ALUMINUM NATURAL GAS
LITHIUM BATTERY PERMACULTURE MUTUALITY SALT MINES NUCLEAR
Jesse Wetzel Dora Chan
introduction
Lithium ion batteries have
transformed the tech industry by offering an efficient solution to higher independent energy storage densities. The impact is far reaching, with
a
myriad
starting
from
of
stakeholders
raw
material
acquisition to recycling and waste. As part of a decentralized energy generation, this technology allows consumers to redirect storage based on the economy of scale, reducing dependency
on
the
main
grid.
Energy flows then become part of a distribution system that consolidates usage
and
storage.
Current
infrastructure primarily supports the transmission of energy generated from large facilities, but fails to ingrain
flexibility
for
alternative
strategies. The government and energy
industry
must
begin
to
integrate spatial planning due to the rising need for dispersed loads. Stored energy then becomes part of a greater, scattered network parallel to consumer behavior. LITHIUM BATTERY
PHEVs,
Battery HEVs,
production EVs
and
for FCEVs
demonstrate how multifaceted this can become. In exchange for this energy
mobility,
manufacturing
facilities must connect globally for these raw materials. With the Great Lakes Megaregion (GLM) already an established site for manufacturing, this became the ideal hub for government re-investment. Much of this funding was allocated towards promising
R+D
programs
and
innovative development strategies, which
centralize
around
major
automotive industries. The chart on the right demonstrates the surge in lithium consumption linked with significant events that have triggered increased
funding.
Reformatting
the potential flow of energy has generated layers of new relationships in the urban environment, detaching energy from the industrial grid into
individual
sources.
This
divergence has produced a complex interdependent ecology of material, research and economy.
lithium battery development
LITHIUM BATTERY
world deposits for battery components Australia
South Africa
139,000 metric tons Ni mined 2,400,000 metric tons Mn mined 1,070,000 metric tons Ti mined
2,200,000 metric tons Mn mined 1,120,000 metric tons Ti mined
Mozambique 350,000 metric tons Ti mined
Gabon China
Russia Italy Morocco
1,400,000 metric tons Mn mined 4,500 metric tons Li mined 77,000 metric tons Ni mined 6,200 metric tons Co mined 16,800,000 metric tons Al mined 600,000 metric tons Ti mined
6,100 metric tons Co mined 265,000 metric tons Ni mined 3,850,000 metric tons Al mined
26,000,000 metric tons P mined
Germany Norway
Canada
Mexico
Brazil Chile Argentina
25,000 metric tons C mined 2,500 metric tons Co mined 155,000 metric tons Ni mined 700,000 metric tons Ti mined
5,000 metric tons C mined
76,000 metric tons C mined 830,000 metric tons Mn mined 300,000 metric tons Ti mined 8,800 metric tons Li mined
2,900 metric tons Li mined
1,400,000,000
Ni
2,100,000
Nickel
2,000,000 1,230,000
P
Ti
Phosphorus
Titanium
Co
24,000,000 168,000
LMO-TiO
3,800,000 3,190,000
LFP
Cobalt
NCA
Li
Lithium US Reserve Import for Consumption (Metric Ton Per Year)
Cathode Separator Fiberglass Nylon Polyethylene Polypropylene
Electrolyte Liquid Polymer Solid
Anode
38,000 2,000
NCA
33,000 11,000
C
AL Aluminum
Carbon 51,000 1,120,000
Mn Manganese
NCA
FeO Iron Oxide
LMO-G
150,000
LFP LITHIUM BATTERY
world lithium deposits reserve (metric) tonnes
Major country
that emerge from this process include battery
580 K Australia
stakeholders
extractors, manufacturers,
consumers, and
processors,
personal
maintenance
industrial consumers
who
spatially,
web across the globe into the GLM. While this is recognized as a private 540 K China
industry,
public
resources
and
policy must be pooled to make this technology feasible in production. The complex ties with international supply
require
diplomatic
negotiations. The urgency of this production becomes apparent in the 180 K Canada 38 K United States
depreciation of fossil fuels. Public infrastructure must be set up to support these networks for regional operations and further interspatial development and enhanced mobility.
190 K Brazil 9 M Bolivia 7.5 M Chile 800 K Argentina
The map to the left graph world lithium
deposits.
With
such
a
significant supply outside of the U.S., we are substantially tied with the international market. Stakeholders suddenly reach across the globe due to the demand for limited raw materials.
lithium triangle
Along the Bolivian, Chilean and Argentinean regions, the greatest reserves for lithium have been discovered, soon to be mined for it’s resources. The largest is the Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia, covering more than 10,000 square kilometers. Due to it’s geological formation, the extraction of lithium chloride brine from salt flats tend to be more economical and more environmentally benign than lithium extracted from pegmatite or other sources. As a result, export revenues promote socio economic development. In exchange for this growth, the balance of limited fresh ground water supply is depleted with significant impacts on the environment. The scale of economy widens with a $5.7 million pilot plant in Bolivia, with demand driving lithium prices from $350 to $3,000 per ton in the past 5 years. With each car requiring as much as 30 kilograms, this accelerates the market for electric vehicles. LITHIUM BATTERY
production ecologies
1
Brine
2
Pegmatite
3
Hectorite
ex. Lithium Triangle
ex. Canada and Australia
ex. western US
LITHIUM BATTERY
from extraction
to end use
The map to the right list the countries that import and export lithium in metric tonnes and values
Australia India
Greenbushes
$24 2
from and to the U.S. These mines
Afghanistan
are differentiated by type, which are primarily brine and pegmatite sites. is from the lithium triangle, with
$651 65
India
Afghanistan Hindukush Mountain
more than 9,440 tonnes while the U.S. exports 677 tonnes to Germany.
$683 147 $1650 376
$450 71 South Korea
China
Koktokay
This demonstrates the significant
$3,750 677 Germany $128 35 United Kingdom
difference in consumption.
$117 27 Canada Yellowknife Thor Bernic Lake Preissac Lacorne District
United States
Mexico
Kings Mountain Bessemer City Silver Peak Searles Lake
$74 21 Mexico
Bolivia Salar de Uyuni
$8,640 2080 $32,400 7360 $750 87
Bolivia
As expected, the greatest import
Chile Salar de Atacama
Argentina Salar del Hombre Muerto Catamarca Province San Luis Province
Brazil Quixeramoblm Sononopole Itinga Aracuai
U.S. export value (K) (metric) tonnes U.S. import value (K) (metric) tonnes major consumer of U.S. lithium major global producer lithium sites brine pegmatite
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“...research is pushing the limits of energy density and cost for lithium ion batteries while also exploring even more advanced battery concepts such as lithium-air, lithium sulfur, and a whole class of metal-air batteries...� - Steven Chu
While the development of lithium batteries may have been gradual, demand
has
been
gaining
momentum, with projected growth going from 24% in lithium use to 40%. The Secretary of Energy, Steven
Chu,
predicts
dramatic
improvements in range, size and affordability. Investments by the Department of Energy spur this forward, granting a consortium of resources
for
researchers.
This
becomes particularly even more critical for this administration as it attempts to wean off of fossil fuel for fully electric vehicles. The emphasis is on global competition.
LITHIUM BATTERY
manufacturing
Spodumene is an important source of lithium for use in ceramics, mobile phone and automotive batteries, medicine and as a fluxing agent. Lithium is extracted from spodumene by fusing in acid. World production of lithium via spodumene is around 80,000 metric tonnes per annum, primarily from the Greenbushes pegmatite of Western Australia, and some Chinese and Chilean sources. The Talison mine in Greenbushes, Western Australia has an estimated reserve of 13 million tonnes.[6] Some think that spodumene will become a less important source of lithium due to the emergence of alkaline brine lake sources in Chile, China and Argentina, which produce lithium chloride directly. Lithium chloride is converted to lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide by reaction with sodium carbonate and calcium hydroxide respectively. But, pegmatite-based projects benefit from being quicker to move into production than brines, which can take 18 months to 3 years, depending on evaporation rates. With pegmatites, once a mill is built, the production of lithium carbonate is only a matter of days. Another key advantage that spodumene has over its more popular brine rivals, is the purity of the lithium carbonate it can produce. While all product used by the battery industry have to grade at least 99.5% lithium carbonate, the make up of that final 0.5% is important. If it contains higher amounts of iron, magnesium or other deleterious materials it is less attractive to end users.
With
stiff competition in mind,
manufacturers often resist open source
endeavors.
Collaboration
appears to be lacking in the face of limited research funding. Production methods became proprietary once the lithium market gained traction and posed a valid alternative to standard batteries and fossil fuels. Techniques and types vary from company to company but the end products are comprised of similar components. While many parts are imported from international suppliers, energy intensive processing is still required to prepare the unit. Electrolytes of powder, binders, solvents and additives are fed to coating machines to be spread on cathode and anode metals, followed by repeated cycles of thinning. A separator is added to discharge the electrodes between stacks, triggering the battery to function.
The
power,
size
and
efficacy vary between lithium battery types depending on usage. For an industrial region, batteries are often geared towards larger assemblies. LITHIUM BATTERY
the great lakes megaregion + TARP
$300 million
$30 million
$10 million pre-existing sites of production charging stations
RECOVERY ACT AWARDS FOR ELECTRIC DRIVE VEHICLE BATTERY AND COMPONENT MANUFACTURING INITIATIVE TARP Funds Invested in GLM (USD)
Cell, Battery, and Materials Manufacturing Facilities Advanced Battery Supplier Manufacturing Facilities Advanced Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Facilities Electric Drive Component Manufacturing Facilities Electric Drive Subcomponent Manufacturing Facilities Advanced Vehicle Electrification + Transportation Sector Electrification Advanced Electric Drive Vehicle Education Programs
RECOVERY ACT AWARDS FOR ELECTRIC DRIVE VEHICLE BATTERY AND COMPONENT MANUFACTURING INITIATIVE
Percentage of Dollars Spent in GLM vs. US
The government made its position clear on the electric vehicle industry after TARP funds were awarded in 2008. Of the $2.4 billion that went to the automobile industry with a specific interest in electric vehicles and more sustainable systems of transportation and energy storage, the Great Lakes Megaregion was the biggest winner. The GLM alone received a 54% majority of the distributed funds. This investment shows a level of commitment the government has made to reviving a critical industrial region in the US as well as showing that consideration for sustained growth will supercede short term gain moving forward. These investments should also prove to be important for building up the education and research sectors by bringing in international talent and entrepreneurial opportunities for development. LITHIUM BATTERY
“The big question is the timing of demand. Are you going to build a plant before a market has developed?” - Keith Evans (Geologist)
LITHIUM BATTERY
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rid 39 m ape hyb
vo lt 34 4
ford esc
iles = 682 m er tank .4 gal p 7 1 x g p
k per tan
nk ta sp er ile m vo lt 34 4 ev y ch
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gal g x 17 40 mp
0 mile
68 tank =
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tan s per
In tracking the distribution of TARP funds and the sites of development, it appears that the key factors are tied less to systems and flows and more to sites that may already have displaced communities of workers with the necessary skill sets and cheap land to build on. Sites located near former automobile production facilities seem to be the most popular for new facilities tied to electric vehicle component and battery production. While not always at infrastructural hubs, these sites might offer more affordable land and/ or development incentives as ways to entice these mutually beneficial industries to move in. What the graphic here suggests is that these key factors in development, as well as other the investments being made at the research level might redefine the Great Lakes Megaregion. Instead of being determined by watershed and socio-political territories, the GLM (at least in the case of the lithium and electric vehicle industry) might be determined by where the money is going. The lesson, within the GLM and nationwide, is that growth doesn’t seem to be spreading naturally, rather it occurs where the investment is made and that growth is less about battery design and more about state promoted industry. LITHIUM BATTERY
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conclusion
The Lithium industry, from Bolivia to the Great Lakes Megaregion, maps out the global chaining process that describes much of the worldwide economy today. What is most interesting is how the each industry effects the other. Lithium has existed for some time but it was the electric vehicle that was the major game changer in this that would lead to the resource bloom we are seeing in the Lithium Triangle. In turn, the lithium industry is helping to revive the now struggling birthplace of the vehicle in the GLM. These shifting spheres of influence and relevance are a natural occurrence in the globalized economy, but the future of the lithium industry cannot be secured without making decisive and substantial economic and sociopolitical investments. From Bolivia opening up its lithium reserves to the world to the US and China funding new battery and electric vehicle production, the resource bloom may soon whither without these investments - prolonging global dependency on non-renewable energy.
endnotes 1: “Commodity Statistics and Information.” 27 May 2011 <http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/> 2: “Lithium Chase.” 09 March 2010 <http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/10/business/energy-environment/10lithium.html?_r=1> 3: “Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center.” 14 Jan 2010 < http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/locator/stations/state> 4: “Hybrid and Plug-In Electric Vehicle Deployment Projects” 09 Sep 2010 < http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/vehicles/electric_ deployment_projects.html> 5: “Cell Construction.” 2005 < http://www.mpoweruk.com/cell_construction.htm> 6: “Foreign Commerce and Aid.” Table 1299. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States. 2012. 7: Nelson, Paul. Gaines, Linda. “Lithium Ion Batteries: Examining Material Demand and Recycling Issues.” Argonne National Labratory. 8: “2010 Fuel Cell Technologies Market Report.” U.S. Department of Energy. June 2011. 9: “The Recovery Act: Transforming America’s Transportation Sector.” U.S. Department of Energy. 14 June 2010. 10: Gaines, Linda. Cuenca, Roy. “Costs of Lithium Ion Batteries for Vehicles.” U.S. Department of Energy. May 2000. 11: Hollender, Rebecca. Shultz, Jim. “Boliva and it’s Lithium.” A Democracy Center. May 2010. 12: Eun, Kee. “Li-Ion Battery Cell Manufacturing.” LG Chem Ltd. / Compact Power. 08 Jun 2010. 13: Frank, Randy. “Li-Ion Suppliers Try to Find the Right Chemistry With Car Buyers.” Electronic Design. 04 Nov 2009. 14: Tahil, William. “The Trouble with Lithium: Implications of Future PHEV Production for Li Demand.” Meridian International Research. Dec 2006. 15: “Industrial Technologies Program: Nanocomposite Materials for Li Ion Batteries.” U.S. Department of Energy. June 2011. 16: Espinoza, Tercero. “Emerging Technologies and Changing Demand for Mineral Raw Materials.” Polinares. 28 June 2011. 17: Canis, Bill. “Battery Manufacturing for Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Policy Issues.” Congressional Research Service. 22 March 2011. 18: Abell, Lauren. Oppenheimer, Paul. “World Lithium Resource Impact on Electric Vehicles.” Plug In America. 1 Dec 2008. 19: Brodd, Ralph. “Factors Affecting U.S. Production Decisions: Why Are There No Volume Lithium Ion Battery Manufacturers in the US?” National Institute of Standards and Technology. June 2005. 20: “Afghanistan’s Lithium Wealth Could Remain Elusive.” June 2010 < http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/06/100616energy-afghanistan-lithium/>
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