responses falling within the neutral category (41.6%). These responses indicated uncertainty among participants (in school 2), with the statements „my culture is different from the pupils I teach‟ @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

(44%) and „I prefer to work with children whose culture is similar to mine (46%) scoring neutral as their highest response. It is also noted that teachers teaching in school 2 attended the least number of inset courses (with 85% having only attended to nil or 1 course during their teaching experience). The results highlight the need for importance for „professional development opportunities‟ (Kea, Trent, & Davis, 2002) as vital steps towards the effective integration of cultural awareness and classroom practice. Studies such as this one show that teachers are still “struggle(ing) to inclusion of multicultural students even though enthused by the principles of National Minimum Curriculum” (Giordmaina, 2000). In the area of Cross Cultural Communication teachers in the three schools surveyed perceived this area as being a particularly important precept in Cross cultural Awareness. In particular, the statement „Avoiding communication with parents through phone calls, e-mails, text messages etc‟ registered similar results with teachers in all three schools disagreeing with the statement, (school 1 = 72%, school 2= 46%, school 3= 41%). Of particular note is the fact that 56% of teachers in the school located in the Southern European region reported a neutral response to the statement “Uncomfortable with people who speak nonstandard English”, indicating that some teachers might feel uncomfortable when interacting with people of different cultures. In the area of Culturally Diverse Families data from school 2 shows that the statement „Parents should have a say in the school‟s academic program‟ achieved neutral responses in 65% of respondents. Of particular significance is the statement „When scheduling a meeting with a parent I take into account cultural differences‟ where a disagreement level of 50% (school 2) as opposed to 7% in school 1 and 37% in school 3. This highlights the different levels of perceived awareness among teachers from different countries. International symposia could be arranged to discuss the disparity between levels and to forge the way forward as to how to reduce these disparities. Policy makers need to restudy the outcome of these statements and repeat the study using other factors in order to get a clearer picture as to what gives rise to higher or lower levels of awareness towards culturally diverse families. In the area of Multicultural Learning Environment the three schools presented similar results. This illustrates the commitment of the school to foster a Multicultural Learning Environment which is concomitant with the principles of multicultural education and teachers are „cultivat(ing) interest in the dynamics which make up a multicultural class‟ (Vassallo, 2008). Also, teachers in all three schools demonstrated „knowledge of their student‟s cultures, as well as the infusion of culturally sensitive pedagogy and materials …‟ (Pope & Wilder, 2005). In the area of Assessment Criteria, statistical analysis shows that there are no statistical differences between the three schools. All subsets tend to follow a general consensus towards a need to look through the lenses of multicultural students when it comes to the assessment criteria of students from diverse origins. However the results do not give any indication as to the present state of @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

assessment procedures as to how and to what extent are cultural differences taken into consideration. Focus groups consisting of professionals from different countries could delve into such matters and come up with proposals which help better understanding in matters of assessment. Limitations of the study A number of limitations could have hindered the outcomes of this study. The data of this study was not collected randomly, but from preselected schools and this makes it difficult to generalize. Since the study is a singular one, participants can in no way be construed as being representative of a particular culture but rather as belonging to a mix of cultures. A replication of the current study in different countries using the current (or other) instruments would yield more data on which to base future policies. Lastly, as with all studies requiring selfreporting, the results are limited by the participants‟ responses. Participants may have felt the need to provide answers which the researcher was looking for, rather than what they believed to be true. Also, the study proposed only a quantitative means of investigation. The inclusion of a qualitative component (such as video conferencing) could well have served to bridge possible discrepancies and provide triangulation of evidence. It could also serve to tap other aspects of cultural awareness not present in the instrument. This study was based on the Cultural Diversity Awareness Inventory (CDAI), restricted in five cultural awareness areas which are by no means exclusive. Hence, further research could include other areas in the range of cultural awareness. Future research needs to include larger samples so that it could provide more accurate and complete data. In addition, research should also include data from preschool, primary and secondary schools so that a more accurate picture could be studied

Conclusions and Suggestions for Further Research Overall results show agreement between the three identified schools in the areas of „cross- cultural communication‟, „multicultural learning environment’ and „assessment criteria’, but differed in the areas of „cultural awareness in the classroom‟ and „culturally diverse families‟. Lack of research focusing on multicultural awareness among in-service school teachers is evident. More research needs to be conducted focusing on the awareness of in-service teachers. Future teacher education programs and courses need to focus on preparing teachers for the challenge of using their awareness to improve on their pedagogical practices and be culturally tuned with their students‟ background. Also, further research on teachers‟ awareness would provide educational stakeholders with opportunities to identify factors which lead to increased (or decreased) levels of awareness. It is hoped that the study has helped to bridged the gap which exists in research on cultural awareness among in-service school teachers.

Appendix Table 1: Tabular representation of schools and number of teachers as separated by Gender, Years of experience and Number of Inset Courses attended.

School 1, n=54 Males Females n=19 n=35 (35%) (65%) 0-5 n=18 33%

6-10 n=23 43%

11+ n=13 24%

Gender School 2, n=48 Males Females n=20 n=28 (48%) (52%) Years of teaching experience 0-5 6-10 11+ n=6 n=29 n=13 8% 60% 27%

School 3, n=94 Males Females n=18 n=76 (19%) (81%) 0-5 n=12 13%

6-10 n=15 16%

11+ n=49 52%

Number of Inset courses

0-1 2-3 4+ 0-1 2-3 n=35 n=19 n=0 n=41 n=6 65% 35 % 0% 85%* 13% * = referred to in discussion section.

4+ n=13 2%

0-1 n=52 55%

23 n=15 17%

4+ n=27 29%

Table 2: Cultural Awareness in the classroom.

Area/ School Number Cultural Awareness in the classroom Perceived cultural difference

School 1 (n = 54) (Northern America ) SA/ N A (%) (%) 39 10 (72) (19)

School 2 (n = 48) (Southern Europe) D/ SD (%) 5 (9)

SA/ A (%) 19 (40)

N (%) 21 (44)*

D/S D (%) 8 (17)

School 3 (n= 94) (Central Australia) SA/A N (%) (%) 71 (76)

11 (12)

D/ SD (%) 12 (13)

between teacher and pupil. Importance of 34 12 8 29 18 1 65 23 6 identifying (63) (22) (15) (60) (38) (3) (69) (25) (6) immediately with the ethnic composition of pupils I prefer to 34 18 2 12 22 14 25 44 25 work with (63) (33) (4) (25) (46)* (29) (27) (47) (27) children whose culture is similar to mine. I prefer to 35 17 2 15 19 14 39 19 36 work with (65) (32) (4) (31) (40) (29) (42) (20) (38) parents whose culture is similar to mine. Amalgamated (66) (26) (8) (39) (42)* (19) (53) (26) (21) Score * = referred to in discussion section. SA/A= Strongly Agree/Agree, N=Neutral, D/SD = Disagree/Strongly Disagree Table 3: Cross Cultural Communication

Area /School Number

School 1 (n = 54) North America

School 2 (n=48) Southern Europe

School 3 (n=94) Central Australia

Cross cultural communication Uncomfortable with people who speak nonstandard English. Avoiding communication with parents through phone calls, e-mails, text messages etc. Only English Language

SA/A (%)

N (%)

SA/A (%)

N (%)

D/SD (%)

SA/A (%)

N (%)

D/SD (%)

15 (28)

6 33 (11) (61)

2 (4)

27 (56)

19 (40)

33 (35)

15 (16)

46 (49)

4 (7)

11 39 (20) (72)

16 (33)

10 (21)

22 (46)

10 (11)

45 (48)

39 (41)

4 (7)

14 36 (26) (67)

7 (15)

11 (23)

31 (65)

14 (15)

35 (37)

45 (48)

D/SD (%)

should be thought to multiethnic groups Non-standard 4 11 39 11 17 English should (7) (20) (72) (23) (35) be ignored. Avoiding 18 10 26 15 17 meeting (33) (19) (48) (31) (35) parents in public places. Amalgamated (17) (19) (64) (21) (34) Score SA/A= Strongly Agree/Agree, S&S=So and So, Disagree

20 (42)

26 (28)

33 (35)

35 (37)

16 (33)

21 (22)

28 (30)

45 (48)

(45)

(22)

(33)

(45)

D/SD=Disagree/Strongly

Table 4: Culturally Diverse Families

Area /School School 1 Number (n = 54) North America SA/ N D/ Culturally A SD Diverse Families (%) (%) (%) Parents should 21 32 1 have a say in the (39) (59) (2) schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x;s academic program. Frustration when 26 16 12 I meet parents on (48) (30) (22) parentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; day.

School 2 (n=48) Southern Europe SA N D/ /A SD (%) (%) (%) 10 31 7 (21) (65)* (15)

School 3 (n=94) Central Australia SA N D/ /A SD (%) (%) (%) 44 20 30 (47) (21) (32)

11 (23)

19 (40)

18 (38)

40 (43)

18 (19 )

36 (38 )

Children are responsible for communication problems between parents and teachers. Teacher should make program adaptation to accommodate diversity. Parents know little about assessing their children. When scheduling a meeting with a

2 (4)

1 (2)

51 (94)

4 (8)

2 (4)

42 (88)

2 (2)

1 (1)

91 (97)

41 (76)

11 (20)

1 (2)

12 (25)

18 (38)

78 (83)

8 (9)

20 (37)

25 (46)

9 (17)

21 (44)

12 (25)

15 (31)

43 (46)

32 (34)

19 (20)

22 (41)

28 (52)

4 (7)*

12 (25)

14 (29)

24 (50)*

34 (36)

33 (35)

27 (29)*

parent I take into account cultural differences. Amalgamated (41) (35) (24) (24) (33) (43) (43) (20) (37) Score * = referred to in discussion section. SA/A= Strongly Agree/ Agree, N=Neither Agree nor Disagree, D/SD = Disagree/Strongly Disagree

Table 5: Multicultural Learning Environment

Area Number

/School School 1 (n = 54) North America

Multicultural Learning Environment Displays reflecting the cultural composition in the classroom. Rotation of „classroom jobs‟ in the classroom. Accepting the use of racist joke.

SA/ A

D/ SD

School 2 (n=48) Southern Europe SA N /A

28 (52)

20 (37)

6 (11)

11 (23)

29 (60)

8 (17)

78 (83)

10 (11)

6 (6)

40 (74)

12 (22)

2 (4)

39 (81)

2 (4)

7 (15)

23 (25)

42 (45)

29 (32)

1 (2)

8 (15)

45 (83)

3 (6)

2 (4)

43 (90)

6 (6)

9 (10)

79 (84)

Expecting the use of racist jokes.

33 (61)

14 (26)

7 (13)

21 (44)

13 (27)

14 (29)

41 (44)

29 (31)

24 (26)

Teaching of ethnic customs and traditions is not the school‟s responsibility. Responsibility to provide opportunities for children to share cultural differences

21 (39)

23 (43)

9 (17)

23 (48)

16 (34)

9 (19)

13 (14)

17 (18)

64 (68)

31 (57)

17 (32)

5 (9)

13 (27)

19 (40)

16 (33)

49 (52)

24 (26)

21 (22)

D/ SD

School 3 (n=94) Central Australia SA/ N A

D/ SD

Curricular 29 11 14 11 adaptations to (54) (20) (26) (23) accommodate cultural differences. Amalgamated score (48) (28) (23) (36) * = referred to in discussion section. SA/A= Strongly Agree/ Agree, N=Neither Disagree/Strongly Disagree

19 (40)

18 (38)

41 (44)

33 (35)

20 (21)

(30)

(34)

(38)

(25)

(37)

Agree nor Disagree, D/SD =

Table 6: Assessment Criteria Area/School Number

Assessment Criteria Knowledge of particular culture affecting one‟s expectations of childrens‟ performance. Referring for testing if learning difficulties appear to be due to cultural differences. Referring for testing if learning difficulties appear to be due to linguistic differences. Adaptations in standardized assessments should be carried out to accommodate cultural differences. Translating an IQ test in the child‟s natural language gives the child an added advantage over his peers. Amalgamated Score

School 1 (n = 54) Northern America SA/ N D/ A SD (%) (%) (%) 15 16 23 (28) (30) (43)

School 2 (n=48) Southern Europe SA N D/ /A SD (%) (%) (%) 12 18 18 (25) (38) (38)

School 3 (n=94) Central Australia SA/ N D/ A SD (%) (%) (%) 11 9 74 (12) (10) (79)

3 (6)

1 (2)

50 (93)

4 (8)

5 (10)

39 (81)

13 (14)

12 (13)

69 (73)

5 (9 )

8 (15)

41 (76)

2 (4)

15 (31)

31 (65)

10 (11)

14 (15)

70 (75)

22 (41)

12 (22)

20 (37)

28 (58)

25 (52)

5 (10)

41 (44)

34 (36)

19 (20)

9 (17)

16 (30)

29 (54)

12 (25)

7 (15)

29 (60)

15 (16 )

12 (13)

67 (71)

(20)

(60)

(19)

(29)

(51)

(19)

(17)

(64)

Appendix Cultural Diversity Awareness Inventory (CDAI) Dear teachers, As part of a transnational study which I am conducting across various schools around the world I am inviting you to take part in questionnaire aimed at analysing teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x;s awareness of cultural diversity. The questionnaire was adapted from the Cultural Diversity Awareness Questionnaire (Henry, 1986). This research is anonymous and conducted to the highest of ethical standards. The data collected from the questionnaire will be used exclusively for research which the author intends to publish. You are kindly asked to read the following definitions and then answer the questionnaire below. Definition of culture Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. (http://www.cssforum.com.pk/css-optional-subjects/group-b/sociology/8613-variousdefinitions-culture.html, retrieved on 20th March 2013) Definition of Cultural Diversity Cultural diversity may be defined as â&#x20AC;&#x153;the multiplicity and interaction of cultural expressions that co-exist in the world and thus enrich the common heritage of humanity" (International Convention on cultural diversity, adopted by the UNESCO General Assembly in 2005). Cultural diversity is expressed in the co-existence and exchange of culturally different practices and in the provision and consumption of culturally different services and products. Part 1 Gender (M or F) Years of Teaching Experience:

0-5 years

6-10 years

11+ years

Number of Inset courses on cultural diversity awareness courses

0-1 course

2-3 courses

You are now kindly asked to answer these statements as faithfully as possible keeping in mind the definitions above. Since this is an online form you are kindly asked to underline your preference ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).

Part 2 1) My culture is different from some of the pupils I teach. 1

2) It is important to identify immediately the ethnic composition of the pupils I teach. 1 2 3 4 5 3) I prefer to work with children whose culture is similar to mine. 1

4) I prefer to work with parents whose culture is similar to mine. 1

5) I feel uncomfortable in settings with people who speak non-standard English. 1 2 3 4 5 6) I avoid communication with parents (whose culture is different from mine) through mobile calls, e-mails, text messages etc. 1

7) Only English Language should be thought to multiethnic groups. 1

8) Non-standard English should be ignored. 1

9) I avoid meeting parents (whose culture is different from mine) in public places. 1 2 3 4 5 10) Parents (whose culture is different from mine) should have a say in the schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x;s academic program. @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

11) I experience frustration when I meet parents (whose culture is different from mine) 1

12) Children are responsible for communication problems between parents and teachers. 1

13) Teacher should make program adaptation to accommodate diversity. 1

14) Parents (whose culture is different from mine) know little about assessing their children. 1

15) When scheduling a meeting with a parent (whose culture is different from mine), I take into account cultural differences. 1

16) Classroom displays should be inclusive of all cultures. 1

17) A scheduled routine should be carefully constructed to include all children in “classroom jobs”. 1

18) In a class different ethnic composition I would accept the use of racist jokes. 1 2 3 4 5

19) In a class of different ethnic composition I would expect the use of racist jokes. 1

responsibility. 1

21) It is my responsibility to provide opportunities for children to share cultural differences in foods, dress, family life and/or beliefs. 1

22) Curricular adaptations should be made to accommodate cultural differences. 1

23) One‟s knowledge of particular culture should affect one‟s expectations of the children‟s performance. 1

24) A child should be referred for testing if learning difficulties appear to be due to cultural differences. 1

25) A child should be referred for testing if learning difficulties appear to be due to linguistic differences. 1

26) Adaptations in standardized assessments should be carried out to accomodate cultural differences. 1

27) Translating an IQ test in the child‟s natural language gives the child an added advantage over his peers. 1

References Banks, J. A. (2007). Race, culture, and education: The selected works of James A. Banks. New York, NY: Routledge. Baeten, M., Dochy, F. and Struyven, K. (2013). The effects of different learning environments on students‟ motivation for learning and their achievement. British Journal of Educational Psychology V(12) (3) pp. 484-501 Cho, G. & DeCastro-Ambrosetti, D. (2006). Insight into Teachers‟ View of Minority Parents‟ Attitudes toward Education: Who cares? Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Educational Research Association (AERA), San Francisco, California. Creating the Future together (1999). Accessed from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/curricula/malta/mm_alfw_2011_eng.pdf on 1st August 2014. Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research designs: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research designs: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Daniels, R. (2008). The immigration act of 1965: Intended and unintended consequences. In the U.S. Department of States, Bureau of International Information Programs (Ed.), Historians on America: Decisions that made difference (pp. 76-83). Retrieved from http://www.america.gov/media/pdf/books/historians-on-america.pdf DuPraw, M.E. & Axner, M. (1997). Toward a more perfect union in an age of diversity: Working on common cross-cultural communication challenges. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/ampu/crosscult.html on 1st July 2014 For all children to succeed: A new network organization for quality education in Malta. Ministry of Education (2005). Malta: MOED. Foucher, M. 1994. Minorities in central and eastern Europe. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Giordmaina J. (Ed.) (2000). Proceedings – National curriculum on its way. A conference held on the 9-11th June 2000. Malta: MOED. Harry, B., (2008). Collaboration with culturally and linguistically diverse families, ideal versus reality. Exceptional Children, 74(3), 372-388.. Henry, G. (1986). Cultural Diversity Awareness Inventory. Hampton, VA: Hampton University. Mainstreaming Outreach Project. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 282 657. Heritage classes’ international exchanges (2010). Assessed from http://www.world-heritage.org/ on 1st August (2014). Intercultural dialogue and conflict prevention (2002-2004) assessed from on 1st August

from http://www.comminit.com/ict-4-development/content/interculturaldialogue-and-conflict-prevention-project-europe Kea, K., Trent, S., & Davis, C. (2002). African American Student Teachers‟ Perceptions About Preparedness to Teach Students from Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds. Multicultural Perspectives, 4, 18-25. Larke, P. J. (1990). Cultural diversity awareness inventory: Assessing the sensitivity of preservice teachers. Action in Teacher Education, V12(3), 23-30. Milner, H. R., Flowers, L. A., Moore, E., Jr., Moore, J. L., III, & Flowers, T. A. (2003). Preservice teachers‟ awareness of multiculturalism and diversity. High School Journal, 87(1), 63-70. National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education(1994). NCATE Standards: Unit standards. Washington DC: Author The Multicultural Victoria Act (2004), retrieved from http://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/principals/governance/pages/multileg act.aspx on 26th March 2013 National Center for Educational Statistics. (2010). Characteristics of school principals. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/2010/section4/table-pal-1. asp Pope, J. and Wilder, J. (2005). Now that I‟m out in the field: Student teaching and valuing diversity. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 32(4), 322-328. Portera (2003). Educazione e pedagogia interculturale in Italia e in Europa. In Pedagogia interculturale in Italia e in Europa. Aspetti epistemologici e didattici, ed. A. Portera. Milan: Vita e Pensiero. Portera (2006) Educazione interculturale in Europa. In Educazione interculturale nel contest internazionale, ed. A. Portera. Milan: Guerini. Premier, J.A and Miller J. (2010). Preparing Pre-service Teachers for Multicultural Classrooms. Australian Journal of Teacher Education.V35 (2) Sue, D.W., Bernier, J.B., Durran, M., Feinberg, L., Pedersen, P., and Smith, E. (1982). Position Paper: Cross-cultural counseling competencies. The Counseling Psychologist, 10, 45-52. Taylor, L. and Whittaker, C. R. (2009). Bridging multiple worlds: Case studies of diverse educational communities (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. The Challenge of Intercultural Education today: Religious Diversity and Dialogue in Europe’ (2002-2005). Assessed from https://book.coe.int/eur/en/humanrights-education-intercultural-education/3692-religious-diversity-and-interculturaleducation-a-reference-book-for-schools.html on 1st August 2014 The racist and religious tolerance act (2001), retrieved from http://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/principals/governance/pages/multitol erance.aspx on 25th March 2013. @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

U.S. Census Bureau (2009). Characteristics of people by language spoken at home. Retrieved from http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/STTable?_bm=y&geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S1601&ds_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-CONTEXT=st Vassallo, B. (2008). Classroom climate as perceived by Maltese and Non-Maltese pupils in Malta. Malta Review of Educational Research, 6, 80-81. Retreived August 5th, 2011, from http://www.um.edu.mt/educ/about/publications/mrer Watson, S.L., Park, G.C., Lee, H. (2011). Pre-service Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x; Awareness and Attitudes on South Koreaâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Increasing Cultural and Ethnic Diversity and the Role of Multicultural Education in K-12 Schools. International Journal of Education V3(2). Youth building peace and International Dialogue (2004). Assess http://www.salvaeco.org/html/stiri/2003/03/14.php on 1st August 2014.

from

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 23-43, August 2014

A Multicultural view of Mathematics Male-teachers at Israeli Primary Schools Eti Gilad and Shosh Millet

Achva Academic College POB Shikmim 79800, Israel Abstract. This study explores motives and role perception of primary school male-teachers who are Israeli-born, Ethiopians, immigrants from the former Soviet Union and Bedouins and are teaching mathematics at the south of Israel. The research method is based on qualitative-interpretive approach of case study type. The results illustrate common features of all teachers and at the same time differences between the cultural groups. The contribution of this study to mathematics teacher education resides in understanding motives and role perception of primary school male-teachers. It is recommended building teacher education programs which highlight the valued-social aspect, mathematics content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge. Key words: men as teachers; multiculturalism; choice to teach; mathematics teaching in primary school.

Introduction

Feminization of the education system is increasingly growing both in Israel and abroad. In Israel the average percentage of male-teachers at schools in the Jewish sector is 19%. The highest percentage of male-teachers work at secondary school (30%) and the lowest at primary school (9%). In the Arab sector, the percentage of male-teachers amounts to 48% on average, 63% at secondary school and 43% at primary school. In teacher education institutions, 18% of the pre-service teachers [hereinafter: students] are men and these rates have been maintained on a similar level along the years (Ministry of Education, 2012). The small number of male-teachers is an issue of concern among policy makers and education researchers around the world. Many researchers (Gilad & Millet, 2010) argue that men should fulfill a more significant role in education in general and in primary education in particular. This will provide a balanced response to the feminine environment and eliminate the gender stereotype through alternate @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

models of role models among male learners. Men should function as educational role models with the purpose of reducing disciplinary events and improving boys' academic attainments (Connell, 2001). The need for male role models at school is particularly prominent at primary school ages and it becomes even greater with the increase in the number of single parent households. Furthermore, male teachers are necessary in order to promote gender equality in the education system. The requirement to narrow the gender gap between male and female teachers in the education system is in line with the need for multicultural education, designed to offer equal educational opportunities to learners from a different ethnic, racial, cultural and social origin. Schools should reflect the communities in which they operate (Lameiras et al., 2006; Banks, & Banks, 2009; Gilad & Millet 2010; Ministry of Education, 2012). This study aims to explore the characteristics of the motives of choice and the teaching perception of men from different cultures in Israel who have opted to engage in primary school mathematics teaching.

Theoretical background

2.1

Motives for choosing the teaching profession

Numerous studies explored students' motives for choosing the teaching profession as a career. Generally speaking, researchers tend to divide these motives into extrinsic (wages, stable occupation, status and prestige, convenient working hours and holidays, influence of family members and teachers); intrinsic(natural aptitude for teaching, academic capability, love for children, pleasure derived from teaching); altruistic (wish to contribute to society, help children/adolescents, wish to be social change agents in the community) (DeCorse & Vogtle, 1997; Papanastasiou & Papanastasiou, 1997;Seng Yong, 1995; Su, 1996; Zembylas & Papanastasiou, 2005). The social and cultural context can considerably impact students' motives for choosing the teaching profession as a career. For example, factors associated with wages were the most influential in choosing teaching as a profession in Zimbabwe (Chivore, 1988). Similarly, Seng Yong (1995) investigated the motives for choosing the teaching profession as a career in Brunei Darussalam. The students he interviewed attributed the greatest importance to external factors (e.g. lack of other options of learning subjects, influence of others, wages, stable occupation and convenient hours).Moreover, Seng Yong (1995) points out that, â&#x20AC;Śthe motives for choosing the teaching profession are greatly affected by the status of this professionâ&#x20AC;Ś in industrial or developed countries teachers no longer have the status they enjoyed in the past and teaching is not perceived as a distinguished career or a means for social mobility (p. 278). @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

A study conducted by a Cypriot couple of researchers (Papanastasiou & Papanastasiou, 1997( investigated the motives of American versus Cypriot students for choosing the teaching profession. The study found that the American students considered the internal motives as the most important whereas external motives such as benefits and professional prestige were deemed most important by their Cypriot counterparts. Differences in motives for choosing the teaching profession, stemming from a different cultural-occupational context, are also prevalent among students in the same country who belong to different ethnic groups (Ford &Grantham, 2003). For example, Su (1996) interviewed Caucasian and minority group students in California. About one third of the minority group students (as compared to none of the Caucasian students) viewed themselves as social change agents.

2.2

The education system from a multicultural point of view

Various cultures are encompassed in the Israeli society. This demographic differentiation requires a flexible system which complies with the cultural mosaics and the Ministry of Education policy (Millet, Golan & Dikman, 2012). The Arab and Bedouin education in Israel Education in the Arab sector has undergone changes since the establishment of the State of Israel. During the first years of statehood, there were only a very few schools in the entire Arab sector and only a small number of people studied in higher education institutions. Gradually, more and more kindergartens and schools were established, catering to learners from the 1st â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 12th grades and offering varied options on the secondary school levels â&#x20AC;&#x201C; agricultural, technological-vocational and theoretical pathways. Moreover, higher education in Jewish and Arab institutions became available to the Arab population in Israel. The place of girls in the Arab education system has been expanding since the establishment of the state. However, only in the last decade women enrolled in higher education institutions (Abu-Saad, 2005; Pessate-Schubert, 2003; Zeydan, Alian & Thorn, 2007). Compared to the entire Arab sector, the Bedouin are viewed as a group which has adhered to customs and traditions of the Arab-Muslim culture for the longest period of time. The Statistical Yearbook of the Negev Bedouin (Center of Bedouin Studies &Development of the Negev,2010) illustrates that, in the past, due to the nomadic way of life hardly any schools developed within the Bedouin community. During the period of the British Mandate (1921-1948), the first schools were set up among the major tribes and only sons of rich sheiks studied there. With the establishment of the State of Israel, only 150 Bedouin children went to school and the number of educated people in the Bedouin sector was extremely small. In 1981, the Minister of Education and Culture appointed an "Education Authority for the Negev Bedouin". It was in charge of municipal management of those schools which operated outside the jurisdiction of any local and regional authority. The objective @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

was to narrow the gaps between the Bedouin education system in permanent settlements and in concentrations of nomad Bedouin population â&#x20AC;&#x201C; constituting over one third of the entire Bedouin population in the Negev. Out of the teachers working in the Negev Bedouin sector, about 30% are not local. In the past, Arab teachers used to come to the south without any experience and after acquiring minimal competences they would go back to their place of residence in the north, entailing a very high teacher mobility. However, in recent years, this trend has been undergoing a change due to the fact that Bedouin women have been joining the teaching profession (Ministry of Education, 2012). Education and Ethiopian immigrants in Israel The process of absorbing Ethiopian immigrants in the various educational frameworks met with many difficulties. Studies mainly conducted by Szold Institute and the Institute for the Nurturing of Education, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, point out the following complications: reading comprehension, social problems between Ethiopian children and children who have lived in Israel for many years; problems in the learning process, e.g. independent work, initiative, imagination, concentration, request for help, teachers' attitude. Moreover, there is a rather high percentage of 1st graders who have problems of learning and acquiring a language, thinking, learning and communication skills as well as attitude towards time, environment and authority (Ben-Ezer, 2002).The entirety of changes and processes of the information revolution and technological development have obliged the education system to apply renewed and creative thinking relating to the place and role of teacher education programs. These programs are designed to prepare the heterogeneous learner population for professional training and integration in an educated and advanced society (Cochran-Smith, 2000). The concept of pluralism and education for multiculturalism embodied in the training formats is manifested by the development of unique education programs for Ethiopians. The fundamental assumption underlying the need to initiate an Ethiopian teacher education pathway is offering a population from a difference background, culture and socio-economic status an equal opportunity for studying, acquiring a profession and joining the labor market (Millet & Gilad, 2004). Furthermore, in recent years, we have witnessed a high demand for educating Ethiopian pre-service teachers. Out of approximately 130 000 teachers working in the education system from kindergarten to secondary school, only about 150 Ethiopian teachers were integrated, 62 of them in kindergartens (Ministry of Education, 2012). Education of immigrants from the former Soviet Union Since the beginning of the 1990s, with the renewed immigration waves from the former Soviet Union, immigrants' absorption has been defined as a national challenge and normative value in the Israeli society. This placed the education @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

system as a framework committed by its very essence to play a major role in making this process succeed. Recently, both primary and secondary schools have successfully absorbed teachers from the former Soviet Union who have a high selfimage as mathematics teachers. In order to help these teachers to join the labor market, the Ministry of Education initiated courses for immigrant-teachers. In these courses the teachers study the culture and history of the People of Israel and the State of Israel. In addition, they acquire teaching methods as well as pedagogy associated with their subject of specialization in the former Soviet Union, mathematics in our case (Patkin & Gesser, 2002). Immigrant teachers from the former Soviet Union attest that mathematics teaching in Israel differs from mathematics teaching in their country of origin. They emphasized that discipline in class was different and they believed it was a prerequisite for promoting learners' attainments and managing lessons in the best way (Levenberg & Patkin, 2001). Michael & Shimoni (1994) characterized the immigrant-teachers from the former Soviet Union by the following features: a. personal details indicating high academic education and previous experience in teaching; b. pedagogical approaches which highlight frontal teaching, memorization, strict discipline as well as mainly enhancing the achievements of the prominent learners in the class; c. difficulty to be integrated in free and open frameworks in the educational space. Recently, after a 2-decade absorption process, the emerging picture is of a reality whereby teachers from the former Soviet Union succeed in mathematics teaching and functions at school, creating a highly positive image among their Israeli-born colleagues, the children and the parents (Rosenbaum-Tamari, 2004). 2.3

Mathematics education at primary school

Mathematics is a complex subject and stereotypically perceived as difficult and challenging. Mathematics teachers are required already at primary school to be versed not only in mathematical but also to have pedagogical-content knowledge and be acquainted with learners' ways of thinking (Casas, Verissimo et al.,2012; NCTM, 1989, 1991). Mathematical foundations are necessary for everyone in modern society, even if they do not become mathematicians or scientists (Harari, 1992). Hence, children should learn and understand mathematics already at primary school. The teachers who are responsible for the way the pupils' mathematical knowledge is built at the beginning of their way, should be specialized in teaching the subject of mathematics. Furthermore, making mathematics lessons at primary school attractive and creative, combined with games and humor, is essential to a successful lesson and promotion of attainments. This contradicts the common and perceived opinion of mathematics teachers who find themselves in a race to meet the standards of the School Effectiveness and Growth Indices(Ministry of Education, 2009). In Israel, mathematics has recently become one of the central issues on the public agenda. This is mainly due to the fact that scores of international tests show that Israeli pupils are not ranked high among @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

the countries who take these tests. Teachers undoubtedly have strong influence on the way pupils learn mathematics and teacher education has definitely an essential role in the pupils' ability to learn (Casas, Verissimo et al., 2012; NCTM, 1991). The Ministry of Education (2009) maintains that the key to promoting mathematics education resides in the quality of teachers. Consequently and based on the Harari Report ("Tomorrow 98"), a mathematics professionalization program for primary school was implemented in 2002 all over the country. The program aimed to enrich mathematical knowledge, introduce innovative mathematics teaching methods and thus improving academic achievements of the education system learners. Nesher & Hershkovitz (2004) present three main dilemmas in the professional education of mathematics teachers at school: a. gap between pedagogical and content knowledge – the content knowledge of mathematics teachers at primary school level is limited to what they have learnt in the past and to a small amount of knowledge acquired during the teacher education program. They are more specialized in primary school pedagogy; b. the gap between teaching objectives and teacher's feelings – teachers who attend in-service mathematics training courses engage more in mathematical knowledge rather than being involved in an experiential and successful mathematical learning; c. the gap between mathematics and the elitist perceptions of the subject – mathematics is perceived as a subject destined for few people and only the gifted and good pupils are successful in mathematics teaching. Based on these beliefs, teachers encounter difficulties in promoting all children in class (Nesher, 2012). Another study (Jasmine & Marcy, 2011) illustrates that the entry of primary school mathematics teachers into a pedagogical world re-shaped according to the reform in mathematics, is associated with building their professional identity. The study presents three cases out of a class of primary school mathematics teacher education. In the described cases which occurred in the United States, the tutors offer new definitions to the role of "teacher" and "child". The students discuss the new models of identity and mathematical terms and implement the role definition in various ways (Jasmine & Marcy, 2011). In addition to the above dilemmas and in order to comprehend the complex state of mathematics education, we should understand the different approaches to mathematics education at primary school since it is the basis for the degree of success further on in the learning process. According to Yona (2011), the approaches to mathematics education are: the West-European approach, inquiry approach, discrete values approach and mediating approach. The West-European approach underscores the principles of systematics, practice and memorization. The inquiry approach – highlights the principle of thinking and finding multiple ways for solving problems and mathematical exercises by learning out of pleasure. The discrete values approach – underscores the principle of finding structured models not in the natural environment of solutions, instead of a direct and simple learning. The mediating approach – emphasizes the principle of mediation whereby an interactive process takes place between pupils and teachers. The objectives @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

according to this approach are: building thinking constructs, learning habits and developing the learners' potential capabilities, developing mathematical literacy, consistency, awareness of processes, flexibility according to pupils' needs and involving the children in the learning process.

Research question What are the characteristics of the motives for choice and teaching perceptions of men from various cultures in Israel who have opted to engage in mathematics teaching at primary school?

Methodology

3.1

Research method

The research method of this study is qualitative-interpretive of the case study type. A case study is used in teaching and learning research. One of the important advantages of a case study is its ability to provide insights about incidents in the contexts and physical sites where they transpire. Cultural and social incidents can be fully understood only if they are studied from the participants' point of view and from the way those actively involved see them. Data collected from the participants can in fact be depicted as insufficient. However, they definitely facilitate comprehension and understanding of the thoughts and feelings of a small group as well as of their attitude and approach (Shkedi, 2005; Smolicz & Secombe, 1990). 3.2

Research population

The research population consists of eight male-teachers who teach mathematics at primary school. The teachers represent different cultures, two teachers from each culture: Israeli-born, Ethiopians, immigrants from the former Soviet Union and Bedouins. Our decision to focus on in-service teachers is based on the assumption that they have experienced teaching for at least two years. They are capable of relating to the teaching and multicultural perception of themselves as being shaped out of the point of view of personal experience. The participants were between 28-62 years old and their seniority ranged between 2-19 years. Two teachers, one from the former Soviet Union and the other a Bedouin, have made a career change to teaching. One of the Israeli-born teachers is religious, defining himself as a teacher in a religious school. All the teachers work at the south of Israel and have been randomly chosen. 3.3

Research tools

In order to identify the motives for choice and the professional perception of mathematics teaching at primary school we used a semi-structured in-depth interview. The interview questions focused on: a. the teachers' personal background, the motives for choosing their profession and their attitude towards the different motives leading them to make the decision to study teaching and education; b. the teachers' teaching perceptions and mainly what does 'being a mathematics male-teacher at primary school' mean for them; c. the teachers' perception of mathematics teaching seen from the perspective of the culture from which they come. 3.4

Research procedure

Collecting the data about the motives for choice and professional perception of the male-teachers was performed through personal interviews. The interviews were conducted by the researchers, after randomly dividing the participants between them. This procedure was done in order to prevent bias. The interviews were in Hebrew and took place at an Academic College of Education. Each interview lasted about an hour. The interview built for the purpose of this study is based on the study of Millet (2001). 3.5

Data processing

The interviews were content analyzed as is customary in qualitative research (Shkedi, 2005). The categories were defined on the basis of previous studies which investigated the motives for choosing the teaching profession and perceptions of mathematics teaching at primary school (Gilad & Millet, 2010). A qualitativeinterpretive content analysis was performed on the open-ended interview questions. The categories were obtained after the researchers concurred about them at a level of agreement of no less than 67%. The analysis was performed on the following levels: the single interview level, the ethnic group level and the entire participant group level (Shkedi, 2005).

Results

4.1

Perception of mathematics teaching and motives for choice of mathematics male-teachers at primary school

The interviews analysis illustrated features which were common to all the maleteachers investigated in this study. Moreover, the interviews showed differences between the cultural groups with regard to the teachers' motives for choice and their perception of being mathematics teachers at primary school. Results common to all the investigated male-teachers @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

All the investigated mathematics male-teachers indicated more than one motive for choosing to teach mathematics at primary school. They also specified varied perceptions. The entirety of the mentioned motives and perceptions can be divided into three categories: a.

Extrinsic perceptions and motives: wages, stable occupation, occupational status, professional prestige as it is perceived in the Israeli society, influence of family members and teachers. b. Intrinsic perceptions and motives: love for mathematics, high academic competence in mathematics, natural gift for mathematics teaching, love for the children, pleasure derived from mathematics teaching. c. Ideological-altruistic perceptions and motives: wish to contribute to society, wish to help learners to cope with mathematics learning, reducing fear of this subject, wish to be valued-social change agents in the community by demonstrating the beauty embodied in mathematics. Reference to the teaching method was also common to all the investigated teachers. They believed that different teaching approaches should be adopted according to different pupil populations in order to obtain high attainments, in spite of the obstacle of the School Effectiveness and Growth Indices and the standards. That is, individual, group and whole class work as well as combination of various approaches prevalent in mathematics education, such as memorization and practice, inquiry and mediating approaches. Results according to cultures Below is a description of the perception of mathematics teaching and motives for choice among Bedouins, Ethiopians, immigrants from the former Soviet Union and Israeli-born teachers. 4.2

Bedouin teachers' perception of mathematics teaching at primary school and motives for choosing the teaching profession

Among the Bedouin teachers, the role perception and motives for choosing the profession were both extrinsic and intrinsic. Stable occupation The perception and motives found in the Bedouin sector were the need for finding a stable occupation as well as limited career options for male high school graduates. For example, one of the teachers said: "I chose to become a mathematics teacher because I had no other option. I could not actualize my dream to study pharmacology abroadâ&#x20AC;Ś and if I have decided to teach, then teaching mathematics is very distinguished". @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

Or a second teacher told: "I studied construction engineering and did not find myself and I switched to teaching… and then the career change is the nearest to the subject of mathematics". Natural inclinations and wish to help others The two teachers pointed out that for them being a mathematics teachers implies being meaningful to the learners. One teacher said: "I view myself as someone who delivers a very valuable material to the pupils… there is an important part in consolidating a better future for my pupils so that they can cope with life… mathematics is a unique and special language… I like mathematics and I love teaching mathematics. Working as a teacher gives me great satisfaction, pleasure and motivation". The second teacher explained: "For me, being a mathematics teacher means promoting the pupils and preparing them for academic studies… Mathematics constitutes an 'entrance ticket' to university… I teach them techniques for solving problems and exercises, we practice logical thinking and building a connection between comprehending mathematical text and the solution technique". The words of the two Bedouin teachers attest to the wish to be a social leader and help others. The wish to be a socialization agent is illustrated much more emphatically by the second teacher: "… first of all I have the inclination to teach and, thus, to introduce changes for the better within society. I see that our society, the sector in which I live, needs good teachers and particularly teachers of mathematics since mathematics is the basis for everything… Moreover, it is highly considered in the Bedouin society". 4.3

Ethiopian teachers' perception of mathematics teaching at primary school and motives for choosing the teaching profession as a career

Among the Ethiopian men the extrinsic perceptions and motives were prominent. Past teachers and home-class teachers as a role model The Ethiopian teachers indicated that when they chose the teaching profession they were influenced by the figure of their past teachers. One teacher told that: "As a new immigrant I had a mathematics teacher who was interesting and the subject was exciting. I asked myself if I could be like her. She made me fall in love with mathematics… I have a challenge to become a mathematics teacher… to influence my learners at primary school". A second teacher said that he was influenced by his father who encouraged him to become a teacher: "Father is a dominant figure at home and he inspired me to become a mathematics teacher. Father who worked in the municipality in Ethiopia @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

understood the importance of education and the importance of being a mathematics teacher at primary school which is the basis for success in life". Pride for the Ethiopian ethnic group The Ethiopian teachers who participated in this study maintained that it was important to be mathematics teachers and, especially, at primary school. One of teachers claimed: "I am going to be a role model for the young generation, for the community. They can be proud of themselves when they see Ethiopian teachers, mainly mathematics teachersâ&#x20AC;Ś the children have something to strive forâ&#x20AC;Ś they will also want to become mathematics teachers and it is important both for the Ethiopian society and the Israeli society". The second teacher expressed himself in similar words: "I set a challenge to my pupils at school, a challenge to be like me, a mathematics teacher, a challenge which is feasible. If I succeeded so could they. You don't have to be afraid of mathematics". Being a mathematics teacher wins a lot of respect The Ethiopian mathematics teachers indicated that one of the motives for choosing teaching as a profession is respect, particularly for mathematics teaching. Among Ethiopian immigrants, both in Ethiopia and Israel, teaching has been perceived as a respectable profession and teachers have always been appreciated. Along these lines, one of the teachers said: "In Ethiopia I studied until the age of 15 and there teachers were very respected. I always thought that I would like to be teacher because teachers were respected by everyone. Teachers are highly respected, even more than the parentsâ&#x20AC;Ś Teachers are something special and mathematics teachers even more so". Role perception by male-teachers Based on the experience they have accumulated during the teacher education program and in public and communal work, the Ethiopian teachers are quite confident of their success as teachers and home-class teachers in future. One of the teachers reiterated: "I have something to sell, I know my value. I see myself at the center of matters at school and am confident that I will succeed". He added that: "In Ethiopia I was not acquainted with many Ethiopian female-teachers and most of the teachers were men. Also here in Israel I believe that a home-class teacher should be a man. When you teach mathematical contents the gender of the teacher is not important. But home-class teachers should be men. 4.4

Perception of mathematics teaching at primary school and motives for choosing the teaching profession as a career among teachers from the former Soviet Union

Among the men from the former Soviet Union the intrinsic perceptions and motives were prominent. Mathematical excellence The teachers indicated the relation between being immigrants from the former Soviet Union and being mathematics teachers at primary school. One of the teachers said: "After working as an engineer with a 30-year background in the electronics industry, I decided to make a career change and chose mathematics, a subject in which I can be integrated without having to acquire the lacking knowledge… my skills and learning habits allowed me to come to school with an authority of knowledge and ambition to encourage my pupils to grow higher and farther". The second teacher underscored the importance mathematics has for life and the importance of mathematics education: "I have the will to educate for excellence in mathematics and influence the future generation… understanding that mathematics is a main and essential tool for pupils in order to be integrated into society. Mathematics enables logical thinking and creative thinking and persevering in mathematics studies is a key to entering the world of higher education". Self-discipline in learning The teachers told that, for them, being mathematics teachers means navigating towards areas in which the pupils would probably develop throughout their adult lives. One of the teachers stated that: "In the course of my work I could contribute to my pupils from the vast experience which I had accumulated while working as an engineer and now as a mathematics teacher… As a learner who studied and was educated in the Soviet Union I highly consider practice in teaching processes… I require discipline from all the pupils and think that this will help them to study and make progress". The second teacher too emphasized that the methods to which he had been exposed as a learner in the Soviet Union have a record of success: "In my opinion, the way to success is based on intensive and systematic work with a lot of self-discipline and responsibility for self-improvement… Pupils must understand that they come to school in order to study and not in order to disturb… to study and advance".

Self-image The results illustrate that teachers from the former Soviet Union maintain they are specialized in mathematics as far as area of knowledge and teaching methods are @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

concerned. One teacher specified: "Being a mathematics teacher at primary school is also a symbol of academic prestige because mathematics is the mother of all the learning and research subjects… mathematics is indefinite and unfathomable". As male-teachers at primary school and in the staff room they feel very 'masculine': "I know and am aware of my place at school… the female-teachers always ask my advice in the fields of mathematics and pedagogy". The other teacher also relates to the issue of professional and gender prominence. In his opinion: "I feel like a king in the chicken coop…". 4.5

Israeli-born teachers' perception of mathematics teaching at primary school and motives for choosing the teaching profession as a career

The Israeli-born teachers emphasized ideology as the main motive for choosing mathematics teaching as a profession, combined with their wish to influence society and be change agents in the community. Ideological motives The results indicate that all the Israeli-born teachers highlight the ideological motive in their perception and choice of the teaching profession. They argue that the teaching profession in general and mathematics teaching at primary school in particular will allow them to influence and change. According to one of the teachers: "First and foremost comes the need to change and influence and this should already start at primary school… I don't know if it is associated with my character or the society in which I grew up or the environment where I have lived all the years. But I am deeply concerned with what is transpiring in the western Israeli society of the years 2000… I think that education and the subject of mathematics carry a great weight in changing and improving our society. As a future father I want my children to grow up in a better place". This teacher told that when he was at school he had the opportunity to enjoy good education: "I chose mathematics teaching at primary school mainly due to ideological reasons. I like working with children. I am not interested in money although I know that I will make money in another way (giving private lessons of mathematics and computers)". Self-image The results show that the Israeli-born teachers do not settle for teaching but aspire to promote themselves to management level. They see teaching as a jumping-board for management positions in formal and informal frameworks. In light of the experience they have acquired during the military service and their civilian life, they feel rather confident of their success as mathematics teachers and home-class teachers. @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

One of the teachers restated that: "As a man I have advantages over female-teachers. In the staff room at school I am a single male-teacher, not just a teacher but a mathematics teacher, so I am highly appreciated and have no competition. I am more confident in the company of women". Another teacher expressed himself in a different way: "As a mathematics teacher, I feel that I am strong, authoritative, dominant… I think that a male-teacher is suitable to primary school… I can better control". A religious teacher describes the relation between mathematics teaching and the Jewish bookcase. He maintains that: "Mathematics is connected to my spiritual religious world… learning the Gemara (literally 'completion', the second and supplementary part of the Talmud) which is a highly important layer in the Jewish bookcase, is entirely based on mathematical-logical thinking… study inquiry in the Gemara is similar in its ways of thinking to the inquiry of a mathematical problem. Moreover, the Gemara examines all the options for solving the issue while rejecting some of them based on logical thinking… I present Gemara issues in mathematics lessons, showing the pupils the features which are parallel to mathematical thinking". Summary of the results is presented in Table 1. Table No. 1: Prominent perceptions and motives of primary school mathematics teachers from a multicultural perspective

Israeli-born

Bedouin

Intrinsic  Ideology  Love for the subject  Change agents motives  Natural aptitude for teaching  Love for the children Extrinsic  Wages motives  Stability

Ethiopian

Immigrants from the former Soviet Union

 Respect for  Education for teachers excellence  Change agents  Knowledge and mastery of the subject  Role model  Pride for the ethnic group

Discussion and conclusions

The present study focused on comprehending the educational, familial and social reality to which the men who chose primary school mathematics teaching as their occupation were exposed. Moreover, the study @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

demonstrated their perceptions and role. The research assumption was that the results were significant and beneficial to those educating pre-service teachers for primary school mathematics teaching and to the professional development of the latter during their practice as male-teachers. This study is a case study investigating eight male-teachers from different cultures. The interviews analysis illustrated common features of all the research participants. It also showed the differences between the various cultural groups with regard to perception of teaching and the participants' motives for choosing to teach mathematics at primary school. Common features of all the investigated male-teachers More than one motive for choosing to teach was demonstrated by all the investigated male-teachers. This result is in line with the professional literature dealing with male-teachers' perception of teaching and the motives for choosing this profession (Papanastasiou & Papanastasiou, 1997; Su, 1996). Most of the male-teachers indicated that figures of male and female teachers from their past were some of the motives influencing their choice of the teaching profession. This result is corroborated by a study of novice teachers (Millet, 2001). All the investigated teachers stated the importance and prestige of teaching mathematics at primary school. Furthermore, they pointed out the perception that various teaching methods should be adopted in accordance with various pupil populations in order to obtain high attainments (Yona, 2011). Unique results obtained from the different men groups from a cultural point of view The social and cultural context can strongly influence teachers' motives for choosing teaching as a profession and career as well as the role perception of mathematics teaching. Bedouin male-teachers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the role perception and motives specified by this group were both extrinsic and intrinsic. As the main motive, they mentioned the need for stable occupation and the love for mathematics. They added that teaching mathematics at primary school was their vocation in the Bedouin society. These results concur with the professional literature about minority groups and their options for choosing and finding an occupation (Zeydan, Alian & Thorn, 2007). Ethiopian male-teachers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the Ethiopian teachers also indicated both extrinsic and intrinsic motives: influence of teachers from their past, perceiving mathematics teaching as a respectable profession, wish to serve as a role @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

model in the ethnic group and be social change agents in the community. These results concur with a study conducted among Ethiopian pre-service teachers (Millet & Gilad, 2004). Male-teachers from the former Soviet Union â&#x20AC;&#x201C; these teachers underscored the intrinsic perceptions and motives. The results corroborate studies of teachers from the former Soviet Union in general and mathematics teachers in particular (Levenberg & Patkin, 2001; Michael & Shimoni, 1994). Israeli-born male teachers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; these teachers emphasized ideology as the main motive for choosing to teach mathematics at primary school. These results are in line with a study conducted among Israeli-born, Bedouin and Ethiopian students (Gilad & Millet, 2010). This study has implications from several points of view: mathematics teaching from the cultural aspect, mathematics teaching from the gender aspect and mathematics teaching in teacher education, in-service training courses and in the field of education. The main research conclusions of this study are that the motives and perceptions of male-teachers choosing to teach mathematics at primary school are varied, comprising extrinsic, intrinsic and ideological-altruistic motives and perceptions. Moreover, mathematics male-teachers from different cultures perceive the subject of mathematics in a different way. The Israeli society, which constitutes a meeting point of demographic and cultural differentiation, requires a flexible system in compliance with the fabric of cultures and the Ministry of Education policy. Based on the research findings, it is recommended planning teacher education and professional-mathematical development programs which highlight the valued-social aspect of the mathematics teaching profession. Such programs may convince men to choose this profession. As mentioned before, an increase in the number of male-teachers in the education system will bring about an educational and social balance in the class and at school, increasing teachers' prestige in the Israeli society. Moreover, the researchers recommend investigating further the teaching-learning of primary school mathematics male-teachers from various cultures. This may constitute a key to a change in the subject perception and its teaching as well as promote primary school learners' attainments.

References Abu-Saad, I. (2005). Re-Telling the History: The Indigenous Palestinian Bedouin in Israel, AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Scholarship, 1(1), 26-49. Banks, J. A., & Banks, C. A. M. (2009). Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives. Wiley.‫‏‬ Ben-Ezer, G (2002). The Ethiopian Jewish Exodus: Narratives of the Journey to Israel via Sudan 1977-1985. Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, N.J. Chivore, B. S. R. (1988). A review of factors that determine the attractiveness of teaching profession in Zimbabwe, International Review of Education, 34(1), 5977. Casas, L., Catarreira, S., Gonzalez, R., Lopes, V., & Caralho, S. (2012, April). Theory of concepts: Its application in the mathematics classroom. Paper presented at the 4th ATEE winter conference, University of Coimbra, Portugal. Center of Bedouin Studies &Development of the Negev (2010). Statistical Yearbook of the Negev Bedouin. Center for Regional Development at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in cooperation with Konrad Adenauer Foundation in Israel. Connell, R.W. (2001). The Man and the Boys. University of California Press. Cochran-Smith, M. (2000, January). Teacher education at the turn of the 21st century: QuoVadis? Lecture delivered at Tel Aviv University. Ford, D. Y., & Grantham, T. C. (2003). Providing access for culturally diverse gifted students: From deficit to dynamic thinking. Theory into practice, 42(3), 217-225.‫‏‬ Gilad, E., & Millet, S. (2010, July). Men in Teaching: Motives for Choice in Different Cultures. The 10thInternational Conference on Diversity in Organization, Communities and Nations. Belfast, Northern Ireland. Harari, H. (1992). Report of the Supreme Committee for Scientific and Technological Education. Jerusalem: Ministry of Education. [Hebrew] Lameiras Fernandez, M., Rodriguez Castro, Y., Calado Otero, M., Foltz, M. L., & Gonzalez Lorenzo, M. (2006). Sexism, vocational goals, and motivation as predictors of men's and women's career choice. Sex Roles, 55(3&4), 267-272. Levenberg, I., & Patkin, D. (2001). The New Immigrant Teacher as Member of a Mathematics Staff. The 9th EARLI, Swiss Republic. Ma, J.Y., & Singer-Gabella, M.(2011). Learning to Teach in the Figured World of Reform Mathematics: Negotiating New Models of Identity. Journal of Teacher Education, 62(1), 8. @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

Michael, A., & Shimoni, Z. (1994). A project of supporting and absorbing Israeli teachers And immigrant teachers – Similarity and differentiation. Dapim, 19, 90-95.Tel Aviv: MOFET Institute. [Hebrew] Millet, S. (2001, August).“It’s an endless race in which I have to grow and help others grow…”. Changes in the Development of the Didactic knowledge and self knowledge of Novice Teachers. Paper presented at the 9th European Conference - EARLI, University of Fribourg, Swiss Republic. Millet, S., & Gilad, E. (2004). Unique education program for Ethiopian pre-service teachers: Program components and perception of teachers' figure. Research Report. Tel Aviv: MOFET Institute. [Hebrew] Millet, S., Golan, H., & Dikman, N. (2012, April). Exposing The Multiculturalism Approach of Teacher Educators at the Mofet Institute. Paper presented at the 4th ATEE winter conference, University of Coimbra, Portugal. Ministry of Education (2009). Special data processing: School Effectiveness and Growth Indices. Jerusalem: Ministry of Education. [Hebrew] Ministry of Education (2012). Special data procession: Distribution of teachers according to the education stages. Jerusalem: Ministry of Education, Section of marketing systems and clients development analysis. [Hebrew] National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1989). Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1991). Professional Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. Nesher, P. (2012). On the diversity and multiplicity of theories in mathematics education. In Festschrift in honor of Jeremy Kilpatrick. Nesher, P., & Hershkovitz, S. (2004). Professional education of primary school mathematics teachers. Tel Aviv: MOFET Institute. Retrieved on 1.5.12 from http://portal.macam.ac.il/ArticalePage.aspx?id=4991 [Hebrew] Papanastasiou, C., & Papanastasiou, E. (1997). Factors that influence students to become teachers. Educational Research and Evaluation, 3(4), 305-316. Patkin, D., & Gesser, D. (2002). Mathematics teachers from the former Soviet Union – Experiences of the first days at school in Israel. Hachinuch Usvivo – Tel Aviv Yearbook. Tel Aviv: Hakibbutzim College of Education. [Hebrew] Pessate-Schubert, A. (2003). Changing from the margins: Bedouin women and higher education in Israel. Women’s Studies International Forum, 26(4), 285-298. @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

Rosenbaum-Tamari, Y. (2004). Immigrants from the former Soviet Union: Motives for immigration and commitment to life in Israel. Special publication based on data obtained from monitoring the absorption of immigrants from the former Soviet Union, 1, 137-143. Jerusalem: Ministry of Immigration Absorption, Department of Planning and Research. [Hebrew] Shkedi, A. (2005). Multiple case narratives: A qualitative approach to studying multiple populations. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. Smolicz, J. J., & Secombe, M. J. (1990). Language as a core value of culture among Chinese students in Australia: A minor approach. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 1, 229-245. Seng Yong, B. C. (1995). Teacher trainees’ motives for entering into a teaching career in Brunei Darussalam. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(3), 275-280. Su, Z. (1996). Why teach? Profiles and entry perspectives of minority students as becoming teachers. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 29(3), 117133. Yona, S. (2011). View on various approaches to mathematics education. Tel Aviv: MOFET Institute. Retrieved on10.6.12 from http://portal.macam.ac.il/ArticlePage.aspx?id=4628 [Hebrew] Zembylas, M., & Papanastasiou, E. C. (2005). Modeling teacher empowerment: The role of job satisfaction. Educational Research and Evaluation, 11(5), 433-459.‫‏‬ Zeydan, R., Alian, S., & Thorn, Z. (2007). Motives for choosing the teaching profession among pre-service teachers in the Arab sector. Dapim, 44, 123-143. [Hebrew]

Dr. Eti Gilad – Biography

Head of the Research Unit and Head of Education Department at Hemdat Hadarom Academic College; lecturer in the Department of Education and Department of Educational Systems Management at Achva Academic College; lecturer at the School of Education, Bar-Ilan University. Research fields: gender and feminism, change processes, educational initiatives, leadership, multicultural education, teacher education, teacher professional development.

Dr. Shosh Millet –Biography

Head of teacher educators' specialization pathway – 'A Developing Dialogue', MOFET Institute; Lecturer in the M.Ed. programs at Achva Education College; former head of Achva Education College. Research fields: teacher education, mathematics teaching, multiculturalism, gender, qualitative research, pedagogical tutoring and instruction at colleges of education, Professional Development Schools – college-school partnerships.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 44-57, August 2014

Discovery Learning with the Help of the GeoGebra Dynamic Geometry Software Trung Tran Committee for Ethnic Minority Affairs, Ha Noi, Vietnam Ngoc-Giang Nguyen The Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences, Ha Noi, Vietnam Minh-Duc Bui Hanoi National University of Education, Ha Noi, Vietnam Anh-Hung Phan Vinh University, Nghe An, Vietnam Abstract. This article gives points of view of discovery learning, the role of discovery learning and the types of the one in mathematics. Teacher will give questions so that students themselves form knowledge what teacher wants to teach through discovery acts. With the help of the GeoGebra dynamic geometry software, the process of teaching and learning becomes more effectively. Because the GeoGebra software is dynamic, it helps discovery learning a lot. This software can allow teacher and students to find out solutions of geometric problems. It also can create a lot of new problems. Especially, the GeoGebra software is free. Thatâ&#x20AC;&#x;s reason why teacher and students should use the one. In addition, students will develop technology skills and get mathematical knowledge easily. Keywords: Discovery learning; the GeoGebra software; problem-based learning; technology skills.

1. Introduction In the 21st century, the creation is one of crucial factors of the process of teaching and learning. In order to create in the process of teaching and learning, teacher usually uses a familiar method being discovery learning. This method proves the activity of students. Nowadays, with the help of technology, the methods of teaching and learning are changing. With the help of technology, students have more good and effective leaning methods than traditional ones. There are authors to research and apply technology to teaching and learning in Vietnam. For example, T.H. Trinh, he applies the Carbi software to aid ÂŠ 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

mathematical teaching and learning (Trinh, 2006). We have applied e-learning to aid mathematical teaching and learning. This article will refer to an aspect of active leaning method being discovery learning with the help of the GeoGebra software.

2. Discovery learning J. Bruner supposes that the process of learning is a subjective process (Bruner, 1961). Learners form new ideas or new concepts based on knowledge through this process themselves. Learners select and convert information, form hypotheses and give their decisions based on the structure of the process of awareness. He asserts that when learners begin to go to school, learners should know basic structures of knowledge than know data, information which are boring and these data and information force learners to memorize a lot. Students should be motivated and be discovered information freely. By Bruner, discovery learning occurs when individuals have to use the process of thought to find out the meaningfulness of something themselves (Bruner, 1961). He gives four reasons for using discovery learning as follow: (i) To make an impulse of thought, (ii) to develop inner motivation than outer motivation, (iii) to learn the way of discovery and (iv) to develop thought (Bruner, 1961). For the first reason: Bruner suppose that, an individual himself only can learn and develop his mind by using this method (Bruner, 1961). For the second reason: He believes that, if teacher is successful with this method, learners feel satisfied with what they did. Students get the stimulations of intellectualness satisfactorily. Inner award is inner motivation. Teacher usually acts on outside through compliments, outer award. If teacher wants learners to find motivation or real amenities in learning, he must build methods or systems, that make learners themselves satisfactorily, than outer motivation. Internal force has the crucial role of the successfulness or unsuccessfulness of an individual learning. For the third reason: He emphasizes that, the only way, which learners learn discovery techniques, is what they must have opportunities to discover. Learners will learn the organization and performing of their researches gradually through the discovery. For the fourth reason: He suppose that, one of the best results of the discovery method is to aid learners‟ mind better, learners maintain their mind enduringly. If learners think about something which they thought and compare with given information then what learners thought is still in their mind although they learned long ago while the concepts, which learners are provided, disappeared. The documents, which are used for analyzing and going to the result, are still “fresh” in learners‟ mind, moreover, these documents make learners remember their forgotten concepts. By G. Petty, there are two approaches in teaching which are : Teaching by explaining and teaching by asking questions (Petty, 2000).

In teaching by explaining, students are learned new knowledge. Students must use and memorize these new knowledge. In teaching by asking questions, teacher gives questions or gives exercises so that students themselves find out new knowledge (Although, there are still special guides and preparations). This new knowledge is corrected and stated by teacher. Discovery with guides is an example of this approach. Discovery learning is only used if learners can follow the new lesson from the knowledge and experiences themselves. The author notes that, to find information in books is not a discovery learning and he emphasizes: Discovery acts are usually progressed by groups. They require learners to have high thought techniques in order to find out new things. Because learners themselves find problems, the learning has a high quality. Each of members of this group can provide “a piece of puzzle” of his understanding on the researching topic. G. Petty also refers to the strength of the discovery method (if we use rightly) being (Petty, 2000): It is active and it motivates students to join in the process of learning. It is high encouraged and funny. The questions make students increase their understanding and amenities for the subject. Students themselves must “find out about”, i.e, students themselves catch the problem which they are learning. As a result, learners will understand the problem, the relation between it and the pre-lesson and learners remember the lesson for a long time. This method makes students have good thought: evaluation, judgment thought, problem solving, analysis, synthesis, etc. Conversely, teacher-centered methods usually direct students to skills which rarely think such as listening-lecturing and trying to understand this lecture. By this method, students are encouraged to consider that learning is their works than experts‟ works doing for them. This method allows students to learn funnily, to find out the answers for themselves, and a controversial thing is the method to develop inner motivation than outer motivation. However, the author gives some restricts of the discovery method : slow velocity and we can not apply this method to topics such as simple topics based on real facts, or topics that students do not require to discover, etc. (Le, 2007).

3. The role of discovery learning J. Bruner gives the advantages of using discovery learning: it motivates the innovation of thought, develops inner motivation than outer act, learners can learn discovery way and develop memories themselves (Bruner, 1961). The process of discovery requires students to evaluate, consider, analyze, synthesize, and by Bruner, an individual only learns and develops his mind if he uses it (Bruner, 1961). On the other hand, when he achieves some results in the process of learning, the learner feels satisfied what he did and he will have a desire to tend to difficult works, this is inner motivation. © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

G. Polya, who is a famous mathematician and educator, supposes that, The major task of teaching mathematics at school is to teach students thinking (Polya, 1979). By him, in order to get the best effective learning, students themselves need to discover in moderation with a large of number of their documents. By Lictenbe (The German physician): “what he force to discover himself leaves in his unconscious a small path that he can use it if he needs” (Polya, 1979). D. Ausubel considers „„discovery learning is an excellent one to create the way of the synthetic learning‟‟ (Petty, 2000). In addition, educators suppose that, discovery learning shows the strong-points as follow: + It is student-centered method. One of principles of learning shows that, if the more learners participate in the process of learning a lot, the more they learn a lot. When teacher thinks about learning concept, they usually suppose that learners are only people getting knowledge than people processing information. This is a restricted view on learners. Actually, learning must include all of aspects in order to make learners have all abilities. For example, in discovery situations, learners do not only comprehend concepts, rules but also learn the way of the build of their directions, responsibilities and communication in the social. In teacher-centered method, a lot of the above abilities are not for students. If we find out a guide that make students have all of the above abilities, the learning environment is not a total of teacher-centered method. + It is a method to make each of learners developing his aware competence All of us have aware competence ourselves. If these competences] are good, we feel safe on psychology (confidence). We easily get new knowledge, readily get chances, find out about and accept everything even the unsuccessfulness, we become more creatively, have a good thought competence and become the men who work effectively. A part of task becoming effective men is to build aware abilities of ourselves. We only do this thing by attending discovery acts and finding out about these acts. Because of attending these acts, we have a deep view on our competence. Discovery method makes learners have a lot of big opportunities attending learning acts, from that point, learners have a deep view on competence, build aware competence themselves. 4. The way of becoming a man-owned To own acts in the life

+ The required level is increasing One other aspect of self of a man is his required level. For example, will a child know his competence of how he completes a work? Many children accept a low required level being what teacher usually listen either “I can not learn mathematics” or “I have never been good at science subjects”, etc. However, if children join in discovery acts, they will learn the way of independent thought. In other words, by having successful experiences of competence themselves, they will see that “they themselves can solve this problem without any help from teacher, parents or anyone”. This thing follows "I can do everything". From that point, the required levels of their competence are themselves improved. + The method develops talents The talent on learning concerns with one of talents of everybody. The more we are free, the more we have opportunities to develop that talent. For example, when children work together to find out about something, it means that they join in the process of talent development each other such as : to make a plan, to organize, to communicate, to think creatively, to make the competence of learning. + The method allows learners to get and update information Teacher is usually in a hurry of his teaching while learners need time to think and use their mind to reason and to find out about concepts, rules deeply. If information becomes a part of learners‟ mind with a particular meaning, learners need time to do that. Jean Piaget asserts that : There is not a precise learning‟s concept unless learners have time to reason about achieved information and through the process of that thought, learners acquire and update what learners met in particular situations.

5. Some tools in the GeoGebra software 5_1. Point Use the tool Point to draw a point A .

5_2. Line Use the tool Line to draw a line a .

5_3. Segment Use the tool Segment to draw a segment AB.

5_4. Ray Use the tool Ray to draw a ray from A to B .

5_5. Vector Use the tool Vector to draw a vector from A to B.

5_6. Perpendicular Line Use the tool Perpendicular Line to draw a perpendicular line d to a .

5_7. Parallel Line Given a line AB . Draw a line b passing through a given point C , which is parallel to AB : Parallel Line  C  AB.

5_8. Circle with Center Through Point Use the tool Circle with Center Through Point to draw a circle with center O and radius r.

5_9. Locus Use the tool Locus to find the locus of a movable object. For example, let (O) be a circumcircle of a given triangle ABC . Suppose B, C are fixed points and A is movable point on this circle. Let H be the orthocenter of the triangle. Find the locus of the point H . We find the locus of the point H as follow:

+) Construct the circle (O) . +) Construct three points A, B, C. +) Construct the triangle ABC and its orthocenter H . +) Locus  H  A , we get the locus of the point H being a circle as the above figure.

6. Some main characteristics of the GeoGebra software +) The GeoGebra software helps the users to find the locus of an object. (See 5_9). +) It helps the users to predict the results of some extremum geometric problems. +) It is very effective in solving, teaching and learning the analytic geometry. +) Since the GeoGebra is a dynamic software, it is very useful in verifying geometric problems. +) It helps teacher a lot in teaching definition, theorem, solving problems.

7. Forms (levels) of discovery learning Depending on whether teacher intervenes the process of discovery of students or not, we divide discovery acts into two types: Guided discovery and free discovery. In guided discovery, teacher gives problem, provides context, necessary tools and students have opportunities to discover, solve problem. Teacher here plays a role as an encouraging, assistant man to ensure that students do not get troubles or do not perform their surveys, experiments. However, teacher‟s help © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

should be formed in questions to help students to think about the process of discovery but is not showing student what they need to do. Guided discovery has two levels : total guide or partial guide. After students join in discovery acts with guides, they are ready for free discovery acts. In these discovery acts, students themselves must define what they want to research, must select their way, solution and must research until they find the result. Table 1. The levels of problem-based learning and discovery learning

Level

Teacher’s acts

Students’ acts

Problem-based learning

Discovery learning

To give acts so that students do these acts

To do according to teacher‟s instructions in order to achieve goals

To give a lecture To discover with in order to find total guide out and solve the problem

To give a To find out problem, the solution not to give themselves its solution

To make oral To discover with questions in order partial guide to find out and solve the problem

To choose the start situation or accept students‟ choices

To define To perform a self- To discover freely problem in research the situation, to find out the on the problem solution themselves (Le, 2007).

8. Example A river has straight parallel sides and villages A and B lie on opposite sides of the river (see Fig 2). Where should we build a bridge MN in order to minimize the travelling distance between A to M and B to N (a bridge, of course, must be perpendicular to the sides of the rivers) ?

Figure 2. A river having straight parallel sides

Teacher gives discovery acts being guided questions for students with the help of the GeoGebra software. Teacher uses the GeoGebra software in order to help students to find out the solution. Teacher constructs and finds out the position of the bridge MN such that AM  BN is minimal on the GeoGebra software as follow: Step 1. Construction . Draw a ray Dx ' . . Take a point F on the ray Dx ' . . Draw two parallel lines a and b such that the distance of a and b is equal to DF. . Draw movable point M on a . . Draw a straight line passing through point M and perpendicular to the straight line a , cut the straight line b at a point N . . Draw the Cartesian coordinate system Oxy such that MN is perpendicular to Ox . . Take point T on Oy such that OT  AM  NB . . Draw a straight line passing through point T and perpendicular to Oy , cut the straight line passing through point M and perpendicular to Ox at a point E . . Hide unnecessary objects. Step 2. Making trace . Making trace to point E , moving point M , we obtain the trace of point E . Moving point M to the position such that the ordinate of point E is minimal, we determine positions M, N that need to be found (see Fig 3).

Figure 3. Finding out the position of the bridge MN on GeoGebra

Teacher : The directions of d are the lines being parallel or coincident with d . Hence, which directions of line are invariant? Students : Directions of line MN are invariant (because MN is always perpendicular to river shores a and b ). Teacher : Because directions of line MN are invariant, we will use a translation  of directions MN . Because MN is constant, vector MN is constant. Using the  , we have A  A ' . Then, what is the image of point M ? Which translation T MN segment is equal to AM ? Students : M  N and AM  A ' N . Teacher : Hence AM  BN  A ' N  BN  A ' B . The equality occurs when and only when N is the point of intersection of A ' B and b (by triangle inequality). Do you draw points M, N ? Students : We have the constructions of points M, N as follow :   ( CD is a vector which its directions are perpendicular Using the translation TCD

to river shores, the length of CD is equal to the width of the river, C  a, D  b ),  , we have we have A  A ' . A ' N meets b at N . Using the translation TDC N  M . Then MN is the bridge that needs to be constructed (see Fig 4).

Figure 4. The drawing of points M and N Teacher gives remarks : The result, which we find out on the GeoGebra software, is absolutely suitable with the mathematical result. Teacher allows students themselves to discover knowledge on the GeoGebra software by moving, drawing additional lines. These acts are controlled by teacher.

9. Results and Discussion We delivered survey forms to 37 teachers of upper secondary schools in Ho Chi Minh city, Viet Nam in order to check the suitability of discovery learning with the help of GeoGebra :

Table 2. The ideas of teachers on discovery learning with the help of the GeoGebra software

Ideas of teachers

A total of teachers

Agree

Disagree

To help teacher to teach mathematics

To help students themselves to learn mathematics

To improve the interaction between teacher and students

Teacher interests in technology

Survey contents

Through the surveys of the ideas of teachers shown at the table 2, we first assert that discovery learning with the help of GeoGebra is suitable with the selflearning of students and it improves the effectiveness of teaching and learning basically. We also delivered survey forms to 282 students of upper secondary schools in Ho Chi Minh city, Viet Nam on the exploitation and uses of the GeoGebra software for the help of discovery learning. We obtain good results as follow : Table 3. The ideas of students on discovery learning with the help of the GeoGebra software

Survey content

A total of students

Ideas of students Frequently

Sometimes

Never

To perform a selfresearch on the GeoGebra software

282

199

To use GeoGebra in self-learning according to teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x;s requests

282

243

To use GeoGebra to do exercises

282

220

To use GeoGebra in self-check of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; knowledge To use GeoGebra familiarly

282

223

282

237

Table 3 shows that most students joined in the learning according to discovery learning with the help of the GeoGebra usually interest and exploit the features of this software in the process of their learning in order to improve their understanding of lesson and exercises. The figures shown in the table 3 showed that the rate of the self-learning of students with the help of the GeoGebra software is high. We can assert that discovery learning with the help of GeoGebra acts on students well. This thing proves that this method makes students pleasant and interested in learning mathematics. This method is more effectively than traditional learning methods. Table 3 also shows that the GeoGebra software helps teacher to teach mathematics. Teacher can use this one for finding out the results of problems, for verifying problems. In addition, it also gives teacher to create new problems that their results are known immediately. This software is effective in teaching geometric concepts, theorems and definitions. The processing of teaching and learning is improved. The interaction between teacher and students becomes well. Finally, the level of informatics of teacher improves gradually. Teacher likes to find about the applying informatics in mathematics. We and students discuss on the usefulness of the GeoGebra software. These students show themselves to like this one. With multiple tools and the accurate numbers of the software being very high, the students suppose that they can solve problems with the help of the software easily. Since the help of the one, they even do not need the help from teacher. When they use this software, they become more creatively. They can create new problems and prove these problems.

10. Conclusion After students learned according to discovery learning, we realize that: Students write well, briefly. They also express mathematical languages coherently and fluently. This thing proves that the competence of the self-learning of students develops clearly. Students are interested in mathematical learning. They develop mathematical thought specially to develop the creative thought. Students also improve technology skills clearly and like to research the knowledge of the GeoGebra software. The effectiveness of the new method is better than traditional methods

References Bruner, J. S. (1961). The Act of Discovery. Harvard Educational Review, 31: 21-32. Dang, H. T. (2012). Using the GeoGebra software as visual medium in teaching and learning topics about transformations for grade 11 at upper secondary school. A Dissertation for the Degree of Master of Education, Vinh University (Dissertation written in Vietnamese), 27-31. Hoang, C. (1991). Exercising mathematical creative abilities at secondary school and upper secondary school. Ho Chi Minh city Publishing House (Book written in Vietnamese), 32-42. Hoang, D. C. (2012). Organizing discovery acts to students in teaching and learning solid geometry at upper secondary school with the help of technology. A Dissertation for the Degree of Master of Education, Thai Nguyen University (Dissertation written in Vietnamese), 21-23. Le, V. B. (2007). Teaching geometry for the last grades of the secondary school oriented discovery learning. A Dissertation for the Degree of Doctor of Education, Vinh University (Dissertation written in Vietnamese), 24-33. Nguyen, C. T., Nguyen, K., Le, K. B., & Vu, V. T. (2004). Self-Learning and teaching the way of learning. Pedagogy University Publishing House (Book written in Vietnamese) 31-51. Nguyen, B. K. (2002). The methods of teaching mathematics. Pedagogy University Publishing House (Book written in Vietnamese), 135-139. Nguyen, B. K., & Vu, D. T. (1992). The methods of teaching mathematics. Education Publishing House (Book written in Vietnamese), 115-119. Piaget, J. (2001). Psychology and pedagogy. Education Publishing House (Book written in Vietnamese), 120 -134. Petty, G. (2000). Teaching and learning today. Vietnamese-Belgian project (Book written in Vietnamese), 99-113. Polya, G. (1979). Creation to mathematics. Education Publishing House (Book written in Vietnamese), 161-187. Pham, T. P. (2006). Teaching and learning mathematics with the Cabri software. Volume 1 – Plane Geometry. Education Publishing House (Book written in Vietnamese), 146-171. Tran, D. C., & Dang, T. T. T. (2011). Designing the mind map of teaching and learning mathematics. Vietnam Education Publishing House (Book written in Vietnamese), 16-20. Trinh, T. H. (2006). Applying technology in teaching the grade 7 th oriented to the active acts of learning’s students. A Dissertation for the Degree of Doctor of Education, Ha Noi University of Education.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 1, No.1, pp. 58-77, August 2014

Impact of Culture on Communication Interactions: Case of Mixed Ethnic Secondary Schools in Botswana James G. Chisambi Limkokwing University of Creative Technology Gaborone Botswana

Abstract Culture can be defined as a complex concept that is central to our own communication interactions. In this study I examined circumstances under which differences in cultures among students at Community Junior Secondary School level in Botswana impact or do not impact communication in all aspects of their everyday life. The advent of globalization coupled with an increase in inter-tribal marriages has turned our classrooms into potential melting pots for multiculturalism and multilingualism. On the other hand, very little research has been conducted on intercultural communication between culturally diverse studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; populations in the country. In order to assess this hypothesis, this research relied on theoretical and empirical data from a survey conducted among 26 participants in schools in the North and North West Districts of Botswana. I used part of multiple case studies, interviews and questionnaires to collect data and obtain multiple views from participants. Summative evaluation results based on 26 secondary school going students, revealed that 96.2% of the participants maintained social interactions and communication with schoolmates of cultural background other than their own despite instances where the intercultural experiences were unpleasant due to lack of respect, feelings of inequality, and non acceptance. Keywords: Culture; impact; communication interactions; mixed ethnic; Botswana

1.0 Introduction 1.1 Overview The government of Botswana provides free educational opportunities for all, no matter their nationality, gender, political and religious affiliation. The education policy is inclusive of the under-represented groups (minorities and people with disabilities). However, problems which pertain to differences in language and

culture have received little attention from the government in the past decades; resulting in the practice where minority groups have been absorbed or incorporated into a dominant culture (Molosiwa, 2009). There are many languages spoken in Botswana. The diversity in languages creates a distinction between major and minority tribes. Whereas the major tribes speak Setswana which is a dominant mother tongue language, minority tribes speak a variety of dialects (Jotia & Pansiri, 2013). Both ethnic groups speak English for communication purposes with foreigners. However, the issue of language distinction is complicated because dialects are often blurred, but reflective of the variations found within Botswana languages and culture. Setswana is widely spoken in the country and students are often taught in Setswana the very first time they are admitted into school. Setswana is a compulsory subject for Batswana children who sit for final examinations at Form III and Form V levels. As Molosiwa (2009) claims, “ English is not merely a dominant medium of instruction at secondary school levels in public schools but a subject that is examined as well, and therefore, students are encouraged to speak in English at all times.” While classrooms remain multicultural and multilingual hosting many students and teachers who are culturally and linguistically diverse, Molosiwa (2009), Jotia & Pansiri (2013) argue that government has been for a long time reluctant to establish multicultural and intercultural system of education in public schools for peaceful co-existence. In steady this has resulted in the marginalisation of minority tribes. Therefore, this study looked into the communication interactional differences among Non-Batswana speakers in Community Junior Schools in Botswana to uncover how these minority ethnic groups interact among themselves. The nonSetswana groups were chosen for study because of their unique diversity in language, culture and tradition, the question then becomes: What are the circumstances under which differences in cultures among students at lower secondary school influence (or do not influence) patterns in their communication in social interactions? 2. The Education System in Botswana Education in Botswana spans three broad levels: Primary level, secondary level, and tertiary level. The system, particularly below the tertiary level, is government controlled. The education system does not cover pre-school but the significance of kindergarten schooling has been recognised at political level. This means, for children between the age of three and the start of basic education, attendance is optional before the age of 5 years. However, students take 7 years to complete primary education, and they can be placed at any schools in the country. Education at the primary level flows into the secondary phase, where the first three years is viewed as junior secondary education, and the remaining two years viewed as

senior secondary education. Each grade year at the primary level is regarded as a „Standard‟, whereas each Grade at the secondary level is a „Form‟ (Botswana, 2012). In this arrangement, compulsory education includes the entire primary (Standard IVII) up to the junior secondary (Form I- III) level. Admission to the senior secondary school (Form IV-V) programme depends on successful performance in the Junior Certificate programme. Thus, transmission from junior secondary to senior secondary is not automatic. Only those students whom academic grades fall at average or above on the Junior Certificate Examination are admitted to the senior secondary programme (Botswana, 2012). The admission rate to senior secondary schools has been increased since 2003 (stabilizing at about 98.5% currently), as a result of not just improved performance but also additional senior secondary schools being built nationwide. Furthermore, Botswana is currently building unified secondary schools, especially in most regions. Entry to tertiary is selective, depending on academic achievement in the senior secondary programme. There is a prevocational preparation in not just the junior secondary but also the senior secondary education programme, which acts as a buffer for students who do not qualify to transmit to the university level. In any case, regardless of the level of education, inter-tribal and inter-ethnic interaction is an ongoing social factor in the communication and interaction among students and teachers in the education system. One key objective of primary schooling is for students to be literate, first in Setswana and then in English (Botswana, 2012). Thus bilingual communication is an emphasis. At the same time, focusing on two languages, without regard for the mother tongue of children from other tribes, where these languages are „foreign‟, has been an area of contention among minority groups (Durham, 2001). 2.1 Early signs of inter-tribal group communication challenges The communication challenges for minority groups at school begin as early as the primary and junior secondary school levels. In government primary schools, medium of teaching in the first four years is Setswana. Non-Setswana speaking students in government primary schools are obliged to communicate and learn in Setswana for the first four years of schooling. In other words, these students are required to interact with peers and teachings in a language and school environment with which they are unfamiliar. The importance of language in inter-ethnic groups or inter-tribal group communication is clear. Irresponsible language use (i.e., terms and labels) leads to stereotyping and can be viewed as offensive (Gudykunst & Kim, 1992). In addition, message-coding and message-decoding patterns in interethnic exchanges have shown to have multiple impacts on social interactions (Gudykunst

& Kim, 1992; Molosiwa, 2009) but these have not been explored among inter-tribal student groups at schools in Botswana. Nyati-Ramahobo and Chebanne (2003) highlighted the pain many minority teenagers felt after being ridiculed about the „tone and accent‟ in their voice when they participate orally in the official language of instruction at school. Furthermore, the communication challenges for minority groups in primary schools begin with challenges in achievements in the teaching and learning situation. In a comparative study to assess the literacy skills of Setswana and non-Setswana speaking students in primary schools in Botswana, Nyati-Ramahobo (2006) found that Setswana speaking students performed satisfactorily at standard 5 in Setswana, and continue improving their English Language proficiency in terms of ability in comprehension, speaking, reading and writing throughout primary school. However, she reported, by contrast, that for students of non-Setswana speaking background comprehension (when the teacher speaks in class) in Setswana and writing skills in Setswana were quite low at standard 5. As these students progress from standard 5 to upper standard levels, their comprehension and writing skills in Setswana improve but their reading and speaking ability in the language stagnate. Achievement in English Language starts much later, merely picking up when the students are about to exit primary school. The differential in Setswana and English Language ability for non-Setswana speakers at primary school is quite evident in achievements in class. Records of students achievements at primary school level for 2005 and following years continues to indicate that regions or districts in Botswana where Setswana is not often spoken by citizens always have a lot of students withdrawing from schools and repeating a certain standard. The problem is exacerbated by large numbers of untrained teachers (RETENG, 2007). Moreover, the inability of non-Setswana speaking children to articulate their ideas in Setswana or English when they enroll at school is a barrier to social interaction and inter-tribal or intercultural communication at school. Interethnic (or cultural) communication involves a process in which there is "sending, receiving and interpreting of verbal and non-verbal messages between members of different ethnic groups within societal boundaries" (Gudykunst & Kim, 1992). In this communicational exchange, in-group and out-group sentiments have shown to develop. For instance, Kim (1986) reported that in a study by Stephen McNabb entitled "Stereotypes and Interaction Conventions of Eskimos and non-Eskimos", which identifies and analyzes variables of interaction and communication among Alaskan, it emerged that non-native stereotypes and judgment of the character of the „Inuit‟ people were the result of "faulty inferences about the meanings of communication conventions." In other words, the assessment of one group of another resulted limited understanding of their communication conventions. While a study of this nature has not been done among ethnic groups in Botswana, it

suggests misunderstanding may influence how minority groups may be judged as they communicate and interact with other tribal groups in school. 2.1.1

Omissions in previous research work

Brown (2004) and Martin (2002) argue that since cross-cultural studies in the school contexts are either based on the idea that ethnic diversity determines the way students communicate in a school environment, therefore, ethnic diversity becomes responsible for moulding the behaviour of an individual to realise his or her sense of national identity (Hofstede, 1997 & Kim, 2005). Previous research has also emphasized intercultural communication as specifically dealing with situations in which people of different cultures (e.g., tribes within a nation) communicate. Past studies have also distinguished between intercultural and interethnic communication, with the latter sometimes used interchangeably with inter-tribal communication, to refer to communication between two people from different ethnic (tribal) groups (Orbe, 2007). By contrast, Nyati-Ramahobo (2006); Jeremiah (2008) and Adeyemi (2008) postulate that there is no clear distinction how cross-cultural differences in mixed ethnic primary and junior secondary school change communication patterns of students. The conditions at school level that influence whether or not students and staff experience pleasant or unpleasant intercultural communication encounters on issues of use of mother-tongue remains problematic. On the other hand, differences concerning contexts of communication between students from different cultures at school level must be explored further because people from different cultures have a different view of the world. 2.1.3 Importance of inter-tribal and cultural communication The effort to embrace multicultural and intercultural education in a multilingual country like Botswana has not yielded the desired results. The increasing awareness of the importance of multicultural and intercultural education has raised a lot of debate among scholars in Botswana. According to Jotia and Pansiri (2013), marginalised minority tribes want the government of Botswana to respond to their request of peaceful co-existence by introducing mother tongue education in public or government aided schools. Similarly, instruction in mother tongue with an addition of English at a later stage, improves childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x;s ability to cope with more difficult work at universities (Pinnock, 2012). Molosiwa (2009) cited in Hays (2002) reported that Basarwa students including many other minority students who attend primary schools in remote areas of the country did not progress in their studies due to schools lack of trained educators who are responsive and sensitive to cultural diversity in the classroom and unwillingness of educational institutions to deliver quality education to students in rural areas. Similarly, Pinnock (2012) agrees with Hays that when schoolwork lacks quality and proper guidance, it poses difficulties

and challenges to a student who cannot cope with the vocabulary and concepts from course work if instruction is in a second language. In this view, many students become frustrated and end up leaving school. However, for many who remain, they struggle to improve their performance as the majority of subjects are taught in a second language, a condition rare to achieve by most students. By the contrary, teaching students in their first language has a positive result in that it improves quality of learning and teaching and propels a learner‟s ability for success in higher education. Molosiwa (2009) contends that there are reasons why students leave school or are unsuccessful at school. She cites unfamiliar language, ethnocentrism, and unfriendly behaviour between students, teachers and their peers. Dropouts contribute to a larger percentage of failures in National Examinations in the country. This means that, a multicultural educator must be not able to embrace students and others‟ cultural diversity only but also be able to nurture each individual‟s academic growth. The research of inter-tribal/cultural communication among students of minority (non-Tswana) and other (Tswana) cultural groups is important not only because of the potential at the school level to begin addressing what is a national problem, but also because of the importance of classroom climate in promoting effective intertribal communication. Tribal issues are and can be an emotional and personal topic for both teachers and students not just at school but outside school. For instance, Pettigrew and Tropp (2000) cautioned, in a study by Singh and Rampersal (2010) that “merely asking diverse races and cultural groups to come together and engage in spontaneous conversation can evoke intractable differences” because their values and beliefs are different. This is especially noticeable for non-Tswana Botswana citizen students who “feel that their self-esteem is lowered” by the social construction of their position in society. However, the reality in schools in the country is that whereas the English Language is a foreign language, Setswana is the only official indigenous language. In other words, of the two official languages, one is indigenous and the other is foreign. Although Setswana is the official indigenous language, and although some 90% of the citizens speak Setswana as their mothertongue, or as a second language Nyati-Ramahobo & Chebanne (2003), argue that there are many citizens (and non-citizens) at school who do not speak this language at home. Furthermore, because they are of non-Tswana tribe backgrounds, they have to learn it, and thereafter be taught using it as a medium of teaching. This means, minority children and teachers at school have to, in addition to their mothertongue, acquire two more languages in order to „fit-in‟, participate, or communicate with others in certain activities, including education in society. 3. Literature Review In 2005, the Minister of Education at the Regional Mother Tongue Conference (RMTC, 2005), expressed interest in ensuring that minority languages were taught at schools in Botswana. The Minister recognised mother tongue education as an important element in the child‟s intellectual development, the means by which the

child can realise his or her sense of belonging and grow into a productive citizen. The Minister stated that: “Mother tongue is a language a child learns from parents, it helps the child to think, behave and develop positive attitudes towards his community. It is also true that culture and language are very important because they are the unifying elements that allow different groups to communicate and live in harmony. Through culture and language an individual can be proud of showing his or her national identity in the globalised world. However, researchers have articulated that when children are taught in their mother tongue when they are first admitted into school they can produce positive results.” The Minister of Education acknowledged the fact that the idea to provide education in local languages was farfetched because of lack of enough resources. In this view, the Commission on Revised National Policy on Education was mandated to review the entire education system and come up with an Education Policy that would move the country into the 21st century (Republic of Botswana, 1994). The report has frustrated the efforts of many scholars who want multicultural education in the country. Furthermore, the official minority languages act has up to now not been promulgated by the government of Botswana. Instead RNPE instructed schools to make appropriate arrangements with parents who wanted their languages to be taught so that schools would teach them as co-curricular activities. This study has shown that government‟s failure to promote instruction even in minority languages, immediately after independence, was because teaching such languages would have caused disagreements or hostilities between citizens. Such a move would not have been a remedy for people who were aspiring for national unity. The government felt that instruction in minority languages would leave the country fragmented into tribal regions, promote local and regional identity, instead of national unity. In this view, local and regional identity would promote an “enclosed” society that would neither be exposed nor compete favourably in a globalised economy (Republic of Botswana, 2005). Pinnock (2012) postulates that mother-tongue education is most important because it develops the child‟s learning skills, motivates the learner and eventually restrains the number of dropouts. However, in a situation where children receive instruction at school in a language that is not spoken at home contributes to low pass rate. Furthermore, issues of language exclusion can cause violent conflicts between different cultural groups as exemplified in Bangledash in the 1950s. However, in the Botswana context, government‟s nondisclosure of the reasons for not implementing mother tongue education reduces the risk of inflaming a sensitive issue from public debate. Pinnock (2012) argues that children who receive instruction in a second language have the largest chance of obtaining lower scores than those children taught in their mother tongue. The study exemplifies students from Guatemala and Zambia who participated in bilingual programs that they performed better than students in monolingual programs who even received instruction in their mother

tongue. This shows that students who receive instruction in their mother tongues first become more successful second language learners. In reviewing research on mother-tongue education, Nyati-Ramahobo (2005) in a study by Jotia and Pansiri (2013) points out that mother-tongue education (MTE) is a major part of multicultural education because it is through language and culture that children and teachers can express their world view in classrooms. This means that language is a channel through which different cultures can express their world view. Similarly, language influences the way we think and our thinking is also influenced by the language we use, and both are influenced by culture (Singh & Rampersad, 2010). 4. METHODS 4.1 The participants Subjects for this study were participants at three Community Junior Secondary Schools (CJSS) in the North and North-West of Botswana. I used multiple case studies with Ba Sarwa, Ba Kalanga, Ba kalagadi, Ba Yei, Ba Herero and Ba Mbukushu student groups, because there is no other study to date which has actually based research on cross-cultural/cross-ethnicity communications of real students in real classroom situations in Africa. I used interviews and questionnaire because I needed multiple views from participants. Interviews and questionnaires were conducted in English which is a third language for participants. I distributed ten questionnaires first to participants who volunteered to take part in the study at each of the schools visited and conducted informal interviews on the presented questionnaires. Out of thirty students I chose only twenty-six for the semistructured interviews as some participants failed to complete the questionnaire properly. The interviews lasted thirty minutes for each student because participants speak English on different levels of fluency. Some switched from English to Setswana and vice versa. I recorded interviews on tape-recorder and transcribed verbatim. Then, I coded the transcriptions using the exact language of the participants and manually compared data from recordings and questionnaires for each of the participants into specific themes and sub-themes. Letters: A, B, C.....were used together with tribe names to ensure confidentiality of participants and to minimize researcher bias. 5.

PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS

The data from the questionnaire was analyzed using the descriptive statistical methods. Thus, where closed type questions were used, frequency, percentages and means make up that section of the analysis. The analysis of the data is presented in the study. In terms of the qualitative (text) data from the interviews and from the open ended items on the questionnaires, a comparative method of content analysis

was used in the study. The technique involved playing and listening to the tapes then categorising information heard. The questionnaires were read twice and compared with the information heard from the tapes in order to obtain a clear picture of what was said. The reason is that students cannot write and express themselves in English. When the scripts were complete, the information was coded and then categorised into themes. Two data analysis approaches were used. First, descriptive statistical techniques were used to analyse data from parts of the questionnaire where closed ended questions were asked. In this part of the analysis, summary statistics such as frequency, percentages, and means were used. The data from these analyses are presented in tables. Whereas frequency is represented as Freq; and percentages represented as (%); mean is indicated as bar X. The second analysis technique used was Glassier and Straussâ&#x20AC;&#x;s (1982) Constant Comparative method. This technique was applied to the qualitative (text) data from the interviews and from the open ended items on the questionnaires. The process involved reading the verbatim, isolating units of meanings, coding and categorising these units, and constantly comparing and contrasting units for overlaps. The themes indicated in the findings section below emerged from this process of analysis. 5.1

Profile of participants

The profile of the participants in this study is described in Table 5.1 below. A total of 26 students participated. The table shows information on five demographic variables: ethnic groups of participants, their gender, age groups, grade level at school, and whether or not the participants had friends at school of different ethnic groups and languages. Table 5.1: Profile of participants

No.

Variables

Ethnic Groups

Description of Variables Basarwa Bakgalagadi Mbukushu Kalanga Babirwa Basubia Yei Herero Bakgatla

Freq

3 2 3 3 1 3 3 4 4

11.5 7.7 11.5 11.5 3.8 11.5 11.5 15.4 15.4

Gender

Age Group

Grade Level

Friends at school of different ethnic groups and language

Female Male 13 Yrs or less 14 to 15 Yrs 16 Yrs or above Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Yes

7 19 1 9 16 4 4 18 25

26.9 73.1 3.8 34.6 61.5 15.4 15.4 69.2 96.2

3.8

Table 5.1 shows that students from nine (9) different ethnic or tribal groups participated in the study. On average, three (3) individuals from the different groups participated. Although unintentional, boys made up the majority (73.1%) of the participants. They were the more willing to participate which may be a reflection of the patriarchal nature of the society. Majority of the participants (61.5%) aged 16 years or above, and majority (69.2%) were in the Form 3 grade level. All but one of participants had friends at school of different ethnic groups and languages. All the districts and the respective schools where participants were sampled were multi-tribal / multiethnic. Table 5.2 shows the languages spoken by the different ethnic or tribal groups who participated in the study. Table 5.2: Languages spoken by different ethnic / tribal groups

Mbukushu

4 5

Kalanga Babirwa

1 1 -

1 -

1 1

1 -

No other language

Bakgalagadi

2 -

English Multiple Ndebele (English, Setswana, Sekgalagadi, Sesarwa)

Setswana

Basarwa

N 2 1 2 2 1 3 1

Seherero

Mother tongue Sesarwa Setswana Sekgalagadi Sembukushu Setswana Setswana Sebirwa

Sekalanga

Ethnic Groups

Sekgalagadi

N o.

Sesarwa

Other languages Spoken

1 1 -

6 7 8 9

Basubia Yei Herero Bakgatla

Sesubia Setswana Seherero Setswana

3 3 4 4

1 2 -

1 1 1

1 -

1 2 -

1 2

The data in Table 5.2 indicates that for most of the ethnic groups, the mother tongue is consistent with their tribal or ethnic cultural groups. In other words, majority of the students from the different tribal groups speak their mother tongue at home. The exception in this sample was students of the Yei and Kalanga tribe respectively (and few from the Mbukushu and Basarwa tribe), who speak Setswana as mother tongue, instead of their respective indigenous tribal language. For instance, the indigenous language of the Yei tribe is Seyei; for the Kalanga it is Sekalanga, and for the Mbukushu it is Sembukushu. None of these were given as mother tongue languages spoken. Furthermore, among the students who speak non-indigenous tribal language as home language, attachment to the language of their tribe appeared implicit. The student of the Kalanga ethnic group for example gave his/her tribal language as other language. And those from the Yei tribe did not even mention Seyei as other language(s) that they know or speak. The identification with other languages holds significant implications for the long term survival and ethnic identity of minority groups. Quite the contrary, the Tswana and non-Tswana mother tongue speaker sampled valued intercultural communication. On average, the sample agreed that they engaged in intercultural communication for altruistic and extrinsic motives (see Table 5.3). For instance, the motivation to communication and get along with other Batswana (citizens of Botswana) of cultures other than their own is to support national unity at all levels of society. At the micro or school level, the groups agreed they interact with other cultures not just to find friends to study with (mean=4) but also to build trust with others (mean=4). On the basis of these sentiments, intercultural communication was highly valued by the participants. Table 5.3: Reasons for engaging in intercultural communication

Variables

Description of variables

Motivation

I interact with other cultures to get along with them at all levels of society I interact with other cultures to find friends to study with

Min

Max

Mean*

Std. Error

.215

I interact with other cultures to 26 1 5 4 .220 build trust with others I interact with other cultures to 26 1 5 3 .274 satisfy my peer's needs I interact with other cultures to 26 1 5 3 .228 satisfy my own needs/ desires I interact with other cultures to develop intercultural 26 1 5 4 .237 communication competence I interact with other cultures to learn to respect and tolerate 26 3 5 4 .123 cultural differences with school mates Cultural competence I interact with other cultures in order to have the ability to 26 3 5 4 .141 negotiate and interact well across cultures I interact with other cultures to increase my level of discourse in 26 1 5 4 .214 the classroom I interact with other cultures for cultural awareness: i.e., to 26 1 5 4 .183 understand similarities and differences I interact with other cultures to be aware of the prejudices my 26 1 5 3 .254 peers may be harboring cultural awareness I interact with other cultures to learn the behaviour of others 26 1 5 3 .209 who may believe their culture is superior I interact with other cultures to learn the behaviour of other 26 2 5 4 .160 cultures I am critical of other cultures 26 1 5 3 .237 I am critical of other cultures because of the influence from 26 1 5 3 .204 peers Attitudes I have difficulties to study with 26 1 5 2 .240 peers of my culture I interact with other cultures to abuse students from other 26 1 4 2 .149 cultures * Table 5.3: Shows A 5 Point Likert Scale in which 1=SD, 2=D, 3=N, 4=A and 5=SA

Case study: A The following case studies highlight the cultural and communication problems students and their peers who are linguistically and culturally diverse often encounter in a multicultural learning environment. During school visits I was able to see very diverse schools in terms of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; population. I had the chance to interact with students from non-Setswana speaking backgrounds and talk about issues related to research. This means the research was not inclusive of Setswana speaking students. Interactions with students at schools gave me some insights on the problems of cross-cultural/intercultural communication in a multicultural learning environment. The interview data supports the sentiments expressed through the questionnaire survey. Across the tribal groups interviewed, members spoke of reasons why communicating with other nationals of different ethnic origins or language groups is significant. For example, one member of the Mbukushu tribe stated: My experience interacting with members of other tribes has been good and friendship relation has been well because when I am with others [other tribe members] I am able to learn their way of life even if there is a little misunderstanding [difference] between my way of life and theirs (Person A, Mbukushu). Member of the Yei tribe expressed similar sentiments, noting that intercultural communication is useful for nationalism: Without understanding properly, you may think that maybe he or she [member of other cultures] is insulting you in his or her language (Person C, Yei). I experienced that many people are willing to learn our language (Seyei) so they ask me questions or words in Setswana and I will translate them in Yei, we have good conversations, we laugh and all that stuff (Person A, Yei). Intercultural communication across tribal groups then is valued for various reasons, some altruistic, others extrinsic, and still others intrinsic. The reasons intercultural communication are valued is related to the motives for engaging in it in the first place. Another point that emerged from the data is that participants perceived that inter-tribal communication builds cultural awareness. In other words, it raises awareness of oneâ&#x20AC;&#x;s own cultural identity and background. The participants were fully aware of the journey they were on in developing awareness. As Table 5.3 indicates, on average, members of the Basarwa, Bakgalagadi, Mbukushu, Kalanga, Babirwa, Basubia, Yei, Herero, and Bakgatla tribes all agreed that when they interact with other cultures they do so to learn, i.e., to understand similarities and differences of other cultural groups, and to learn the behaviour of other cultures.

However, as Table 5.3 shows, on average, the sample was unsure or disagreed that the reason they interact with members of other cultural group was to learn of any behaviours by any group who may believe their culture is superior or any prejudices they may be harbouring.

Case study: B The building of cultural understanding, awareness and appreciation came out as a strong theme during interviews as a determinant to establish intercultural communication and interactions. For many, without understanding, communication proved difficult. The perception that intercultural communication contributes to building of cultural understanding and awareness was a common thread that cuts across members of all the tribal groups: Interacting with other friends helps me to learn their cultures and also you end up knowing how they conserve their environment, as we focus on indigenous knowledge system such as their totem, norms (Person B, Basarwa tribe). Another tribe member stated a typical point, indicating: “…I ask them (other group members) about their cultural groups and they ask me about our culture so we get to know and understand each other well” (Person B, Kalanga tribe).

Case study: C The sense of asking or general curiosity about otherness was a persistent and powerful theme throughout the interviews. The most succinct commentary showing the enigmatic influence of cultural curiosity was shared by Mbukushu tribe who described his experience: I just talk about our traditional way of life, like fishing, dancing and food. Some of them (other ethnic group members) get interested in our way of life of Mbambukusho so they start asking me what favourite food Mbumkushu like... then I tell them, some of them who are different from my tribe become my friends (Person C, Mbukushu). Case study: D Cultural awareness is developed. The knowledge and understanding that develop contributed to particular kind of experiences during intercultural communication. For many of the participants, the experience interacting with members of a culture other than their own has been positive, and those relationships began outside school. Unlike in some other countries in other parts of Africa, interethnic group perception of each other among students in this study appears affirmative. But the

learning and experience from communicating and interacting with other ethnic groups was equally transformational for members of other tribal groups. A Bakgalagadi commented: When I see other friends speaking their language, I like their language… Then I tell them to teach me their culture and language, and how they share their knowledge with each other. I speak their language when I am around with them because I love their language (Person A, Bakgalagadi) Clearly, at a linguistic level, there seemed to be ongoing informal learning taking place across ethnic group members, outside the formal curriculum at school. In all of this learning, and transformation, cultural awareness is being developed and positive interaction enhanced. A member of the Mbukushu tribe who has friends who are Herero explained: Being able to speak in a common language is at the core of the cultural awareness development trajectory among the student participants, as a Herero remarked: ...We use common language and we usually try to explain for one another so that we can know each other’s language. We try to learn each other’s language through Setswana; we also try to teach each other our own languages by using Setswana as a medium of communication (Person B, Herero). The role of language in cultural discourse is clearly evident. The language that is known is used as the basis to build scaffolds towards learning the languages of others and building cultural understanding. The emphasis on knowing the language of the other is further indication of the intimacy between language and culture. The participants evidently recognised that language is a significant marker of cultural identity, and when in use it allows them to refer to, and access, phenomena beyond the language itself. In other words, deeper understanding develops. A Form 2 student from the Yei tribe noted how students from other cultures appeared to have been taught to “not appreciate” the cultural practices of others: “…The problems... in languages, dress codes of other tribes, and the food they eat...” (Person A). Herero also spoke of the dialectical interpretations of nonverbal communication at school. The cultural difference was “...in speaking my friend’s language; eating their food; appreciating their attire; [and not knowing why they] always being in their tribal groups” (Person B). Language, behaviour patterns, and values form the base upon which meaning is exchanged in and across cultures. Thus, dressing communicates nonverbally as is group cohesion. However, some cultures prefer to be individualistic, whereas others are more collectivistic in orientation. The

cultural differences pertaining to these values impact communication. Managing differences is necessary for effective intergroup communication. The student participants of this study managed potential conflict points. One of the central mechanisms to cope with differences was their increased language ability. Some participants made attempts to learn the language of other tribes in order to maintain friends. As the evidence indicated, students from minority tribes, i.e., the non-Tswana cultural orientations made greater effort to learn. Hereros explained: ...I wanted to know the language he speaks... at first we spoke Setswana because we know the language; we ended up knowing each other’s languages. Example: we became friends because of playing boxing together (Person D, Herero); Minority tribes actively learn the language of other groups, but they also actively teach their languages to others. In other words, they were both active recipient and provider of the knowledge. Furthermore, by learning and speaking other languages they develop the competency to interact with different cultural groups. Minority tribes teach the majority tribe members the language of the minority group. Bakgatla acknowledged the experience, noting: “...they teach us different language…” 6.

DISCUSSION

In Botswana issues of multicultural societies, national unity and cross-cultural communications are key links to educational quality and equity. The purpose to provide inclusive education that would usher the country into the 21st century is noticeable in the 1994 Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE) and vision 2016 Report (Molosiwa, 2009). The National Development Plan (NDP) speaks to the need to upgrade the quality of education so that we can be an Educated and Informed Nation. However, after independence from Britain the government passed a law to allow Local government (1965) to run primary education while the Ministry of Education took responsibility for secondary education (Jotia & Pansiri, 2013). The Botswana government maintained English as an official language, while Setswana was declared the dominant language that would be spoken by all ethnic groups in the country. Some minority Languages that were taught in schools, heard on radio and used for meetings at the tribal court (kgotla) were phased out. Public officers for example, nurses, teachers and the police who were posted in non-Tswana speaking parts of the country were expected to uphold the Setswana language and customs. According to RETENG (2007) this was intended to create peace (Kagisano) and unity in a country where the minorities are in the majority. However, the problems of unity and pluralism are noticeable everywhere in the country. This study has observed that the previous studies emphasized the use of mothertongue education (MTE) because of its importance in developing the child‟s

language skills that can deliver high quality outcomes. Arguably, instruction in mother tongue does not reduce the skills or attained cognitive development by the child in a second language (English) but it helps the child in learning the second language much easier. By contrast, learning to read in a second language is more demanding because the child spends more time learning a new vocabulary. Furthermore, instruction in an unfamiliar language, possess serious problems to the child who has not only to build a new vocabulary but adjust to new terminologies and concepts within a short space of time. The previous studies argue that by choosing Setswana and English as a medium of instruction in schools meant other cultural groups and their languages were inferior in education (Jotia &Pansiri, 2013). Therefore, the present system of education has failed minority school going children who cannot progress in education because they have been forced to learn Setswana language and culture (Nyati-Saleshando, 2011). Menchu agrees with NyatiSaleshando that: â&#x20AC;&#x153;many people who understand what it entails to struggle in school and unconditionally drop out become more frustrated and disappointed by the decision to teach in an unfamiliar language.â&#x20AC;? This means that a child who receives instruction in a language other than his or her own cannot cope with learning. This study also observes that in a study conducted by Nyati-Ramahobo and Chebanne (2003) from the 2001 census, people who speak Setswana in their homes account for only 78% of the population. This percentage is inclusive of Setswana and non-Setswana speakers. However, Gantsi, Kgalagadi and Ngamiland reported 20%, 53% and 59% respectively for the use of Setswana in the home. While 80% of the children in Gantsi, 47% in Kgalagadi and 41% in the Ngamiland district, speak their own ethnic languages at home. Statistics for 2005 reveal that the exclusion of mother tongue or multicultural education in schools where Setswana is not spoken at home has impacted national examination results. Similarly, these districts have the highest number of student drop out, repeaters and untrained teachers. However, the findings of this study show practical implications in three major domains: First, intercultural communication in schools in plural societies takes place even without multicultural education; second, Culture and language in a plural school and classroom environment are respected to minimize misunderstandings and maintain unity among diverse student populations and third, social interactions among students take place with minimum caution because interactions are mostly confined to friends within the tribe. Therefore, not only did the study observe mother tongue differences but also observed that students were either defensive of their language during interactions or offensive as they sought the need for identity in a learning environment devoid of multicultural education. I found that individuals of different cultures who share common citizenry, and live in a national orientation that encourages national unity, can contribute to multilingualism. For most of the ethnic groups, the mother tongue was consistent

with their tribal or ethnic/ cultural groups. Some tribal groups were willing to communicate in their language, and proud of it. But, there were instances among minority tribes where, the language they gave as their home language was different from the tribal language. The tribal language was relegated to other language. This study has shown that the attitudes that students held towards their own tribal language impact on language usage. The findings are similar with past research conducted by Braber (2003) in Germany, following the unification of East and West Germany which stated that the attitude of the East to learning the language of the West, concluded that the asymmetrical relationship between the two German people contributed to how the East felt about their own language and how they felt about learning the language of the West. Asymmetrical relationship between the tribal groups in this study may partly account for the willingness of some minority groups to displace their tribal language as other language. But the finding may also be due to expediency and pragmatism. Minority tribes face the challenge of learning the official and national languages of Setswana and English used at school while at the same time learning their mother-tongue (RETENG, 2007). The willingness to learn the majority language may be linked to efforts among parents to prepare their children to cope with the language of instruction at school. The capability of speaking the official and national languages at an early age prepares minority children to quickly adapt to the teaching and learning situation at school where Setswana and English are medium of instruction. Minority languages are not a medium of instruction. 7. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES Several important findings can be concluded from the study. First, the study found various circumstances which influenced different outcomes in intercultural communication among the tribes. Among these were respect for differences; social acceptance of otherness; multi-lingualism; different values and beliefs and opportunities for contact with differences. Where these were absent, inter-tribal communication among the groups was unproductive, and led to defensiveness. I also explored the problems non-Tswana speakers encounter in communicating with other ethnic groups in a learning environment dominated by Setswana. Non-Tswana mother-tongue students (of Yei, Kalanga, Basarwa, and Herero tribes) and Tswana mother-tongue students perceive inter-tribal communication with each other in both pleasant and unpleasant ways, depending on the conditions. Where the perception was related to the benefits that may accrue from intergroup communication, intergroup communication was positive - which were that intertribal communication is valuable; inter-tribal communication builds cultural awareness and respect and cultural competence. Otherwise, the perception was different, which implies a level of self-interest in the process. Encounters of cultural differences are handled with apprehension and silence in inter-tribal communicational interactions. While various cultural differences related

to verbal and non-verbal cues in communication existed among the tribes, the verbal-cues included language and speech patterns, cultural values and assumptions, customs, and power relations in communication. Interpretation of nonverbal cues such as waving held different meaning which were not commonly understood. Increased language ability; use of popular language and in-group friendship and courtesy were the main mechanisms that were applied to cope. The major limitation of this research is that only minority ethnic groups from three schools in three districts of Botswana were used. Thus, sample size and the contextual nature of the study limit generalisation of findings. Further studies should be conducted to include Tswana speaking students in order to form a more balanced view of whether or not there are circumstances under which differences in cultures among diverse students at lower secondary school influence patterns in their communication in social interactions. References Adeyemi, D. (2008). Bilingual education: Meeting the challenges of diversity in Botswana. Nordic Journal of African Studies, 17(1): 20-33. Botswana Education (2012). Botswana Education System - Classbase Braber, N. (2003). Language and Intercultural Communication Problems. Online. Available url: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/linguistics/WPL/WP2005/Braber.pdf. January 2013. Durham, D. (2001). Botswana. New York: Macmillan. Glaser, B.G., & Strauss, A. L. (1982). Building Theories from Case Study Research - iacmr www.iacmr.org/Conferences/.../PDW/Eisenhardt%20cases%20amr89.pdf‎ The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 14, No. 4 (Oct., 1989), (pp. 532-550). Glaser, B.G., & Strauss, A.L. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Strategies for Qualitative Research. Aldine, Chicago. Gudykunst, W.B., Kim, Y. Y. (1992). Communicating with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication. New York: McGraw-Hill Hays, J. (2002). Education and the San of Southern Africa: The search for alternatives. In I. Mazonde (Ed.). Minorities in the millennium: Perspectives from Botswana (pp. 73-87). Gaborone: Lightbooks. http://www.classbase.com/…ntries/Botswana/Education-System Jeremiah, K. (2008). The use of Setswana as a medium of instruction, a core subject and a national language: Is it not negation of affirmative action? A study of Botswana linguistic situation. Language in India, 8(11), 399-415. Retrieved April 23, 2009, from www.languageinindia.com Jotia, A. L., & Pansiri, N. O. (2013). Multicultural Education: The missing link in Botswana education policy. European journal of educational studies 5 (1), 2013 Kim, M.S. (2005). Culture based conventional constraint theory: Individual and culturelevel analyses. In W.B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication (PP.93-117). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Kim. Y. Y. (1986). Intercultural Communication: Current research. Beverly Hills, CA. Sage. Publications Martin, J.N., Nakayama, T.K., & Flores, L.A. (2002). A dialectical approach to intercultural communication. In J.N. Martin, T.K. Nakayama, & L.A. Flores (Eds.), Readings in intercultural communication: Experiences and contexts (2 nd ed., PP. 3 – 13). Boston: McGraw – Hill.

Molosiwa, A. (2009). Monocultural education in a multicultural society: The case of teacher preparation in Botswana. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 11(2): 1-13. Nyati-Ramahobo, L & Chebanne, A. (2003). The Development of Minority Languages for Adult Literacy in Botswana: Towards Cultural Diversity. Online. Available url: www.geocities.com/reteng_we_are_here/.../Adult_Literacy_paper.doc‎. Accessed January 2013. Nyati-Ramahobo, L. (2005). Towards multicultural education for Khoesan people of Botswana: Breaking barriers, expanding opportunities and exploring possibilities. Paper presented at the Regional Mother Tongue Conference on Multiculturalism in Southern African Education. Gaborone, Botswana. Nyati-Ramahobo, L. (2006). The long road to multilingual schools in Botswana. In O. Garcia, T. Skutnabb-Kangas, & M. Torres-Guzman (Eds.).Imagining multicultural schools: Languages in education and globalisation (pp.200-222). Clevedon: Multicultural Matters. Nyati-Saleshando, L. (2011). An advocacy project for multicultural education: the case of the Shiyeyi language in Botswana. International Review in Education, 43(1) 1 – 24. Orbe, M. P., & Harris, T. M. (2007). Intercultural communication: Theory into practice. Sage Publications Pinnock, H. (2012). Mother tongue key to world education growth. Available url:http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/resources/online-library. Republic of Botswana. (1994). The Revised National Policy on Education. Ministry of Education. Gaborone: Government Printer. Republic of Botswana. (2005). Constitution (Amendment) Act, 2005. Gaborone. Government Printers. RETENG: The Multicultural coalition of Botswana (2007) www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/RETENG_MCB.pd Singh, S., & Rampersal, R. (2010). Communication challenges in a multicultural learning environment. Journal of intercultural communication. Online, Available url:http://www.immi.se/intercultural/. Strauss, A. (1982). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. New York: Cambridge University Press. thechildren.org.uk/resources/onlinelibrary.languagemagazine.com/?page_id=3164

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 78-92, August 2014

Organizational Justice Influences Foci Commitment of Teachers via Trust Shueh-Chin Ting Department of Education, National University of Tainan, Taiwan Abstract. Past research on justice and trust tends to probe into their direct relationships with overall commitment, but neglects foci of commitment (e.g. organization, supervisor, and colleagues). This study fills this gap and explores three types of justiceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s effect (i.e., distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice). This study used teachers in elementary schools as an empirical target, collected data by questionnaire survey, and analyzed data by multiple regression to examine the mediating relationship of justice-trust-commitment. This study clearly shows that there are complex relationships among three types of justice, trust, and foci commitment (commitment to school, commitment to supervisor, and commitment to colleagues). Trust involves fully, partially, or no mediating effects on the relationships between three types of justice and foci commitment. Keywords: commitment; foci; justice; teacher; trust

1. Introduction Commitment is an important variable in organizational behavior research. It has three characteristics: intention to maintain membership of the organization, identification with the organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s goals and values, and willingness to exert extra effort for the organization (Bentein, Stinglhamber, and Vandenberghe, 2002). Commitment is an influential variable; high commitment would lead to positive results for individuals, organizations, and society (Mowday, Porter and Steers, 1982). In terms of teachers, teacher commitment is an important issue for teachers, but also for schools and students (Collie, Shapka, and perry, 2011). It relates directly to issues of teaching and learning, school success, and well-being (Day, 2008; Park, 2005). Early researchers tended to consider the organization as a whole, and focused on employee organizational commitment without differentiating different commitment targets (foci) (Jiang and Cheng, 2003; Jiang, Cheng, Jen and Hsieh, 2005). However, some researchers now have held that employee commitment is having multiple foci. Foci of commitment are the individuals and groups to whom an employee is attached (Becker, Billings, Eveleth, and Gilbert, 1996).

There are many targets of teacher commitment, such as school, supervisor, and colleagues, so commitments to different targets could be at different levels. An individual may experience high commitment to only one of these foci, or all, or none (Becker and Billings, 1993). In addition, the question of how to produce foci commitment remains to be not fully explored. This research emphasizes the antecedent-foci commitment relationship whereas prior research concentrated on the foci commitment-outcome linkages (e.g., Becker, Billings, Eveleth, and Gilbert, 1996; Becker and Kernan, 2003; Bentein, Stinglhamber, and Vandenberghe, 2002; Chan, Tong-Qing, Redman, and Snape, 2006; Hartog and Belschak, 2007). Iverson and Roy (1994) suggested that reinforcing an employeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perception of justice can increase attitudinal commitment and then increase behavioral commitment. Regarding the effect of justice dimensions, Magner and Welker (1994) indicated that procedural justice can improve commitment, whereas, distributive justice cannot. However, Mo (2002) thought that procedural justice and distributive justice are two critical predictors of commitment. These inconsistent findings may be due to use traditional view of overall commitment and lack of exploration of mediation. According to the commitment-trust theory of Morgan and Hunt (1994), trust is a critical antecedent variable of commitment. This study considers commitment is more related with trust than with justice. Adding into the variable of trust as a mediating variable, this study believes it will be better to explain the relationship between justice and commitment. In addition, most of prior commitment research involves organizational commitment (e.g., Collie, Shapka, and perry, 2011; Ware and Kitsantas, 2011). However, this study supposes that the implication of commitment depends on the commitment target. Accordingly, are the relationships among justice, trust, and commitment different if the commitment target is different? By using school teachers as research subjects, this study seeks to extend commitment theory by probing into the mediating effects of trust on the relationships between justice and foci commitment (commitment to school, commitment to supervisor, and commitment to colleagues).

2. Theoretical Background and Hypothesis Development In this section, this study reviews and describes literature on justice, trust and commitment, and further proposes the research hypothesis.

2.1 Justice Justice means giving each person what he or she deserves or, in more traditional terms, giving each person his or her due. Novelli, Kirkman, and Shapiro (1995) suggested that creating a climate of justice is a prerequisite for effectively transforming an organization. In general, justice involves distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice. The concept of distributive justice, emphasizing results and contents, was developed first in the academic research of justice, and it refers to the level of justice of resource distribution and employeesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; reactions to the distribution results (Folger and Greenberg, 1985). Procedural justice stresses procedures and processes, and considers employeesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

perceptions of justice regarding decisions’ procedures and processes (Folger and Greenberg, 1985). Interactional justice focuses on interpersonal interactions and communications, and refers to employees’ perceptions of an organization’s willingness to communicate with employees and consult employees’ opinions before decision making (Bies and Moag, 1986). According to the equity theory of Adams (1965), employees compare their ratio of inputs to outcomes with others to determine their cognition of justice or injustice. If they feel injustice, they may react as follows: twist theirs or others’ inputs or outcomes, lead others to change their inputs or outcomes by certain behaviors, change their own inputs or outcomes, select other reference points, or quit the job. Thus, when teachers perceived injustice, there may be negative attitudes or behaviors. Organizational justice is not something new but organizational justice studies in schools and in the field of education management are ignored and are very few in number (Hoy & Tarter, 2004). This study defines school justice as teachers’ subjective cognition of the quality of being righteous or fair for internal resource distribution, decision making, and personal interactions in schools. It includes three aspects: distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice. Distributive justice refers to teachers’ perceptions of distribution of school resources, such as work load, responsibilities, and rewards distribution. Procedural justice refers to teachers’ perception of school decision-making processes and procedures. Interactional justice refers to teachers’ perception of communication and respect from their schools.

2.2 Trust Trust is a kind of psychological state (Rousseau, Sitkin, Burt and Camerer, 1998), regarding individuals’ positive expectations toward the intentions and behaviors of other organizational members (Shockley-Zalabak, Ellis and Winograd, 2000), and individuals’ overall perception of the reliability of the organization (Tan and Tan, 2000). Blau (1964) noted two types of interpersonal interactions: social exchange and economic exchange. Social exchange means that employees aim for future returns rather than immediate profits. Economic exchange refers to equal immediate exchange relationships. The former is based on trust, the latter on a calculated basis. Hence, when two parties trust each other, devotion even if no immediate returns is possible. Using the concept of social exchange, this study defines trust as the teachers’ perception of overall trust in the school. Teachers trust their schools when they believe their efforts will be mentally and substantially returned.

2.3 Commitment Most of previous research on commitment addresses employees’ commitment to their organization, which is called organizational commitment and is an overall concept, and in particular, belongs to affective commitment which is defined as an emotional attachment to, identification with and involvement in the @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

organization (Hartog and Belschak, 2007). In terms of a school, Ware and Kitsantas (2011) conceptualized teacher commitment as (a) the extent to which the teachers accept the goals and values of the school, (b) the amount of effort they are willing to exert for the school, and (c) their desire to remain within the school. Studies of commitment have shifted from an overall concept to multiple dimensions and from one target to multiple targets (Becker and Kernan, 2003; Bentein, Stinglhamber, and Vandenberghe, 2002; Clugston, Howell, and Dorfman, 2000; Hartog and Belschak, 2007; Jiang and Cheng, 2003). Moreover, Becker (1992) viewed 1305 employees in 30 U.S. companies as targets, and found that compared with multiple dimensions (e.g. affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment), multiple targets of commitment could more effectively explain employeesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; organizational behaviors. Similarly, the findings of Gregersen (1993) and Becker and Billings (1993) also supported the importance about commitment of multiple targets. Recent research showed that individuals form different strengths of attachment towards multiple foci, such as their organization, supervisor, or work-group (Clugston, Howell, and Dorfman, 2000). Attachment to a more proximal, lower order focus (work-group or supervisor) is generally stronger than attachment to a more distal, higher order one (organization) (Becker, Billings, Eveleth, and Gilbert, 1996; Hartog and Belschak, 2007; Riketta and Van Dick, 2005). Commitment to supervisor directly influences job performance while commitment to organization has an indirect effect on job performance through commitment to supervisor (Vandenberghe, Bentein, and Stinglhamber, 2004). Bentein, Stinglhamber, and Vandenberghe (2002) observed that commitment to the most proximal focus could mediate the effect of commitment to more distal entities on organizational citizenship behaviors. Hartog and Belschak (2007) believed that commitment to four distinguishable foci (organization, supervisor, work-group, and career) can explain unique variance in personal initiative. Becker and Kernan (2003) indicated that affective commitment to supervisor influences in-role performance and courtesy, whereas affective commitment to organization influences loyalty. Summarizing, foci commitment is deserved to explore because different foci have different characteristics. If commitment research exclusively focuses on the organization, it will be too narrow. In addition, there is lack of explorations of antecedents of foci commitment. Therefore, this study explores the influence of justice and trust on commitment to organization, supervisor, and colleagues, and defines commitment as the employeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s psychological identification with organizational objectives and values, a willingness to cooperate with supervisors, and interact with colleagues.

2.4 Hypothesis development Pearce, Bigley, and Branyiczki (1998) suggested that feelings of justice can develop trust whereas injustice leads to feelings of unreliability. In addition, Yilmaz (2010) concluded that positive organizational justice perceptions will cause employees to consider themselves as a part of the organization, become @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

easier going in their job relationships and establish relationships based on trust. Thus, trust is based on justice which is a perception of employees from observing their interactions with the organization. In a research of human resource, Pearce, Branyiczki, and Bakacsi (1994) indicated that distributive justice and procedural justice are related to trust. In addition, since commitment involves potential harm and sacrifice, it is not easily given without trust; thus, trust is a prior factor to commitment (Garbarino and Johnson, 1999). The social exchange theory explains the causal relationship of trust and commitment through a reciprocal principle; without trust, commitment is reduced and business transactions will be direct and short-term (McDonald, 1981). Therefore, many scholars suggest that trust determines commitment (Moorman, Zaltman and Deshpande, 1992; Morgan and Hunt, 1994). From the perspective of social exchange, after recognizing schoolsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; justice, teachers offer overall trust, and then resulting in commitment. Some empirical studies show that trust involves mediating effects. For instance, Aryee, Budhwar, and Chen (2002) observed that trust has partial mediating effects on the relationships between distributive justice/procedural justice and work attitudes (including commitment), but full mediating effects between interactional justice and work attitude. Sharon and Bart (2006) concluded that trust mediates the relationship between distributive justice and commitment. Trust also mediates the relationship between procedural justice and staff turnover. Thus, this study proposes the hypothesis: Hypothesis: Trust has the mediating effect on the relationship between justice and commitment.

3. Research Method 3.1 Research sample The subjects of this study were public elementary school teachers in Tainan, Taiwan. Totally 500 questionnaires were randomly distributed, of which 458 were returned and 420 were valid; giving a valid return rate of 84%. Sample composition: Gender- 63.5% female, 36.5% male; Age- 19.4% under 30 years old, 32.8% 30-40 years, 30.5% 40-50 years, 17.3% over 50 years old; Service years, 18.1% under 5 years, 17.8% 5-10 years, 29.5% 10-20 years, 34.6% over 20 years; School size, 23.7% under 12 classes, 27.5% 13-24 classes, 23.9% 25-48 classes, 24.9% over 49 classes. Tests of homogeneity between the sample and data in Taiwan, published by the Department of Statistics, Ministry of Education, revealed no significant differences in terms of teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; gender, age, service years, and school size, thus the sample can be representative of public elementary school teachers in Taiwan.

3.2 Measures This study measures justice and trust using a Likert scale format, and commitment using a semantic differential format. The measurements of all @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

constructs are six-points. The score of each construct is received by calculating the average of the items of the construct. Higher score stands for greater justice, trust, or commitment. Further, these construct scores are used in subsequent hypothesis testing.

3.2.1 Justice Justice construct consists of distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice. The items are from Niehoff and Moorman (1993), Mo (2002), and Huang (2002). Distributive justice concerns justice of school resource and teachers’ loading distribution. Procedural justice refers to the teachers’ perceptions of justice during school decision making processes and procedures. Interactional justice refers to the extent that schools communicate with teachers and respect teachers’ opinions before making decisions. Distributive justice is measured in four items, whereas procedural and interactional justices involve five items.

3.2.2 Trust Trust in this study refers to the teachers’ perceptions of the schools’ decision making capability and management reliability. The trust scale is based on the employees’ trust in the organization scale developed by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, and Fetter (1990). It includes five items.

3.2.3 Commitment Commitment comprises commitment to school, commitment to supervisor, and commitment to colleagues. Commitment to school means teachers’ psychological identification with school’s objectives and values. Commitment to supervisor means teachers’ respect to their supervisors. Commitment to colleagues means teachers’ willingness to cooperate with colleagues. This study adopts the view of multiple foci of Gregersen (1993) and Becker and Billings (1993) to design the measured items of commitment. We use four, four, and five items, respectively, to measure thee commitment dimensions (school, supervisor, and colleagues).

3.3 Measurement reliability For Cronbach’s α, distributive, procedural, and interactional justice are 0.89, 0.91, and 0.94, respectively; trust is 0.93; commitment to school, commitment to supervisor, and commitment to colleagues are 0.90, 0.91, and 0.89, respectively.

3.4 Measurement validity First, we used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to assess convergent validity together for all latent variables of distributive justice, procedural justice, interactional justice, trust, commitment to school, commitment to supervisor, and commitment to colleagues which were totally measured by 32 items. This tested model constrained each item to load only on one factor. Overall, results of this analysis indicated that the seven-factor structure was good fit to the data (χ2 / df = 2.33, goodness-of-fit index [GFI] = 0.92, confirmed fit index [CFI] = 0.96,

and root mean square residual [RMR] = 0.04). Second, regarding discriminant validity, all latent variables met pairwise chi-square difference test (Bagozzi, Yi, and Phillips, 1991), in which each pair of latent variables is analyzed by comparing the chi-square statistics of two models. One model is an unconstrained model (correlation between the two latent variables is free to estimate) and the other is a constrained model (correlation between the two latent variables is set to one). The results of chi-square difference test show that, for each pair of latent variables, chi-square statistics are significantly lower for an unconstrained model than a constrained model. Thus, we achieved discriminant validity among our constructs.

3.5 Common method variance (CMV) This study relied on self-reported questionnaire data suggesting possible mono-method bias and percept-percept inflated measures (Crampton and Wagner, 1994; Donaldson and Grant-Vallone, 2002). However, self-reporting does not necessarily inflate relationships between variables (Bruk-Lee and Spector, 2006). To mitigate mono-method bias, this study used several procedural remedies of Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, and Podsakoff (2003). The measures of this study used different scale formats including Likert scale format and semantic differential format. We carefully constructed all survey items, and used pre-testing to eliminate item ambiguity (e.g., avoid double-barreled questions, avoid complicated syntax, keep questions simple, specific, and concise). The scale items were ordered randomly in the survey. Finally, this study used two unrelated jokes to create a psychological separation for each pageâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s items. Harmanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s one-factor (or single-factor) test is one of the most widely used techniques to address the issue of mono-method variance (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, and Podsakoff, 2003). Following the test, all measured items in the study were together subjected to an exploratory factor analysis, which yielded five factorially distinct constructs and a general factor did not account for the majority of the covariance among measures (only 24.38%). The results indicated that mono-method bias was not a serious threat.

4. Research Results We used Baron and Kennyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (1986) method to examine the mediating effects. Baron and Kenny (1986) laid out three conditions that have to be met: (1) variations in the independent variable significantly account for variations in the dependent variable; (2) variations in the independent variable significantly account for variations in the presumed mediator; (3) when the presumed mediator is associated with the independent variable to predict the dependent variable, variations in the presumed mediator significantly account for variations in the dependent variable; in addition, the previously significant relation between the independent variable and dependent variable is weakened or no longer significant. Full mediation holds when the independent variable has no effect on the dependent variable when the mediator is introduced. Partial @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

mediation holds when the independent variable has significantly effect on the dependent variable when the mediator is introduced. This study validated the mediating effects of trust on the relationship between justice and commitment through multiple regression analysis. Because we had three dependent variables, commitment to school, commitment to supervisor, and commitment to colleagues, each commitment was separately treated as the dependent variable to conduct the examination of the mediation of trust. The results are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Regression analysis. Dependent variables Model 3 Model 4 Model5 Commitm Commitm Commitm ent to ent to ent to school superviso superviso r r 0.12* 0.05 0.04

Independ ent variables

Mode l1 Trust

Model 2 Commitm ent to school

Model 6 Commitm ent to colleague s 0.13*

Model 7 Commitm ent to colleague s 0.12*

Distributi ve justice Procedur al justice Interactio nal justice Trust R2 F

0.04

0.13*

0.52** *

0.43***

0.17**

0.15*

0.05

0.11

0.09

0.37** *

0.20**

0.02

0.36***

0.23**

0.34***

0.16**

0.67 98.02 ***

0.39 43.80***

0.50*** 0.43 50.86***

0.28 21.53***

0.42*** 0.35 28.68***

0.24 19.65***

0.47*** 0.37 30.01***

Note: (1) All regression coefficients are standardized. (2) *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001

4.1 Commitment to school as the dependent variable The first step in the analysis here involved regressing commitment to school on three types of justice. The results presented in Table 1 (Model 2) show that distributive justice (β=0.13, p<0.05), procedural justice (β=0.43, p<0.001), and interactional justice (β=0.20, p<0.01) are significantly and positively related to commitment to school, thus providing support for the direct effect of three types of justice on commitment to school. The second step in the mediation analysis involved regressing trust on three types of justice. The results in Table 1 (Model 1) indicate that distributive justice does not have a significant relationship with trust (β=0.04, n.s.). Therefore, trust does not have the mediating effect of distributive justice on commitment to school. At the same time, the effects of procedural justice (β=0.52, p<0.001) and interactional justice (β=0.37, p<0.001) on trust are significant, thus offering support only for the main effects of procedural justice and interactional justice on trust. In the third step of the mediation analysis, commitment to school was regressed on @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

three types of justice and trust. The results in Table 1 (Model 3) indicate that the effect of trust on commitment to school is significant (β=0.50, p<0.001). In addition, when trust is entered into the equation, the significant relationship we found between procedural justice and commitment to school is weakened from 0.43 to 0.17 but remains significant (p<0.01). At the same time, the effect of interactional justice on commitment to school becomes nonsignificant (β=0.02, n.s.). Together, these results suggest that trust partially mediates the relationship between procedural justice and commitment to school. In addition, trust fully mediates the relationship between interactional justice and commitment to school. The path relationship is shown in Figure 1. Procedural justice

Interactional justice

Trust

Commitment to school

Figure 1. The mediating effect of trust on the relationship between justice and commitment to school.

4.2 Commitment to supervisor as the dependent variable The first step in the analysis here involved regressing commitment to supervisor on three types of justice. The results presented in Table 1 (Model 4) show that distributive justice (β=0.05, n.s.) is nonsignificantly, but procedural justice (β=0.15, p<0.05) and interactional justice (β=0.36, p<0.001) are significantly and positively, related to commitment to supervisor, thus providing support only for the direct effect of procedural justice and interactional justice on commitment to supervisor. At this step, we have known trust does not mediate the relationship between distributive justice and commitment to supervisor. The tested relationship and results of the second step is fully same as the content of using commitment to school as the dependent variable, offering support only for the main effects of procedural justice and interactional justice on trust. In the third step of the mediation analysis, commitment to supervisor was regressed on three types of justice and trust. The results in Table 1 (Model 5) indicate that the effect of trust on commitment to supervisor is significant (β=0.42, p<0.001). In addition, when trust is entered into the equation, the significant relationship we found between procedural justice and commitment to supervisor becomes nonsignificant (β=0.05, n.s.). At the same time, the effect of interactional justice on commitment to supervisor is weakened from 0.36 to 0.23 but remains significant (p<0.01). Together, these results suggest that trust fully mediates the relationship between procedural justice and commitment to supervisor. In addition, trust partially mediates the relationship between interactional justice and commitment to supervisor. The path relationship is shown in Figure 2.

Procedural justice

Trust

Commitment to supervisor

Interactional justice Figure 2. The mediating effect of trust on the relationship between justice and commitment to supervisor.

4.3 Commitment to colleagues as the dependent variable The first step in the analysis here involved regressing commitment to colleagues on three types of justice. The results presented in Table 1 (Model 6) show that distributive justice (β=0.13, p<0.05) and interactional justice (β=0.34, p<0.001) are significantly and positively related to commitment to colleagues, but procedural justice (β=0.11, n.s.) is nonsignificant, thus providing support only for the direct effect of distributive justice and interactional justice on commitment to colleagues. At this step, we have known trust does not mediate the relationship between procedural justice and commitment to colleagues. The tested relationship and results of the second step is fully same as the content of using commitment to school as the dependent variable, offering support only for the main effects of procedural justice and interactional justice on trust. At this step, we have known trust does not mediate the relationship between distributive justice and commitment to colleagues. In the third step of the mediation analysis, commitment to colleagues was regressed on three types of justice and trust. The results in Table 1 (Model 7) indicate that the effect of trust on commitment to colleagues is significant (β=0.47, p<0.001). In addition, when trust is entered into the equation, the significant relationship we found between interactional justice and commitment to colleagues is weakened from 0.34 to 0.16 but remains significant (p<0.01). Together, these results suggest that trust partially mediates the relationship between interactional justice and commitment to colleagues. The path relationship is shown in Figure 3. Trust

Commitment to colleagues

Interactional justice Figure 3. The mediating effect of trust on the relationship between justice and commitment to colleagues.

Thus, this study demonstrates that the mediating effects of trust on the relationship between justice and commitment are related with the types of justice and commitment. Thus, the hypothesis of this study is partially supported. The research results are summarized in Table 2. @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

Table 2. Research results. Independent variables Distributive justice Procedural justice Interactional justice

Dependent variables (Foci commitment) Commitment to Commitment to Commitment to school supervisor colleagues No mediation No mediation No mediation Partial mediation

Full mediation

No mediation

Full mediation

Partial mediation

5. Conclusions and Suggestions 5.1 Conclusions Past research regarded commitment as a whole and was lack of exploring the relationship of justice-trust-commitment from the perspective of dimensions. This study used teachers of elementary schools as a target to conduct an empirical research. Based on relationship marketing theory, justice comprises distributional justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice. In addition, teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; foci commitment includes commitment to school, commitment to supervisor, and commitment to colleagues. This study demonstrates that trust involves fully, partially, or no mediating effects on the relationships between three types of justice and types of foci commitment. Specifically, trust shows fully mediating effects on the relationship between interactional justice and commitment to school, and on the relationship between procedural justice and commitment to supervisor. Trust reveals partially mediating effects on the relationship between procedural justice and commitment to school, and on the relationships between interactional justice and commitment to supervisor and colleagues. Trust does not show mediating effects on the relationship between distributive justice and the three types of foci commitment, and on the relationship between procedural justice and commitment to colleagues. Although distributive justice cannot lead to commitment through trust, it directly influences commitment to school and colleagues, so distributive justice is also important to some of commitment. Thus, to enhance teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; foci commitment, school management should improve distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice and understand the mediating mechanism of trust. Academically, the finding supports trust is a good mediating variable as past research indicated (Morgan and Hunt, 1994). Moreover, this study clearly shows a complex relationship among justice, trust, and foci commitment and this study more clearly elaborates their relationship than past research.

5.2 Suggestions for practitioners The findings have implications for principals and supervisors. First of all, the results show that procedural justice and interactional justice via trust tend to have positive effects on commitment to school and supervisor. We suggest principals and supervisors should display procedural justice and interactional @2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG All rights reserved

justice behaviors in order to elicit teacher’ perceptions of procedural justice and interactional justice, then enhance their perceived trust and finally attain commitment to school and supervisor. Second, the results show that interactional justice via trust tends to have a positive effect on commitment to colleagues. We suggest principals and supervisors should display interactional justice behaviors in order to elicit teacher’ perceptions of interactional justice, then enhance their perceived trust and finally attain commitment to colleagues. Third, the results show that distributive justice cannot win employees’ trust, but distributive justice has a help for commitment school and colleagues. So, distributive justice cannot be neglected by principals and supervisors.

5.3 Suggestions for future research Although the measurement of this study has good reliability and validity and the test of the hypothesis is according to proper test procedures, this study still has some limitations and needs to rely on the further efforts of future research. Firstly, this study only samples teachers in elementary schools of Tainan, Taiwan. The test of sample homogeneity reveals the sample is representative of whole Taiwan; however the sample is only from elementary schools, which significantly reduces the generalization of the research findings to different levels of schools. To extend applicability (Churchill, 1979), future research could expand the scope of the sampling to teachers in junior high schools, senior high schools, and universities. We have explored the dimensions of justice and commitment; hence, to avoid research being too complex, in the aspect of trust, this study only probes into the teachers’ trust in schools and defines trust as the reliability of the schools. However, further research could consider other trust targets like foci commitment of this study. The research on mediating effects is important for psychological science. Direct relationship between external stimulus and individual reaction is few. Most of relationships often involve the mediation through various transformation processes which are internal to the organism. Baron and Kenny (1986) suggest that when an independent variable and a mediator predict the dependent variable, if the independent variable is still same significant as when the independent variable alone predicts the dependent variable, there may be other mediators. Thus, for some mediating relationships which this research has explored, besides the mediator “trust”, there are probably other mediators needed for further exploration such as the influences of procedural justice on commitment to school, interactional justice on commitment to supervisor, and interactional justice on commitment to colleagues.

6. Acknowledgements The author is grateful to National Science Council in Taiwan for the financial support (NSC 99-2410-H-024-009).

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 93-104, August 2014

The Contribution of In-Service Training Programs to the Professional Development of Mathematics Teachers Ilana Levenberg Gordon College of Education Haifa, Israel Dorit Patkin Kibbutzim College of Education Tel Aviv, Israel Abstract. This paper presents a way of training elementary school mathematics teachers. The viewpoint taken is that the teaching profession is a continuous learning process for those who practice it. The first part will present a model of mathematics teachers in-service training program conceived by the authors and later tested and researched. The second part will present examples from the curriculum of the in-service training program. It will touch upon the manner by which mathematics teachers are instructed and encouraged to carry out projects in their schools. Keywords: Mathematics teacher; professional development; mathematics projects

Model of mathematics teachers in-service training program In recent years, mathematics teachers educators have emphasized the importance of implementing a reform in mathematics teaching. In Israel, there are more than 16,000 mathematics teachers, about 9,400 of them teaching mathematics in elemetary schools. But only 20% of the latter have specialized in teaching mathematics. Although the majority of elementary school teachers lack formal mathematics education and their knowledge is limited, in many cases they do teach mathematics. Hence, in order to change the situation, it is essential to build programs designed to develop and support the growth of these teachers' professional knowledge. Teaching is a very complex and demanding profession and at the same time extremely challenging. As Shulman (1986) said: "The person who presumes to teach a subject matter to children must demonstrate knowledge of that subject matter as a prerequisite of teaching". Nevertheless, this is insufficient. Teachers need to possess a wide range

of 6 skills and various types of knowledge and abilities (Danielson, 2001; Shulman, 1987) as follows: pedagogical knowledge concerning available teaching materials and methods; knowledge and abilities for adapting teaching approaches to specific subjects and the reasons thereof; knowledge and abilities for designing lessons, asking questions and presenting problems; knowledge and abilities about students: difficulties, mistakes and misconceptions they have, and the ways students construct their knowledge; knowledge and abilities of being reflective: ways of analysing what the teacher did, how and why the teacher did it.; knowledgw and abilities of communicating and interacting with students. Ball (2011) dealt with the question of "Knowing mathematics well enough to teach it". She raised three questions: How much mathematics do teachers need to know? What mathematics do teachers need to know and why? What mathematical knowledge and skills are involved in teaching? Guberman and Gorev (2012) identified teachers' attitudes towards the knowledge which they need in order to fulfill their role in the best way. They found three important components: the component of mathematics knowledge, the component of mathematical pedagogical knowledge and the component of knowledge about the curricula. Thus, they attempted to define what should be emphasized in the training of elementary school mathematics teachers. Among others, this can be done by participating in the preparation of workshops devoted to professional development and taking part in life-long learning. We can summarize what has been said above into a model of "The personal practical knowledge of the teacher" which comprises a set of six components. Knowledge of the subject matter - understanding the structure of the field of knowledge, ideas, principles and key concepts in the disciplines as well as educational content and knowledge organization. Knowledge of the learner - understanding learning and development among students, level of difficulty and adjusting the material to the students' differentiation. Background knowledge of the school environment understanding contexts, norms and relationships within the school, community, parents and authorities. Curricular knowledge - knowledge of existing curricula and learning materials, alternative materials, exploring connections between content areas, different subjects and different levels for the same age group. Didactic knowledge - knowledge of teaching practices, recognizing and using different teaching strategies, varied classroom management and organization, different alternatives in teaching. Self-knowledge - personal goals, values, awareness, beliefs and opinions that affect curriculum planning and teaching.

The model

Figure 1. Teachers and their personal knowledge

In order to strengthen teachers' mathematical and pedagogical knowledge educational authorities in Israel decided at the beginning of the 21st century to develop professional programs that respond to teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; major needs. The aim of the new in-service training program was to promote academic achievements in elementary school mathematics. The program was called "Specialization in mathematics". It was compulsory for all â&#x20AC;&#x153;nonprofessionalâ&#x20AC;? teachers, namely teachers who did not have formal mathematics education. At the same time, the elementary school mathematics curriculum prevalent in the education system for over 20 years was replaced by a new program. The in-service training program was designed to last 2 years, 150 hours a year, totaling 300 hours. The program aimed to strengthen teachers' mathematics knowledge as well as their acquaintance with the new elementary school curriculum. The didactic aspects were designed to instruct teachers with several models of teaching and learning, adjusting them to different age levels. Moreover, the participant teachers were introduced to students' errors and common misconceptions in the context of learning mathematical concepts, using them as a means of correcting or preventing them. In this context, another goal of the program was to empower teachers who could develop learning environments tailored to a variety of student types. The program also emphasized providing knowledge for implementing varied ways for assessing students' performance. Teamwork skills were also some of the goals of the in-service training program. According of the program, teachers should learn to cooperate with their team

colleagues, design together the work plan, set goals, as well as systemically test and assess outcomes of learning processes. The in-service training program was planned to include 10 modules and two external tests: two base modules (geometry and fractions), five advanced modules (geometry, fractions, integers, ratio, percentage and exploratory data analysis) and two modules of empowerment of school staffs and teamwork skills. First year Semester I: Basic geometry, basic fractions. Between the semesters: empowerment of school staffs and teamwork skills by creating an intervention project in geometry (like geometry around us). Semester II: integers, advanced geometry. At the end of the first year, the teachers had to pass an exam written by the inspector of mathematics. Second year Semester I: advanced fractions, exploratory data analysis. Between the semesters: empowerment of school staffs and teamwork skills by creating an intervention project in mathematics and language (e.g. mathematics in stories and fairy tales). Semester II: ratio and percentage, dealing with learning disabilities and gifted children. At the end of the second year the teachers had to pass a certification test which included all the topics of the 10 modules. This in-service training program continued for 9 years, till 2010. The results brought only limited success. The National Authority for Measurement and Assessment in Education published a report in 2011. The report illustrated that the rate of teachers who had successfully completed the professionalization program during the years 2004-2010 (as measured by the final exams which included contents from the learning materials the teachers were supposed to teach), ranged between 63% and 85%. Moreover, only about half of the teachers who taught mathematics in elementary school participated in the program and many schools sent only individual representatives and not teams of teachers. Shriki and Patkin (2012) found that most of the teachers who attended the in-service training program in mathematics stated that the program didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have real impact on their teaching. Teachers were mainly concerned about their difficulties in dealing with mathematically heterogeneous classes and their insufficient knowledge about @2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

appropriate learning materials and the ways to adapt them to studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; various abilities. The teachers also pointed out that they needed to be able to deal with affective aspects of learning mathematics - how to motivate students to learn mathematics, how to reduce fears of mathematics and more. Despite most teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; insufficient mathematical background, they did not perceive this issue as central to their needs.

The 'New Horizon' educational reform Four years ago, within the framework of the educational reform 'New Horizon', a setup of teachers' professional development was conceived in Israel (Ministry of Education, 2013). In mathematics, three new programs were developed: Two pathways of a 3-year long in-service training courses were planned for multiple subject teachers who had not specialized in mathematics and yet teach it at school. The total number of hours in each pathway was 90 hours. The pathways were built according to age groups: a pathway for teachers of 1st -2nd grades and a pathway for teachers of 3rd-6th grades. The objectives of the in-service training program were: building mathematics knowledge; comprehension of and distinction between curricula and learning materials; and development of thinking principles of mathematics. Teachers were required to attend every year two courses, each 30 hours long. One course dealt with the Subject Matter Knowledge (SMK) (e.g. mathematics) and the other was designed according to the needs of the school or the district (e.g. IT, 'caution on the road' rules and so on). Head teachers recommended and authorized the in-service training program as well as chose the teachers who were to attend these courses. It is important to mention that teachers who wish to train in mathematics are allowed to learn without any tests. Patkin & Mishal (2014) conducted a study which aimed to explore the contribution of mathematics in-service training courses to elementary school teachers (1st â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 6th grades). The participants were 449 teachers who were required to respond to background questions. Moreover, they were asked to indicate their expectations from the in-service training course and at its end point out to what extent they benefitted from that course. The research findings illustrated that teachers teaching mathematics at elementary school and who attended the course were generally women. They were in their 40s, holding a B.Ed. degree and a teaching certificate not in mathematics, with an average of 13-year seniority. The participating teachers indicated their wish to enrich their didactic knowledge in order to acquire varied tools for teaching mathematics to the entire pupil population, gifted pupils and pupils with learning difficulties. Nevertheless, their demand to expand their mathematics knowledge was very limited. Based on the fact that most teachers have no mathematics education, this is a surprising finding as, in order to be a good teacher, one must be versed not only in the Pedagogical Content Knowledge but also in the Subject Matter Knowledge.

The third new program was "Teachers initiating and implementing educational programs". The teachers who attended this program had to be experienced and welleducated and should have attended in the past various in-service training programs of mathematics teaching. The program advocated taking into consideration the features of teachers' professional background, including the knowledge, beliefs, needs and expectations which they have brought with them to the in-service training course. It was designed to develop elementary and junior high school mathematics teachers' ability to generate changes in their teaching methods and implement them in class and at school. The program consisted of a total of 150 hours spread over two years. The first year included 45 hours of theoretical studies as well as 30 hours of support and tutoring in the implementation of an applied project (developing initiatives in the field of mathematics teaching). The program comprised 11 encounters of four hours each. Three of them were devoted to the generic part of the program. The other encounters engaged in the content area of the program. At the end of the first year of the program, the attending teachers were required to submit a final assignment. Similarly, the second year of the program included encounters devoted to the inculcation of varied tools for documenting initiatives and teaching/learning processes. In parallel, the encounters focused on theoretical and applied aspects stemming from the development of mathematics teaching units and their implementation as well as tutoring of the applied project. A study conducted by Levy-Keren (2014) aimed to assess the 2-year in-service training program. The research design was in the 'pre-post' format without a control group. The research population consisted of 19 teachers and the research tools were close-ended questionnaires and a set of open-ended questions. The approach used for analyzing the data was both quantitative and qualitative. The research findings of this study illustrated that at the end of the first year of the in-service training program the participants demonstrated a slight and insignificant improvement in perceiving their capabilities of understanding mathematics and teaching it. Nevertheless, there was a significant decrease in their level of expectations at the beginning of the in-service training program regarding the contribution of the program related to the inculcation of mathematical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. In addition, the teachers were highly satisfied with the whole program. It was evident that the teachers greatly benefited from the teamwork they had experienced for the purpose of planning and implementing the initiative; application of skills for writing the initiative proposal as well as the knowledge they acquired in mathematics and the teaching thereof. Future expectations of most teachers were focused on implementing the initiative and its operation at school during the second year of training. These findings were interpreted through a model for developing teachers' concern about and interest in the change. At the end of the second year, at the end of the in-service training program, the attending teachers responded to a questionnaire which checked the perception of the change in their pedagogical skills following the initiative implementation. Moreover, their attitudes towards the extent to which several elements associated with the processes

functioned. The objective was to identify the aspects which preoccupied and concerned the teachers during the change process which they were undergoing. The findings were analyzed according to the Concerns Based Adoption Model (CBAM) conceived by Hall & Hord (2011). Table 1 presents the various elements which facilitated or inhibited the process of implementing the initiative as a process of change in the participants' way of teaching. This was done by means and standard deviation obtained for each element. The answer options ranged between 1 (the element did not help at all) and 6 (the element which helped the most). Table 1: The facilitating and inhibiting elements which function during the initiative process (means and standard deviation)

The functioning element

N=19

Mean

S.D.

Collaboration between subject colleagues at school

5.20

1.01

Lack of budget at school

2.91

1.97

Counselling you received during the inservice training course by the lecturer team

5.40

1.06

The time you had to implementing the initiative

5.27

1.10

Supportive school climate

5.13

0.74

Ambiguity regarding the nature of the proposed initiative

2.40

1.14

The efforts you have to implementing the initiative

4.47

1.36

dedicate

exert

for

The findings show that elements which were the most facilitating for implementing the initiative are the tutoring the teachers received within the framework of the inservice training program (5.40), the collaboration between colleagues (5.20) and the supportive school climate (5.13). The other two elements â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the managerialorganizational element of the lack of budget at school (2.91) and the ambiguity regarding the success of the change (2.40) were perceived as non-facilitating. The summary of the findings analysis illustrated the end of the first year of the in-service training course a slight and insignificant improvement in the way all the teachers perceived their abilities to teach mathematics (Pedagogical Content Knowledge). Conversely, at the end of the second year, after completion of the project, there was clear evidence of improvement in the teachers' pedagogical knowledge following the implementation of the educational initiative at school (Levy-Keren, 2014).

100

The second part of this paper presents examples from the curriculum of the in-service training programs. This approach encourages schools to introduce projects which are suitable to classes with a large number of students and heterogeneous classes.

Project no 1: A mathematical journey in the Footsteps of Jules Verne “Adding creativity to daily teaching practices will ensure that students are given opportunities to develop all of their potential….” (Burke Adams 2007). As part of mathematics education, the project combines the stories of Jules Verne and mathematical studies, in order to develop skills of connectivity between mathematics and other disciplines. The fascinating journey to the beauty of mathematics is performed through the book of Jules Verne, Around the World in Eighty Days. We based ourselves on the standards of the NCTM (NCTM, 2000) which emphasize this aspect, asserting that this type of relation between mathematics and other areas shows the applicability of mathematics as well as develops comprehension. In the preparation of the learning environment, we grounded ourselves in the arguments that the learning environment was a system of interrelated components that attributes a meaning to one another. The characteristics of the learning environment in the spirit of Jules Verne’s stories were based on four following principles. The first principle is that an environment embodies flexibility of time dedicated to a given learning activity, in the place where the activity occurs, in the modes of possible learning (methods and learning ways), and in the learned contents. The second principle is that teachers' role is to provide opportunities for learning with the world, given learners' curiosity and interest. The teacher helps, catalyzes, directs, and adjusts the learning activity by providing stimuli, offering help, and creating appropriate learning opportunities. The third principles is that the learning environment enables learning situations that rely on the learner’s curiosity which evokes inner motivation. The fourth is that the learning environment offers students stimulation and discussions on mathematical topics. It encourages a thinking culture and complex tasks of collecting relevant information. In the method of activity using Jules Verne's story Around the World in Eighty Days, learners wander around a map of the world. Thus they are exposed to the world of numbers, calculations, the history of mathematics, interesting discoveries in mathematics and the tremendous innovation and creativity in the stories of Jules Verne. For example, while visiting Egypt we can teach Ancient Egyptian Numeration system (one of the “stations” in the book ”Around the World in Eighty Days) . How can we write the following numbers using the ancient Egyptian symbols? 431; 1,374 ; 62,589? Did we all use the same symbols? We should check this! If we write the same symbol 3 times in a row (e.g. 3 “birds”) what could we say about the numbers we get? When writing the same digit 3 times in a row with our symbols (555 or 888) what can we say about the numbers we get?

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Project no 2: The Mathematical Field Trip Most studies of mathematics education deal with the difficulties encountered by students in learning mathematics. One of the main reasons for these difficulties is the gap between the level of teaching and students' capabilities and understanding of mathematical concepts (Patkin & Levenberg, 2012). Consequently, it is recommended integrating multi-disciplinary activities into the mathematical teaching using examples which activate the imagination while acquiring mathematical knowledge. In this manner, students will have a more substantial and better understanding of mathematical concepts. In the Standards for School Mathematics published over the years by the National Council of Mathematical Teachers (NCTM, 2000) many suggestions have been made to improve mathematical teaching in school and to adjust it to the technological needs of the 21st century. These suggestions are based on the assumption that the field of mathematics includes content matter from a wide variety of subjects that are essential for students learning in a technological society. The Standards recommend using auxiliary materials in mathematical teaching which aid the students by emphasizing inculcation and development of cognitive skills as well as understanding mathematical concepts. The ultimate goal is to develop mathematical literacy: reading, speaking and writing mathematics. These recommendations provide the foundation for the mathematical field trip (Shaham & Levenberg , 2013). The trip in the schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s neighborhood covered a number of sites and combined historical and geographical perspectives along with mathematics. Several goals were accomplished during the mathematical tour. These were: acquiring knowledge through experience and inquisitiveness; changing the learning environment into an open and inviting dynamic environment outside the school classroom; developing the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to cope with relevant problems, applying tools from diverse fields; demonstrating the relation between mathematics and disciplines such as: history, geography, physics and others; and reducing the anxiety of learning mathematics. The preparations of the mathematical field trip required Providing a source for mathematical activity, choosing photographed sites, researching historical and geographical backgrounds of the chosen sites, adapting the level the activities to the level of mathematics taught at the school, preparing a wide variety of mathematical activities and assessing all the activities at the end the field trip. The mathematical field trip was unique because it integrated mathematical principles taught in elementary school and applied them to the immediate environment. The subjects involved in the trip included measurements, the world of whole and rational numbers, geometric shapes, symmetry, percentage, fractions and so on. The field trip suggested a wide variety of mathematical activities and exposure to subject matter outside the classroom. It enabled interesting and non-conventional mathematical activities to pupils at elementary school level. The children learnt

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mathematics through experience and inquisitiveness and developed the ability to cope with relevant problems. In addition, they learnt more about the relations between mathematics and other fields of learning such as: biology, history, geography, physics, economics and other disciplines. Moreover, the mathematical field trip developed mathematical activity in a different and challenging learning atmosphere. Below are some vignettes of students feedback associated with the mathematical field trip: “We had a chance to see math outside the classroom”; “We learned math together with biology, history, geography, economics, we didn’t have it before”; “The activities were interesting and challenging”; “We would like to have more activities like this”.

Discussion and recommendations Based on the teachers' satisfaction with the three new developed programs, it is recommended implementing them also in the next years. This should be done by paying attention to teachers' professional background characteristics, including their knowledge, beliefs, needs and expectations they bring with them to the in-service training courses. Nevertheless, one should bear in mind that different studies illustrate that the very attendance of teachers in programs designed to support their professional development is insufficient and as such cannot guarantee the anticipated change in their professional practice (Guskey, 2000). Consequently, it is essential that teachers continuously explore the initiatives they have developed and the impact thereof on their pupils' learning and learning outcomes. Moreover it is recommended setting up in future a professional development community (CDP). This concerns a group of professional that critically and jointly examine their knowledge and practices, discussing them with the purpose of improving from a professional aspect. Such a group could facilitate teachers in coping with the elements which they believe inhibit the internalization of the initiative, e.g. feelings of apprehension, lack of confidence and available time resources. They should be allowed to implement the initiative also in the next years in the scopes they wish. Within the professional development community the teachers would be able to share with others the processes of data collection and analysis, examine evidence regarding the relation between the initiative implementation and their pupils' learning outcomes, analyze teaching and learning processes, draw conclusions and generate changes designed to improve their teaching and the learning of their class pupils (Levy-Keren, 2014; Louis, Marks & Kruse, 1996). This activity, according to the various studies, enhances teachers' sense of self-efficacy and their personal commitment to teaching and improving the pupils' attainments (Levy-Keren, 2014; Louis, Marks & Kruse, 1996). Implementation of these recommendations might lead to teachers' continuous learning throughout their career, promote them and turn them into experts in their

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field. Thus they will acquire pedagogical knowledge and updated education, improve their practice and upgrade the pupils' attainments. To sum up: Every country copes with varied problems associated with teacher training and professional development throughout the years, as a way of life. In light of the numerous and rapid changes which transpire in the 21st century, mathematics teacher in-service training programs, like other professions such as engineering and medicine, have become more difficult and complicated. Consequently, international collaboration and mutual feedback are the most important and beneficial factors in promoting this issue.

References Ball, D. (2011). Knowing mathematics well enough to teach it - mathematical knowledge for teaching. Apaper presented in the presentation for the Initiative for Applied Research in Education expert committee at the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Jerusalem, Israel, January 30, 2011. Danielson, C. (2001). New trends in teacher evaluation. Educational Leadership, 58(5), 12-15. Guberman, R., & Gorev, D. (2012). What elementary school mathematics teachers should know and be able to do – From the point of view of the teachers of mathematics in elementary schools. Achva Academic college of Education, Israel. [Hebrew] Guskey, T. R. (2002). Does it make a Difference? – Evaluating Professional Development. Educational Leadership, 59(6), 45-51. [Hebrew] Hall, G. E., & Hord, S. M. (2011). Implementing change, patterns, principles, and potholes. (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson. Levy-Keren, M. (2014). Assessment of the program: "Teachers initiating and implementing educational programs" for mathematics teachers at elementary and junior high schools within the framework of professional development for educational practitioners – Final Report. Tel Aviv: Kibbutzim College of Education, Research and Assessment Unit. [Hebrew] Louis, K.S., Marks, H. M., & Kruse, S. (1996). Teachers' professional community in restricting schools. American Educational Research Journal, 33, 757-798. Ministry of Education (2013). Policy of professional development for ranks 7-9: An overall document. Jerusalem: Ministry of Education, Administration of training, in-service courses and promotion of educational-social equality. Retrieved from: http://cms.education.gov.il/EducationCMS/Units/PituachMiktzoie/meyda/Pitoach Mikzoei7-9/mediniut7-9.htm. [Hebrew] NCTM (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM. Patkin D., & Levenberg, I. (2012). Geometry from the world around us. Learning and Teaching Mathematics. A Journal of AMESA, 13, 14-18. Patkin, D., & Millet, S. (1999). “Personal Knowledge” among Mathematics Teachers In Primary Schools Teaching Solid Geometry. The eighth International Conference on Geometry, Nachsholim, Israel. Patkin, D., & Mishal, A. (2014). The contribution of mathematics in-service training course to professional development of elementary school teachers. In D. Patkin & A. Gazit (Eds.),

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Who are you - the elementary school mathematics teacher? (pp. 231-259). Tel Aviv, Israel: Moffet Institute. [Hebrew] Shaham, H., & Levenberg, I. (2013). The Mathematical Field Trip. .International Journal of Learning & Development, 3(5), 53-55. Shriki, A., & Patkin, D. (2014). Elementary school mathematics teachers'perception on their professional needs. In D. Patkin & A. Gazit (Eds.), Who are you - the elementary school mathematics teacher? (pp. 187-230). Tel Aviv, Israel: Moffet Institute. [Hebrew] Shulman. L. S. (1986). Those who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teacing. Educational Researcher, 15 (2), 4-14. Shulman. L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 56,1-22.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 105-118, August 2014

The Coach-Athlete Relationship and Self-Determination: Assessing an Athlete Centered Scale in Sport Frode Moen and Roger A. Federici Norwegian University of Science and Technology N-7491 Trondheim, Norway

Abstract. One purpose of the present study was to develop and test the factor structure of a multidimensional and hierarchical instrument for measuring athlete-centered coaching called the Athlete-Centered Coaching Scale (ACS). Another purpose of the study was to validate the ACS through an inspection of the relation with the three psychological needs proposed by self-determination theory (SDT). The ACS was measured by a 16-item scale and was developed to capture important relational elements based on the theoretical framework developed by Carl Rogers. Need satisfaction was measured by a modified version of the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction at Work Scale (BPNSWS) that we named the Reduced Need Satisfaction Scale (RNSS). Participants in the study were 382 junior athletes in different sports such as cross country skiing, nordic combined, ski jumping, volleyball, handball, track and field, ice hockey, biathlon, cycling and orienteering. Both the ACS and the SDT were investigated by means of confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) before a structural model was tested. The confirmatory factor analyses supported both a first and second order model of the ACS constituting the four dimensions of the ACS; (1) Congruence, 2) Empathy, 3) Positive regard, and 4) Commonness. The structural model had acceptable fit to data and revealed that the ACS was positively related to SDT. The present study extends the literature on athletecentered coaching and its relation to other concepts. The results of the study are discussed together with limitations and suggestions for further research. Keywords: athlete-centered; coaching; self-determination; sport

Introduction Questions concerning what coaching behaviours that are favourable in order to develop effective coach-athlete relationships in sport has occupied researchers and practitioners for several decades (Blom, Watson II, & Spadaro, 2010; Chelladurai, 2007; Côté & Gilbert, 2009; Horn, 2002; Jowett & Cockerill, 2003). Research claims that the coach has an essential role in developing the athlete in sport (Jowett & Cockerill, 2002; Lyle, 1999, 2002; Mageau & Vallerand, 2003). © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Also, instructions and prescriptions from the coach have traditionally been found to dominate the interactions between coaches and their athletes (Cushion & Jones, 2006; Potrac, Jones & Cushion, 2007). Consequently, athletes have been found to play a passive and docile role in the coaching process (Cushion & Jones, 2012). Recently, a number of elite coaches have highlighted the use of seemingly “athlete-centered” approaches within their coaching practices (Jones, Armour & Potrac, 2004). Thus, athlete-centered coaching has gained increased popularity in the field of coaching science in sport (Nelson, Cushion, Potrac & Groom, 2012). However, the field of coaching lacks an in-depth examination of the practical and theoretical implications of such an approach (Jones, 2006). Discussions regarding athlete-centered coaching and empowerment are starting to occupy the field of coaching (Kidman, 2001, 2005). An empowered athlete is actively encouraged to engage in directing and shaping their sporting life, including tactical strategizing and the content and delivery of training sessions (Cassidy Jones & Potrac, 2009). Thus, athlete-centered coaching shares important similarities with self-determinate behaviour and self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002). The importance of being the origin of actions and strategies (autonomy), being able to utilize and display own capacity (competence), and being attached to other people (relatedness) are highlighted as important in order to influence intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002). The first purpose of this study was to test the factor structure of a newly developed multidimensional and hierarchical Athlete-Centered Scale (ACS), to meet the claim for empirical studies that investigate the coach-athlete relationship and athlete centered coaching. The scale is intended to measure athletes’ perceptions of a coach’s approach in the coach-athlete relationship. A second purpose was to validate the ACS through an inspection of its relation to the three psychological needs proposed by self-determination theory.

Theoretical framework The coach-athlete relationship is found to be particularly crucial in terms of creating a positive outcome or not for the athlete (Jowett & Cockerill, 2002; Lyle, 1999). Therefore, questions concerning how to facilitate effective coach-athlete relationships have received increasing attention within research (Cassidy et al., 2009; Jones, et al., 2011). The discussions in sport include the teaching of predefined knowledge and skills versus facilitating learning to meet the needs of the individual athlete (Penney & Chandler, 2000; Penney, 2006). In coaching, this question is brought into stark relief with the introduction and advocacy of athlete-centered coaching as an alternative to the “traditional” practices, which are highly directive, autocratic and prescriptive (Kidman, 2001, 2005; Potrac & Cassidy, 2006). The athlete centered approach has its origin in humanistic psychology, which emphasizes a positive attitude towards the learner as a pedagogical framework in order to achieve growth and development (Hill, 2001). The athlete-centered approach has largely been detached from the work of Carl Rogers (1969). Rogers © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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was primarily focused on the development of human potential and developed his theoretical foundation mainly within the framework of therapy. However, Rogers also claimed that his theories had implications in other domains who aimed to promote human potential, such as the field of education. Thus, Rogers’s contributions in the field of education are underpinned by his broader theoretical framework from therapy (Nelson et al., 2012). The basic elements of Carl Rogers’s theoretical framework were to have a more personal relationship with the learner, to help him or her to reach a state of realization so that they could help themselves (1959). Thus, Rogers was primarily focused on understanding the fundamental characteristics of effective communication and how communication affected the development of human potential (Hill, 2001). Rogers (1969) work provides an opportunity for domains within education, such as coaching in sport, to clearly focus on certain qualities that exist in the relationship between the coach and the athlete. Rogers (1959) especially emphasizes the importance of the relationship between the educator and the learner. The basic elements in the relationship are as follows; a) congruence (genuineness), b) empathy, and c) unconditional positive regard towards a learner. Perhaps the most fundamental element in Rogers’s theoretical framework is what Rogers referred to as congruence (1959). This means that the educator allows the learner to experience them as they really are and that the educator does not have a façade. Empathy is the ability to understand what the learner is feeling. This refers to the educator’s ability to understand sensitively and accurately the learner’s experience and feelings in the communication process. Research has indicated that speakers feel a need for clear responses from listeners and it is important to follow precisely what the learner is feeling and to communicate to them that the educator understands what they are feeling (Hargie & Dickson, 2004). The importance of empathetic understanding is identified as the ability to “stand in their learner’s shoes” and “view the world through their eyes” in an attempt to be sensitive to how the process appears to them. The third important element in Rogers’s theoretical framework is that the educator is careful to always maintain a positive attitude towards the learner, even when he or she might be disgusted by the learner’s actions. Unconditional positive regard towards a learner refers to the educator’s deep and genuine caring for the learner. It might be so that some of the learners’ actions are not approved by the educator, but the educator does approve of the learner. The educator therefore needs an attitude of “I'll accept you as you are”. Based on these basic elements the educator creates a supportive, non-judgmental environment, where the educator and the learner establish a common understanding about the focused case, in which the learners are encouraged to reach their fully potential. The presence of these attitudinal qualities in the interpersonal relationship between the educator and learner is likely to induce a much more productive learning environment. These basic elements are important in order to achieve changes in all areas according to Rogers (1959). Thus, it should be of great interest to examine if domains within education, such as coaching in sport, benefits from these relational conditions.

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Interestingly, in coaching in sport, athlete-centered coaching has been largely uncritically advocated as the “best” and often the “only” way to do it in recent years (Jones & Standage, 2006). Indeed, understanding has rarely gone beyond assuming a functional link between nurturing, supportive, “nice” and inclusive behavior’s and positive sporting and developmental outcomes (Jones & Standage, 2006; Cassidy et al., 2009; Potrac & Marshall, 2010). That is, whilst generic statements about the benefits of a more athlete-centered approach to sports coaching have been made, an in-depth examination of the theoretical implications of such an approach remains elusive (Jones, 2001). While the relationship between learner-centered approaches and humanistic psychology is not new, in contrast, discussions in coaching “about the application of principles taken from humanistic psychology remain limited and largely superficial” (Nelson et al., 2010, p. 468). This shift should not be underestimated. Indeed, it represents a step change whereby ‘the role of the coach (sic coach educator)’ is ‘on the cusp of a fundamental re-think’ (Jones & Standage, 2006, p. 65), and, as such, presents a significant moment for critical consideration and debate. Many coaches are also found to actually only present “an illusion of empowerment”, so that the athletes “buy into” their coaches’ agenda (Potrac & Jones, 2009). Central to Rogers’s writing is the notion that learners actively engage in the process of learning and that education should be relevant to their needs and desires. Therefore, Rogers’s educational philosophy was underpinned by an unshakable belief in the tendency towards self-actualization. Interestingly, selfdetermination is both an educational ideal as well as a natural end point of psychological development according to Rogers (Brookfield, 2009).

Self-determination theory Deci and Ryan (1985, p. 8) define intrinsic motivation as the life force or energy for the activity and for the inward pursuit to feel competent, self-determining and to enjoy the activity. Deci and Ryan (2002) argue for the existence of basic psychological needs which must be satisfied in the individual’s environment in order to achieve personally growth and development (Deci & Ryan, 2002). These psychological needs are: (a) the need for competence, (b) the need for autonomy and (c) the need for relatedness. The need for competence refers to the general feeling of functioning effectively in one’s social and achievement environment, it highlights the importance of experiences, or the lack of experiences, where the individual has the opportunity to optimally utilize and display their strengths and capacity (Deci, 1975; Harter, 1983; White, 1959). The need for selfdetermination, or autonomy, refers to the individual’s perception or understanding of being the source to, or origin of the achievement behaviour (de Charms, 1968; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Connell, 1989). Self-determination implies that actions originate from one's own interests and values and emanate from personal initiative. The need for relatedness highlights the feeling of connectedness and attachment to other people. It carries a dual view that the individual is taking care of others and that others are caring for the individual (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Bowlby, 1979; Ryan, 1995). Thus, in order for individuals to proactively engage in their own learning and development,

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intrinsic motivation is a requisite and desirable component of achievement pursuits. Advocates argue that sharing decision-making with the athletes result in the development of athletes that take greater responsibility and ownership of their performances. This is believed to aid athletes’ retention of tactical and technical aspects of performance and commitment to ongoing learning and development (Cassidy et al., 2009). Empowering learners in this way through athlete-centered coaching undeniably resonates with Rogers’s underlying beliefs. It is important for the field of sport coaching to address the fact that the athletecentered approach has received increased attention both by practicians and researchers, to ensure that the relationships between practical coaching and underpinning principles and ideas is more clearly articulated and critically considered. Otherwise, coaching will do little more than blindly undertake convenient educational concepts and ideas from humanistic psychology (Jones et al., 2011). The consequence of such activity is the development of a “loose patchwork of assumed related notions” on this topic, where theory serves no purpose beyond decoration (Turner, 2000; Everett, 2002). In this respect, atheoretical or superficial approaches to coaching do little to deepen its conceptual underpinnings or support recommendations for practice.

The present study One purpose of this study was to develop a scale for measuring the important elements in an athlete-centered approach to coaching and validate the instrument, so that it can be used in future studies on athlete-centered coaching. Because of the self-determinate nature of athlete-centered coaching we expect that the ACS will relate to need satisfaction. A relation between these concepts may contribute to the validation of the ACS.

Method Participants and procedure. Four hundred and eighty three junior athletes from seven different Norwegian high schools for elite sports were invited to voluntarily participate in an online questionnaire measuring elements of the coach-athlete relationship and need satisfaction. The athletes were participants in different sports such as cross country skiing, biathlon, Nordic combined, shooting, ice-hockey, ski jumping, alpine skiing, cycling, track and field, football, orienteering, handball and volleyball. From these 483 participants, 382 (216 males and 166 females) completed the data collection, which gives a response rate of 79%. The sample had a mean age of 18 ½ years, ranging from 17 to 20 years. The general variables. The variables examined here include items and inventories such as age, gender, type of sport, performance level, type of school, need-satisfaction and degree of athlete-centered coaching. All measurements © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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used in this study were based on previously developed scales proven to hold both satisfactory validity and reliability. The measurements were originally in English. The measurements were translated into Norwegian and slightly adjusted for the purpose of this study by the authors. The Athlete-centred Coaching Scale (ACS). Based on the theoretical review of the theoretical framework of Carl Rogers and the needed skills to develop an athlete-centred relation (Rogers, 1959), we developed the Athlete-centred Coaching Scale (ACS). The ACS consists of four dimensions with different numbers of items on each subscale. The dimensions are: (1) Congruence, (2) Empathy, (3) Positive regard, and 4) Commonness. It is important to note that the instrument was designed to measure the athlete’s perception of the coach based on his or her experiences from a coaching relationship. Responses were given on a 7-point scale ranging from “Not at all” (1) to “Absolutely” (7). Congruence consisted of four items with a Cronbach’s alpha of .92. An example of an item is: “My coach expresses a real and genuine interest in me”. The second dimension focused on a coach’s emphatic skills. This dimensions consisted of four items with a Cronbach’s alpha of .91. An example of item is: “My coach seems to understand me well when we speak together”. Positive regards consisted of four items. An example of item is: “My coach normally expresses an unconditional positive attitude in me as a person”. The Cronbach’s alpha for this dimension was .90. The last dimension is the most obvious element in an athlete-centred approach, the importance of establishing a common and mutual understanding with an athlete. An example of item is: “My coach normally approaches me with dialogue, so that we understand each other”. The Cronbach’s alpha for this dimension was .93. Self-determination. Since the concept of the basic psychological needs is central to self-determination theory, we developed an instrument based on the most often implemented tool used for this study, namely the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction at Work Scale (BPNSWS) (Baard, Deci, & Ryan, 2004). The instrument is originally a 21 item questionnaire measuring three need satisfaction dimensions. The authors translated the instrument, but reduced it into a 12 item questionnaire, consisting of autonomy (4 items), competence (3 items) and relatedness (4 items). For the sake of clarity, we named it the Reduced Need Satisfaction Scale (RNSS). The participants were asked to consider their feelings about their situation as athletes in their training environment in their sports during the last year, and to indicate how true the 12 statements were on a seven point scale. Examples of items are: “I feel like I can make a lot of input in deciding how my training gets done” (autonomy), “People in my training environment tell me I am good at what I do” (competence) and “I really like the people in my training environment” (relatedness). The reliability for each dimension were .61, .73 and .85 respectively. Data analysis. The data was analyzed by means of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modelling (SEM) using the AMOS 21 software. SEM is a statistical methodology that takes a confirmatory approach to the analysis (Byrne, 2001). In this approach, a hypothesized model of the relations © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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between the constructs is tested statistically to determine the extent to which it is consistent with the data, which is referred to as the goodness of fit. If the goodness of fit is adequate, the plausibility of the proposed relations among the constructs is supported. To assess the model fit, we used well-established indices, such as CFI, IFI, TLI, and RMSEA, as well as the chi-square test. For the CFI, IFI, and TLI indices, values greater than .90 are typically considered acceptable, and values greater than .95 indicate a good fit of the data (Byrne, 2010; Hu & Bentler, 1999). For well-specified models, an RMSEA of .06 or less reflects a good fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). In the present study we first conducted confirmatory factor analyses to investigate the measurement models of the SDT and the ACS, respectively. We then used structural equation modelling to investigate a theoretical model of the relation between the concepts.

Results Measurement model ACS. Three theoretical models of the ACS were tested. Model 1 defined ACS as a single, first order factor with loading on the 16 observed items. This model was tested to ascertain whether the scale could be treated as a one-dimensional construct. Model 2 defined four correlated primary factors corresponding to the four theoretical dimensions. Model 3 defined four primary factors and one second order factor underlying the primary factors. The three theoretical models are presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Three theoretical models of the ACS.

Model 1 did fit the data (χ2 (104, N = 382) = 414.960, p < .001, CMIN/DF = 3.990, RMSEA = 0.089, IFI = 0.959, TLI = 0.949 and CFI = 0.956). Model 2 and 3 had also good fit to data with goodness of fit indices of respectively (χ2 (98, N = 382) 394.675, p < .001, CMIN/DF = 4.027, RMSEA = 0.089, IFI = 0.958, TLI = 0.949, © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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and CFI = 0.958) for Model 2 and (χ2 (100, N = 382) 399.920, p < .001, CMIN/DF = 3.999, RMSEA = 0.089, IFI = 0.958, TLI = 0.949, and CFI = 0.958) for Model 3. None of the error variances was allowed to be correlated. All regression weights in the models were significant at p < .001. The correlations between the primary factors in Model 2 are presented in Table 1. Table 1 Correlations between the latent variables in Model 2 (ACS) Variable 1 1. Congruence 2. Empathy 3. Positive 4. Commonness Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

2 .997*** .991*** .972***

.997*** .999***

.988***

Results from the confirmatory factor analyses partly support that ACS is a multidimensional construct. In the present study, ACS consisted of four highly correlated primary factors with 16 corresponding items. The correlations are strong. Based on these strong correlations the ACS should be regarded as a onedimensional construct constituted by four highly correlated dimensions of communication. Measurement model SDT. Three theoretical models of the SDT were tested. Model 1 defined SDT as a single, first order factor with loading on the 12 observed items. Model 2 defined three correlated primary factors corresponding to the three theoretical dimensions. Model 3 defined three primary factors and one second order factor underlying the primary factors. The three theoretical models are presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Three theoretical models of the SDT.

Model 1 did not fit the data (χ2 (54, N = 382) = 290.592, p < .001, CMIN/DF = 5.381, RMSEA = 0.107, IFI = 0.898, TLI = 0.874, and CFI = 0.897). Model 2 and 3 had acceptable fit to the data with goodness of fit indices of respectively (χ2 (51, © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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N = 382) 208.473, p < .001, CMIN/DF = 4.088, RMSEA = 0.090, IFI = 0.932, TLI = 0.911, and CFI = 0.932) for Model 2 and (χ2 (51, N = 382) 208.473, p < .001, CMIN/DF = 4.088, RMSEA = 0.090, IFI = 0.932, TLI = 0.911, and CFI = 0.932) for Model 3. None of the error variances was allowed to be correlated. All regression weights in Model 2 and 3 were significant at p < .001. The correlations between the primary factors in Model 2 are presented in Table 2. Table 2 Correlations between the latent variables in Model 2 (SDT) Variable 1 1. Autonomy 2. Competence 3. Relatedness Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

2 .868*** .778***

.894***

Results from the confirmatory factor analyses support that SDT is a multidimensional construct. In the present study, SDT consisted of three correlated primary factors with 12 corresponding items. The correlations are strong. SDT can be regarded as both domain-specific and multidimensional, and the second order analysis also indicates that the concept may be experienced as a more general experience SDT.

Structural model. A second purpose of the present study was to validate the ACS through an inspection of its relation to SDT. We therefore tested a theoretical model by means of SEM. Based on the results from the CFA and for validation purposes the theoretical model specifies the SDT as second order model. In the model we let the ACS predict SDT. The theoretical model is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Theoretical model of the relation between ACS and SDT.

The model had acceptable fit to data (χ2 (347, N = 382) = 932.207, p < .001, CMIN/DF = 2.686, RMSEA = 0.067, IFI = 0.939, TLI = 0.933, and CFI = 0.939). © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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None of the error variances was allowed to be correlated. All regression weights in the model were significant at p < .001. In this model the ACS predicted the SDT with a standardized regression weight of β = .50 p < .001 explaining 25% of the variance of SDT.

Discussion Athlete-centered coaching is lately claimed to be largely uncritically advocated as the “best” and often the “only” way in sport coaching (Jones & Standage, 2006). In spite of such a claim little attention has been given to address this issue by measuring coaches’ competencies based on athlete-centered values and related variables that are relevant to discuss the effectiveness of such coach behaviour. The first purpose of the present study was therefore to develop and test the factor structure of a multidimensional and hierarchical Athlete-Centered Scale (ACS) in coaching. A second purpose was to validate the ACS through an inspection of its relation to need satisfaction. The ACS was developed by the authors based on the core elements in learnercentered approaches within humanistic psychology and the theoretical framework developed by Carl Rogers (1969). We first investigated a CFA model defining ACS as single primary factor to ascertain whether the ACS could be treated as a one-dimensional construct (Figure 1, Model 1). This model had acceptable fit to data. However, a model defining four primary factors, and a model defining four primary factors and one second order factor underlying the primary factors, had also good fit to data (Figure 1, Model 2 and 3). This analysis supports that the conceptualization of the ACS can be regarded as a onedimensional construct constituted by four highly correlated dimensions of coach values. The finding in this study makes the instrument particularly useful for research purposes analyzing athlete-centered coach values as a latent trait (Figure 1, Model 3). The analyses support that athlete-centered coach values can be regarded as a general domain-specific experience of athlete-centered coach values, but that the construct also can be regarded as a second order factor underlying the four primary factors; congruence, empathy, positive regard and commonness. These findings make the instrument suitable to examine how a second order factor relates to other concepts, but it can also be used to explore whether or not the separate dimensions relate differently to other constructs. Need satisfaction (SDT) was measured by the Reduced Need Satisfaction Scale (RNSS) consisting of 12 items constituting three dimensions, autonomy, competence and relatedness respectively. We initially tested a single primary factor to ascertain whether the RNSS could be treated as a one-dimensional construct (Figure 2, Model 1). This model did not fit the data. However, we found strong support for both a model consisting of three correlated primary factors and a second order model underlying the three dimensions (Figure 2, Model 2 & 3). The analyses clearly support that need satisfaction should be regarded as multidimensional and hierarchical as in accordance with selfdetermination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002; Moen & Federici, 2011). © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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One theoretical model was tested by means of structural equation modelling to investigate the relation between the ACS and the SDT (Figure 3). In the model we let the one-dimensional ACS factor predict the second order SDT factor. The result from this analysis revealed a positive relation between perceptions of athlete-centered coach values and need satisfaction. In the model ACS predicted SDT with a standardized estimate of .50 explaining 25% of the variance of SDT. This estimate can be interpreted as a medium to strong relation. Thus, these results indicate a satisfactory validation of the ACS. Our theoretical model showed a medium to strong relation between ACS and SDT. This should be an important finding in order to validate the ACS and use it as a measurement to investigate athlete-centered coaching in future research. The true nature of athlete-centered coaching is based on the empowerment of the athlete, so that he or she can make important decisions for him or herself without being directly influenced by others. Thus, the coach is stimulating the athlete to be responsible in his or her learning in athlete-centered coaching. This should stimulate the need for autonomy positively. Research that has investigated learner-oriented approaches, such as coaching interventions in business, has shown that coaching has a positive significant effect on autonomy (Moen & Skaalvik, 2009). Another important principle in athlete-centered coaching is the coach’s facilitation of athlete generated strategies and solutions regarding the coaching issue(s). This should stimulate the need for competence, since it is the athlete’s competence which is the origin for the decided solutions and strategies. The same study discussed above showed a positive effect from coaching on the need competence as well. Another study shows that business coaching had positive significant effect on competence (Moen & Skaalvik, 2008). The conversation is central in the athlete-centered coaching process and the establishment of trust and mutuality through the active use of attending skills is in focus (Jones et al., 2004). Thus, the athlete is given attention from the coach throughout the conversation which should stimulate the need for relatedness. Interestingly, the effect from coaching has been found to be very large and significant on relatedness (Moen & Skaalvik, 2009). Our finding confirms the relationship between the needs that are central in self-determination theory and athlete-centered coaching values. It seems that researchers, practicing coaches and athletes are lacking a wellestablished, reliable and valid instrument for measuring athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ athlete-centered values. The development of the ACS may contribute to this field. Also, the ACS could easily be adjusted to measure the coaches’ own perceived athlete-centered values as well, which could be an important contribution with regards to measure the effect from coaching educational programs or potential coherence between athletes’ and coaches’ perceptions of coaches values as an example. The CFA and SEM analyses conducted in the present study contribute to the validity of the ACS and the instrument has several advantages. First of all, the instrument allows SEM analyses both of the one-dimensional factor and of the second order factor underlying the four primary factors. Analysis of primary factors allows the © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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examination of how the different dimensions of athlete-centered coach competencies may be related to other relevant concepts such as for example selfefficacy and attribution. Analysis of a second order factor is particularly useful in more complex models where several concepts are included. The results from the present study should be an important contribution to the field of sport coaching. However, this study has several limitations and further studies need to be conducted before clear conclusions are made. One limitation is the probability that sample size has influenced the results. Both the factor structure of the ACS and SDT should be verified with larger samples. Another limitation is that the principles from the work of Carl Rogers have not been tested extensively in the educational domain, and in sport coaching especially. More studies are needed before clear conclusions can be made. A third limitation is that the ACS is yet not tested in other cultures than Norwegian. Also, the ACS should be considered as a preliminary scale measuring coaching competence. We consider that the four dimensions constituting the ACS may apply to all coaches but other possible dimensions of coach competencies should also be explored in future research.

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Nelson, L., Cushion, C. J., Potrac, P., & Groom, R. (2012). Carl Rogers, learning and educational practice: critical considerations and applications in sports coaching. Sport, Education and Society, 1-19. doi:10.1080/13573322.2012.689256. Penney, D. (2006). Coaching as teaching: new acknowledgements in practice. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), The sports coach as educator: re-conceptualising sports coaching (pp. 25-36). London: Routledge. Penney, D. & Chandler, T. (2000). Physical education: what future(s)? Sport, Education and Society, 5, 71-87. doi:10.1080/135733200114442. Potrac, P. & Cassidy, T. (2006). The coach as ‘a more capable other. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), The sports coach as educator: re-conceptualising sports coaching (pp. 39-50).London: Routledge. Potrac, P. & Jones, R. (2009). Micro-political workings in semi-professional football coaching, Sociology of Sport Journal, 26, 557-577. ISSN 0741-1235. Potrac, P. & Marshall, P. (2010). Arlie Russell Hochschild: the managed heart, feeling rules, and emotional labour: coaching as an emotional endeavour. In R. L. Jones, P. Potrac, C. Cushion, & L. T Ronglan, (Eds.), The sociology of sports coaching (pp. 54-66). London: Routledge. Potrac, P., Jones, R. L., & Cushion, C. J. (2007). Understanding power and the coach’s role in professional English soccer: A preliminary investigation of coach behaviour. Soccer and Society, 8, 33–49. Rogers, C. (1951). Client-centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications and Theory. London: Constable. Rogers, C. (1959). A Theory of Therapy, Personality and Interpersonal Relationships as Developed in the Client-centered Framework. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A Study of a Science. Vol. 3: Formulations of the Person and the Social Context. New York: McGraw Hill. Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to learn. Columbus: Merrill Publishing. Rogers, C. (1986). Carl Rogers on the Development of the Person-Centered Approach. Person-Centered Review, 1, 257-259. Ryan, R. M. (1995). Psychological needs and the facilitation of integrative processes. Journal of Personality, 63, 397-427. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1995.tb00501.x. Ryan, R. M., & Connell, J. P. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and internalization: Examining reasons for acting in two domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 749-761. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.57.5.749. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon. Turner, B. S. (2000). Preface. In B. S. Turner (Ed.), The Blackwell companion to social theory (2nd edition pp. xiii-xviii ), Oxford: Blackwell. White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of Competence. Psychological Review, 66, 297-333.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 119-130, August 2014

A Close Study of the Effects of ESP Learners’ Beliefs on the Choice of Language Learning Strategies Abbas Zare-ee and Malihe Salami English Department, Faculty of Arts and Humanities University of Kashan, Iran Abstract. This study investigated the use of language learning strategies by 175 Iranian learners majoring in non-English fields (Engineering, Humanities, and Sciences). The study attempted to test the relationships among learners’ beliefs about English language learning, English proficiency, and the use of language learning strategies. Data were collected through known questionnaires and learners’ institutional records. Results of Friedman test showed that metacognitive strategy use was at the highest rank while affective strategy use was at the lowest. Kruskal–Wallis test results revealed that metacognitive strategies were most frequently used by Engineering and Science students whereas compensatory strategies were mostly preferred by students in the humanities. Affective strategies ranked lowest on the three groups of students' preference scale. Furthermore, more proficient learners utilized cognitive, memory and compensatory strategies whereas students with poor language proficiency resorted to compensatory strategies. Moderate positive correlation between students’ beliefs about English language learning and their use of learning strategies were found. Analysis of linear regression showed that use of strategies was predicted from language proficiency and learners’ beliefs about language learning. The present study suggests that not only do students’ beliefs about language learning influence their use of learning strategies, but also their level of English proficiency affects the frequency of use and choices of learning strategies. Keywords: language learning strategies; beliefs about language; language proficiency; ESP; TEFL

Introduction With the emergence of communicative approach in the 19th century, traditional curriculum encountered a shift from teacher-centered approach to student-centered approach. This framework focuses on student needs, abilities, styles, and strategies. In non-English speaking countries including Iran, there are some English for © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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specific purpose courses on the universities curricula to meet students’ needs to read field-specific texts in English as they are necessary for academic and professional purposes. This can sometimes become very troublesome for students with low language proficiency. Such courses assist learners to develop their target reading skills. Successful language learners in English as a foreign language (EFL) context are able to use a variety of language learning strategies (LLSs) to facilitate their learning (O’Malley, 1987; Cohen, 1998). LLSs refer to those techniques, principles or rules that learners utilize to learn, solve problem, and complete a task independently (Mercer & Mercer, 1998). A host of studies on the use of learning strategies (e.g., Dreyer & Oxford, 1996; Park, 1997; Grenfell & Harris, 1999; Harris, 2003; Wharton, 2000) demonstrate that learners consciously or unconsciously employ a variety of learning strategies. Although research on investigating factors affecting strategy choice has highlighted gender (e.g., Ehrman & Oxford, 1989; Oxford & Nyikos, 1989), motivation (e.g., Oxford & Nyikos, 1989), nationality (e.g., Politzer & McGroanty 1985; O’Malley, 1987; Willing, 1988; Griffiths & Parr, 2001) and language proficiency (e.g., Green & Oxford, 1995; Khaldieh, 2000; Wharton, 2000) to be related to LLS use, there is a paucity of research exploring the relationship among the use of LLSs and learners’ beliefs and language proficiency in ESP contexts which is the interest of this study.

Theoretical background Language learning strategies The origin of strategy term refers to the ancient Greek "strategia" meaning a high level plan to achieve one or more goals under conditions of uncertainty Language learning strategies have been defined by different scholars. Oxford (1990) defined LLSs as “operations employed by the learner to aid the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information” (p. 8). She also believed that learners make use of LLSs “to make learning more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective and more transferable to new situations” (p.8). Chamot (2004) claimed that LLSs are “the conscious thoughts and actions that learners take in order to achieve a learning goal” (p. 14). Talking about the historical background of LLSs, O’Malley and Chamot (1995) argued that there was a shift in 60’s and early 70’s from the teacher-centered pedagogy to teaching practices that laid greater emphasis on learners and learning. This pedagogical shift helps learners to become cognitively active even in the absence of formal teaching (Littlewood, 1999). Corder (1981) claimed that learners who develop cognitive view of learning are more successful in utilizing appropriate strategies than those who do not do that. Oxford (1990) classified language learning strategies into six sub categories: a) Cognitive strategies: used to manipulate language for identification, storage and retrieval of information, b) Metacognitive strategies: used for pre assessment, © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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preplanning, evaluation and post evaluation of language learning activities, c) Memory strategies: used to help learners to recall information like word association or semantic mapping, d) Compensation strategies: used to make up for a deficiency in learning, e) Affective strategies: used to mitigate leaner’s anxiety, and f) Social strategies: used to facilitate learning by interaction with others. Language learning strategies are thought to be linked to learners’ beliefs about language learning. According to Richardson (1996) learners’ beliefs are “psychologically held understandings, premises or propositions about the world that are felt to be true” (p. 103). The relationship between L2 learner’s beliefs and learning strategies showed that L2 learner beliefs may influence and even limit the range of language strategies (Yang, 1999). Learners’ beliefs are of paramount importance for their experience and success in language learning. Horwitz (1988) argued that when teachers are aware of learners’ beliefs about language learning, they can properly recognize their expectations of, commitment to, success in and satisfaction with their English classes.

Language proficiency and language strategy use O’Malley and Chamot (1990) pointed out successful language learners use strategies as means of active involvement to develop the target language communicative abilities. Some studies (e.g., Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975; Oxford & Cohen, 1992; Chamot, 2004; Radwan, 2011) showed that successful language learners usually use LLSs in order to guarantee effective learning. Therefore, if less successful language learners are instructed appropriate LLSs, they can autonomously ensure their effective learning. On the other hand, the Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis implies that when reading proficiency is attained in one language, it can be transferred across any language (Cummins, 1979). However, Cummins (1981) claimed that in a real world educational setting L1 literary transfer does not occur in any case since based on Threshold Hypothesis, L1 transfer is possible once a threshold level of L2 proficiency has been attained. In other words, if learners tend to maintain their competence while reading in L2, they require attaining some threshold of L2 proficiency (Stock, 2012). She claimed that low proficient level learners in L2 may suffer from negative effects while learners with a high proficiency level in L2 develop positive cognitive effects. Language proficiency affects strategy choice ( Green & Oxford, 1995; Khaldieh, 2000; Wharton, 2000) but the relationship is more complex than a simple liner relationship between using language strategy and improving language proficiency while it is upon the type of strategy used (Suwanarak, 2012). For instance, Chen (1990) demonstrated that although Chinese EFL learners with high proficiency utilized LLSs more effectively than lower proficient learners, they employed fewer communicative strategies. However, no empirical study has been conducted to investigate there is a casual relationship between high proficiency level and LLSs © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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use. Therefore, it is not easy to determine whether strategy use enhances language proficiency or the opposite is true (MacIntyre, 2000). Ehraman and Oxford (1989) investigated the effects of cognitive strategies including looking for patterns and reading for pleasure in the target language that are more common for high proficient learners. Furthermore, some scholars believed that learners’ beliefs about language learning can contribute greatly to the language proficiency (e.g., Schommer, 1990; Wen & Johnson, 1997; Horwitz, 1999; Sakui & Gaies, 1999). The findings of an empirical study conducted in China supported this idea by revealing how learners’ beliefs influence strategy use and language proficiency (Wen & Johnson, 1997). The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship among language learning strategy use, learners’ beliefs and learners’ command of foreign language in an ESP context with non-English students of Engineering, Humanities and Sciences.

Methodology Research questions This study was basically a survey of learner-reported strategies of and beliefs about English language learning and it attempted to answer the following four questions developed based on the objectives of the study: 1. What is the relationship between beliefs, strategy use and language proficiency for the sampled Iranian ESP students? 2. Is there any relationship between their beliefs about English language learning and their use of LLSs? 3. Is there any relationship between their language proficiency and the choice of LLSs? 4. What are the most frequent language learning strategies used by these Iranian ESP learners?

Participants The participants of the study were 175 Iranian university ESP learners (sampled from Tabriz University and Kashan University learners in 2014). This sample included male (111) and female (64) learners studying Engineering (25.1%), Sciences (37.7%) and Humanities (37.1 %). All the participants spoke Persian as the mother tongue. Their age ranged from 25 to 35. They were studying English for Specific Purpose (ESP) courses, as undergraduate and graduate students. Tables 1 demonstrate the characteristics of the sample. Since it was not possible to administer a TOEFL test as a standardized English test to all students participating in the study, the students’ grade point average (GPA) in English courses was used as a measure of their level of language proficiency. Then their GPAs scores out of a total of 20 were divided into three groups: low-proficiency (10-13), mid-proficiency (13-17) and high-proficiency (17-20). © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Table1. Demographic description of participants

Frequency

Percent

111 64 175

63.4 36.6 100.0

101 74

57.7 42.3

44 65 66

25.1 37.1 37.7

Low (10-13)

42.3

Mid (13-17) High (17-20)

96 5

54.9 2.9

Gender Male Female Total Education Level Undergraduate Graduate Major Engineering Humanities Sciences GPA

Instruments For the current study two questionnaires were utilized with 36 statement items adapted from Horwitz’ BALLI which is developed to assess learners’ and educators’ beliefs about different issues relating to language learning (Horwitz, 1987, 1988, 1999). This instrument covers five areas: (i) Foreign Language Aptitude; (ii) The Difficulty of Language Learning; (iii) The Nature of Language Learning; (iv) Learning and Communication Strategies; and (v) Motivations and Expectations. 49 statement items adapted from Oxford’s (1990) SILL reflecting the frequency of strategy use on a five point (Likert) scale was the next instrument. The taxonomy of strategies consists of six broad categories of strategies: (i) Memory Strategies; (ii) Cognitive Strategies; (iii) Compensatory Strategies; (iv) Metacognitive Strategies; (v) Affective Strategies; and (vi) Social Strategies. Both questionnaires were accompanied with a background questionnaire to collect students’ demographic information such as gender, field of study, educational level and GPA in English courses. This study employed the Persian version of SILL and BALLI since students’ low command of English could negatively affect data collection. It is suggested to use a translated version of the questionnaire in order to “avoid any problems participants could encounter in understanding the items and response scale” due to limited English proficiency (Khalil, 2005, p. 110). Cronbach's alphas for the 36 BALLI and 49 SILL items were .688 and .816 respectively. The two instruments were therefore reliable for the study.

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Results To determine the relationship among beliefs, strategy use and language proficiency, One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test was conducted to evaluate the normality assumption of data from two questionnaires: SILL and BALLI. KolmogorovSmirnov test (K–S test) is a nonparametric test for the equality of continuous, onedimensional probability distributions that can be used to compare a sample with a reference probability distribution (one-sample K–S test). Table 2 shows the sample size (N= 175) and a Mean of 3.69. (H0: the distribution of BALLI data is normal; H1: the distribution of BALLI data is not normal). Since the P value is less than .05, the normality assumption (H0) is rejected. In other words, there is no doubt that the data obtained by BALLI questionnaire was not normally distributed. Table 2. One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for beliefs and strategies BELIEF STRATEGIES N 175 175 Mean 3.6895 2.7472 Std. Deviation .24953 .39882 Absolute .169 .187 Positive .136 .177 Negative -.169 -.187 Kolmogorov 2.236 2.476 Asymp. Sig. (2 .000 .000 The results shown in table 2 also indicate that the data from SILL questionnaire was not normally distributed with the Sig value of .000. Since the variables of interest (belief and learning strategies) were not normally distributed, nonparametric correlations were calculated between pairs of samples. Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient is used as a non-parametric measure of association between the rankings of two variables measured on N individuals since it is not very sensitive to outliers. As table3 displays, a Spearman's Rank Order correlation was run to determine the relationship between 175 students' beliefs about language learning and the use of learning strategies. There was a positive correlation between students' beliefs and strategy use, which was statistically significant as shown in Table 3. Table 3. Spearman’s correlation between learners’ beliefs and learning strategies

Spearman's rho Bbelief

Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N

STRATEGIES GPAS .406** .000 175

.709** .000 175

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Strategies

Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N

400** .000 175

Results from the Spearman’s correlation procedure for the relationship between language proficiency and learning strategies as shown in table 3, indicate that a relationship of moderate strength was found between the learners’ language proficiency (GPAS) and the use of language learning strategies (rs (173) = .400, p <.01). And also the results show that there is a statistically significant relationship between learner’ belief and GPAS (r= .709, p = .000). In other words, there is a strong relationship between language proficiency and learner’s belief. Furthermore, Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient tests were used to investigate the relationship between five belief variables: Foreign Language Aptitude; The Difficulty of Language Learning; The Nature of Language Learning; Learning and Communication Strategies; and Motivations and Expectations and the six strategy variables: Memory Strategies; Cognitive Strategies; Compensatory Strategies; Metacognitive Strategies; Affective Strategies; and Social Strategies . In other words, some beliefs were found to either constrain or facilitate the use of particular language learning strategies. Data at the significant level of .01 and .05 indicated that the factors’ scores of beliefs and strategies were significantly correlated, with correlation coefficients ranging from .053 to .648. Whereas the correlation between beliefs about foreign language aptitude and compensatory strategies was the weakest (r = .053), the strongest correlation was between the students’ beliefs about motivation and the use of metaconitive strategies (r = .648). To answer the second research question, regression analysis was run to predict students’ use of LLSs (dependent variable) from the students’ beliefs about language learning. The regression procedure revealed that the students’ beliefs about English language learning predicted the students’ use of language learning strategies, r 2 = .051 (adjusted r 2 = .045). By examining the analysis of variance (ANOVA) reported in Table 4, the value of F (1, 173) = 9.248 was found statistically significant (p < .01). It suggests that there is a linear relationship between learners’ beliefs and the use of language learning strategies. Table 4. ANOVA: regression analysis predicts the outcome variable (strategy) Regression Residual Total

Sum of Squares

Mean Square

Sig.

1.404 26.272 27.676

1 173 174

1.404 .152

9.248

.003a

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Table 4. ANOVA: regression analysis predicts the outcome variable (strategy) Regression Residual Total

Sum of Squares

Mean Square

Sig.

1.404 26.272 27.676

1 173 174

1.404 .152

9.248

.003a

a. Predictors: (Constant), BELIEF b. Dependent Variable: STRATEGIES To answer the third question and find out whether learning strategies are predicated from L2 proficiency as measured by students’ GPAs, a regression analysis was performed on students’ data. The results showed that language proficiency predicted the students’ use of language learning strategies, r 2 = .121 (adjusted r 2 = .116). As shown in Table 5, the value of F (1, 173) was 23.776 that was statistically significant (p < .01). This suggests that there is a linear relationship between learners’ GPAs and their use of language learning strategies. Table 5. ANOVA: regression analysis predicts the outcome variable (strategy)

Regression Residual Total

Sum of Squares

Mean Square

Sig.

3.344 24.332 27.676

1 173 174

3.344 .141

23.776

.000a

a. Predictors: (Constant), Level of Language b. Dependent Variable: STRATEGIES

Table 6. Friedman Test to show the mean ranks between strategies strategies Memory Cognitive Compensatory Metacognitive Affective Social Chi-Square © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Mean Rank

4.00 1.76 3.71 4.61 3.77 3.16 237.913

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df Asymp. Sig.

5 .000

The analysis of Kruskal-Wallis test revealed statistically significant differences among students whose proficiency in English was rated as “high-proficiency”, “mid-proficiency” and “low-proficiency” through their GPAs data in the use of cognitive, metacognitive, compensatory and social strategies. To determine the differences between strategies used by all participants, Friedman test was used as a non-parametric test because of the non-normality in the distribution of the data. The mean rank between the related strategies calculated by Friedman Test indicates how they differed. metacognitive strategies ranked the highest while cognitive strategies ranked the lowest. The results show that there was a statistically significant difference in the use of different strategies (χ2 = 237.913, p = .000). Metacognitive strategies ranked maximum (M = 4.61) while the minimum use of strategies was attributed to cognitive strategies (M = 1.76).

Discussion and conclusion The learners studied in this work were medium strategy users since the total mean strategy use was 2.7. This result of the study corroborates that of Noguchi (1991), Yang (1994), Oh (1992), Park (1997) and Wharton (2000). Results of the study demonstrated that, as a whole, metacognitive strategies were the most frequently used learning strategies whereas cognitive strategies were the least preferred category. Students of Engineering favored the use of metacognitive, cognitive and compensatory strategies while students of Humanities used more compensatory, affective and memory strategies. The most frequent use of metacognitive strategies by Engineering students may be due to the fact in EFL contexts there is not much exposure for the learners to acquaint themselves with it subconsciously. Compensation strategies, such as looking up unfamiliar vocabulary in a dictionary and analyzing the prefixes and suffixes of new words, were most frequently used by Humanities students. The reason might have been their lower levels of linguistic capability causing them to turn to their strategic competence to compensate for any linguistic deficiency. The regression model used to analyze students’ data showed a linear relationship between the use of learning strategies by different proficiency groups which supports similar findings (e.g. Green and Oxford, 1995; Khalil, 2005; Wharton, 2000). Oxford and Nyikos (1989) believe that language proficiency can be either the effect or the cause of strategy use. In conclusion, this study has demonstrated that ESP learners in the Iranian context explored here are medium strategy users and that there is a prominent role for language proficiency to play in the use of strategies. On the whole, the higher the level of language proficiency, the larger the frequency of learning strategies reported by learners. The significance of strategy instruction in ESP classrooms, familiarizing learners with various strategies, and considering the low levels of © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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language ability in this instruction is the main point this study can highlight through appropriate instruction.

References Bremner, S. (1999). Language learning strategies and language proficiency: Investigating the relationship in Hong Kong. Canadian Modern Language Review, 55, 490-515. Chamot, A. (2004). Issues in language learning strategy research and teaching. Electronic Journal of Foreing Language Teaching, 1(1), 14-26. Chang, S. J. (1991). A study of language learning behaviors of Chinese students at the university of Georgia and the relation of these behaviors to oral proficiency and other factors. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. University of Georgia, Athens, the USA. Chen, S.Q. (1990). A study of communication strategies in interlanguage production by Chinese EFL learners. Language Learning 40, pp. 155-187. Chohen, A. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language. London: Longman. Corder, S.P. (1981). Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49, 222-251 Cummins, J. (1981). Bilingualism and minority-language children. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Dreyer, C. & Oxford, R. (1996). Learner variables related to ESL proficiency among Afrikaan speakers in South Africa. In Oxford, R. (Ed.), Language learning strategies around the world: Cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 61-74). Honolulu: University of Hawaii at Manoa. Ehrman, M. & Oxford, R. (1989). Effects of sex differences, career choice, and psychological type on adult language learning strategies. The Modern Language Journal, 73, 1-12. El-Dib, M. (2004). Language learning strategies in Kuwait: Links to gender, language level, and culture in a hybrid context. Foreign Language Annals,37, 85-95. Green, J. & Oxford, R. (1995). A closer look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency, and gender. TESOL Quarterly, 29(2), 261-297. Grenfell, M. & Harris, V. (1999). Modern languages and learning strategies: In theory and practice. London: Routledge. Griffiths, C., & Parr, J. (2001). Language-learning strategies: Theory and perception. ELT Journal, 53(3), 247-254. Harris, V. (2003). Adapting classroom-based strategy instruction to a distance learning context. TESL-EJ, 7(2). Hon-Nam, K. & Leavell, A. (2006). Language learning strategy use of ESL students in an intensive English learning context. System, 34, 399-415. Horwitz, E.K. (1988). The beliefs about language learning of beginning university foreign language students. Modern Language Journal 72, pp. 283-294. Horwitz, E.K. (1999). Cultural and situational influences on foreign language learners’ beliefs about language learning: A review of BALLI studies. System 27, pp. 557-576. Khaldieh, S.A. (2000). Learning strategies and writing processes of proficient versus lessproficient learners of Arabic. Foreign Language Annals 33(5), pp. 522-533. Khalil, A. (2005). Assessment of language learning strategies used by Palestinian EFL learners. Foreign Language Annals, 38(1), 108-119. Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved November 03, 2013, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov%E2%80%93Smirnov_test © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Littlewood, W. (1999). Defining and developing autonomy in East Asian contexts. Applied Linguistics, 20/1, 71-94. MacIntyre, P.D. (2000). Affective processes in second language learning. Paper presented at Temple University, Japan: Distinguished Lecturer Series. Magogwe, J. & Oliver, R. (2007). The relationship between language learning strategies, proficiency, age and self-efficacy beliefs: A study of language learners in Botswana. System, 35, 338-352. Mercer, C., & Mercer, A. (1998). Teaching students with learning problems (5th ed.). Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall. Myung-cook, K. (2001). Language learning strategies and proficiency of Korean learners of Chinese. M. A. thesis, University of China, English Language Literature and Linguistics. Nisbet, D., Tindall, E. & Arroyo, A. (2005). Language learning strategies and English proficiency of Chinese university students. Foreign Language Annals, 38(1), 100-107. Noguchi, C. T. (1991). Questionnaire for Learners. Tottori, Tottori University, Japan. Oh, J. (1992). Learning Strategies used by university EFL students in Korea. Language Teaching, 1, 3-53. O’Malley, J Michael (1987). The effects of training in the use of learning strategies on learning English as a second language. In Anita Wenden & Joan Rubin (eds) 133-143 O’Malley, J.M. & Chamot, A. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. O’Malley, M., & Chamot, A. U. (1995). Learning strategies in L2 acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press. Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House. Oxford, R.L., & Cohen, A.D. (1992). Language learning strategies: crucial issues of concept and classification, Applied Language Learning, 3/1&2, 1-35 Oxford, R. & Nyikos, M. (1989). Variables affecting choice of language learning strategies: A synthesis of studies with implications for strategy training. System, 17, 235-247. Pajares, F. & Schunk, D. (2001). Self-efficacy beliefs and school success: Selfefficacy, selfconcept, and school achievement. In: Perception, pp 239-266. London: Ablex Publishing. Park, G. (1997). Language learning strategies and English proficiency in Korean university students. Foreign Language Annals, 30, 211-221. Peacock, M., & Ho, B. (2003). Student language learning strategies across eight disciplines. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13, 179-200. Politzer, R. L., & McGroarty, M. (1985). An exploratory study of learning behaviors and their relationship to gains in linguistic and communicative competence. TESOL Quarterly, 19, 103-123. Radwan, A. S. (2011). Effects of L2 proficiency and gender on choice of language learning strategies by university students majoring in English. The Asian EFL Journal, March (1), 115-163. Richardson, V. (1996), The role of attitudes and beliefs in learning to teach. In J. Sikula, T.J. Butter & E. Guyton (eds), Handbook of research on teacher education, New York, Macmillan Press, pp. 102-119. Rubin, J. (1975). What the “good language learner” can teach us. TESOL Quarterly,9, 41-51. Sakui, S. & Gaies, S.J. (1999). Investigating Japanese learners’ beliefs about language learning. System 27, pp. 473-492. © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Schommer, M.A. (1990). Effects of beliefs about the nature of knowledge and comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology 82, pp. 498-504. Shmais, W. (2003). Language learning strategy use in Palestine. TESL-EJ, 7(2). Stern, H. (1975). What can we learn from the good language learner? Canadian Modern Language Review, 31, 304-318. Stock, M.F. (2012). Building Main Idea Comprehension in FL University Students: Problems & Causes. ARTESOL English for Specific Purposes Interest Section ESP E-journal. A Refereed International Journal of Issues in Teaching English for Specific Purposes, 2, 13-38. Strategia. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved October9, 2013, from http://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategia Suwanarak, K. (2012). English language learning beliefs, learning strategies and achievement of Masters students in Thailand. TESOL in Context, S3, 1-15. Wen, Q. & Johnson, R.K. (1997). L2 learner variables and English achievement: A study of tertiarylevel English majors in China. Applied Linguistics 18, pp. 27-48. Wharton, G. (2000). Language learning strategy use of bilingual foreign language learners in Singapore. Language Learning, 50, 203-243. Willing, K. (1988). Learning styles in adult migrant education. Sydney: Macquarie University. Yang, N.D. (1993). Beliefs about language learning and learning strategy use: A study of college students of English in Taiwan. In Papers from the tenth conference on English teaching and learning in the Republic of China, Taipei, Crane, pp. 193-219. Yang, N-D. (1994). An investigation of Taiwanese college students’ use of English learning Strategies. Research report, National Taiwan University, Taiwan. Yang, N.D. (1999). The relationship between EFL learners’ beliefs and learning strategy use. System 27(4), pp. 515-535.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 131-137, August 2014

Do Children Accept Virtual Agents as Foreign Language Trainers? Manuela Macedonia1,2, Roland Kern1 and Friedrich Roithmayr1 Department for Information Systems, University of Linz, Austria 2 Research Group Neural Mechanisms of Human Communication, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany 1

Abstract. Virtual (animated software) agents can train humans in vocabulary learning. This has been successfully tested with adults and more recently also with children. However, the question of how children perceive a virtual agent training them had not been investigated. Here we invited 25 children to evaluate their perception of a virtual and a human trainer who presented written words in a foreign language on videos; both the human trainer and the virtual agent additionally performed a semantically related gesture for each word. Subjects rated the trainers for features related to gestures and for their “personalities”. Subjects found human gestures better and gave the human trainer higher sympathy scores; however, the overall difference between their perception of virtual and human trainers was not significant. Keywords: Evaluation; Intelligent Virtual Agent; Enactment; Training; Learning; Foreign Language

Introduction Evaluation, Intelligent Virtual Agent, Enactment, TVirtual pedagogical agents have been developed in the last decade in order to support learning in different domains (Kim & Baylor, 2006b). Some of them have human looks and can interact with users to a certain extent by appropriate facial expressions, head nodding (Cassell, 2000), and gestures (Bergmann, Kahl, & Kopp, 2013). In different domains, they can successfully support learners (Kim & Baylor, 2006a) and positively influence their attitudes towards the topic to be learned (Johnson, Ozogul, Moreno, & Reisslein, 2013). Also, in future, virtual agents in mobile devices will facilitate multilingualism in remote areas of the world. Agents will support people who are physically or financially disadvantaged to access to foreign language instruction at a low cost (Macedonia, Groher, & Roithmayr, 2014). In recent studies, the virtual agent Billie (Buschmeier & Kopp, 2011) who looks like a young boy of 11 or 12 years has successfully trained humans on vocabulary learning in a foreign language. Billie is driven by the Asap Realizer (Welbergen, Reidsma, & Kopp, 2012), which enables specification of the agent’s behavior in the Behavior Markup Language (BML) (Vilhjálmsson et al., 2007). © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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BML coordinates speech and gesture as well as gaze, and head and other body movements. Billie trains humans by means of enactment. Enactment pairs the presentation of words (and or phrases) with illustrative gestures (Zimmer, 2001). For nearly four decades, laboratory research has shown that accompanying novel verbal information with gestures enhances its memorability. This is the case for words and phrases in a native language as well as in foreign language (Macedonia & Von Kriegstein, 2012). In order to use enactment as a learning strategy, Billie performs gestures himself. Billie was recently employed as a vocabulary trainer in a study with two groups of young adults. They were trained by the agent and a human trainer to memorize 45 single words of Vimmi (Macedonia, Müller, & Friederici, 2011), an artificial language created for experimental purposes. Participants learned equally well with both trainers. High performers, however, achieved better scores with the agent than with the human trainer (Bergmann & Macedonia, 2013). In another study, Billie cued school children (average 11.4 years) to learn Vimmi vocabulary. The authors pursued two questions: first, whether children can be trained in an ecologically valid environment, i.e., a classroom, with enactment; second, in order to enhance their memory for the words in the foreign language, whether it suffices for these children to watch the agent enunciating the words and performing the gestures, or whether learners need to perform the gestures themselves. Forty four school children (average 11.2 years) were cued to learn 45 single words of Vimmi by only reading and hearing the words (15 items), by watching the agent making the corresponding gestures (15 items), and by imitating the agent enacting the words he enunciates (15 items). Memory results from cued translation tests show that Billie successfully trained the children in the classroom and that imitating the gestures was the better way to enhance the children’s performance (Macedonia, Bergmann, & Roithmayr, 2014). These two experiments demonstrate that the virtual agent Billie can successfully replace human trainers and train both adults and children to learn vocabulary items in a foreign language by means of enactment.

Previous Study on the Acceptance of Billie Participants of both studies above were trained by Billie. However, until investigated, it is not clear which attitude humans have towards virtual teachers. Therefore, Billie’s acceptance as a language trainer was tested in a recent study by Macedonia (2014). There the author asked 18 adults to rate the agent for his gesture quality and personality and compare him with a human trainer in an online survey. Gesture quality was necessary because enactment plays a major role in the way Billie trains subjects to words in a foreign language. Materials used for the evaluation were the same videos as they were used in the experiment by Bergmann & Macedonia (2013). There adults learned novel words with both, a human and a virtual trainer. Data showed that the agent’s gestures, as expectedly, were rated as less natural than the human gestures. However, participants did not perceive a significant difference between their personalities, except for a few traits that were considered better for the human trainer. Methodologically the study had an Achilles heel: raters compared two trainers that were not controlled for age and gender. In fact, the human trainer was an © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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adult woman, whereas the virtual agent looks like a boy of 11 to 12. Furthermore, subjects were adults rating a peer and a child as vocabulary trainer; differences in acceptance of the virtual trainer might have been biased by the above factors. Furthermore, the fact that many adults are not digital natives can have an influence of their perception of the agent as a trainer. In the present study, we tested the acceptance of a virtual agent and a human as trainers by controlling for their age and gender. Both trainers were male of approximately the same age (11 to 13) and they were rated by children of the same age. Our aim was to grasp the children’s attitude towards a virtual teacher.

Methods

Participants Twenty five children (16 male, 9 female), mean age 12.5 years (SD 0.65), took part in the study. They were recruited in an Austrian school and participated for free. The participants were naïve of the study’s goal and had never seen Billie before. Participants were also interviewed about their interaction with media and the time they spent with them daily. This was done in order to establish possible relationships between their global attitude towards media (Litt, 2013) and their perception of the agent as a trainer. Stimuli We used 30 videos (MPEG4) with a length of approximately 5s each, subdivided into two blocks. In one block (15 videos), the agent performed gestures illustrating the words’ semantics. In the other block (15 videos), the human trainer did the same with the same words. Additionally, for each word in the foreign language, a translation into the native language of the participants (German) appeared in written form. Note that the human videos were created by copying exactly the agent’s videos. Thus both sets of videos were identical for gestural execution (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Screenshots from videos used for the online survey for the Vimmi word lamube (English fever). Word enacted a) by the human trainer and b) by the agent.

Sampling procedure Participants were asked to complete an online survey created with the tool Google Forms (Fuente Valentín, Pardo, & Delgado Kloos, 2009). During this task, they were monitored by the experimenter. He controlled for time and accurate execution of the task. Each child had to complete the survey within 30 © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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minutes. Children carefully watched any single video and rated it according to two subsections of questions. The first regarded gestural features, i.e. iconicity, naturalness and speed of execution (Bergmann, Kopp, & Eyssel, 2010); the second subsection concerned personality traits of the trainers, i.e. sympathy, friendliness and intelligence (Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick, 2007). Furthermore, we acquired data concerning the subjects’ gender and their digital nativeness which is their attitude and time spent daily with mobile devices and other media. We did this in order to find possible correlations in this population that might explain preferences for the agent or the human trainer.

Results Variables were rated on a five-point Likert scale, with 1 standing for the worst evaluation and 5 for the best. The human execution of the gestures achieved better scores in iconicity (F(14,336) = 1.91, p < 0.05) and naturalness (F(14,33) = 2.76, p < 0.005), see Figure 2. We tested the quality of gestures by conducting a repeated measures ANOVA, 3x2 with the factor quality of gestures (iconicity, naturalness and speed of execution) and the factor trainer (human vs. agent). The results show significant effects for both experimental factors, i.e., quality of gestures (F(2,48)=24,32, p <0.001, Figure 2) and trainer (F(2,48)=1.57, p=<0.217, Figure 3). These two results are not surprising, as Billie’s gestures are definitely not as fluent as human gestures.

Figure 2: Children’s perception of the quality of the gestures.

The factor “personality” aggregated sympathy, friendliness and intelligence. The human trainer achieved higher scores only for sympathy (F(1,24) = 10.90, p < 0.005).

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Figure 3: Children’s perception of trainer personalities.

We also conducted a 2x2 repeated measures ANOVA with the factors agent’s features (quality of gestures and trainer’s personality) and trainer (agent vs. human). Our aim was to answer the final question of whether altogether subjects had perceived the two trainers in significantly different way besides the differences reported above. For this analysis, we yielded no significant results. The digital nativeness (Prensky, 2001) of the subjects, i.e., the expertise and the propensity to use digital media, was computed by acquiring data on the frequency of interaction with the following media: smartphone, desk or laptop, tablet, radio, television, interactive television. Children rated how frequently they used the media on a five-point Likert scale with 1 for the lowest and 5 for the highest frequency in interaction. All media used were aggregated and averaged for each child. We found an average interaction of 3.54 (SD .49) out of 5. We further computed Pearson correlations with the variables score of digital nativeness and perception of the trainers’ quality of gestures and trainers’ personalities. In both cases we failed to find positive correlations (rs = -.080, p = .705 and rs = -.050, p = .813, respectively). Interestingly, the correlation between the gender of the subjects (16 males and 9 females) and their perception of the gestures and personalities of the trainers yielded significant results: for the agent’s quality of gestures rs = -.539**, p = .005 and trainer’s personality rs = -.579**, p = .002. Gender mattered: girls liked the agent better than their human peer as a trainer. Conclusion We conducted the present study with the aim to investigate children’s acceptance of the virtual agent Billie as a vocabulary trainer. We designed the © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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study as a comparison between Billie, a virtual agent that looks like a boy of about 12 and a human boy of 12. Both vocabulary trainers were rated by school children of the same age. Raters agreed that gestures were better if performed by the human, particularly regarding naturalness. Speed did not differ for both trainers. We attribute this result to the fact that when the child’s videos were realized, the young actor was instructed to first watch the virtual trainer and thereafter to perform the same gestures. Even if not instructed to do so, the boy did not only imitate the shape of the gesture but also the speed to which the agent performed it. Hence, raters could not see any differences in the speed of execution. The raters had more sympathy for the human trainer, as previously also reflected in an adult study (Macedonia, 2014). As participants had no interaction with the trainers, sympathy might simply be related to human appearance. In fact, preference for species is influenced by similarity. In her study, Batt (2009) found out that humans like other species on the basis of shared bio-behavioral traits. In our study, because of his gestures and several other features, the agent is still not a boy, despite his anthropomorphic looks. This possibly lead participant to give higher sympathy scores to the child. For the variable intelligence, subjects detected no difference between the trainers. This could be related to the trainers’ task during the experiment. They simply performed gestures and presented words in an unknown language. What they did had nothing intelligent per se and it does not surprise that the raters could not see any difference between both trainers. Also, we speculate that subjects aged of 12 might not have a clear representation of the concept of intelligence. Subjects might not have abstracted that the machine must be less intelligent than the human, as adults did in the study by Macedonia (2014). Correlations with participants’ gender show that girls liked the agent better than the human. It is unclear why girls do. Further research is needed in order to confirm and / or clarify this result. Altogether, our present study confirms the acceptance of a virtual agent while controlling for age and gender. We reason that future improvements in the software behind virtual agents, particularly in gesture execution, will further increase their acceptance and facilitate the widespread use of virtual agents in foreign language learning.

References Batt, S. (2009). Human attitudes towards animals in relation to species similarity to humans: a multivariate approach. Bioscience Horizons, 2(2), 180-190. Bergmann, K., Kahl, S., & Kopp, S. (2013). Modeling the Semantic Coordination of Speech and Gesture under Cognitive and Linguistic Constraints. In R. Aylett, B. Krenn, C. Pelachaud & H. Shimodaira (Eds.), Intelligent Virtual Agents (Vol. 8108, pp. 203-216): Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Bergmann, K., Kopp, S., & Eyssel, F. (2010). Individualized Gesturing Outperforms Average Gesturing – Evaluating Gesture Production in Virtual Humans. In J. Allbeck, N. Badler, T. Bickmore, C. Pelachaud & A. Safonova (Eds.), Intelligent Virtual Agents (Vol. 6356, pp. 104-117): Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

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Bergmann, K., & Macedonia, M. (2013). Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents.: T. I. C. o. I. V. A. I. 2013). Buschmeier, H., & Kopp, S. (2011). Towards Conversational Agents That Attend to and Adapt to Communicative User Feedback. In H. Vilhjálmsson, S. Kopp, S. Marsella & K. Thórisson (Eds.), Intelligent Virtual Agents (Vol. 6895, pp. 169182): Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Cassell, J. (2000). Embodied conversational agents. Cambridge, Mass. ; London: MIT Press. Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., & Glick, P. (2007). Universal dimensions of social cognition: warmth and competence. Trends in cognitive sciences, 11(2), 77-83. Fuente Valentín, L., Pardo, A., & Delgado Kloos, C. (2009). Using Third Party Services to Adapt Learning Material: A Case Study with Google Forms. In U. Cress, V. Dimitrova & M. Specht (Eds.), Learning in the Synergy of Multiple Disciplines (Vol. 5794, pp. 744-750): Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Johnson, A. M., Ozogul, G., Moreno, R., & Reisslein, M. (2013). Pedagogical Agent Signaling of Multiple Visual Engineering Representations: The Case of the Young Female Agent. Journal of Engineering Education, 102(2), 319-337. Kim, Y., & Baylor, A. (2006a). Pedagogical Agents as Learning Companions: The Role of Agent Competency and Type of Interaction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 54(3), 223-243. Kim, Y., & Baylor, A. (2006b). A Social-Cognitive Framework for Pedagogical Agents as Learning Companions. Educational Technology Research and Development, 54(6), 569-596. Litt, E. (2013). Measuring users’ internet skills: A review of past assessments and a look toward the future. New Media & Society, 15(4), 612-630. Macedonia, M. (2014). A bizarre pedagogical virtual trainer enhances memory for words in a foreign language. International Journal of Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence, 4(2), 24-34. Macedonia, M., Bergmann, K., & Roithmayr, F. (2014). Imitation of a pedagogical agent’s gestures enhances memory for words in second language. Under Revision. Macedonia, M., Groher, I., & Roithmayr, F. (2014). Intelligent Virtual Agents as Language Trainers Facilitate Multilingualism. [Perspective]. Frontiers in Psychology, 5. Macedonia, M., Müller, K., & Friederici, A. D. (2011). The impact of iconic gestures on foreign language word learning and its neural substrate. Human Brain Mapping, 32(6), 982-998. Macedonia, M., & Von Kriegstein, K. (2012). Gestures enhance foreign language learning. [Review]. Biolinguistics, 6(Special Issue "Embodiment"), 393-416. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital im migrants part 1. On the horizon, 9(5), 1-6. Vilhjálmsson, H., Cantelmo, N., Cassell, J., E. Chafai, N., Kipp, M., Kopp, S., et al. (2007). The Behavior Markup Language: Recent Developments and Challenges. In C. Pelachaud, J.-C. Martin, E. André, G. Chollet, K. Karpouzis & D. Pelé (Eds.), Intelligent Virtual Agents (Vol. 4722, pp. 99-111): Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Welbergen, H., Reidsma, D., & Kopp, S. (2012). An Incremental Multimodal Realizer for Behavior Co-Articulation and Coordination. In Y. Nakano, M. Neff, A. Paiva & M. Walker (Eds.), Intelligent Virtual Agents (Vol. 7502, pp. 175-188): Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Zimmer, H. D. (2001). Memory for action: a distinct form of episodic memory? Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 138-147, August 2014

The Role of Social Appearance Anxiety in Metacognitive Awareness of Adolescents Eyüp Çelik and Mehmet Emin Turan SakaryaUniversity Sakarya, Turkey Neslihan Arıcı Medipol Hospital Istanbul, Turkey

Abstract.This study is aim to examine the relationship between social appearance anxiety of adolescents and metacognitive awareness. Social appearance anxiety was a negatively correlated with metacognitive awareness and its sub-constructs. As a result of regression analysis, the linear combination values of procedural information, of self evaluation and of explanative information significantly predicted social appearance anxiety. As it was found that the participants with high metacognitive awareness level had a low level of social appearance level. And also it was stated that adolescent participants’ social anxiety level was varied significantly according to metacognitive level and gender. However, this variance was not seen as a result of the common effect of metacognitive awareness and of gender. Also it was indicated that the mean of male participants’ social appearance anxiety level was high. Results were discussed in the light of literature. Keywords: Social appearance anxiety; adolescent

metacognitive awareness;

Introduction Adolescence is described as a period that an individual grows and changes physically, sexually, socially, emotionally, cognitively, finishes at the end of bodily growth (Kulaksızoğlu, 2004). Adolescence includes rapid and extensive changes (Atak, 2011). Adolescents prepare himself/herself to the adult role. Development of an adolescent may not be simultaneously in all developmental areas. For example, although a youth physically develops he/she does not develop enough cognitively and emotionally. Adolescent’s physical changes may be continuing irregular way until the early adult period. In parallel to this adolescents do not like their body, which leads them to distort their perception of body image. Adolescents’ social appearance anxiety level might be increased due to their imaginary audience thoughts and giving so much importance on © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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their body. Thus social appearance anxiety in adolescence might have a negative and serious effect on adolescents’ future life. Moreover, adolescents who are not accepted by others because of their appearance might have a social anxiety. On the other hand, cognitive awareness and metacognitive awareness might help adolescents to cope with their social appearance anxiety. Henceforth, this study is aim to examine factors of social appearance anxiety of adolescents. Also this paper is aim to examine the relationship among social appearance anxiety, metacognitive awareness and its sub-constructs (explanative information, procedural information, planning, selfcontrol, cognitive strategies, conditioned information, self-evaluation and selfmonitoring). People with high level of social anxiety disrupt their social, vocational, educational functions which lessen their life quality (Safren, Heimberg, Brown, & Holle, 1997; Schneier et al., 1994; Hart, Flora, Palyo, Fresco, Holle, & Heimberg, 2008). Furthermore, people with social anxiety disorders have social interaction anxiety; fear of being controlled and fear of evaluated negatively (Levinson & Rodebaugh, 2011). People with high social anxiety level pay attention on physical appearance while people with low social anxiety level do not (Smith, 2007). Cash, Theriault, & Natasha (2004) found that high level of being evaluated anxiety correlated significantly with dysfunctional thoughts about physical body image, dissatisfaction of body image, and appearance. It is also stated that individuals who are anxious about what other people think concern so much appearance which is related to their understanding, and their perception (Smith, 2007). In literature some researchers (ex. Amir, Bower, Briks, & Freshman, 2003; Mogg & Bradley, 1998; Stopa & Bryant, 2004; Smith, 2007) found that the relationship among social appearance anxiety, social interaction anxiety, observer anxiety and exam anxiety. These results indicated that people with self consciousness have a high level of social appearance. Furthermore, it was stated that there are correlations among social anxiety, dysfunctional appearance schema, discomfort of body image in both non-clinical sample and clinical sample of body dysmorphic and of eating disorder (Cash & Labarge, 1996; Coles et al., 2006; Hinrichsen, Waller, & Van Gerko, 2004; Pinto & Phillips, 2005; Hart et al., 2008). In addition to this individuals with having body image problems have increased level of social comparison (Stormer & Thompson, 1995; Smith, 2007). People having self consciousness about environment watched out and examined other peoples’ clothes (Craik & Tulving, 1975; Fenigstein & Vanable, 1992; Schlenker & Weigold, 1990; Solomon & Schopler, 1982; Symons & Johnson, 1997; Smith, 2007). Thus it is expected that people having self consciousness about environment showed good performances in appearance reality testing. According to Flavell (1979), metacognition is a cognitive process that includes, the appraisal, control, and monitoring of thinking (cited in Wells 2000). In other © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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words, it might be described as the knowledge of what people know, the thought of what people thought and the evaluation of what people cognitively have (Tosun & Irak, 2008). Metacognition is used for learning, problem solving, understanding, reasoning, monitoring and controlling cognitive process like a memory (Karakelle, 2012). And also it indicated that metacognition is a crucial factor about cognitive self awareness of individuals, conscious learning (Özsoy, 2008). Metacognitive awareness is defined as a structure that an individual is aware of what he/she knows and of learning strategies, controls his/her cognitive process, taking learning responsibilities, evaluates, plans and monitor what he/she learns, and uses executive strategies of information (Bağçeci, Döş, & Sarıca, 2011). Metacognitive awareness is also an individual’s ability that monitors and controls his/her cognitive process and strategies (Akın, 2006).

Method Karasar (2003) stated that researcher use relational screening model when the covariance of two or more than two variables or of their degree is considered. Therefore relational screening model was used in this study.

Participants Data were collected from a sample of 276 adolescents (8th grade level) whose age ranged from 13 to 15 years and from İstanbul. Of the participants, 144 adolescents were female; 120 adolescents were male and 12 students were not indicated their gender. To provide the regression analysis assumptions 63 participants’ data was excluded and 213 participants’ data was taken in the study. The age of the participants was ranged from 13 to 15 years. All participants were voluntary participated in the study.

Instruments In this study, “Social Appearance Anxiety Scale” and “Metacognitive Scale for Students with Primary Education were used to measure social appearance anxiety level and metacognitive awareness respectively. Metacognitive Scale for Students with Primary Education: This scale was developed by Yıldız, Akpınar, Tatar and Ergin (2012) to measure students’ metacognitive awareness The scale consists of 30- item with 8 subscales and 4Likert type (1= none, 5= always . The 8 subscales are explanative information, procedural information, planning, self-control, cognitive strategies, conditional information, self-evaluation and self-monitoring. The example of items are “ I know which thinking style I will use and when I will use” and “ I think many solutions and choose the best solution when I face with a problem”. The higher score of the scale demonstrated high level of meta-cognition. The lowest score of the test is 30 and the highest score of the test is 120. Social Appearance Anxiety Scale: This scale was developed by Hart, Flora, Palyo, Fresco, Holle, & Heimberg (2008) and adapted into Turkish by Doğan (2011) to measure social appearance anxiety level of adolescence. The scale consists of 16- item and with one factor and 5 Likert type (1= Totally Disagree, 5= Totally Agree). The examples of items are “I feel nervous when having my © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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picture taken.” and “I worry people will judge the way I look negatively.” The higher score of the scale demonstrated high level of social appearance anxiety. The lowest score of the test is 16 and the highest score of the test is 80. And the first item was scored reversely

Data Analysis The relationship between social appearance anxiety of adolescents and metacognitive awareness was examined with Pearson Coefficient Correlation and Multiple Regression Analysis. In multiple regression analysis stepwise method was used. Every variable of the study was added into the examined model and model was assessed. The variable which contributed to the model was taken, while the variable which did not contribute to the model was excluded from the model. In parallel to this, the other variables of the study were tested according to the contribution to the model. Thus model was explained by a few variables (Kalaycı, 2010). The differences among social appearance anxiety of adolescents, metacognitive awareness, metacognitive awareness’s sub-dimensions (explanative information, procedural information, planning, self-control, cognitive strategies, conditional information, selfevaluation and self-monitoring) in term of gender were analyzed with t-test. Moreover, the effects of gender and meta-cognitive awareness on social appearance anxiety were analyzed with two-way ANOVA (All data were tested 0.05 significant level).

Results The Result of Correlation Analysis The relationship among social appearance anxiety of adolescents, metacognitive awareness, meta-cognitive awareness’s sub-dimensions (explanative information, procedural information, planning, self-control, cognitive strategies, conditional information, self-evaluation and self-monitoring) was examined with Pearson Coefficient Correlation. The results seen in Table 1 Table 1. Mean,Standart Deviation, and Correlation Coefficient Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Social Apperance Anxiety 1 Metacognitive Awareness -.57** 1 Explainative Information -.54** .91** 1 Procedural Information -.54** .79** .70** 1 Planning -.41** .76** .65** .53** 1 Self-Control -.35** .72** .56** .47** .53** 1 Cognitive Strategy -.42** .79** .64** .54** .57** .59** 1 Conditioned Information -.45** .82** .75** .63** .57** .48** .58** 1 Self Evaluation -.54** .82** .66** .62** .67** .65** .65** .57** 1 Self-Monitoring -.29** .64** .52** .40** .47** .41** .56** .44** .47** 1 Mean 36,52 97,54 30,45 13,66 6,31 9,38 9,30 12,65 9,59 6,19 SS 11,50 15,10 4,75 2,23 1,50 2,03 1,99 2,63 2,00 1,49 **p< 0.01

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According to Table 1 social appearance anxiety was negatively correlated with social meta-cognitive awareness (r= -.57), explanative information (r= -.54), procedural information (r= -.54), planning (r= -.41), self-control (r= -.35), cognitive strategies (r= -.42), conditioned information (r= -.45), self-evaluation (r= -.54) and self monitoring (r= -.29) .

The Results of Multiple Regression Analysis Multiple regression analysis assumptions were examined before determining to what extent the metacognitive awareness explain social appearance anxiety in adolescent. To indicate whether there are extreme values of sample or not, Mahalanobis distance values were detected for every participant and 63 extreme values were deleted according to p<.001 level. After excluded 63 participant’s data the data was reanalyzed and the graphics built on the residual values were examined. It was found that scatter diagram composited of standardized residual values (errors) and standardized predictive values defined the linear relationship and all points were gathered on an axis. It was seen that the histogram and normal curve of standardized predictive values are so close distribution. Another assumption of the requirement of Multiple Regression analysis is Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). When VIF is more than 10, there is a skeptic about the multiple relationships (Sipahi, Yurtkoru, & Çinko, 2008). As considered tolerance and variance inflation values multicollinearity problems were not seen. In parallel to these results multiple regression analysis was done and the results of it were seen in Table 2. As a result of multiple regression analysis the linear combinations’ values of procedural information, of self-evaluation, and of explanatory information predicted significantly social anxiety appearance (R²= .37, F(3, 209) = 41.87, p<.05). In terms of values of multiple regression equation procedural information values (β=-.24, t(212)= -2.97, p<.05), self-evaluation values (β=-.27, t(212)= -3.50, p<.01) and explanatory information values (β= -.19, t(212)= -2.19, p<.05) predicted significantly social appearance anxiety. This result showed that the more procedural information, self-evaluation, and explanatory information level increased, the more social appearance anxiety decreased. Table 2.Multiple Regression Analysis Results Standard B Model Variables Error of B Meta-cognitive 1 -.43 .04 Awareness Meta-cognitive -.30 .07 Awareness 2 Procedural Information -1,16 .47 Meta-cognitive -.30 .09 Awareness 3 Procedural Information -1,16 .46 Self Evaluation -1,46 .56 © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

-.57

-10,11

.000

.32

-.39

-4.31

.000

-.23

-2,47

.013

-.16

-1.32

.189

-.25 -.25

-2,75 -2,59

.006 .010

.34

.36

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4 5

Procedural Information Self Evaluation Procedural Information Self Evaluation Explanatory Information

-1,66 -1,98 -1.22 -1.55 -.45

.36 .40 .41 .44 .20

-.32 -.34 -.24 -.27 -.19

-4.58 -4.89 -2.97 -3.50 -2.19

.000 .000 .003 .001 .029

.35 .37

In this study t test was used. As a result of t test analysis there was a significant difference between adolescent with high and low metacognitive awareness level about social appearance anxiety (p<.05). Comparing means of social appearance anxiety level between high metacognitive awareness level of adolescents and low metacognitive awareness level of adolescents, adolescents with low metacognitive awareness level had high level of social appearance anxiety. (Mean of social appearance anxiety in low metacognitive awareness level of adolescents

= 45,02, mean of social appearance anxiety in

metacognitive awareness level of adolescents

high

= 34,17).

The Differences in terms of Gender The differences among social appearance anxiety of adolescents, metacognitive awareness, metacognitive awareness’s sub-dimensions (explanative information, procedural information, planning, self-control, cognitive strategies, conditional information, self-evaluation and self-monitoring) in term of gender were analyzed with t-test. As a result of the study there was a difference in terms of gender, between social appearance anxiety level and metacognitive awareness of adolescents. Results are shown in Table 3. Table 3. The Differences in terms of Gender Female(n= 144) SS Variables Social Appearance Anxiety 39,74 14,97 Metacognitive Awareness 98,49 13,91 Explanatory Information 31,07 4,18 Procedural Information 13,87 2,05 Planning 6,31 1,41 Self-Control 9,31 2,01 Cognitive Strategies 9,37 1,92 Conditioned Information 12,81 2,58 Self-Evaluation 9,54 2,04 Self-Monitoring 6,16 1,54 *p<0,05, **p<0.001

Male (n= 120) SS 45,03 17,47 97,01 17,51 29,91 5,39 13,44 2,53 6,27 1,67 9,47 2,27 9,31 2,07 12,63 2,89 9,61 2,11 6,33 1,51

t -2,64 0,76 1,97 1,51 -0,23 -0,59 0,24 0,52 -0,25 -0,90

When using t test to compare adolescent’s social appearance anxiety level with regard to gender adolescent’s social appearance anxiety level significantly differentiated with regard to gender (p<.005). The mean of male’s social appearance anxiety level was higher than female (Male

= 45,03 and Female

= 39,74). Other variables did not differentiate in term of gender.

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To examine the common effect of gender and meta-cognitive awareness on social appearance anxiety Two Way ANOVA was used. Considering Levene homogeneity level (F (3,94)= 1,354, p= .26) two-way ANOVA was carried out and found that there was not any common effect of gender and metacognitive awareness on social appearance [F (3,94)= .46, p>.05]. As a result of the study it is indicated that social appearance anxiety differentiated with regard to gender and metacognitive awareness although there was not any common effect of gender and metacognitive awareness on social appearance.

Discussion In literature it is stated that there are relationships among social anxiety, eating disorder and self esteem (Obeid, Buchholz, Boerner, Henderson, & Norris, 2013). The apparent physical changes happen in adolescent period which lead adolescents to be negatively affected and to get mental health problems. Thus some of the adolescents’ negative bodily image might decrease their self-esteem which might lead to develop social appearance anxiety. Women with high self schema are less pleased with their appearance and have low self-esteem level. In parallel to this, some research (Jung & Lee, 2006; Jung &Lennon 2003) show that positive body image is related to high level of self-esteem and negative body image is related to low level of self-esteem. It is also found that positive or negative body image has an effect on eating behaviors, social phobia level, sexual behaviors, social relationship and emotional life (Cash & Fleming, 2002). Another study demonstrated that social anxiety level and depression level are correlated with each other. Moreover this study showed that financial difficulties increased the social appearance anxiety. And it is also stated that social anxiety is related to self-esteem (Özcan, Subaşı, Budak, Çelik, Gürel, &Yıldız, 2013). In literature there is not any study about social appearance anxiety of adolescents and metacognitive awareness of adolescents. Whereas some of the studies (Solomon & Schopler, 1982; Dion, Dion, & Keelan, 1990; Smith, 2007; Craik & Tulving, 1975; Fenigstein & Vanable, 1992; Schlenker & Weigold, 1990; Solomon & Schopler, 1982; Symons & Johnson, 1997; Smith, 2007) examined the relationship between self-consciousness and social appearance anxiety . Henceforth, this study is very important because it is the first study about this topic social appearance anxiety of adolescents and metacognitive awareness of adolescents. In this study social appearance anxiety was negatively correlated with social metacognitive awareness explanative information, procedural information, planning, self-control, cognitive strategies conditioned information, selfevaluation, and self monitoring. As a result of multiple regression analysis the linear combinations’ values of procedural information, of self-evaluation, and of explanatory information predicted significantly social anxiety appearance. When comparing the predictive values of social appearance anxiety included into multiple regression analysis the most predictive values was self-evaluation. This result showed that the more procedural information, self-evaluation, and

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explanatory information level increased, the more social appearance anxiety decreased. Furthermore, in this study it was found that there was a significant difference between adolescent with high and low metacognitive awareness level about social appearance anxiety. Adolescents with low metacognitive awareness level had high level of social appearance anxiety. This result was consistent with some research (Solomon & Schopler, 1982; Dion, Dion, & Keelan, 1990; Smith, 2007; Craik & Tulving, 1975; Fenigstein & Vanable, 1992; Schlenker & Weigold, 1990; Solomon & Schopler, 1982; Symons & Johnson, 1997; Smith, 2007) In addition to all results, there was a difference between social appearance anxiety of adolescents, metacognitive awareness about gender. The mean of male’s social appearance anxiety level was higher than female’s social appearance anxiety level. This result might be related to the fact that physical development of female adolescents is earlier than male adolescents. Another factor of higher level of social appearance anxiety of male adolescents might be that male adolescents might not adequately provide social roles which their society expected. Therefore, the common effect of gender and metacognitive awareness on social appearance anxiety was examined. According to the result, there was not any common effect of gender and metacognitive awareness on social appearance. Last but not least it is indicated that social appearance anxiety differentiated with regard to gender and metacognitive awareness although there was not any common effect of gender and metacognitive awareness on social appearance.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 148-179, August 2014

Bridging the Cultural Gap: Strategies for Multicultural Teaching and Learning in Malta Brian Vassallo Abstract. The growing reality of multicultural education in Malta is critical for Maltese teachers to develop skills necessary to deliver a culturally sensitive curriculum for the students under their care. Often teachers feel confused as to the roadmap they should undertake to ensure that they are equipped enough to face the challenges of multicultural instruction. This study aims to facilitate this enterprise by undergoing a literature review on the cultural dimensions of learning and, through the construction of a cultural framework, establish a common set of precepts that should serve as guidelines for teachers to critically examine the relationships with their students and to device strategies for bridging cross-cultural differences. The Bilateral Framework for Multicultural Teaching and Learning (BFMTL) based on the works of Hofstede (1980, 2001, 2005), Hall (1983), Levine (1987), Lewis (2006) and Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars (1997) was created and the use of the BFMTL questionnaire is advocated as a tool to help both teachers and students to critically examine the range of cultural differences present in their classrooms, the challenges they present and the range of strategies needed to overcome these challenges. Keywords: Bilateral Framework; Multicultural Teaching and Learning.

The need for multicultural education Banks and Banks (2002) argue that multicultural education is a necessary ingredient for quality education. Such necessity demands culturally adaptive learning approaches that spurs every individual in the learning situation to achieve his/her full potential. Students who study in an environment which is dissonant to their own culture experience significant hindrances and can be a source of serious conflict (Pincas, 2001). Cultural awareness is a two way process. Teachers should be critically aware of their own culture and how their culture is affecting the way their students perceive learning. This also puts teachers in a position to examine their underlying assumptions as to how should respond to the learning situations they present, while at the same time keeping an open mind as to possible unexpected responses. Teachers should then be in a position to strike a careful balance between helping students to adapt to the demands of mainstream culture while at the same time embracing the challenges of the â&#x20AC;&#x17E;newâ&#x20AC;&#x; culture the student is presenting.

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What is culture? Culture includes those modes of thinking and behaviour which are transmitted from one generation to another, developed through direct interaction between groups, family members, friends, work colleagues and community (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). Culture also includes ... how people express themselves (including shows of emotion), the way they think, how they move, how problems are solved, how their cities are planned and laid out, how transportation systems function and are organized, as well as how economic and government systems are put together and function. (Hall, 1981, pp. 16-17) Cultural preferences are an essential part of our existence because our strong urge to belong in groups. Parrish and Linder-VanBerschot (2010), in their research about Cultural dimensions in learning argued that layers of culture exist within workplaces, family and community structures on a regional, national and even international level. These are based on traditions, folklore, shared heritage, language, and others. Notwithstanding the strong ties between human elements and individual culture, people have demonstrated willful and creative responses to the world around them, frequently adapting and modifying their natural and cultural tendencies. Cultural influences are a two way process. Even though we are products of our cultures, we are also actors within our own cultures and so we have a profound influence on our own culture. Hence by interacting within our culture we are influencing those around us and contributing to a dynamic changing culture. We influence our culture through our beliefs, our deep rooted assumptions, values, and behaviors developed through an infinite series of interactions with the acquaintances of our own culture as well as through a range of both positive and negative interactions with other cultures. The respect for and the conservation of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; culture is an important precept for teachers to consider in their daily interaction with their students since they are in a position of influence on their learners (Schwier, Campbell & Kenny, 2004). Whenever we teach, we are teaching culture. It may be a conscious deliberate process or it may take place on a subconscious level. Awareness, knowledge, attitudes, and skills are all manifestations of culture. Culture is not only embedded in teaching and learning processes but is an agent by which teaching and learning are transmitted. In multicultural teaching environment settings, educators must reflect on the balance needed between acculturating students within the dominant culture but without hindrance to the pedagogical process and the targets set for learning. For such a challenging process to take place teachers and school administrators must infuse theoretical and practical multicultural concepts into the very heart of school leadership, curriculum instruction, policy making, classroom environment, student guidance, counselling, assessment schemes, festivities, @ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

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holidays and all other school procedures. Moreover, being culturally adapt to the needs of the student would mean that teachers feel the urge to infuse multicultural content into the subject matter. Good practices have been cited in Mathematics (Joubert & Andrews, 2010), Foreign Language Learning (Andrawiss, 2004), Science (White, Altschuld & Yi-Fang, 2006) and Engineering management (Young, 1992). For example teachers could demonstrate mathematical concepts such as bar graph representation by capitalising on the ethnic composition present in the classroom. Concepts such as probabilities, ratios, percentages, statistics, and graphs could be taught in a similar manner. Also literature in schools could be taught by studying the contributions of various cultural groups. There are numerous reasons that advocate for effective multicultural teaching and learning. The expansion of world trade, industrial globalization, marketing, technology and many other factors have created a situation where cross-cultural interaction is inevitable. Increasing specializations, joint programs and internet communication has brought people closer than ever before. Many undergraduate and postgraduate studies have a wide range of students coming from different countries and professionals wishing to guide their students need to develop a range of specialized skills which aim at reaching all students irrespective of their cultural origin. According to (Nisbett, 2003), cultural diversity is of crucial importance to the teaching and learning process, because of its deeply rooted cultural values and modes of thinking that are difficult to separate from the learning processes itself. The compelling need for higher educational and vocational qualifications leads students to demand culturally responsive learning experiences that would allow them to full develop their individual potentials (Visser, 2007). Teachers experiencing difficulty in engaging themselves in this challenging experience should gear themselves towards developing the skills necessary to deliver culturally sensitive and responsive instruction (Gunawardena & LaPointe, 2007). For teaching to be beneficial to students, teachers must be cognizant towards the cultures of their learners and able to interpret and analyse how those cultures manifest and impinge themselves in learning processes (Nisbett, 2003). Teachers and educational stakeholders should be acutely aware of their own culture because their world views shaped by their own culture, cannot be separated from the training they develop (Thomas, Mitchell, & Joseph, 2002). Being aware of how their own cultural perspectives, how they impinge on the pedagogical decisions they make has an effect how learners respond to the teaching process. After an extensive literature review, the paper will examine the cultural differences which exist between teachers and students across a number of dimensions. These differences are then analysed using quantitative methods of investigation. Conclusion and recommendations follow, based on findings. The Bilateral Framework for Multicultural Teaching and Learning Many authors contributed to literature on cultural differences. Hall (1959, 1976) studied time-orientations across continents and categorized people as @ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

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monochronic (m-time) and polychronic (p-time). On a similar framework, Lewis (2006) distinguished between linear time, multi-active time and cyclical time. Similarly Graham (1981) offers categorization of time orientations as linearseparable, circular-traditional and procedural traditional, while Levine (1997), dichotomizes time into clock time and event time. Hofstede (1980, 2001, 2005) identified a framework for describing cultural differences based on five value dimensions: High Power Distance versus Low Power Distance, High Uncertainty Avoidance versus Low Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism versus Collectivism, Masculinity versus Femininity and Long Term Orientation versus Short Term Orientation. The High Power Distance vs Low Power Distance dimension (Hofstede, 1980) measures the extent to which the members of a particular institution accept that power is being distributed equally. Hence, in a society with large power distance, superiors are inaccessible to those inferior in position while a society with a small power distance, superiors are accessible and there is a feeling of equal distribution of power. In a classroom situation this dimension is characterized as follows: Table 1: Manifestations of Power-Distance Dimension (Hofstede, 1980) in the classroom.

Low power distance (more equality) High Power Distance (less equality) Teachers treated on an equal par to Teachers are treated as unchallenged students. They can be engaged in authorities argumentation and even challenged. Students take responsibility for their Teachers are the sole source of own learning. knowledge and are fully responsible for what is taught in class. Dialogue is central to the teaching Communication flows down from activity teacher to student. The High Uncertainty Avoidance vs Low Uncertainty Avoidance dimension (Hofstede, 1980), illustrates the extent to which people feel endangered by unpredictable situations. They either seek to avoid these by enforcing strict norms of behaviour and affirming beliefs in absolute truths or else they express ability to accommodate to new situations by modifying the prevailing rules into more flexible ones. The hallmarks of strong uncertainty avoidance are higher anxiety and stress, need for written laws and consequences for non- abidance, resistance to change and strong desire to reach consensus. A society characterized by weak uncertainty avoidance will attempt to accommodate new incumbents and situations of uncertainty. Rules may be broken for practical reasons and there is less emotional resistance to change and more tolerance for disagreement and greater willingness to take risks.

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Table 2: Manifestations of High Uncertainty Avoidance vs Low Uncertainty Avoidance (Hofstede, 1980) in the classroom. High Uncertainly Avoidance Students prefer structured learning situations. Students prefer questions with a „yes‟ or „no‟. Learning builds on previous experience. Emphasis is on accuracy of answers.

Low Uncertainty Avoidance Students prefer unstructured learning situations. Students prefer open answers. Learning ventures to new routes and pathways. Emphasis is on creativity of answers.

The Individualistic vs Collectivistic dimension examines the extent to which individuals are integrated into groups or not. In an Individualistic culture people have a restricted family structure, look after themselves and their immediate family, and adhere to strong norms to maintain self-respect and self esteem. In a Collectivistic culture people belong to groups. Loyalty is the principal norm of the group. A collectivistic society values extended families and „saving face‟ is of vital importance. On the same lines, Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars (1997) expanded this dimension to include whether societies focus their attention on the collective or on the individual. In the classroom this dimension can be manifested as follows: Table 3: Manifestations of Individualistic vs Collectivistic perspectives (Hofstede, 1980) in the classroom. Individualistic Perspective Students work independently. Helping others may be viewed as cheating. Discussion, argumentation, and critical thinking form the basis of learning. Property belongs to individuals. To avail oneself of someone else‟s property one has to ask formal permission. Students are expected to take control of their learning environment. Parents partake and involve themselves actively in their child‟s education. Students speak up readily. Learning how to learn is very important. Students‟ opinions are highly

Collectivistic Perspective A collaborative stance is the norm. Every students is a team player and works for the success of the group. Students sit quietly and attempt to internalize what the teacher is delivering. Property belongs to everybody. No permission is needed to avail oneself of someone else‟s property. Students assume that the teacher has the absolute authority of what goes in the classroom. Parents accept teachers‟ expertise and guidance. Students speak up not so readily. Learning how to do is very important Students‟ are expected to integrate

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valued.

their opinions with the prevalent line of discussion. Students work towards individual Students work towards communal gain. gain. The Masculinity vs Femininity dimension (Hofstede, 2001) refers to the extent to which a society emphasizes achievement or nurture. Masculinity is perceived to be the attribute which focuses on acquisition of wealth, ambition and differentiated gender roles. On the other hand, Femininity is seen to be the trait which emphasises lasting caring behaviours, promotes sexual equality, and advocates for more fluidity in gender role acquisition. Striving for consensus, maintaining healthy relationships, and developing sympathy for people who are in difficulty are the hallmarks of a feminine culture. In a classroom situation this dimension is characterized as seen in table 4: Table 4: Manifestations of Masculinity vs Femmininity dimension (Hofstede, 2001) in the classroom. Masculine Perspective Students come from a traditional family structure. Boys don‟t cry. Girls cry. Girls don‟t fight. Boys do fight. Making mistakes is catastrophic. Teachers openly admire best students in the class. Certification is of primary importance. Students like competitive tasks. Students compare themselves (academically) to other students.

Feminine Perspective Flexible family structure. Both boys and girls cry. Nobody fights. Making mistakes is part of life Teachers praise team efforts.

Group accomplishments are important. Students like cooperative tasks. Students compare their ethnic performance (academic) to other groups. Students make themselves „visible‟ in Students do not care about the classroom. „visibility‟ in the classroom.

most

group ethnic their

Hall (1959, 1976) categorises time-orientations into monochronic (m-time) and polychronic (p-time). M-time people are sequential and tend to perform one thing at a time, favouring a greater reliability on time-tables, itineraries, diaries, and schedules while P-time people are distinguished by undertaking a series of activities simultaneously. People who adhere to monochromic time orientations have a strong future orientation, whereas people who are polychromic who have a strong present and past orientations. Hofstede (2005) dichotomizes time as „Long Term‟ versus „Short Term‟ orientation. In his own words: "Long Term Orientation stands for the fostering of virtues oriented towards future rewards, in particular perseverance and thrift. It‟s opposite pole, Short Term Orientation, stands for the fostering of virtues related @ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

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to the past and present, respect for tradition, preservation of „face‟ and fulfilling social obligations.” (p. 33). Societies with a short-term orientation value traditions with very little regard for the future and have a sharp focus on achieving quick results (Geert Hofstede, 2001, quoted in geerthofstede.com/dimensions.html). In societies with a long-term orientation, people value and adapt traditions according to changed conditions, with a strong interest in investing for the future and a strong focus on achieving desired results. According to Levine (1997), different people in different cultures view time differently. He dichotomizes time into clock time and event time. While western cultures and the US are dictated by the clock to execute important functions, other cultures are dictated by events to execute the same functions. Lewis (2006) distinguishes between linear time, multi-active time and cyclical time. In linear time cultures such as the USA, time simply flows from past to present to future. In Lewis (2006) own words, „the past is over, but the present you can seize, parcel and package and make it work for you in the immediate future.‟ A lot of talk is consumed over spending and saving time. There is simply no place for lingering or to put it simple- time is money! In Lewis‟s (2006) model, the past is to be forgotten and a lot of importance is given to the present and how it (the present) is going to be profitable in the near future. In multi-active time societies (Lewis, 2006) such as southern Europeans, people tend to do many things at the same time. Table 5 below shows an adaptation of the time dimensions described above with reference to the classroom environment:

Table 5: Time Orientations (Hall, 1959, 1926; Hofstede, 2001, 2005; Levine, 1997; Lewis, 2006) as manifested in the classroom. Monochronic Polychronic (multiactive) Students perform one task at a time. Students perform multiple tasks simultaneously. Students rely on established Students rely on information they schedules. get from peers. Long Term Orientation Short Term Orientation Students design a long term plan of Students design short term plans of study. study. Students are prepared to give long Students are more likely to study on term sustained efforts in their study. the eve of exams. Students are likely to give up life Students balance carefully study and pleasures to study. life pleasures. Clock Time Event Time Lessons start on time and finish on Lesson time can be flexible. time. Class time is regulated by a time-table. Class time is more fluid and flexible. Emphasis is on strict procedures. Procedures exist only as guidelines. Assignments to are meet deadlines. Assignment deadlines are fluid. Linear Time Cyclical time Time is not to be wasted. One should Reflection and contemplation are not be quick if s/he is to get results a waste of time. Rushing through @ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

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activities will not lead anywhere. Time has to managed Opportunity knocks once!

Adapting to time is important. There will be opportunities in the future. Past experiences are not important. It Past experiences are a reflection of is the present and the future which one‟s performance(s) now and in counts. future. Building on Hofstede‟s (1980) model, Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars (1997) expanded the definition of national cultures to include factors such as historical, political and social dimensions which, in turn, have an effect on „business values‟. The Universal versus the Particular dimension (Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars, 1997) represents a culture‟s view of principles. While the Universal dimension places emphasis on rules and regulations, the Particular dimension places more emphasis on relationships within the group. The Neutral versus Affective dimension (Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars, 1997) emphasizes the extent of which an individual (or a group) is objective and detached (neutral) from influences around him/her. Displays of affection indicate that individuals (or groups) is/ are more inclined towards the affective dimension. The Specific versus Diffuse dimension (Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars, 1997) represents a culture‟s blending of work and personal life. The Specific aspect of this dimension implies that the person is more inclined to separate work and personal life. On the other hand, the Diffuse aspect suggests a blend between work and personal life. The Achievement versus Prescription dimension (Hampden-Turner &Trompenaars, 1997) describes a society‟s style of assigning status. The Achievement aspect of the dimension places emphasis on performance and flexibility, whilst the prescription aspect emphasizes age, education, gender, and personal characteristics as other possible agents of success. The Individual versus Collective dimension (Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars, 1997) is similar to Hofstede‟s (1980) dimension of Individualism versus Collectivism where the collective focus is either on the individual or on the collective The Time as Sequence (Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars,1997) sees events as consecutive whereas Time as Synchronization (Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars, 1997) sees events as occurring in parallel. This is similar to multi-active time societies (Lewis, 2006) and to Hall‟s (1959, 1976) polychromic time societies. The Internal versus External dimension (Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars, 1997) relates to the environment dimension and measures the extent of which an individual or group has over his/ her environment. Inner-directed societies believe that although complex, nature can be controlled. In an externally oriented society, members believe that they can harmonize themselves with nature and thus have little control over it. Members of internal societies inculcate more dominating attitudes and are uncomfortable with change while members of external societies apply flexibility and are at ease with change and more willing to harmonise themselves with nature. In a classroom situation these dimensions might manifest themselves as follows:

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Table 6: Historical, political, and social dimensions (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars, 1997) as manifested in the classroom. Universalism Particularism Emphasis is placed on classroom Emphasis is placed on classroom regulations. relationships. Neutral Affective Students are not affected by what Students are easily affected by happens around them. what happens around them. Specific Diffuse Students do not share their school Students share their school experiences with family members. experiences with family members. Achievement Prescription Students count only upon their To move up the social ladder, achievements to move up the social students count also upon a ladder. number of characteristics such as age, gender and personal characteristics. Internal External Students find it difficult to adapt to Students find it comfortable to adapt changes (eg: time-table. to changes (eg: time-table). The literature review provided the researcher with a solid basis on which to construct a methodology based on the dichotomous nature of the cultural dimensions. Methodology The snowball sampling method was used to engage participants in the study. Teachers were recruited from five post secondary schools in Malta who were initially contacted following a call by the researcher for volunteers. The teachers were then asked to indicate other teachers who had students of multicultural origin in their classes and who wished to participate in the study. In total, a cohort of thirty-nine teachers together with their students participated in the study, of whom 27 were male (69%) and 12 were female (31%). A total of 445 students took part in the study. Based on work of Hofstede (1980, 2001, 2005), Hall (1983), Levine (1987), Lewis (2006) and Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars (1997), the Bilateral Framework for Multicultural Teaching and Learning (BFMTL) was constructed and a questionnaire was designed mirroring the interpretations given to the dimensions by the researcher. A meeting was held and the questionnaire and dimensions were clearly explained both to teachers and students. The teachers and the students were given the questionnaire simultaneously so as not to leave room for extraneous variables. Both the teachers and the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x;s questionnaires consisted of 42 statements in which participants were asked to circle their preference on a seven @ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

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point Likert scale. Statements 1 to 3 were related to the Power-Distance Dimension (Hofstede, 1980); statements 4 to 7 were related to the High Uncertainty Avoidance vs Low Uncertainty Avoidance dimension (Hofstede, 1980); statements 8 to 16 were related to the Individualistic vs Collectivistic perspectives (Hofstede, 1980); statements 17 to 24 were related to the Masculinity vs Femininity (Hofstede, 2001); statements 25 to 37 relate to the Time Orientations (Hall, 1959, 1926; Hofstede, 2001, 2005; Levine, 1997; Lewis, 2006) while questions 38 to 42 refer to the Historical, political and social dimensions (Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars, 1997). Each question on the teachers‟ questionnaire had a corresponding counterpart on the students‟ questionnaire. This allowed for easy question by question comparisons and computations. The average teacher‟s score (depicted in red) and the average student‟s score (depicted in blue) was computed for each dimension. Modal scores (depicted as yellow lines) were computed to determine where the majority of scores are concentrated. These modal scores were computed for each dimension (i.e. 13) and for each class (i.e. 39) forming a total of 507 graphical representations. The SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) was used to conduct t-tests. The null hypothesis (H0) in the study states that the means between the teacher‟s score and the students‟ mean are not statistically different from each other. A series of t-tests was conducted to test this hypothesis and to determine whether it is accepted or rejected. From these, a few were chosen for illustration purposes. Classes were arbitrarily named from Class A to Class L. The criteria for the selection of graphical representations were based on the disparities of dimensional scores, which proved to be ideal platform for analysis, taking care to include all dimensions. Score number one, marked in red, represents the teacher‟s score while the other scores represent student scores. Analysis now follows based on findings. Analysis and Interpretation of Results All questionnaires were returned. Analysis now proceeds by highlighting similarities and disparities between dimensions. Low Power Distance vs High Power Distance Dimension Class A represents an interesting situation in which the class exhibits a bimodal characteristic (mode 1 = 6.25, mode 2 =2.00). It is clear that the majority of students scored on the lower side of the Low power vs High power Dimension Graph. On the other hand however, other students scored high indicating that they expect the teacher to maintain a high power distance in the classroom with the teacher scoring of 4, thus indicating that the teacher is currently adopting a flexible approach and is aware of the Power-Distance disparities which exist among students and is able to gauge how much power s/he is willing to concede to students (x̄ = 3.077, tobt= 1.54 at tcrit = 2.179, α=0.05). A tobt<tcrit indicates that the teacher‟s score is not statistically different from the two modal scores. However it must be stated that there is a statistically significant disparity between the modal scores of the two „groups‟ of students.

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mode 1= 6.25

mode 2 = 2.00

Fig 1: Graphical representation of Class A

The High Uncertainty vs Low Uncertainty Avoidance graph indicated a clear disparity between teacher‟s and students‟ value scores. While the teacher scored a 6.75 the modal line for students indicate a score of 2.75, while the average score of students x̄ was 2.938 (tobt= 8.06 at tcrit = 2.131, α=0.05). The result shows a statistically significant disparity between the teacher‟s score and the students‟ score, with the teacher scoring high (ie low tolerance) on Uncertainty Avoidance and students exhibiting an inclination towards low uncertainty avoidance (Fig 2). This result calls for a plan of action for both teachers and students to examine critically their own culture and device plans of actions aimed at reducing such differences.

Teacher’s score

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Figure 3 shows the graphical result of the Individualistic vs Collectivistic perspective. The graph shows a somewhat dispersed scatter plot of the dimension clearly indicating a variety of responses to the questionnaire. Students in this class came from a wide variety of background characteristic and hence demonstrated a variability of scores (a shown by the yellow modal line). This represents a major challenge for the teacher who needs to interact with a variety of perspectives. It would be helpful if the senior management team of the school screens the particular cultures existing within this class and provide opportunities for both teacher and students to interact more effectively. They would also benefit from using the instrument to clearly examine other dimensions featuring in the questionnaire. This would shed new light on how the various dimensions interact and the resultant of these interactions. From the results of the questionnaires one can construct tailor-made training opportunities for both teachers and students. The mean score of students (x̄) = 3.263, (tobt= 1.53 at tcrit = 2.101, α=0.05) shows that the student‟s mean is not statistically different from the teacher‟s score. However, the difference of scores between students themselves (eg: student numbers 7, 11 and 18 scored a 7 while students 2, 12 and 19 scored a 1) indicate extreme positions in the Individualistic vs Collectivistic dimension. Hence it is imperative for all students and teacher to examine the roots of their cultural background and the reasons behind the different perceptions.

Fig 3: Graphical representation of Class C

The Masculinity vs Femininity dimension (fig 4) provides a unique opportunity for teachers and students to examine core values within their cultures. The figure presents a situation where the teacher adheres mostly to Masculine dimension of Culture. While a small group of students tend to mirror this culture by scoring values close to the teacher‟s, a larger group of students revealed scores near to the 5.75 modal group. This graph shows a large disparity between the teacher‟s tendency towards the Masculinity dimension as opposed to the Femininity dimension exhibited by some students (tobt=-8.14 at tcrit= 2.16, α= 0.05). @ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

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While the teacher emphasised strong academic performances where failing is perceived as catastrophic, some students tended to see failure as an opportunity to grow. Also, while the teacher orchestrated competitive tasks for his/her students highlighting individual achievement, most students adhered more to a culture of cooperation where the achievement of the group is perceived of a higher value than that of the individual. Students who conformed with the cultural precepts of the teacher were more „visible‟ and hence acquired more attention from the teacher. The use of the BFMTL can be used productively by making both teacher and students aware of the disparity existing within this cultural dimension and to highlight possibilities as to how this can be bridged in the interest of all concerned.

Fig 4: Graphical representation of Class D

Figure 5 examines Hall‟s (1959, 1976) Monochronic and Polychronic time orientations. A line of best fit (modal line) was passed through the teacher‟s score. It is observed that the points are dispersed but balanced. The teacher preferred the middle score in this dimension. A number of student scores were close to the teacher‟s score and hence no statistically different result was obtained (tobt =0 at tcrit=2.179). Other scores however, were distant from the modal score of 4 at both ends of the dimensions. In particular three students out of 13 scored a score of 2 and one student gave a score of 7. These results serve as springboards for researchers, teachers, managers and other stakeholders within the Maltese Educational System to identify those elements which pose variations in how practical tasks within the class are executed and to research mechanisms to establish whether the monochronic vs polychromic cultural dimension could be the underpinning responsible for such variations.

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Fig 5: Graphical representation of Class E

An interesting but complex situation occurred in Class F (fig 6) with the teacher exhibiting a strong long term orientation and the students showing an inclination towards short term orientation. This is a situation which can cause conflict if not tackled appropriately by both teachers and students. The modal score lines in the graph represents a cluster of scores which show dissimilarity in the long term vs short term orientation. The scores show that it is vital for both teachers and students to be aware of these differences, foster a positive attitude towards each other, seek, and study literature on time orientations and work towards the embedded skills necessary to bridge these dissimilarities. Though it is recognized that this is a challenging enterprise, more needs to be done to provide the necessary fabric which would guide college professionals and students with the necessary linchpins upon which they can critically examine the impact of their own culture on the teaching and learning process.

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A similar situation but in rather reverse fashion occurred in the clock time vs event time dimension in class G (fig 7). While the teacher showed a clear tendency towards clock time, all his/her students exhibited an event time orientation. Tscores computed for this dimension showed a tobt = - 8.57 as compared to tcrit = 3.012 (α= 0.01) and this suggests dissimilarities that there could be a potential source of conflict since while the teacher would show strictness in observing classroom timetables and be strict on assignment deadlines, students could be expecting more fluid time table arrangements and a margin of flexibility with regards to assignments and other classroom activities. The results make a case for the use of BFMTL as a tool for measurement and investigation of cultural discrepancies within the teaching and learning progression.

Fig 7: Graphical representation of Class G

Figure 8 presents us with a picture of the Linear Time vs Cyclical Time dimension with the teacher scoring high on Linear Time and all the students scoring more towards Cyclical Time. The mean score of the students (x̄) was 2.53 which shows a statistically significant score when compared with that of the teacher (X= 6). This shows a clear disparity in Time Values between teacher and students. Most students showed the inherent need for reflective time, i.e. time to “digest” material before it actually makes sense. In this situation, however, the teacher score (X=6) was distant from student‟s perceptions which scored 1 and 2 respectively (tobt = 15.18 at tcrit = 2.145, a=0.5). These disparities could be bridged by increasing awareness of different time orientations, stressing their values in different situations and by fostering an open attitude towards learning situations which demand different spans of reflection time. Experimenting with various student groupings, recording data from the BFMTL questionnaire and putting in practice the knowledge and skills acquired during the process would give both students and teachers an invaluable experience towards understanding the impact of culture on the teaching and learning mechanisms. @ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

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Fig 8: Graphical representation of Class H

The Universalism vs Particularism dimension illustrates the complexity of the impact of culture on learning. The graphical representation of class I shows a diversified score, in terms of how students perceive their interrelationship with their teacher. About half of the students prefer to have a relationship based on rules and regulations while the other half expect a more dynamic and flowing relationship based on societal norms rather than an imposed set of in laws. The teacher score of 4 was close to the modal score of 5. The t-score for this dimension shows that the students mean score (xĚ&#x201E;=4.706) is not statistically different from the teacher score (X = 4 at tobt =-1.506 at tcrit = 2.120 at Îą= 0.5).

Fig 9: Graphical representation of Class I

The Neutral vs Affective Dimension (fig 10) shows that some students are affected by what happens around them while others are not. The middle score of 4 given by the teacher also illustrates the point that this dimension needs to be further @ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

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amplified to contain concrete examples upon which both teachers and students can build their perceptions. Researchers need to delve into deeper analysis as to what role can the neutral vs affective dimension have on the cultural impact on teaching and learning.

Fig 10: Graphical representation of Class J

Figure 11 represents the results of a culture which shows an inclination towards the diffuse aspect of this dimension. In class K, both teacher and students scored below 4 on the specific vs diffuse dimension. This illustrates a rather healthy situation where the individual components of the class communicate and share events and experiences arising from interaction in their work environments. This situation calls for direct intervention in helping the components of this class (teacher and students) to establish effective links between the work done in the classroom and its application in the working environment. Both the teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x;s and the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; score indicate that a shift in orientation towards the more specific aspect of this dimension could prove beneficial.

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The graphical result of the Achievement vs Prescription dimension highlights a situation where both teacher (X=6) and students (x̄=5.722) believe that achievements are the building blocks for success in life and not other factors such as age, gender and other personal characteristics (at tobt = 1.076, tcrit=2.11, α=0.5). However, two particular scores (student numbers 3 and 14) show a significant shift from the rest of the class. This indicates that these two students adhere to a culture where personal characteristics such as age and gender may have a significant influence on life successes. It would of benefit to both teacher and students to be aware of this data and to further investigate and appreciate the roots of such differences.

Fig 12: Graphical representation of Class L The Internal vs External dimension measures the extent of difficulty in adjustment a person feels when s/he experiences changes in his/her immediate environment (for example a change in time table). Such change is also cultural since it tests the very ability of a person to adjust to circumstances. As shown in figure 13 (below), the scores recorded are on the upper side of the Internal vs External dimension. Statistical analysis of teacher and student data (X=5, x̄ = 6.143 tobt = -6.69 at tcrit = 2.60, α=0.05) show that the whole group within the teaching and learning situation conforms more with the internal aspect of the dimension with students exhibiting a stronger tendency than their teacher.

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Fig 13: Graphical representation of Class L

Discussion The results of study have shed light on a number of cultural dimensions whose bilateral nature allowed the author to examine their presence in the classrooms. The results of this analysis suggest that there are significant differences among teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x; scores in cultural dimensions as opposed to students score within the same dimensions. These results also suggest that both teachers and students need to engage in reflective practices aimed at critically examining their own culture and how this influences their daily interaction. The results advocate for the use of the BFMTL questionnaire and to use the results as a springboard for the awareness of cultural dimensions present in the classroom and to understand the processes which influence the interaction between dimensions. Student teachers need to be aware of research in cultural dimensions and their applications within the classroom environment. Field experiences should provide opportunity for cultural immersion and reflective practices. Teacher mentors within the Maltese educational system may act as mediators between NQTs (Newly Qualified Teachers) and students coming from different cultural backgrounds. The Ministry of Education and Employment in Malta may contribute by making all stakeholders within the educational system aware of existing multicultural teaching programs and theoretical frameworks and also lobby for funds directed towards training teachers in developing new and existing multicultural competencies.

Implications and Suggestions for Further Research The study showed significant differences between teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x; and students scores across a number of cultural dimensions. The study implies that there could be other cultural dimensions which may be incumbent on the teaching and learning @ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

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process and which have not yet been studied. The establishment of focus groups consisting of teachers and students aimed at analysing particular aspects of specific dimensions is suggested. Further research could delve into particular aspects of cultural dimensions analysing interactive patterns between teachers and students, between students, between teachers, and also between management levels. How is our cultural programming conditioning us in acting the way we do? How is our cultural underpinning influencing our daily classroom and management decisions? What effect does our cultural upbringing has on the teaching and learning processes? How are various cultural dimensions influencing who we interact with? Some teachers may have attended development sessions over a number of years where the impact of culture upon the teaching and learning process has been discussed and hence may have had the opportunity to practice acquired skills in their classrooms. Future research could capitalise on these experiences and use them as resources in the construction of multicultural training programs. Further research into the cultural dimensions for teaching and learning would provide opportunities for educational directorates to develop tailor made programs to address the specific needs of particular class groups. These may also include role play and discussions specifically targeting particular dimensions. Additional research could be carried out in determining which cultural dimensions have most influence on the teaching and learning process. Research could also be extended within the primary, secondary, and university sectors of education. The author of the study has presented a number of snapshots across a number of cultural dimensions and expressed them in graphical format. It must be emphasized, however, that cultural dimensions are in a state of fluidity and can never be „freezed‟ in time. Hence, replication of studies using test-retest procedures is suggested as good practice in understanding variations in cultural dimensions. Studies such as this one provide local authorities with the means to support teachers in their “struggle towards inclusion of multicultural students” (Giordmaina, 2000). Future teacher education programs and courses need to focus on preparing teachers for the challenge of teaching students of multicultural origin. Students need to be provided with induction courses aimed at familiarizing themselves with the cultural precepts of their fellow peers and those of their tutors. Future research could be carried out linking the cultural dimensions of teaching and learning to other factors such as student's learning style, academic achievement, pedagogical styles, teacher cultural competency and others. Besides, during research, the author encountered cultures within cultures (subcultures) which could also have influenced teacher- student interactions, but this goes beyond the scope of this paper. Further research could delve into these subcultures and models should be reconstructed to include influences from such subcultures. Also future research could delve into the mechanisms which give rise to change in teachers‟ and students‟ cultural perceptions over particular periods of career or study. @ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

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Limitations of the Study The study provides information on teachers already employed within the Maltese educational system and is prone to a number of limitations. The first limitation is the small sample size involved and the snowball sampling method used. The current study targeted specific classes which were known to contain teachers and students of a culture different from mainstream culture. This makes it difficult to generalize the results for teachers and students outside the sample. As with all self-reporting studies results are limited by the participants‟ responses. Participants may have felt the need to provide responses the researcher was looking for rather than what they perceived to be true. It must be stated that these dimensions represent extreme snapshots of stereotypical cultures. In reality cultures are dynamic and the scales presented in this paper are a continuum of what the author perceives and interprets as existing within classroom environment. It must be stated that no attempt is made to categorise cultures according to these dimensions. The literature review, however, provided a good fabric upon which to study cultural difference and their impact on teaching and learning. This paper celebrates the spectrums of variability rather than attempts to generalize differences between cultures. The Bilateral Framework for Multicultural Teaching and Learning does not purport to address all possible cultural dimensions. The intricacies and complexities of cultural dimensions, their evolutionary impact on teaching and learning and their inherent role in education and cultural transmission makes any attempt at constructing a framework impractical and elusive. Conclusion Multicultural education in Malta is still in its inception. Managers, teachers and students involved in multicultural settings may find the model useful to study and prepare themselves for the potential differences that they encounter as „actors‟ in the teaching and learning process. The descriptions of thirteen key cultural dimensions in the BFMTL are suggested as a tool for culturally based learning differences so that can be recognized when they manifest themselves in class situations. The BFMTL questionnaire is a tool for educational stakeholders to critically examine their own cultural biases and analyse the magnitude of their impact in the classroom situation. Being cognizant of one‟s beliefs and behaviours and where they manifest themselves along a spectrum of differences can help construct different pedagogical approaches and hence create more nurturing school and classes. References: Andrawiss, H. (2004). Cultural Dimensions of Foreign Language Learning: A Sociocultural Perspective. Retreived online at http://books.google.com.mt/books?id=BkmUFaKed8C&dq=inauthor:%22Helene+Andrawiss%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=N o-OUIePMpPE4gT_gYGwBw&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA @ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

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Arya, K., Margaryan, A., & Collis, B. (2003). Culturally sensitive problem solving activities for multi-national corporations. TechTrends, 47(6), 40-49. Banks J.A. and Banks C.A.M. (Eds). (2002). Handbook of research on Multicultural Education. Berge, Z. L. (2007). Training in the corporate sector. In M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Carr-Chellman, A. A. (2006). User design. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesCastro, F. G., Barrera Jr., M., & Martinez Jr., C. R. (2004). The cultural adaptation of prevention interventions: Resolving tensions between fidelity and fit. Prevention Science, 5(1), 41-45. Cole, M. (1996). Cultural psychology: A once and future discipline. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Cottle, T. J. and. Klineberg, S.L. (1974). The Present of Things' Future, New York:The Free Press. Doob, L. W. (1971). Patterning of Time, New Haven: Yale University Press. Edmundson, A. (2007). The cultural adaptation process (cap) model: Designing e-learning for another culture. In A. Edmundson (Ed.), Globalized elearning cultural challenges (pp. 267-290). Hershey, PA: Idea Group, Inc. Edmundson, A. (in press). Cross cultural learning objects. In A. Edmunson (Ed.), Cases on globalized and culturally appropriate e-learning: Challenges and solutions. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Gibbons, A. S. (2009). The value of the operational principle in instructional design. Educational Technology, 49(1), 3-9. Giordmaina J. (Ed.) (2000). Proceedings â&#x20AC;&#x201C; National curriculum on its way. A conference held on the 9-11th June 2000. Malta: MOED. Graham, Robert J. (1981), "The Role of Perception of Time in Consumer Research," Journal of Consumer Research, 7 (March), 335-342. Gunawardena, C. N., Wilson, P. L., & Nolla, A. C. (2003). Culture and online education. In M. G. Moore & W. G. Anderson (Eds.), Handbook of distance education (pp. 753-775). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Gunawardena, C. N., & LaPointe, D. (2007). Cultural dynamics of online learning. In M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance learning (2nd ed., pp. 593-607). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hall, E. T. (1987). Hidden Differences: Doing Business with the Japanese, Garden @ 2014 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved

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Parrish, P. E., & Linder-VanBerschot , J.A. (2009a). The cultural dimensions of Learning framework questionnaire. Retrieved from http://homes.comet.ucar.edu/~pparrish/index.htm. Parrish, P. E., & Linder-VanBerschot, J.A. (2009b). The CDLF questionnaire analysis form. Retrieved from http://homes.comet.ucar.edu/~pparrish/index.htm. Schwier, R. A., Campbell, K., & Kenny, R. (2004). Instructional designer's observations about identity, communities of practice and change agency. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 20(4), 69-100. Thomas, M., Mitchell, M., & Joseph, R. (2002). The third dimension of ADDIE: A cultural embrace. TechTrends, 46(2), 40-45. Visser, J. (2007). Learning in a global society. In M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. White, J. L., Altschuld, J.W. Lee, and Yi-Fang, L.(2006). Cultural Dimensions in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics: Implications for Minority Retention Research. Retreived on 31st Oct 2012 from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb= true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ844652&ERICExtSearch_Searc hType_0=no&accno=EJ844652 Yau, Oliver H. M. (1988), "Chinese Cultural Values: Their Dimensions and Marketing Implications,'' European Journal of Marketing, 22 (No. 5), 4457. Young E. J. (1992)The social and cultural dimensions in engineering management and organization of global operations. Retrieved on 31st October 2012 from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=225290&url=ht tp%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber% 3D225290 Young, P. A. (2008). The culture based model: Constructing a model of culture. EducationalTechnology & Society, 11(2), 107-118. Young, P. A. (2007). The culture based model: A framework for designers and visual id languages. In L. S. Botturi & L. Todd (Eds.), Handbook of visual languages for instructional design (pp. 52-75). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.

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Appendix 1 Students’ Questionnaire Dear Students, The aim of the questionnaire is to find ways and means to bridge cultural disparities which may exist between you and your teachers. Following your responses, a series of strategies to address these disparities will be suggested, based on findings. There are no right or wrong answers. Simply circle that best indicates the statements below. Responses range from 1 to 7. A 1 response indicates that you fully agree with the statement on the left while a 7 indicates that you fully agree with statements on the right. Thank you for your answers.

Example

4) 5) 6)

10)

I take part in class decision I do not take part in class decision making. making. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Classroom power is to shared Classroom Power should be in the between teachers and hands of the teacher. students. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I take responsibility for my The teacher is the sole responsible own learning. for my learning. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I prefer dialogues to top- I prefer top-down teaching to down teaching. discussions. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I prefer structured learning I prefer unstructured learning 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I prefer YES or NO answers. I prefer OPEN-ENDED answers. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I build my learning on I build my learning by „exploring previous experiences. new territories.’ 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Homework should follow Homework should be a creative strict instructions. output. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I prefer to work I prefer to work in a group. independently. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 In the class I prefer to argue In the class I prefer to listen rather rather than listening. than arguing. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I don’t like sharing my I like sharing my personal property.

174

personal property. 11) 12) 13)

14) 15)

16)

17) 18)

19)

20) 21)

22)

23)

24)

25)

26)

27)

1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I take initiative in class I do not take initiative in class. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 In my family, roles are rigid. In my family, roles are flexible. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 In my culture, girls cry, boys In my culture, both boys and girls donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t. cry. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Failing at school is disastrous. Failing is an opportunity. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Teachers should admire best Teachers should admire team efforts students in class. in class. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 A personal certificate is Class achievement is more important desirable at the end of the than a certificate. year. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I like competitive task. I like cooperative tasks. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I compare myself to other I compare my ethnic group to other students. students. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I make myself heard in the I donâ&#x20AC;&#x;t make myself heard in the classroom. classroom. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I perform one task at a time. I perform many tasks concurrently. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I rely on established I rely on information I get from schedules. peers. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I prepare long term study I prepare short term study plans. plans. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I start studying immediately I study just before exams. at the beginning of the year. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I give up life pleasures to I balance between life pleasures and study. study. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I like it when lessons start I prefer lesson time to be flexible. on time and fish on time. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Class time has to be clearly Class time has to be fluid and scheduled on a time table. flexible. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Procedures have to be strict. Procedures have to be fluid.

175

28)

29)

30)

31) 32)

33)

34)

35)

36)

37)

38)

39)

1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Assignments have to meet Assignments deadlines have to be deadlines. fluid. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Time is not to be wasted. One should reflect before rushing One should be quick if s/he through an activity. to get results. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Time management is Adapting to time is important. important. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Opportunity knocks once ! There will be other opportunities. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Past experiences in learning Reflecting on past experiences is are not important. Letâ&#x20AC;&#x;s important for a good performance work now ! now and in future. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Classroom regulations are Development of relationships are more important than more important than classroom development of regulations. relationships. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I am not affected by what I am very much affected by what happens around me at happens around me at school. school. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I do not share school I share school experiences with experiences with family family members. members. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I rely solely on my own Besides achievement, age, sex and achievements to succeed in other qualities will help me to life. succeed in life. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I find it difficult to adapt to I find it easy to adapt to changes (eg: changes (eg: time table) time table) 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Class regulations are more Relationships are more important important than than class regulations. relationships. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I do not care about events I do care about events happening happening around me. around me. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I do not share my school I do share my school experiences experiences with family with family members. members.

176

41)

1---2---3---4---5---6---7 To move ahead in life you To move ahead in live you also need to focus on need to focus on personal achievements. characteristics such as age, gender and personal experiences. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I find it difficult to adapt to I find it easy to adapt to changes changes (eg: time table (eg: time table changes changes) 1---2---3---4---5---6---7

Teachers Questionnaire Dear Teachers, The aim of the questionnaire is to find ways and means to bridge cultural disparities which may exist between you and your students. Following your responses, a series of strategies to address these disparities will be suggested, based on findings. There are no right or wrong answers. Simply circle the number that best indicates the statements below. Responses range from 1 to 7. A 1 response indicates that you fully agree with the statement on the left while a 7 indicates that you fully agree with statement on the right. Thank you for your answers. Example

4) 5)

Decision making in class is I involve students in class decision making. entirely my responsibility 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Classroom power is to be Classroom Power should be in the shared between teachers and hands of the teacher. students. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I take responsibility for what Students are responsible for their my students learn. own learning 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I prefer dialogues to top-down I prefer top-down teaching to teaching. discussions. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I prefer structured teaching. I prefer unstructured teaching. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I construct YES or NO type of I construct OPEN-ENDED questions. answers 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I urge students to build their I urge students to â&#x20AC;&#x17E;exploring new learning on previous territoriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; while learning. experiences. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I give assignments with clear I give assignments requiring a creative output. strict guidelines.

177

10)

11) 12) 13)

14)

15) 16)

17) 18)

19)

20 21

22)

23)

1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I urge students to work I urge students to work in a group. independently. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 In the class I encourage In the class I urge students to listen discussions more than rather than to discuss. listening. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I do not encourage sharing in I urge students to share personal the classroom. property. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I promote initiatives in class. I do not promote initiatives in class. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 In my family, roles are rigid. In my family, roles are flexible. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 In my culture, girls cry, boys In my culture, both boys and girls cry. donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I perceive failing at school as I perceive failing at school as an disastrous. opportunity. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I admire best students in class. I admire team efforts in class. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I put more emphasis on Class achievement is more important certification than a certificate. rather than class achievement. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I prepare competitive tasks. I prepare cooperative tasks. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I compare myself I compare my ethnic group (academically) to other (academically) to other ethnic teachers backgrounds. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I make myself heard in the I donâ&#x20AC;&#x;t make myself heard in the classroom. classroom. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I perform one task at a time. I perform many tasks concurrently. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I rely on established I rely on information I get from schedules. peers. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I prepare long term schemes I prepare short term schemes of of work work. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I urge students to start I urge students to study just before studying early through the exams.

178

academic year. 24)

25)

26)

27) 28)

29)

30)

31) 32)

33)

34)

35)

36)

1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I urge students to give up life I urge students to balance between pleasures in order to study. life pleasures and study. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Lessons have to start on time Lesson time has to be flexible. and finish on time. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Class time has to be clearly Class time has to be fluid and scheduled on a time table. flexible. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Procedures have to be strict. Procedures have to be fluid. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Assignments have to meet Assignments deadlines have to be deadlines fluid. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Time is not to be wasted. There should be opportunity for Students have to be quick if reflection and contemplation before s/he wants results. attempting a task. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Time management is Adapting to time is important. important 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Opportunity knocks once ! There will be other opportunities. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I urge students to forget I emphasize the importance of about their past learning reflecting on past learning experiences experiences and start and use these experiences now and working from â&#x20AC;Ś. now ! in future. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 Classroom regulations are Development of relationships are more important than more important than classroom development of regulations relationships. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I am not affected by what I am very much affected by what happens around me at happens around me at school. school. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I do not share school I share school experiences with experiences with family family members members 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I rely solely on my own Besides achievement, age, sex and achievements to succeed in other qualities will help me to life succeed in life 1---2---3---4---5---6---7

179

37)

38)

39)

41)

I find it difficult to adapt to I find it easy to adapt to changes (eg: changes (eg: time table) time table) 1—2—3—4—5—6—7 Class regulations are more Relationships are more important important than relationships. than class regulations. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I do not care about events I do care about events happening happening around me. around me. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I do not share my school I do share my school experiences experiences with family with family members. members. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 To move ahead in life you To move ahead in live you also need to focus on need to focus on personal achievements. characteristics such as age, gender and personal experiences. 1---2---3---4---5---6---7 I find it difficult to adapt to I find it easy to adapt to changes changes (eg: time table (eg: time table changes changes) 1---2---3---4---5---6---7

180

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 180-200, August 2014

Assessing Principals‟ Coordinating and Controlling Strategies for Effective Teaching and Quality Learning Outcome in Secondary Schools in Ondo State, Nigeria Adeolu Joshua Ayeni, Ph.D. Department of Educational Management, Adekunle Ajasin University, P. M. B. 001, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo Sate, Nigeria Comfort Ayandoja Akinfolarin, Ph.D. Department of Educational Management, Adekunle Ajasin University, P. M. B. 001, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo Sate, Nigeria

Abstract. The study examined the efficacy of principals‟ coordinating and controlling strategies on teachers‟ instructional performance; determined students‟ learning outcome; and investigated the challenges in instructional management in secondary schools. Descriptive survey research design was adopted for data collection and analysis. A total of 480 participants comprised of 30 principals and 450 teachers completed the questionnaire titled “Coordination and Control Strategies Questionnaire (CCSQ)”‟ in 30 public secondary schools using multistage sampling technique. Four research questions and four hypotheses were formulated. The simple percentage was used to answer the research questions while Pearson correlation statistics was employed to test the hypotheses at p<0.05 level of significance. The result showed that the relationship between principals‟ strategies and teachers‟ instructional performance was low in coordinating (r=0.284, p<0.05), controlling (r=0.149, p<0.05), and teachers‟ instructional performance and students‟ learning outcome (0. 076, p<0.05). The major constraints identified included inadequate number of qualified teachers (50%); excess workload for teachers (63.3%); inadequate learning resources (63.3%); lack of adequate and well equipped offices for teachers (80%); lack of conducive classrooms (36.7%); and fairly conducive classrooms (40%). The study concluded that the Government in collaboration with the school principals and other relevant stakeholders should provide adequate number of teachers, learning resources, classrooms and capacity development for teachers to address the gaps in curriculum instruction management in secondary schools. Keywords. Principals‟ competences; coordinating strategies; controlling strategies; teachers‟ curriculum workload; students‟ learning outcome.

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1. Introduction The secondary school system is designed to prepare students for higher education and useful living in the society (Federal Republic of Nigeria: NPE, 2004). The attainment of this lofty goals hinges on the effective coordination and control of teaching and learning activities by the school principal. As an instructional leader, the principal occupies an important position and plays pivotal role in the management of both human and material resources that are used in the delivery of school curriculum to ensure high quality education for the learners. The ability of the school principal to effectively plan, implement, monitor, evaluate and review educational programmes and activities with the teachers will in no doubt ensure sustainable improvement in the teachinglearning process and lead to the school success in the pursuit of the set goals. The need for effective coordination in secondary school is based on the assumption that human beings are naturally lazy, dislike work and enjoy pleasures more than work (Mc Gregor, 1960). This is counter-productive to the achievement of the set educational goals. Since the teachers are the hobs on which the education system rests upon, their roles cannot be under-estimated if quality education is to be achieved. It is therefore expedient for the school principal to set achievable standards and goals which all teachers must strive to attain in the delivery of the school curriculum. The teachers must be focused and well skilled in curriculum planning, utilization of instructional materials, content delivery, continuous assessment of learners, classroom management and record keeping to promote meaningful instruction and effective development of learners in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning. In the pursuit of quality instruction and student learning outcome, it is equally imperative to put in place effective control mechanisms so that the set goals can be achieved. The principal being an instructional leader is expected to be the driving force for effective curriculum delivery. The principal must device appropriate measures to ensure that all the teachers comply with the laid down rules and regulations in the performance of their instructional tasks. This is not to witch-hunt the teachers but to make them committed, self-regulated and goaloriented, and have high expectations for the learners. In spite of the awareness of the goals of secondary education by the principals and teachers, it is still highly surprising that studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; learning outcome in terms of their performances in the Senior School Certificate Examinations conducted by the West African Examinations Council is relatively low (below 40%) in Nigeria and 30% in Ondo State. This is a matter of serious concern to the stakeholders in the education sector and something positive is needed to be done in order to reposition the secondary education system for better performance. This study therefore seeks to examine the coordinating and controlling strategies that are being used by the school principals in order to identify their strengths and challenges, and the attendant consequences on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; learning outcomes. This is with a view to making appropriate recommendations that will ensure sustainable improvement in instructional ÂŠ 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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management and the achievement of desirable learning outcome in secondary schools.

2.1 Coordination of Teachers’ Instructional Tasks Coordination is the process of integrating the various units and sub-units in a unified operation towards achieving a common purpose in an organization. The process involves the linking of objectives, activities and strategies of different work units (departments or functional areas) in a systematic manner in order to allow a group of people whose capabilities complement one another to work together through collective efforts, actions and pooling of resources, which enable the organization to provide the proper quantity and quality of products within the stipulated time frame for the accomplishment of the set goals. According to Crowston (1997), coordination is the process of linking the activities of the various departments of the organization. Ibukun (2008) perceived coordination as the need to synchronize individual efforts to achieve the objectives of the organization since individual differences may arise due to subjective interpretation of goals and roles. Enikanselu & Oyende (2009) viewed coordination as the orderly arrangement of group efforts to provide unity of action in pursuit of a common purpose. In the school system, the work people do must be well coordinated so that the teaching and learning processes can produce the desired outcomes. The need for effective coordination in the school is predicated on the fact that the school is a system with many sub-units interacting with one another to achieve a common goal. Griffiths (1963) defined a system as “a complex of elements in mutual interaction” and described the school as an open system which has an environment that inputs energy to the system, which undergoes transformation process to give desired outputs into the environment. Weick (1976) postulated that every system is „loosely connected‟ with many other sub-systems or subunits. For instance, the educational system is loosely coupled by the following elements: teacher-materials, school boards, administration-classrooms, processoutcome, teacher-teacher, parent-teacher and teacher-student, and so on (Chukwu, 1999). The school as a system is established to train learners to achieve educational goals and values. In pursuit of this mission, it receives resource inputs in form of human, material and physical resources from the community to carry out its operations. For example, a school receives students as inputs and processed them over the period of their training through coordination of teaching and learning activities, utilization of available resources for human capital development, adequate supervision, monitoring and evaluation of instructional activities and materials on periodic basis, while in the long run, the students transformed into outputs (product value) in form of educated persons (intended outputs) to the environment in order to fulfill the expectations of the society. It is therefore imperative for the school principals to be effective in coordinating activities of the various departments and units in order to make sure that the © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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various components work in harmony and no part of the system strays from the common purpose. Effective coordination promotes teachers‟ instructional performance. Ibukun (2008) opined that coordination enhances productivity when competent hands are appointed as unit heads; the goals and responsibilities are clearly defined and communicated to all members of the organization. This process reduces administrative bottlenecks, promotes inter-departmental cooperation and optimization of resources to produce the desired results in the organization. The principal being the driving force behind the school success is expected to adopt both vertical and horizontal coordination techniques in the management of the secondary school system. The vertical coordination ensures the linking together of the activities of the superiors and subordinates of the various departments, units, and sub-units at different levels while the horizontal coordination promotes the linking together of the top management members at the different departments, units and sub-units of the organization for the purpose of common actions. This process facilitates information processing, promotes innovation, increase teachers‟ instructional performance and produce quality learning outcome in the secondary school system. Teachers‟ instructional performance is manifested in their knowledge of the subject–matter, skills and competences in the teaching-learning process. This means that the real teacher must possess the qualities for effective teaching and pleasant learning within the school setting. He/she must know what to teach, how to teach, and whom to teach. The purpose is to deliver the curriculum efficiently, so as to enable learners achieve the set educational goals and standards in schools (Makinde & Alao, 1992; Koleoso, 2002). The teacher‟s role is crucial to effective and efficient learning, the teacher is expected to provide essential inputs like adequate planning of lesson notes, effective delivery of lessons, proper monitoring and evaluation of students‟ performance, providing regular feed-back on students‟ performance, improvisation of instructional materials, adequate keeping of records and appropriate discipline of students to produce and enhance expected learning achievement which require effective coordination by the principal in secondary school (Ayeni, 2010). The teachers‟ instructional performance are germane to the achievement of quality learning outcome in secondary schools. Ameen (2007) highlighted the areas to be coordinated by school principals as follows: 1) Formulating aims and goals of programme in a thoughtful manner; 2) regular curriculum implementation and revisions; 3) teaching methodology and assessment methods; 4) staff development; 5) ICT education, modern teaching aids and physical environment; 6) internal quality assurance; and 7) cooperation at national and international level. This ultimately depends on the avowed commitment of principals, heads of departments, units and sub-units to

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effectively coordinate teaching and learning activities to optimize instructional resources and achieve success for all students in secondary schools.

2.2 Controlling of Teachers’ Instructional Tasks Control in the school system is a management process that guides both the principal and the teachers in the performance of their tasks, evaluating the process and making necessary adjustments towards ensuring effective teaching and learning activities for the purpose of achieving the predetermined educational objectives. Freeman (1992) defined control as the process of ensuring that actual activities conform to planned activities. Ibukun (2008) viewed control as the assessment and correcting of the activities of subordinates to ensure that they conform to plans. The control process involves four basic steps which Ibukun (2008) listed as : establishing standards and objectives, measuring performance against standards, correcting deviations from standards, and evaluating through analysis and comparison of performance with the original goals to determine whether control has yielded desired change. In the operation of the school system, this process strengthens the principal‟s capacity to make appropriate decisions on the provision, allocation and relocation of human and material resources to reduce deviations from plans, so that the set goals would be achieved. Control is an internal assessment of school‟s curricula and co-curricular activities by the principal and other top management members for the purpose of helping teachers and learners to improve on their teaching and learning capacities in achieving educational objectives. It is the process by which school administrators and other top management members ensure proper application of monitoring and evaluation instruments to determine and enhance the effectiveness of teachers‟ instructional task performance towards advancement in students‟ intellectual and skills development for the achievement of quality learning outcome in secondary schools. In specific terms, the goals of school based control among others include: 1) Identifying and focusing on areas where improvement in the provision of teaching and learning resources needs to be made; 2) Making principal and top management members become Quality Assurance (QA) evaluators in their own school; 3) Assessing teachers‟ pedagogical skills in curriculum delivery; helping teachers in identifying their strengths and weaknesses; and providing relevant remedial training for upgrading teachers‟ conceptual knowledge and teaching skills that will hopefully turn their weaknesses to strengths; 4) Identifying teachers who should be promoted, retrained, redeployed or disengaged; 5) Assessing the effectiveness and efficiency of educational programme and its efficacy in relationship to original expectations; 6) It enables school administration to collect information that are evidence-based for the purpose of periodic review of instructional practices and capacity development of teachers for further improvement in classroom management and curriculum delivery; 7) Generating innovative ideas, knowledge and relevant data that will be useful for © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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decision-making, policy formulation and review for improved performance. It is the management responsibilities of the principals to ensure effective control measure so that both the teachers and learners work towards achieving the set goals. Teachers‟ instructional tasks are multi-dimensional, covering key areas such as curriculum planning, content delivery, classroom management, evaluation of learning outcomes and giving performance feedback to students, principals and parents. In order to ensure quality education delivery and achieve the set educational goals, the instructional activities of the teachers are controlled by the school principal. As an instructional leader and driving force behind the school success, the principal in most cases, carries out the controlling function through the heads of departments, units and sub-units heads who are appointed based on their qualifications, seniority and experience. The purpose of school based control is to enable the school management develop a virile and result-oriented supervisory system that is professionally operated by experienced, dedicated and efficient top management staff that will guarantee sustainable quality in curriculum organization and delivery, improved academic standards and outputs in secondary schools. This controlling process enables the principal to continuously monitor, assess, regulate and get feedback on teachers‟ activities based on evidence collected through the process of observation, discussion and documentation (ODD). This perspective is predicated on the principle of Deming‟s cycle of continuous improvement, which is fundamentally based upon Plan, Do, Check and Act cycle (PDCA). The principle enables the school principal to be pro-active in instructional management by identifying the key issues that need to be reviewed and improved upon in the course of implementing educational programmes so as to ensure that significant agreement exist between the set goals and what is actually achieved in terms of standards and students‟ learning outcomes in secondary schools (Deming, 1986; Stahl, 1998; Temponi, 2005). However, in a study conducted by Wildy & Dimmock (1993) in Western Australia found that principals submitted all the duties and responsibilities of instructional leadership to their senior assistant teacher and senior teacher at the department. They proved that principals do not play their role as instructional leaders. Their findings also share similar results with studies conducted by Taraseina & Hallinger (1994) in Thailand which indicated that principals in North Thailand do not perform the instructional leadership domain actively.

2.3 Teachers’ Instructional Tasks and Students’ Learning Outcomes The teachers‟ instructional tasks have strong influence on students‟ academic achievement. The purpose of any teacher in the classroom is to help learners learn, inquire, solve problems, and cope with their own emotional needs and tensions. The teacher promotes quality education from the domain of teaching and learning through creative idea, participation and cooperative learning,

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research, analysis and critical thinking, problem solving, innovation and encouragement of creative and divergent thinking. The quality of students‟ learning outcomes are the overall effects of the educational system, which are expressed in terms of desirable changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes and values of individuals as a result of their experiences in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning over a period of study (Simkins, 1981; Tsang, 1988). In the context of this study, quality learning outcome is limited to the level of credit passes achieved by the students in the Senior School Certificate Examinations conducted by the West African Examinations Council (WASSCE) and National Examination Council (NECO SSCE) which make them eligible for admission into tertiary institutions for further study or fit into the world of work as employees or owners of small business enterprises. The success or failure of students rests on the quality of instruction and not lack of students‟ abilities to learn (Levine, 1985; Mills, 1991). In order to ensure quality assurance-oriented teaching and learning processes, the teachers are expected to have in-depth knowledge of the pedagogy in their subject areas to be able to understand the effective ways of organising and presenting subject matter in terms of objective statements, providing the right methods, learning experiences and learning resources, and evaluating teaching and learning activities in consonance with the set objectives. The quality process requires that the classroom instruction meets the set standards. The teaching approach that a teacher adopts is an important factor that may affect students‟ achievement and facilitates high standards of learning outcomes. The quality of students‟ learning outcomes is directly dependent on the quality of teachers‟ instructional performance and the assessment of students by teachers and other examination bodies such as the West African Examination Council, and National Examination Council (WAEC/NECO). It is therefore imperative of the principals to ensure effective teaching and thorough supervision of instructional activities so that students‟ learning outcomes can meet the set standards and satisfy the expectations of the society. The quality of students‟ learning outcomes could be made better through effective use of instructional materials by the teachers in curriculum delivery. This will facilitate students‟ in-depth understanding of the course contents. This is important because a well planned and imaginative use of instructional materials as educational inputs promotes the quality of teaching-learning process and contributes significantly to learning outcome in schools. Instructional resources provide good supplement for students who are faced with the challenge of inadequate of textbooks and enable the teachers to capture students‟ attention, motivate and sustain their interest to learn. This underscores the need for teachers to have adequate knowledge of instructional resource management in order to ensure effective teaching and practical learning of curriculum content in secondary schools. © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Banjo (1987), posited that, adequate training of teachers in the latest methodology, to a large extent, determines how the learner learns during instructional activities. This viewpoint was further stressed by Maduekwe (2007) in a study on the strategies for teaching English lessons in Lagos, that in spite of the fact that most of the teachers have teaching qualifications, many of them do not have adequate knowledge of some grammatical concepts and they ended up imparting the wrong knowledge to their students. This situation is also a serious gap in the teaching–learning process in Ondo state as reflected in poor academic performance of students in the Senior School Certificate Examinations conducted by the West African Examination Council (WASSCE) in which the percentage of students that obtained five credit level passes and above in subjects including English Language and Mathematics were 38.73% in 2012; 29.92% in 2013 and 32.40% in 2014 ( Ondo State Ministry of Education, 2014; Eguridu, 2014). The trend in Nigerian students‟ academic performance has shown continuous low academic achievement in secondary schools. For instance, Bello-Osagie & Olugbamila (2009) reported that in the 2009 November/December Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination conducted by the National Examination Council (NECO-SSCE) out of the total number of 234,682 Nigerian candidates who sat for the examination, only 4,223 obtained credit passes and above in five subjects including English and Mathematics, which is a 98.2% failure rate. Owadiae (2010) reported that in 2009 May/June Senior Secondary Certificate Examination conducted by the West African Examinations Council, only 25.99 percent of the candidates obtained credit passes and above in five subjects including English Language and Mathematics, while in the 2010 May/June WASSCE, out of the 1,135,557 candidates that sat for the examination, only 337,071 (24.94%) candidates obtained five credit level passes and above in subjects including English Language and Mathematics (Federal Ministry of Education, 2011b). Furthermore, in Nigeria, the 2011 May/June Senior Secondary Certificate Examination conducted by West African Examinations Council shows that only 30.99% of the 1,540,250 candidates obtained credit level passes and above in five subjects including English Language and Mathematics, while in 2012 May/June WASSCE, 649,156 (38.81%) of the 1,672,224 candidates that sat for the examination obtained five credit level passes and above in subjects including English Language and Mathematics; also 36.57% was recorded in 2013 and 31.28% in the 2014 WASSCE. A comparative study of the results between 2012 and 2014 show a sharp decline in the performances of candidates in WASSCE in the 36 States of the Federation and the Federal Capital Territory (Owadiae, 2011; Owadiae, 2012; Eguridu, 2014).

3. 1. Statement of Problem The most prominent task of the school principal is to improve teaching-learning process through effective coordinating and controlling strategies that are connected to teachers‟ instructional performance and more generally determine © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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students‟ learning outcomes in secondary schools. It is the primary responsibility of the school principal to coordinates and controls teachers‟ activities for the purpose of achieving the best in the management of instructional resource inputs, process and outputs which determine students‟ academic success in secondary schools. However, there is a growing public concern about the realization of the objectives of secondary education due to dwindling students‟ academic performance. This has been partly attributed to teachers‟ inadequacies in curriculum delivery and that many principals give little attention to coordination and control of teachers‟ instructional performance, which has its negative implications on students‟ learning outcomes. It becomes imperative to think of the challenges of realising secondary school objectives in a situation where the principal looks away and allow the teachers to do whatever they like. Scholars such as Lunenburg & Ornstein (1991), McEwen (1998), Blasé (2001), and Adeniji (2002) have thought of dwindling academic performance of secondary school students partly due to non-challant attitude of school teachers and principals. The quality of lesson delivery seems to be nose diving in the school system nowadays as a result of lack of effective coordination and control by the school principals. The worse of it all is that some principals have compromised the educational goals in secondary schools due to their failure to continuously monitor and supervise the teachers effectively. Others appear to have totally delegated their instructional leadership roles to their subordinates (vice-principals and heads of departments), while the principal becomes nobody in the school. All of these thoughts provoking statements have given credence to the study. Thus the purpose of this study was to examine principals‟ coordinating and controlling strategies for effective teaching and quality learning outcome in secondary schools in Ondo State which is the only state that operate autonomous Quality Education Assurance Agency in South-west, Nigeria.

3.2 Research Questions The following research questions were formulated for the study i. How do principals perceive teachers‟ instructional performance in secondary schools? ii. How do teachers perceive principals‟ coordinating strategies in secondary schools? iii. How do teachers perceive principals‟ controlling strategies in secondary schools? iv. What are the constraints faced by principals in coordinating and controlling of teachers instructional tasks in secondary schools?

3.3 Hypotheses i. HO1: There is no significant relationship between principals‟ coordinating strategies and teachers‟ instructional performance in secondary schools. © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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ii. HO2: There is no significant relationship between principals‟ controlling strategies and teachers‟ instructional performance in secondary schools. iii. HO4: There is no significant relationship between teachers‟ instructional performance and students‟ learning outcomes in secondary schools. iv. HO3: Principals‟ coordinating and controlling strategies will not jointly have significant effect on students‟ learning outcomes in secondary schools.

3.4 Methodology The study employed the descriptive survey design. With this design, both quantitative and qualitative methods which involve systematic and objective collection and analysis of data were adopted to elicit responses from the participants in order to find solution to the problems identified. The target population comprised principals and teachers in secondary schools in Ondo state. The sample consisted of 30 principals and 480 teachers, the respondents were randomly selected from 30 public secondary schools, representing ten percents (10%) of the total existing 304 public secondary schools in Ondo state. The secondary schools were selected using multi-stage sampling method from 5 Local Government Areas (LGAs) out of the existing five educational zones (Akure, Ikare, Okitipupa, Ondo, and Owo) in Ondo State, South-west, Nigeria. Two research instruments were used for data collection; they are „‟ Coordinating and Controlling Strategies Questionnaire (CCSQ)‟; and Interview Guide for Principals (IGP). The questionnaire (CCSQ) was a 43--structured questionnaire developed by the researchers and comprised of two sections. The first, section A, had 23 items which sought information from the school principals on teachers‟ instructional performance and students‟ learning outcomes, while the second, section B, had 20 items; that sought relevant research information from the teachers on the level of principals‟ coordinating and controlling strategies in secondary schools. The instrument utilized a 4- point rating scale indicating strongly agree, agree, fairly agree, disagree, and strongly disagree with 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 rating points used to assess the level of principals‟ coordinating and controlling strategies for effective teaching and quality learning outcome in secondary schools. The instrument was validated by two experts in the Department of Educational Management; Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko and the items were further subjected to meticulous vetting and review by Test and Measurement experts in the Department of Guidance and Counseling in the Faculty of Education at Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko which ascertained the suitability of the items on the instrument. The reliability coefficient of 0.76 was obtained, using Cronbach alpha, which ascertain the inter-item consistency. Finally, the instrument was administered through the help of two trained research assistants, while the researchers coordinated the administration and collation of completed questionnaires. Four research questions and four hypotheses were formulated. The simple per-cent and mean scores were used to answer the research questions, while Pearson correlation statistics was © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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employed to test the hypotheses at p<0.05 level of significance; using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16.0.

4. Results The results of data analysis were presented in order of research questions and hypothesis while discussions of findings were carried out to examine principals‟ coordinating and controlling strategies in determining the quality of teaching and learning outcome in secondary schools.

4.1 How do principals perceive teachers’ instructional performance in secondary schools? The evidence from the data analysis presented in table 1 showed that the level of teachers‟ instructional performance was good as rated by the school principals and reflected in the following percentage points: strongly agreed (6.7%-60%); agreed (26.7%-53.3.%); fairly agreed (3.3%-50%); disagreed (3.3%-30%); and strongly disagreed (0%). The tasks that were well performed included: preparation of lesson notes, checking of lesson notes, teaching of lessons, continuous assessment of learners, classroom management, checking of students‟ notes, filling of diaries, capacity development and collegiality. However, the following tasks were fairly performed by teachers: usage of instructional materials, marking of students‟ class attendance, while 10% of teachers did not attend to their lessons punctually and regularly.

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Table 1: Principals’ Ratings on Teachers’ Instructional Performance (N = 30) S/N 1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

ITEMS My teachers prepare their lesson notes promptly according to the syllabus All lesson notes are checked and marked promptly and regularly by the viceprincipals/heads of departments on weekly basis The teachers make good use of instructional materials while teaching All the teachers attend to their lessons punctually and regularly The teachers mark students‟ attendance during lessons The teacher have effective classroom management All the teachers give notes and written work to students regularly The teachers conduct continuous assessments on regularly basis The teachers mark students exercises/written work regularly All the teachers fill their dairies of work up to date The teachers show interest in capacity development training The teachers maintain good working relationship with colleagues Students‟ achievement in 2013 WASSCE, it is Excellent (5) if 75% or more obtained 5 credits and above including English Language and Mathematics; Very Good-4 (60%-74%); Good-3 (50%-59%); Fair-2 (40%-49%); Poor-1 (below 40%).

SA (%)

A (%)

FA (%)

D (%)

SD (%)

43.3

53.3

3.3

40.0

46.7

13.3

0 13.3 0 16.7

43.3 53.3 26.7 66.7

50.0 23.3 43.3 16.7

6.7 10.0 30.0 0

0 0 0 0

20.0

43.3

33.3

3.3

60.0 10.0 46.7 33.3 50.0

36.7 50.0 40.0 50.0 43.3

3.3 36.7 13.3 13.3 6.7

0 3.3 0 3.3 0

0 0 0 0 0

6.7

40.0

20.0

13.3

20.0

4.2 How do teachers perceive principals’ coordinating strategies in secondary schools? The data presented in table 2 revealed that principals‟ coordinating strategies was good as indicated by the teachers‟ ratings and reflected in the following percentage points: strongly agreed (24%-70.7%); agreed (22.7%-48.7%); fairly agreed (4.7%-28.7%); disagreed (0.9%-11.8%); and strongly disagreed (0.4%11.3%). The tasks that were well coordinated by the school principals included: appointment of heads of departments based on qualifications, seniority and teaching experience; grouping of teachers into departments; management of © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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teachers by the heads of departments; effective communication with teachers; distribution of authorities and responsibilities to teachers; consideration of subject teachers‟ requests; team work among teachers; brainstorming among teachers; and inter-departmental cooperation. However, 59% of teachers have subject overload.

Table 2: Teachers’ Rating on Principal’s Coordinating Strategies (N = 450) S/N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

9 10

ITEMS All the teachers are well grouped into departments in my school The appointment of HODs is strictly based on competence (qualifications, seniority and teaching experience ) Allocation of subjects to teachers is strictly based on areas of specialization My subject workload is within my capacity/not too many for me The principal responds promptly to the needs of my subject (s) The principal clearly defines responsibilities to avoid conflict among teachers Teachers in my department always brainstorm together to solve difficult concepts in their subject The principal encourages cooperation among teachers within and across departments on the teaching of interdisciplinary subjects such as Social Studies, Basic Science, Basic Technology and others The principal maintains effective communication with teachers in my department Teachers in my department are well managed by the head of department

SA (%)

A (%)

FA (%)

D (%)

SD (%)

67.1

25.1

4.9

2.4

0.4

70.7

22.7

4.7

0.9

1.1

49.3

30.7

13.3

5.1

1.6

24.0 24.0

34.4 38.2

18.4 28.7

11.8 7.8

11.3 1.3

36.2

48.7

11.1

2.7

1.3

35.1

40.2

14.7

7.3

2.7

36.0

42.4

12.9

7.6

1.1

40.7

43.1

10.9

3.8

1.6

48.4

40.4

9.6

0.9

0.7

4.3. How do teachers perceive principals’ controlling strategies in secondary schools? The data presented in table 3 showed that majority of the teachers strongly agreed (17.8%-61.3%) and agreed (27.6%-47.8%) that the principals made good use of controlling strategies to enhance teachers‟ instructional performance in secondary schools. The controlling strategies that were effectively used by principals included: intimating teachers with school goals and supervision schedule; regulating teachers‟ activities in line with the school‟s © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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rules and regulations; involvement of vice-principals and heads of departments in classroom supervision; checking of teachers‟ lesson notes and records of work by the vice-principals and heads of departments; unscheduled visits to teachers in the classrooms; discussing performance feedback with teachers; and follow up activities. However, the provision of learning resources and reward of teachers for extra work done are still at the average level of controlling strategies.

Table 3: Teachers’ Rating on Principal’s Controlling Strategies (N = 450) S/N 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

ITEMS The principal set goals to be achieved, designs supervision schedule and intimate teachers with the plan Teachers‟ activities are regulated by laid down rules and regulations in the school The principal involves the vice-principals and heads of departments in classroom supervision The principal/vice –principal/HOD always check my lesson notes and record of work towards students‟ academic works The principal provides adequate resources (textbooks and instructional materials) to support curriculum delivery The principal always carry out unscheduled visits to teachers in the classrooms The principal discusses performance feedback with teachers after classroom supervision The principal always follow up teachers‟ work after the performance review meeting The principal always issue query to those teachers who have been very irregular in their lessons The principal reward teachers for extra work done

SA (%)

A (%)

FA (%)

D (%)

SD (%)

38.4

43.3

13.6

3.3

1.3

43.1

47.8

6.9

1.8

0.4

54.0

35.8

6.0

2.9

1.3

61.3

32.4

4.2

1.6

0.4

21.6

35.3

22.9

15.1

5.1

28.0

46.0

16.0

7.8

2.2

28.9

40.0

19.3

8.7

3.1

24.0

42.2

22.7

8.0

3.1

23.6 17.8

41.3 27.6

20.7 23.8

10.7 18.0

3.8 12.9

4.4 What are the constraints faced by principals in coordinating and controlling of teachers instructional tasks in secondary schools? The evidence from the data analysis in table 4 showed that 5 out of the 10 items are factor constraints militating against effective coordination and control of instructional activities in secondary schools. The major constraints identified by © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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the principals are reflected in the following percentage points: inadequate number of qualified teachers (50%); excess workload for teachers (63.3%); inadequate learning resources (63.3%); lack of adequate and well equipped offices for teachers (80%); lack of conducive classrooms (36.7%); and fairly conducive classrooms (40%).

Table 4: Challenges facing Principal’s Coordinating and Controlling Strategies in Secondary Schools (N = 30)

S/N 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

22. 23. 24. 25.

ITEMS The school has adequate number of qualified teachers in all subjects on the curriculum The teachers usually complain of excess workload The HODs practice inter-departmental team teaching among teachers The HODs are very effective in the management, monitoring and supervision of teachers in their various departments The HODs give prompt and regular performance feedback to teachers in their respective departments The school has adequate learning resources (library materials, laboratory equipment and other instructional materials) for effective teaching and learning activities The school has adequate and well equipped offices for teachers The school has conducive learning environment (classrooms) for the entire student population The school receives adequate learning resources from the government The school enjoys adequate support from the PTA on the provision and maintenance of learning facilities

SA (%)

A (%)

FA (%)

D (%)

SD (%)

0 33.3

20.0 30.0

30.0 16.7

43.3 20.0

6.7 0

10.0

30.0

26.7

3.3

20.0

40.0

26.7

13.3

16.7

46.7

26.7

10.0

6.7 0

30.0 20.0

33.3 40.0

23.3 33.3

6.7 6.7

6.7

16.7

40.0

20.0

16.7

23.3

40.0

26.7

10.0

20.0

43.3

20.0

13.3

3.3

4.5 Relationship between Principals’ Coordinating Strategies and Teachers’ Instructional Performance. The result presented in table 5 revealed that the calculated r-value (0.284) was less than the critical-value (0.64) at p<0.05 is not significant. Hence, the null hypothesis (Ho) is accepted while the alternative hypothesis (Ha) is rejected.

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Table 5: Relationship between Principals’ Coordinating Strategies and Teachers’ Instructional Performance

Items Coordinating Strategies Teachers‟ Instructional Performance

Mean

Std. Deviation

450

4.5867

0.55664

3.7000

1.05536

Sig

0.284

0.64

4.6 Relationship between Principals’ Controlling Strategies and Teachers’ Instructional Performance The result presented in table 6 revealed that the calculated r-value (0.149) was less than the critical-value (0.216) at p<0.05 is not significant. Hence, the null hypothesis (Ho) is accepted while the alternative hypothesis (Ha) is rejected.

Table 6: Relationship between Principals’ Controlling Strategies and Teachers’ Instructional Performance

Items Controlling Strategies Teachers‟ Instructional Performance

Mean

Std. Deviation

450

4.3689

0.64148

3.7000

Sig

0.149

0.216

1.05536

4.7 Relationship between Teachers’ Instructional Performance and Students’ learning outcomes The result presented in table 7 revealed that the calculated r-value (0.076) was less than the critical-value (0.345) at p<0.05 is not significant. The null hypothesis (Ho) of no significant relationship is accepted while the alternative hypothesis (Ha) is rejected.

Table 7: Relationship between Teachers’ Instructional Performance and students’ Learning Outcomes Items Teachers‟ Instructional Performance Students‟ Learning Outcomes

Mean

Std. Deviation

3.7000

1.05536

3.0000

1.28654

Sig

0. 076

0.345

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4.8 Principals’ coordinating and controlling strategies will not jointly have significant effect on students’ learning outcomes in secondary schools The result presented in table 8 showed that the calculated r-value (0.094) was less than the critical-value (0. 311) at p<0.05 is not significant. The null hypothesis (Ho) is of no significant relationship is accepted while the alternative hypothesis (Ha) is rejected.

Table 8: Relative effect of Principals’ Coordinating and Controlling Strategies on Students’ Learning Outcomes

Items Coordinating and Controlling Strategies Students‟ Learning Outcomes

Mean

Std. Deviation

450

4.5089

.57114

3.0000

Sig

0. 094

0. 311

3.0000

4.9 Discussions The findings of the study in table 5, revealed a low significant relationship between principals‟ coordinating strategies and teachers‟ instructional performance. Despite the fact that the school principals grouped teachers into departments that are managed by the heads of departments while many teachers prepared lesson notes and conducted continuous assessment for learners; this has not yielded the desired results in table 7 which shows that there is no significant relationship between teachers‟ instructional performance and students‟ learning outcome. This is evident in 38.8% of the students that obtained credit level passes in five subjects and above, including English Language and Mathematics in 2012 and 28.8% recorded in 2013 in Ondo State. The low academic performance could be partly attributed to 63% of teachers that have excess workload, inadequate learning resources in the library and science laboratory (43%), and low usage of instructional materials by 56% of the teachers during teaching-learning process as evident in the analysis of data in tables 1 and 4 respectively. The implication is that teaching would not be thorough as many teachers in an attempt to cover the syllabus would be giving scanty notes to students who will have limited knowledge. The principals are not likely to have effective control since majority of the teachers have excess workload that often hindered them from being thorough in curriculum delivery. The resultant effect is poor academic performance and non realization of the desired learning outcomes in secondary schools. The relatively low effect of principals‟ coordinating and controlling strategies on students‟ learning outcome indicated in table 8 also confirms the earlier findings by researchers such as Lunenburg & Ornstein (1991), McEwen (1998), Blasé (2001), and Adeniji (2002) who reported on dwindling academic performance of secondary school students partly due to non-challant attitude of school teachers in curriculum delivery and lack of © 2014 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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effective coordination and control by the school principals. This situation hampered the quality of curriculum delivery and learning outcome in secondary schools. The school principals interviewed said that teachers are inadequate in many subjects namely English Language, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Animal Husbandly, Civic Education and Trade Subjects. The principals have been mobilizing the Parents Teachers Association (PTA) to engage the services of part-time teachers to complement teachers‟ efforts in some subjects in the certificate classes where there is acute shortage of teachers. However, the PTA still have the strong believe that it is the government responsibility to ensure adequate number of teachers in secondary schools. There is a relatively low significant relationship between principals‟ controlling strategies and teachers‟ instructional performance. The teachers‟ ratings on principals‟ controlling strategies revealed that many principals intimated teachers with school goals and supervision schedule, involved vice-principals and heads of departments in classroom supervision, checking of teachers‟ lesson notes and records of work, and follow up activities. However, the provision of learning resources and reward of teachers for extra work done are still very low in secondary schools. The teachers interviewed complained of inadequate motivation to stimulate their interest for efficient service delivery since many of the classrooms are in poor condition with class sizes ranging from 60-75 students in urban schools. This impaired effective teaching and learning processes and caused poor classroom management in secondary schools. The outcome of the study also revealed no significant relationship between teachers‟ instructional performance and students‟ learning outcomes in secondary schools. By implication, teachers occupy centre stage in the teaching and learning processes; while students‟ academic performance is dependent greatly on teachers‟ content knowledge, pedagogical skills and competence. There is a high mean score of 3.70 recorded on teachers‟ instructional performance in table 7, which implied that majority of the teachers accorded the desired attention to teaching and learning processes. However, the mean score of 3.00 recorded on students‟ learning outcome was very low because many of them are not equipped with the necessary learning materials. The teachers interviewed revealed that less than 30% of the students have textbooks in subjects such as English Language and Mathematics, while most have no textbooks in others subjects. This made it difficult for most learners to extend learning beyond the classrooms while the principals‟ coordinating and controlling strategies to make teachers work very hard to improve students‟ learning outcomes have not yielded the desired results. The implication is poor academic performance. It could be deduced that students are faced with a lot of challenges which require stakeholders‟ intervention.

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5. 1 Conclusion The study concluded that effective coordination and control of teachers‟ instructional performance by principals are no doubt the hob of students‟ learning outcome and leads to quality education in secondary schools. The noticeable gaps in teachers‟ instructional performance and students‟ learning outcome could be partly attributed to shortage of qualified teachers and inadequate learning resources that will eventually result into good output (product value). In Nigeria, the level of learning achievement of students in secondary schools is relatively low partly due to the inability of the government to provide adequate learning facilities and teachers for effective curriculum delivery in secondary schools. As a result, students are faced with a lot of challenges which require stakeholders‟ intervention to improve the standard of secondary education. The continuous teachers‟ capacity development, motivation and effective coordination and control by the principals are potent factors for teachers‟ morale and commitment to instructional tasks performance, which are great determinants of the quality of students‟ learning outcome.

5. 2 Recommendations Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made in order to improve instructional management for the achievement of better learning outcomes in secondary schools.  The Government should provide adequate number of qualified teachers to ensure thorough teaching and full coverage of the syllabi in all subjects; this will also make coordinating and controlling functions of principals to be effective and achieve the desired learning outcome in secondary schools.  Government should provide adequate classrooms to decongest large class size and improve working environment of teachers by providing good offices to motivate them for greater productivity in secondary schools  The school principals should provide adequate instructional materials and facilities through Parents-Teachers Associations, (PTA), Old Students‟ Associations, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Communities, Philanthropists and other Development Partners, to enhance effective teaching and learning processes in secondary schools.  The school authority should give periodic feedback on students‟ academic performance and sensitize parents to equip their children/wards with the prescribed textbooks and other learning materials to improve the quality of learning outcome in secondary schools.  School principals should collaborate with relevant stakeholders to organize capacity development workshop for teachers on production and effective utilization of instructional materials to enhance teachinglearning process in secondary schools.

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6. References Adeniji, I. A. (2002). Perception of principals and teachers of external supervisors‟ role in secondary schools in Ogun State. Nigerian Journal of Clinical and Counselling Psychology. 8(1), 43-56. Amen, K. (2007), issues of quality assurance (QA) in LIS Higher Education in Pakistan. World Library and Information Congress. 19-23 August, 2007, Durban, South Africa Ayeni. A. J. (2010). Teachers’ instructional task performance and principals’ supervisory roles as correlates of quality assurance in secondary schools in Ondo State. Doctoral dissertation, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Banjo, A. (1987). Improving English language skills in the educational system. Journal of the Federal Ministry of Education Today. Vol. 1 (1) ,47 – 55. Bello-Osagie, K. and Olugbamila, A. (2009). Events that shape education. The Nation, p.B2. Decenmber, 31. Blase, J. (2001). Empowering teachers: What successful principals do (2nd Ed.) California: Corwin Press Chukwu, A. (1999). A theoretical analytical view of the school as an organizational unit, Journal of the National Institute for Educational Planning and Administration NIEPA Ondo. 2 (1), 10-19 Crowston, K. (1997), A coordination theory approach to organizational process design; Organization science, March-April, pp. 152-166 Deming, W. Edwards (1986). Out of the crisis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eguridu, C. (2014). Mass failure as WAEC releases May/June exam results. www.vanguard.com. Retrieved: August17, 2014. Enikanselu, S. A. & Oyende, A. I. (2009). Introduction to management. Lagos: Enykon Consults Federal Ministry of Education. (2011). Statistics of Education in Nigeria: 2006-2010. Abuja: Statistics and NEMIS. Branch, Federal Ministry of Education. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press. Griffiths, D. E. in Litterer, J. A, (1963), Organization; Systems adaptation and control, London: John Wiley, Vol.II, 2nd edition. Ibukun, W. O., (2008). Principles of educational management, Akure: Stebak Books and Publishers. Koleoso, A. (2002). Planning An Effective Educational Programme for Nigerian Schools. In Educational administration for Colleges of Education and Universities. Owerri: Tony Ben Publishers. Levin, D. (1985). Improving student achievement through mastery leanring programmes. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. http://www.ejinste.com. Lunenberg, F. C. & Ornstein, A. C. (1991). Educational administration: Concepts and practices. California: Wadsworth Publishing Co. Maduekwe, A.N. and Ajibola, B.C. (2007). Strategies for teaching English grammar: An analysis of grammar lessons in Lagos State schools. Journal of studies in education. Faculty of Education, University of Lagos. Vol. 10 , 87- 101. Makinde, O. & Alao, K. (1992). Profile of career, Faculty of Education, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. McEwan, E. K. (1998). Seven steps to effective instructional leadership. California: Corwin Press, Inc Mcgregor, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill. Mills, H. R. (1991). Teaching and training: A handbook for instructors. London: Macmillan Publishers. http://www.ejinste.com

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Ondo State Ministry of Education (2014). Analysis of academic achievement in West African Senior school certificate examinations Department of Planning, Research and Statistics, Akure. Owadiae, I. (2012, August 11). West African Senior School Certificate Examination results. The Punch, 8. Owadiae, I. (2011, August 11). West African Senior School Certificate Examination results. The Nation, 4. Owadiae, I. (2010, August 31). West African Senior School Certificate Examination results. The Punch, 39. Simikins, T. (1981). Economics and the management of resources in education. Sheffield: Department of Educational management, Sheffield City Polytechnic, UK. http://www.academicjournals.org/ERR. Stahl, T. (1998). Self assessment: A road to quality assurance for continuing training. Vocational training. European Journal. 33 – 45. http://www.abet.org/the basics.shtml. Stoner, J. A. F. & Freeman, R.E. (1992), Management (5th Ed,) New Jersey, Prentice Hall Taraseina, P. & Hallinger, P. (1994). Conceptualizing and assessing the instructional leadership of secretary school principals in Thailand. In Proceedings of the 4th National Seminar, Education Management. Temponi, C. (2005). “Continuous improvement framework: Implications for academia” Quality assurance in education. Vol. 13, 17 – 36: http://www.aacsb.edu/accreditation/default.asp. Tsang, M.C. (1988). Cost analysis for educational policy making: A review of cost studies in education in developing countries. Review of Educational Research. 58 (2), 181-230 http//www.academicjournals.org/ERR. Weick, K. E. (1976) “Educational organization as loosely-coupled organizations” Administrative Science Quarterly. 21 (1), 1-19. Wildy, H. & Dimmock, C. (1993). Instructional leadership in primary and secondary school in Western Australia, Journal of Education. Administration. 31 (2), 43 – 60.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 201-216, August 2014

An Evidence-based Approach to the Design of a Learning Program: Evaluating Preliminary Data Sets Andrea Carr University of Tasmania Hobart, Australia Jo-Anne Kelder University of Tasmania Hobart, Australia Juliet Sondermeyer University of Tasmania Hobart, Australia Abstract. The Global Perspectives (GP) program is an evidence-based curriculum initiative that integrates the process of designing and implementing a learning program with a process for developing and implementing a plan to evaluate it for effectiveness and impact. The GP program educational evaluation and research (EER) plan was based on the framework for evaluating e-learning proposed by Phillips, McNaught, and Kennedy (2012), which includes the LEPO framework for learning. The focus is to evaluate learning design for â&#x20AC;&#x17E;fitâ&#x20AC;&#x; with achieving the learning objectives and, for the mature GP program design, research the effectiveness and impact of the GP program on students. This paper presents the method and results of a core activity of the EER plan: review data collected during Phases 1 and 2 (pilot and implementation) where the GP program was embedded into two first-year units in the Faculty of Health Science. We describe the method and discuss the results of our analysis in terms of a protocol for a systematic analysis of each data set in terms of ability to inform learning design, the impact and effectiveness of the GP program and usefulness of data in terms of contributing to the development of a diagnostic tool to measure cultural competence. Keywords: Educational evaluation research; cultural competence; global perspectives; graduate attribute

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Introduction The Global Perspectives (GP) Program is a curriculum initiative at the University of Tasmania (UTAS), designed to teach and assess the global perspectives graduate attribute and equip students for cultural competence and lifelong learning in a global society. The GP Program design was informed by the Learning Environment, Learning Processes and Learning Outcomes (LEPO) framework, presented in Phillips et al. (2012). The LEPO framework is a synthesis of a range of higher education and elearning research: a “generalized and integrated conceptual framework for learning [that is] pedagogically inclusive” (Phillips et al., 2012, p. 42). LEPO provides a conceptual foundation for rigorous educational research and evaluation of a learning design. The GP Program incorporated each element in the LEPO framework in its design: learning environment, learning processes and learning outcomes, particularly attending to the interrelationships between the elements and the roles of teacher and learners. Using the framework allowed educational designers to choose specific strategies and understand their impacts on different aspects of the learning context. The framework was also the foundation for an evaluation-research plan that integrated evaluation of the design with research into impact and effectiveness. Kelder, Sondermeyer, Phillips and Rothwell (2012) reported on the rationale and design of a systematic plan for educational evaluation and research (EER) that aligned with the design, delivery and project management of the GP Program curriculum initiative. The realities of a large, multi-disciplinary team busy with design and implementation of the GP program suggested a flexible, opportunistic approach to data collection during the initial phases of the project. This approach was predicated on a commitment to evaluate the data for relevance and suitability for analysis to inform learning design and measure research impact of the GP Program on students. This paper presents the method and results of a core activity of the EER plan: a review of data collected during Phases 1 and 2 (pilot and implementation) in which the GP program was embedded into two first year units in the Faculty of Health Science (FHS). We describe the method and present the results of our analysis, and discuss the implications for the GP program design in Phase 3 (roll out to first year units for all Schools in the FHS) as well as future data collection and analysis.

The Global Perspectives (GP) Program The GP Program was designed to support first year FHS students from UTAS to learn and apply knowledge and skills to demonstrate the „global perspective‟ or „cultural competence‟ graduate attribute. Cultural competence is nominated as a critical graduate attribute for FHS graduates training for clinical professions. The GP Program built on prior curriculum initiatives, directed at students unfamiliar with Australian culture, to prepare them for clinical professional experience placements and interactions with clients. Critically, the vision for the GP Program included a conceptual shift from a „deficit model‟ (Sondermeyer, van den Berg, & Brown, 2005)

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to a learning design that is embedded as a compulsory, assessable component of curricula for all students. The intended impact on students who participate in the GP Program is, “cultural competence for life-long learning and work in a global society.” The definition of cultural competence was formulated from four major components identified by a literature review of „cultural competence‟ and equivalent concepts (Deardorff, 2009). The LEPO framework conceptualizes learning along three interrelated dimensions: learning environment, learning processes, learning outcomes in the context of learners and teachers interactions (see Phillips et al., 2012, Figure 3.1, p. 27). The opportunities for design of the learning environment were initially constrained by the fact that the GP Program had to be delivered within an existing first year unit, following the traditional lecture/tutorial format. To enhance learner-teacher interaction, the lecture was rebadged „plenary lecture‟ and delivered in a highly interactive style. Likewise, the tutorial was named „tutorial discussion‟ and included activities designed to prompt discussion, personal reflections and transformational conversations. Given the explicitly challenging nature of the content and potential for negative interactions, the learning design implications included training tutors to manage situations in which students failed to interact appropriately, for example making racist remarks. Table 1: Constructive alignment (Biggs & Tang, 2007) embedded in the learning design

Cultural Competence Definition

Learning Objectives

An ability to communicate/interact effectively and appropriately with people of different cultures, comprising four components:

Four learning objectives derived from the definition. Each learning objective the focus of a week in the four-part GP program.

a) AWARENESS of one‟s own cultural worldview;

Student identifies awareness of his/her own worldview in the context of other worldviews;

b) ATTITUDE towards cultural differences;

Student demonstrates a respectful attitude towards cultural differences;

c) KNOWLEDGE and ACCEPTANCE of different cultural practices and worldviews;

Student demonstrates recognition and understanding of different cultural practices;

d) SKILLS (including COMMUNICATION).

Student uses communication effectively and appropriately to enhance intercultural understanding.

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In recognition of the interrelationships between learning processes and learning outcomes, a core principle of the learning design to ensure constructive alignment of definition, learning objectives and assessment (Biggs & Tang, 2007) (see Table 1 above). Learning objectives were embedded in the core components of the GP Program and the acted as criteria for decisions on content, structure, learning processes (including sequencing) and supporting resources. Table 2 sets out the components of the GP Program as it was developed and delivered 2011-2013. Table 2: Global Perspectives program adapted from (Kelder et al., 2012)

Components Quiz Not assessed

Module Four instances of plenary session followed by tutorial discussion Assessed – Exam

Workshop Compulsory attendance, not assessed

Purpose

Delivery mode

Delivery sequence

(self)„consciousness raising‟ Conversation scaffold for discussion in Module.

Online Via link on LMS Voluntary and anonymous

Administere d prior to four-part Module Students notified via LMS email

Module – each week focuses on one of the four learning objectives (LOs) content related to an LO for that part of the Module discussion and exercises to consolidate and apply the LO to personal and professional practice

Face to Face whole of student cohort interactive plenary session small group tutorial discussion (25 max) Online plenary session recorded and uploaded to LMS.

Plenary session: one hour per week for four weeks Tutorial discussion: one hour per week for four weeks

Preparation for students‟ Professional Experience Placement (PEP)

Face to Face 30 minutes GP program content embedded in 2 hour PEP workshop

Delivered in following semester

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The learning design is structured around three elements: an online Quiz, a face-to-face teaching Module and, for students who are required to participate in clinical Professional Experience Placement, a Workshop component (Kelder et al., 2012). This design explicitly enhanced student engagement with the content and interactions with each other and with the team of teachers. The Quiz, for example, was administered prior to the first plenary lecture as a „consciousness raising‟ exercise; the class responses reported in the plenary lecture and subsequently used to facilitate discussion on cultural worldviews.

An Educational Evaluation and Research (EER) plan for the GP Program The project to develop the GP Program curriculum initiative addressed the question, „How to design, deliver and manage a curriculum initiative to achieve the „global perspectives‟ or „cultural competence‟ graduate attribute in health science students?‟ The current context in higher education is outcomes-focused quality assurance mandated by the Tertiary Education Qualifications Authority (TEQSA) and professional accreditation bodies. Concurrently, a range of university-wide projects are being led by the Student Evaluation, Review and Reporting Unit (SERRU) and the Tasmanian Institute of Learning and Teaching (TILT), for example redesigning student evaluation of units of study (eVALUate) and Course Review Guidelines that embed evaluation into the process. The drive for evidence-based quality assurance at all levels of higher education activity prompted the project team to integrate a parallel stream of activity into the GP Program development that addressed the problem, „How to design a systematic plan for educational evaluation and research (EER) that is aligned with the design, delivery and management of a curriculum initiative?‟ Learning designs, such as the GP Program, have a life cycle over four broad phases of analysis, design, development and implementation. Ensuring rigor and relevance for evaluation in educational contexts is difficult due to the situated and highly contextual nature of educational design and delivery. A systematic and planned approach is required to manage a complex mixture of evaluation and research over a life cycle of evaluative activity: an initial focus on evaluation of learning design in early phases to quality assure the design is necessary before a design is mature and the focus can shift to researching the effectiveness and impact on students (Phillips et al., 2012). Kelder et al. (2012) provide a high level view of the EER plan over each stage of the design life cycle of the GP Program and for the evaluation of the project management. The EER plan for the GP Program is based on an evaluation-research framework which distinguishes four interrelated, and potentially concurrent, evaluation-research activities: baseline analysis, design evaluation, formative evaluation and effectiveness research with project management evaluation as a separate, related, activity (Phillips et al., 2012). The intended outcomes of the EER plan are: 1) enabling evidence-based improvements to the GP Program design and; 2) providing a reliable and valid evidence base for demonstrating learning outcomes and usefulness of resources. The

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tight integration of educational evaluation and research informing the ongoing design and re-design of a learning program is intended to enable longer-term impact research to establish the extent to which students are equipped for future roles in a global society. Formative and summative evaluation of the project management is conducted throughout. A mixed methods, or hybrid, approach is built into the GP Program EER framework. Ruhe and Boudreau (2011) note, “„…appropriate‟ assessment of curricular innovations is an argument that includes diverse kinds of scientific evidence, as well as the theoretical rationale and the social significance of the innovation” (p. 188). Benefits of designed evaluation include opportunities to improve program design; communication between project team members; identifying additional/alternative types of data to collect, reviewing evaluation procedures, and preventing misunderstandings including with those with oversight of the project (Sanders & Nafziger, 2011[1976]). The high level plan for EER (Kelder et al., 2012) incorporated the following core features from Phillips, et al. (2012): the LEPO framework, the concept of the „elearning design life cycle‟ with five sequential forms of evaluation-research (baseline analysis, design evaluation, formative evaluation, effectiveness research and project management evaluation). The distinction between „design evaluation‟ and „effectiveness research‟ is important in terms of timing. The EER plan adopted the principle that research to measure the impact of the GP Program (on students‟ learning processes and learning outcomes) should not occur until the GP Program had been evaluated from a learning design perspective, refined and established as a mature learning environment for students. The evaluation-research matrix tool supports the selection of research questions appropriate to each stage of the GP Program‟s design life cycle. Table 3, adapted from Kelder et al. (2012) maps the project phases for the development of the GP program to the stages of a learning design life cycle, with corresponding evaluation-research activities and research questions (Phillips et al., 2012). Table 3: GP program and EER plan

GP program

Learning design activity

Evaluation – Research activity

Research Questions - focus

Project Phase 0 Life cycle stage 0

Problem description

Baseline analysis

What is the problem and how can we solve it?

Phase 0 Life cycle 1

Design GP program

Design evaluation

How good is the design?

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GP program

Learning design activity

Evaluation – Research activity

Research Questions - focus

Phase 1 Life cycle 2

Pilot (Nursing, year one students)

Formative evaluation of the e-learning environment

How can the elearning environment be improved?

Phase 2 Life cycle 3

Implementation (Pharmacy, year one students)

Formative evaluation of the e-learning environment and processes

How well does the elearning environment work to support cultural shift?

Faculty Health Science roll-out (all year one students)

Effectiveness research into learning processes and outcomes. Impact research on students‟ thinking and personal / professional behaviours

How effective are the learning processes in generating „cultural shift‟ in students? What is the impact on students‟ capabilities in managing cultural diversity?

Phase 3 Life cycle 4

Data collected to date – evaluation for usefulness Phases 1 and 2 of the GP Program included a series of exploratory data collection activities with a view to analysing the data sets for usefulness in evaluation and development of an educational program. For each data set, this paper addresses the question, Will this data support an answer to the research questions: 1) with a design evaluation focus and; 2) with a focus on impact research? The exploratory nature of the data collection included identifying what types of data could be collected; what participant responses were likely and what problems with a data set might emerge in terms of its usefulness for effectiveness and impact research. Another consideration was the workability of collecting the data set. This is particularly important as, practically, data management of large data sets and a large number of data set types, including analysing data, require significant resources. The next section sets out the method for analysing and evaluating the data sets collected during phases 1 and 2 of the GP Program.

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Method The foci of the evaluation of the GP Program were to construct an evidence base to inform the development, and demonstrate the impact and effectiveness, of the learning design. This provided a framework for an opportunistic approach to collect a wide range of data types. Decisions with regard to the category of data gathered were ongoing and emerged as a result of experiences and discussions between project team members. In this exploratory stage several data sets were interrogated to determine their validity in terms of appropriateness for each element of the program evaluation. Validity was determined using a qualitative approach, drawing on the project team‟s experiences and perspectives. We deconstructed data drawn from a variety of sources including, data drawn from quizzes developed as a cultural awareness raising exercise and presented pre to the GP Program presentation in two cohorts of first year students (Nursing and Pharmacy). The quiz was not presented to Pharmacy students post completion of the GP program as the Nursing cohort had minimal response rates post completion. Data were gathered from the “My Perspectives Questionnaire” also presented pre and post GP Program presentation to Pharmacy students. This questionnaire was originally designed as diagnostic tool to measure cultural competence levels in undergraduate students. Completion of the quiz and the “My Perspectives Questionnaire” was voluntary. Responses to examination questions completed by Nursing students were examined. These students were given an „opt out‟ option in terms of allowing verbatim responses contained in their examinations to be used for research purposes. An essay competition was offered to a cohort of first year medical students not exposed to the GP Program. This competition asked the students to write approximately 1000 words focusing on their opinions and experiences of culture. Each entrant in the competition received a small participation gift and a certificate of participation that could be added to their student portfolio. The three best essays were awarded $100 voucher and a certificate of achievement. We developed a protocol for a systematic analysis of each data set. Elements were analysed by data type (qualitative, quantitative) and in terms of their contextual validity. Data were also considered in terms of ability to inform learning design, and ability to inform the impact and effectiveness of the GP Program. A further focus was to determine usefulness of data in terms of contributing to the development of a diagnostic tool to measure cultural competence. An awareness of cultural biases inherent in any circumstance guided a self-reflective, critical approach by the project team to the evaluation and determination of „quality‟ and „fitness for purpose‟ of each data set. Students provided informed consent and data were gathered under the approval of the University of Tasmania‟s Social Sciences Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC H0012566).

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Results and Discussion Data were gathered across three first year cohorts within the Faculty of Health Science (Nursing, Pharmacy and Medicine). All student-related information was completed and gathered on a voluntary basis with completion rates ranging from less than 5 percent to 100 percent and varying across each cohort (see Table 4). Four types of data have, to date, been collected with the aim of evaluating the learning design and impact of the GP Program.

Quiz Year 1 Nursing and Pharmacy students completed a 22-question quiz prior to exposure to the GP Program. This quiz aimed to raise awareness of differing cultural practices and situations by presenting a series of situations/scenarios along with four or five possible responses. The quiz was developed within a forced choice framework where students could not complete the quiz unless they opted for a response presented. If students felt the response options were outside that which they would normally respond they were instructed to respond with the option that was “closest to the response” they would actually have. Demographic data were also collected. As a „consciousness raising‟ exercise that facilitated discussion, the quiz worked very well. However, the use of this data in terms of the measuring the impact of the GP Program is limited. The forced-choice format restricts the validity of responses by assuming that students‟ responses would fall into the provided categories. Given that all behaviours are cultural artefacts (Krentzman & Townsend, 2008) then decisions made by the project team members in the development of the quiz scenarios and the corresponding possible responses are very likely influenced by their cultural knowledge and experiences. Developing scenario based questions that are measured on linear Likert scales allows for more measured responses. For example, gauging the level of agreement with a statement measured on a continuum ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree (Kaplan & Saccuzo, 2009). Alternatively, and as a minimum, a further open or “other” option should be made available to respondents. This approach will be considered in future iterations of the quiz. The intention of gathering pre and post GP Program data from the quiz, while sound in purpose, was not successful. Very few students completed the quiz following the completion of the GP Program. Thus if this exercise and its associated data are deemed necessary in the future then an incentive or inclusion of the follow-up quiz in the assessment requirements of the unit is necessary. Alternate forms of the quiz should also be considered to overcome any learning effects that may carry over from the first completion. The data gleaned from this aspect of the GP Program has the potential to inform the development of a diagnostic tool to measure cultural shift. Examining the responses to the quiz across the cohorts provided a range of insights. Interestingly, responses to the quiz questions were quite similar across the Nursing and Pharmacy cohorts. At one level this might indicate that the questions are culturally laden with little

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difference in responses. However, this might simply be explained by a bias toward socially desirable responses, with considerably fewer responses evident to negatively phrased response choices. One quiz item provides an example of this: A man in the bar of a small hotel has been drinking a lot of beer. Suddenly he collapses and vomits on the floor. If you were nearby, you would: a. move away; b. go and get one of the bar attendants; c. ask him if he’ll allow you to help him; d. call an ambulance. Responses to this scenario were overwhelmingly positive with just 7% of Pharmacy students and 3% of Nursing students indicating that they would avoid a person who is intoxicated. The remaining responses indicated a positive helping attitude in this situation. Whether this attitude is inherent in these cohorts or merely a response that is considered appropriate is unclear and highlights the need to consider social desirability when attempting to measure cultural competence. Such data provide critical information for the development of a diagnostic tool that will be able to broadly measure shifts in levels of cultural competence over time.

My Perspectives Questionnaire The “My Perspectives Questionnaire” was completed by Pharmacy students, in Phase 2 delivery of the GP Program. It consisted of three questions, measured on a 3-point Likert-type scale, focusing on curiosity about other cultures; preparedness for working with people from other cultures and confidence in communicating with people who speak other languages. A fourth open-ended question was also included for students to indicate their understanding of “world view”. The majority of Pharmacy students (95%) completed the “My Perspectives Questionnaire” pre the GP program, however this completion rate dropped to 84% post GP program. The resultant data set consisted of 42 valid data points. Table 5: Means and Standard Deviations of “My Perspectives Questionnaire” data

Mean (out of a possible score of 3)

Standard Deviation

Question 1- Pre

2.27

0.47

Question 1 - Post

2.60

0.50

Question 2- Pre

1.86

0.65

Question 2 - Post

2.33

0.53

Question 3- Pre

1.71

0.67

Question 3 – Post

2.05

0.66

Question

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Paired-sample t-tests revealed that students indicated that, post the GP Program, they were significantly more curious about other cultures (t(41) = -3.71, p = .001), significantly more well-prepared for meeting, working with, or caring for people whose culture makes them feel uncomfortable, (t(41) = -4.60, p< .001), and significantly more confident about communicating with people who speak an language other than their own, (t(41) = -3.15, p = .003), compared to pre the GP Program. For means and standard deviations see Table 5. These results seem to indicate an overwhelming success in terms of the impact of the GP Program. Increased curiosity, confidence and preparedness are the outcomes for which the GP Program was designed. Perusal of the comments given to the openended question regarding “world view” revealed further positive outcomes. For example, one student responded “I don’t know what that means” pre GP Program and post responded “Being open to other peoples’ values, cultures and way of life.” Again, this response clearly shows a shift in cultural awareness, matching with the aims of the GP Program and suggesting that the “My Perspectives Questionnaire” might be useful as a diagnostic tool to measure of cultural competence levels in undergraduate students. However, deconstructing the “My Perspectives Questionnaire” raised some questions in terms of its validity for this purpose. The questionnaire was not psychometrically validated and, with just three Likert-type items measured on a 3-point scale, it was unlikely to be able to discriminate multiple levels of cultural competence (Kaplan & Saccuzo, 2009). The same small scale questionnaire, presented pre and post GP Program, would also be likely to result in learning effects and thus alternate forms of the questionnaire would have yielded more reliable data. The way in which questionnaire items were presented with answer options referring to curiosity, preparedness and confidence may have positively skewed responses since these traits are considered desirable in terms of cultural competence. Social desirability bias is the tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favourably by others and this bias poses problems with all self-report and questionnaire data (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960; Janda, 1998). In a recent and comprehensive review, Krentzman and Townsend (2008) provided a summary of existing scales and suggested processes for the development of cultural competence scales. They noted the need to consider socially desirable responses and suggest that a valid social desirability measure is completed alongside any cultural competence scale. Krentzman and Townsend (2008) point out the need to consider that all scales are, in fact, cultural artefacts and thus there is a need for a multidisciplinary, multicultural approach to their development. Thus the “My Perspectives Questionnaire” is not valid or useful in terms of measuring impact of the GP Program and further consideration will be given to developing a psychometrically validated diagnostic tool that will accurately measure changes in a range of cultural competencies including knowledge, skills, awareness, attitudes and behaviour.

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Assessment Assessment is a critical and high value data set that informs learning design and is a measure of impact and effectiveness of the approach taken to implement curricula (Phillips et al., 2012). Phase 1 and 2 of GP program focused on raising awareness and providing information associated with knowledge of different cultural practices and world views. This learning was assessed by inclusion of three questions in the examination that represented 10% of the overall examination weighting. The assessment questions were aligned to introductory knowledge level learning objectives (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 2001). Assessment of the GP Program was limited to one cohort (Nursing) due to constraints on the Pharmacy examination design, thus comparison of cohort assessment outcomes was not possible. The assessment responses were analysed for degree of achieving learning outcomes within a framework of Bloom‟s (1956) taxonomy. The assessment questions were pitched at the lower levels of „Understanding‟ and „Knowledge‟ and with an overall 62% mark on these questions providing an indication that on average students have grasped the required knowledge at an introductory level. This confirms that the learning design is appropriate at this level and provides a foundation from which further, higher level, learning objectives and relevant exercises and assessments can be designed. Future development of the GP Program will focus on progressing learning within the cognitive domain (teaching and assessing students‟ application, analysis and synthesis of cultural information and understanding) and also developing their affective (attitudes) and psychomotor (behaviours) skills (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Bloom et al., 1956). When designing higher levels of learning and associated assessment, consideration could be given to more complex thinking; evidence applied in practice (e.g., clinical students) and supervisor assessments. Students were given the option to allow their examination responses to be used for research purposes and, at the time of writing, 24 have given consent to have their data included the evaluation process. This has allowed a more in depth scrutiny of responses and this snapshot of data has provided further insight that may inform the learning design of future elements of the GP Program. Although, on average, students provided responses adequate to pass this element of assessment, some failed to answer one or more questions. This may suggest a lack of understanding or perhaps a pragmatic response by students to nominally weighted examination questions. Interestingly, some responses were very similar, perhaps indicating a level of rote memory strategies supporting knowledge in this area. If this is the case then a revised learning design should focus learning objectives and aligned assessments in a more applied manner. Comparison of student outcomes across cohorts for consistency is an important consideration in all learning. It is particularly important in the instance of the GP Program, since this is a faculty wide initiative and will be rolled out to all Schools

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across multiple campuses and many staff will be involved in teaching and assessing various aspects of the course. The inability to accomplish standard assessment in Phase 2 of the GP Program roll-out has highlighted the need for a mandatory assessment component to be included in each unit of study that embeds the fourweek GP Program.

Essay Given the limited usefulness of the data and the recognition of the influence of social desirability biases inherent in the “My Perspectives Questionnaire” project team members decided to trial an essay competition with first-year medical students. Roll out of the GP Program to medical students will occur in Phase 3 thus the aim of the competition was to gain an insight into students‟ perspectives on culture prior to exposure to the GP Program. This exercise was implemented in an effort to optimise honest, open answers and minimise elements of social desirability in responses. The invitation to students directed them to reflect on personal understandings of culture, discuss a range of areas and provide evidence to support observations. Students were asked to consider their concept of culture; their knowledge about people unlike themselves; their thoughts on how their behaviour impacts others; their place in the world and; how they talk about, or talk to, people who are different from themselves. The invitation was offered to 115 students and, despite substantial incentive, only five students responded. Evaluation of the essays was undertaken by two raters in two parts: independent marking guided by a rubric to identify evidence of awareness, knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours associated with cultural competence, followed by discussion of rater‟s individual interpretations of essay responses. Initially, given the low response rate, this essay competition was considered unsuccessful. However, closer examination of the essays revealed a very distinct and rich source of information. In just five responses there was clear evidence of high levels of cultural acceptance, awareness and experience. Likewise evidence of a range of interpretations of culture and how it impacts students‟ lives in educational and personal environments was presented. One essay, for example, described the way in which understandings of privilege impacted and were dealt with by some students within the cohort. In discussion, the raters understood this as a clear example of cultural understanding that extends beyond mainstream concepts of culture and a reminder of the nuanced nature of the subject matter of the GP Program. This productive understanding, that every aspect of the GP Program is in fact a cultural artefact (Krentzman & Townsend, 2007), will inform and support the development of a diagnostic tool that is as broadly applicable as possible. Given the sensitive nature of some perceptions and understandings of culture, the way in which these data were gathered provided a forum for students to provide their opinion without the risk of impacting their marks. Voluntary entry to a competition outside assessment requirements, while resulting in limited responses, provided a freer environment for responses. This possible restriction associated with

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assessment must be taken into consideration when analysing qualitative responses of, what are traditionally, high achieving students. A significant and important outcome of the evaluation of this data set was that, despite the use of a standardised rubric, raters had very different responses to three of the essays. This, along with unanticipated responses, prompted reflection on raters‟ assumptions, ideas, and the validity of the rubric. This process also identified aspects of the GP Program that maybe cultural artefacts of the composition of the project team who decided the content of the program. Future development of the core curriculum will be informed by the deconstruction of the essay insights. Table 6 provides a summary of the data sets analysed according to the protocol. Table 6: Summary of evaluation of data sets

Data

Quiz

My Perspect -ives Q‟naire

Assessment

? ✕

✓

Contextual validity

✓ ✕

Raising awareness; Informing item development of diagnostic tool

✓

? High social desirability issues ✓Pre/post

✓

Aligned to learning objectives; Exam; portfolio options

Informs learning design

Informs impact and effectiveness

Embedded Supported in the development learning of diagnostic design tool

Not useful

Blooms Taxonomy (BT) analysis informs design for additional learning

Highlights need for validated diagnostic tool

Can measure using BT as criteria (limited; dependent on assessment type)

Diagnostic tool

Student/staff submission of items for question bank; Some items to transfer from Quiz to tool

Must address social desirability

Deconstructed assessment will have elements that inform item development

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Data

Essay

✓

Contextual validity

Informs learning design

Low social desirability influence; Low response rate.

Articulated questions and understand ings of culture that not yet addressed by GP program;

Informs impact and effectiveness Conclusion „not useful‟ (low response rate). Deconstructed data set showed high quality info that challenged project team assumptions

Diagnostic tool

Deconstructed text will have elements that inform item development

Conclusion To date, the EER plan has guided the formative evaluation of the GP program design and implementation. The data collection process was exploratory and opportunistic in Phases 1 and 2 due to the situated and contextual nature of the design process for the GP Program. We have developed a protocol to interrogate and evaluate the data sets from different cohorts and for different aspects of the GP Program (design and delivery). This was a necessary and useful mechanism to evaluate the data for quality and fitness for purpose. The outcomes of this evaluative activity are recursive, in that they also provide a lens for evaluating the intended purposes of the data collection. For example, the research questions have evolved in response to unexpected insights from this meta examination of the data sets. Results indicate that assessment items are a critical data set for determining achievement of learning objectives. However, assessment must be carefully designed to enable pedagogical measurement of student learning. In particular, assessment tasks must test students‟ cognitive (knowledge and understanding), affective (attitudinal) and psychomotor (behaviour) (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Bloom et al., 1956) gains in response to the GP Program. This suggests the need for a framework for assessment design to ensure breadth and depth of learning for each cohort and year level exposed to the GP program. The EER framework includes a long-term strategic aim to measure effectiveness and impact on students. The evaluation of the data sets to date confirmed that the development of a rigorous and validated diagnostic tool will be problematic for a number of reasons, conceptual and methodological. However, the cumulative data set indicates that a rigorous, multi-methods approach and multiple sources of data will provide a sound foundation from which a psychometrically validated diagnostic tool can be developed.

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The evaluative activity also confirmed that the GP Program and its various data sets are themselves a cultural artefact. Each element reflects the political drivers, responses and resistances, values, experiences, framing of experiences and knowledge of the project team members. Thus, the “cultural competence” definition adopted by the project has served its purpose well. It has been the guiding principle for identifying learning objectives and designing assessment. It has also provided a lens for each member of the project team, in whatever role, to reflect on and analyse his or her contributions to the content and the evaluation design (what questions we ask) and to ensure that each component models the definition for cultural competence developed by the educational development team.

References Anderson, L. & Krathwohl, D. A. (2001). Taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman. Biggs, J. & Tang, C. (2007). Teaching for quality learning at university. Third edition. Berkshire, England: Open University Press. Bloom, B.S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals; Handbook I: Cognitive Domain New York: Longman. Crowne, D. P. & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24, 349-354. Deardorff, D. (2009). The Sage handbook of intercultural competence. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage Publications Janda, L. H. (1998). Psychological testing: Theory and applications. Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon. Kaplan, R. M. & Saccuzo, D. P. (2009). Psychological testing: Principles, applications, and issues. Seventh edition. Belmont CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Kelder, J-A., Sondermeyer, J., Phillips, R., & Rothwell, A. (2012). Designing evaluation and research into educational initiatives: The Global Perspectives Program. Ascilite 2012. Wellington, NZ. Krentzman, A. R. & Townsend, A. L. (2008). Review of multidisciplinary measures of cultural competence for use in social work education. Journal of Social Work Education, 44, 7-31. Phillips, R., McNaught, G., & Kennedy, C. (2012). Evaluating e-learning: guiding research and practice. New York: Routledge. Ruhe, V. & Boudreau, J. D. (2011). The 2011 program evaluation standards: A framework for quality in medical education programme evaluations. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 23, 187-200. Sanders, J. R. & Nafziger, D. N. (2011[1976]). A basis for determining the adequacy of evaluation designs. Journal of Multidisciplinary Evaluation, 7, 44-78. Sondermeyer, J., van den Berg, K., & Brown, J. (2005). Making nursing education culturally competent: moving beyond the deficit model. International Conference on Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory into Research, 669-676. Student Evaluation, Review and Reporting Unit. Website available: http://www.utas.edu.au/student-evaluation-review-and-reporting-unit/our-serruteam Accessed 16th November 2012. Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency. Website available: http://www.teqsa.gov.au Accessed 16 November 2012.