Bachelors Dissertation: Renewable Integration into University Park Campus by Jong Hee Paik

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Research Project (K133RP) - Renewable Integration into University Park Campus

Jong Hee Paik

07 May 2013

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the regulations for the Degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Architectural Environmental Engineering at the University of Nottingham, 2013

ABSTRACT

This document gives information on the energy use in buildings in general and further and higher education buildings. It includes a literature review on the different types of renewable energy technologies available and their applications in the built environment. A case study on the University of Nottingham’s main campus―University Park campus―has been conducted. The sustainable policy of the University of Nottingham and the existing renewable systems are described. The total available roof area of buildings on University Park campus has been calculated to study the potential of BIPV integration into the University Park. Furthermore, approximate annual energy production was calculated, and economic and environmental analyses were carried out. The NPV and PB of the PV system have been calculated and it has been concluded that the project is profitable. The annual CO2 emission savings account for 25% of CO2 emission from electricity consumption in University Park. Finally, feasibility analysis has been carried out. It has been concluded that the BIPV integration into University Park project is viable as long as the University is capable of producing the finance for the initial costs. Moreover, with the other carbon projects that are being carried out, the University is capable of achieving the performance targets of 54,000 tonnes of CO2 for 2014/15.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank Dr Rabah Boukhanouf for providing this research topic and giving guidance on working on the research project. I would also like to thank the Eastes Office for providing the documents that contained the information on University’s policies and facts, especially Sebastian Roschlau for providing AutoCAD drawings of building plans, as well as Bob Clarke who provided the information on renewable systems in the Built Environment department.

CONTENTS

Page

Abstract

Acknowledgements

Contents

iii

List of Figures

List of Tables

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1

Introduction

1.2

Preliminary Literature Survey

1.2.1 Energy Use in Buildings

1.2.1.1 Energy Use in University Buildings

1.2.2 Types of Renewable Energy

1.2.2.1 Wind Energy

1.2.2.2 Bio Energy

1.2.2.3 Geothermal Energy

1.2.2.4 Solar Thermal Energy

1.2.2.5 Solar Photovoltaics

1.3

Project Aims and Objectives

1.4

Methodology

CHAPTER 2 CASE STUDY / COLLECTION OF SITE DATA 2.1

Introduction

2.2

The University of Nottingham’s Sustainable Policy

2.2.1 Environmental Strategy 2010

2.2.2 Carbon Management Plan 2010-2020

2.3

Site Description and Observation

2.4

Existing Renewable Systems in University Park

2.5

Data Collection and Calculation

iii

CHAPTER 3 ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL AND FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS 3.1

Introduction

3.2

Economic Analysis

3.2.1 Net Present Value (NPV)

3.2.2 Payback Period

3.3

Environmental Analysis

3.4

Feasibility Analysis

3.4.1 Project Feasibility

3.4.2 Resource Feasibility

3.4.2 Operational Feasibility

3.4.3 Economic Feasibility

3.4.4 Financial Feasibility

3.4.5 Environmental Feasibility

CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSION 4.1

Introduction

4.2

Conclusion

4.3

Recommendations for Further Research

References

Appendices

List of Figures Page Figure 1.1

Historical atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions

Figure 1.2

UK GHG emissions by sector (2012)

Figure 1.3

CO2 Emissions by building type and end use (2010)

Figure 1.4

Further and higher education percentage of energy use

Figure 1.5

(a) Vertical and (b) Horizontal axis wind turbines

Figure 1.6

Strata Tower with building integrated wind turbines

Figure 1.7

An example of Ground Source Heat Pump (GSHP)

Figure 1.8

Types of solar collectors

Figure 1.9

Types of photovoltaic modules

Figure 1.10

Options for BIPV installations

Figure 2.1

Environmental Strategy 2010

Figure 2.2

Carbon Management Plan 2010-2010

Figure 2.3

Map of University Park Campus

Figure 2.4

(a) Humanities Buidling, (b) Mathematics Building, and (c)

Engineering and Science Learning Centre (ESLC) Figure 2.5

(a) Highfield House and (b) The Orchard Hotel

Figure 2.6

Solar thermal collectors in Sherwood Hall

Figure 2.7

BIPV Roof Installations in Derby Hall

Figure 2.8

BIPV Roof Installations in Lincoln Hall 1

Figure 2.9

BIPV Roof Installations in Lincoln Hall 2

Figure 2.10

BIPV Roof Installations in Sustainable Research Building

Figure 2.11

Wind turbine and solar thermal collectors in Marmont Centre

Figure 2.12

Solar PV panels in Built Environment

Figure 2.13

Creative Energy Homes in University Park

Figure 2.14

Proposed Wind Turbines at Grove Farm

Figure 2.15

Use of online area calculator, showing the area of University

Park campus Figure 2.16

Examples of building roofs with pipes and other installations

Figure 3.1

David Wilson Millennium Eco-House

List of Tables Page Table 2.1

Summary of University’s 5-year Plan Performance Targets

Table 2.2

Summary of Total Carbon Emissions

Table 2.3

Summary of Renewable Systems in University Park

Table 2.4

List of buildings on University Park campus with available roof

area for BIPV Table 2.5

Summary of Data

Table 3.1

University Park Energy Consumption and Carbon Emission

(Electricity + Gas) Table 3.2

Breakdown of Energy Consumption 2011/12

Table 3.3

Summary of Electricity Consumption and Cost, and Carbon

Emission (UP) Table 3.4

NPV of PV integration into University Park

Table 3.5

Payback of PV integration into University Park

Table 3.6

Breakdown of CO2 Emissions 2011/12

Table 3.7

Summary of annual renewable generation and CO2 emission

savings

CHAPTER 1 1.1

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

The discovery of technology and machinery has led the humanity to adapt the use of energy in everyday lives, and it has become necessity in human lives. The conventional energy production from the burning of fossil fuels released enormous amounts of greenhouse gasses (GHG) that were buried for millions of years [1]. Consequently, the levels of GHGs have rapidly been increasing since the Industrial Revolution. Figure 1.1 [2] shows the history of the emissions of the three main GHGs: Carbon Dioxide, Methane and Nitrous Oxide. Nowadays energy generation from renewable sources, such as solar and wind, are in a rising trend.

Figure 1.1 1.2

Historical atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions

Preliminary Literature Survey

The Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) has reported the UK’s 2012 GHG emissions by its sector, shown in Figure 1.2 [3]. According to DECC, the energy supply took the greatest amount of 2012 UK’s GHG emissions with 40%; this includes the burning of coal, oil, and other gasses to produce electricity and heat. The energy that is produced is used in forms of fuel such as electricity in buildings and other sectors. Second highest was the transport with 24%, and businesses and residential took 17% and 15% of the national emission in 2012.

UK Greenhouse Gas Emission by Sector (2012)

4% 15%

Energy Supply 40%

Transport Business Residential

17%

Etc.

24%

Figure 1.2 1.2.1

UK GHG emissions by sector (2012)

Energy Use in Buildings

Currently in the UK, above 40% of the total carbon emissions are generated by the energy that is consumed within the building stock [4]. Energy consumed by buildings can mean the consumption of the original raw material or primary fuel, or it can also mean the consumption at or by the building itself. In domestic buildings, most of the emission comes from heating and cooling of the buildings, while in commercial and industrial buildings have much higher proportion of indirect emissions. Figure 1.3 [5] illustrates the 2010 UK CO2 emission in types of building and by end use. In this graph, it is evident that the building sector takes up almost half of the CO2 emissions in the UK, equivalent to 244 million tonnes of CO2.

Figure 1.3

CO2 Emissions by building type and end use (2010)

1.2.1.1 Energy Use in University Buildings According to Carbon Trust, annual energy costs for the further and higher education sector are around £200M, resulting around 3.2 million tonnes of CO2 emissions per year [6]. The percentage energy use in further and higher education is shown in Figure 1.4. Although 62% of energy consumption is made up of fossil fuels, the electricity takes up around 60% of the total energy costs. A university contains lecture theatres, laboratories, staff offices, sports facilities, libraries, student and staff accommodations, and etc. Each of the building on a university campus has different usages of energies. On average, space heating and air conditioning takes about the half, and lighting and other electricity usages take up the rest. There are number of ways that can be carried out to save energy in buildings, such as following energy saving measures, installing better insulation, and having energy efficient HVAC systems. In addition to consuming less energy, renewable energy can also be produced and consumed, which do not emit toxic GHG into atmosphere.

Figure 1.4 1.2.2

Further and higher education percentage of energy use

Types of Renewable Energy

Renewable Energy is the energy obtained from continuous or repetitive currents of energy recurring in the natural environment [7]. The demand for the clean energy is continuing to grow due to its benefits to the environment. In 2009, 6.7% of UK’s electricity was generated from renewable and waste sources [8], and in 2011, 9.4% of the electricity was generated from renewable energy [9]. 1.2.2.1 Wind Energy One of the most widely used renewable energy is the wind energy. A total of over 194GW of wind generating capacity had been installed by the end of 2010, and over 5.7GW in the UK by mid-2011, making it the world’s 8th largest at that time [10]. The wind energy is created when the differential solar heating of the Earth creates variations in temperature and air pressures, thus causing wind [11]. Modern technology of generating electricity from wind energy is generally referred to as wind turbines, differentiating from traditional wind energy from windmills.

There are various types of wind turbines to propose the best way of capturing the wind energy. The most modern designs include vertical (a) and horizontal (b) axis turbines, shown in Figure 1.5. Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs) are generally of the ‘cross flow’ type, and there are drag-type and lift-type. Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs) are mainly ‘axial flow’ type, and can be single-bladed, double bladed, to multi-bladed. They can be installed onshore or offshore, and they range in size from very small turbines that produce 10-100W to very large turbines generating as much as 7.5MW [11].

Figure 1.5

(a) Vertical and (b) Horizontal axis wind turbines

The benefits of wind energy are that it is clean, abundant and that it is an inexhaustible fuel. It is also one of the cheapest among the renewable energy. Since its price is stable, it reduces its dependence on conventional fuels that are subject to price and supply volatility. However, one of the downfalls of the wind energy is that it is location dependent. Not only it should be installed in places where vast amount of wind is available, it makes it hard to install wind turbines in the cities due to the aerodynamic noise it creates and the possibility of interfering electromagnetic transmissions. Strata Tower in Southwark, London, is an example of one of the first buildings to integrate wind turbines, shown in Figure 1.6. This proves that it is possible to integrate wind turbines into buildings. These wind turbines have been designed to provide 8% of total energy for the building; however, although it has a good intention of greening the built environment, the three wind turbines on top of the tower rarely move, meaning it will not produce the 8% of total energy consumed in the building as planned [12].

\ Figure 1.6

Strata Tower with building integrated wind turbines

1.2.2.2 Bio Energy Biomass includes trees, crops, and other plants as well as agricultural and forest residues. It can be considered as a form of stored solar energy, since the energy of the sun is captures through the process of photosynthesis in growing plants. Bioenergy, with coal, was dominant in many areas of life, with wood for heat, whale oil or tallow candles from animal fats for light and agricultural crops as fuel. The key problem was the move from bioenergy to fossil fuel during Industrial Revolution. There are three types of biomass: woody biomass, non-woody biomass, and organic wastes. These materials go through either physical, biological or thermochemical processes into more useful forms of energy. Physical processes include size-reduction, pelleting or extraction to produce heat and bio-diesel; biological processes include fermentation and anaerobic digestion to produce bio-ethanol and biogas; and thermochemical processes include combustion, gasification and pyrolysis to produce heat, fuel gas, bio-oil and charcoal [18]. These processes are considered carbon neutral, since all the carbon that is released into the atmosphere when they are used was itself taken from the atmosphere only a relatively short time before. However, it is very important that the consumption should not exceed the natural level of production. Biomass can be used for heating, electric power generation and combined heat and power (CHP). In a boiler system, the biomass is burned to generate hot water or steam and provide 6

space heating [14]. It can also be burned directly to produce high-pressure steam through a turbine generator to produce electricity [15]. Combining these two functions, a CHP system can be formed; the boiler can generate electricity with the steam, then the remaining steam and hot water can then be used for heating [13]. 1.2.2.3 Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy is the energy generated by heat stored beneath the earth’s surface. Under the 2009 EU Renewable Energy Directive, the difference between the heat output and the electricity input is classified as renewable energy [16]. Geothermal power provides clean and safe energy while using little land. It generates continuous and reliable “base load” power. Geothermal energy contributes to diversity in energy source, since most of the renewable energies are from the sun. The major advantage over the sun is that it is available 24 hours 7 days a week, 365 days a year. The main types of resources available for geothermal energy are aquifers, steam fields and hot dry rocks. With these resources, power is generated in three kinds of power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle. In dry steam power plants, the natural steam from the production wells powers the turbine generator to produce electricity. Dry steam is suitable for vapour dominated resources. In flash steam plants, as hot water is released from the pressure of the deep reservoir in a flash tank, some of it flashes to steam due to pressure changes. It is suitable hot water aquifers. In binary cycle power plant, the heat from geothermal water is used to vaporise a “working fluid” in separate adjacent pipes, and the vapour powers the turbine generator [17]. From these methods, electricity is generated, and can be used in buildings. Ground Source Heat Pumps (GSHPs) generate energy directly to buildings; it can provide heating and cooling. Figure 1.7 [19] shows an example of GSHP. It uses the stable temperature of the ground as a heat source to provide heating in winter, and as a heat sink for cooling in summer. A liquid is circulated in pipes that are installed under the ground, to pick up the heat. The pipes can be installed vertically, horizontally, slinky, or in a pond. Under floor heating is preferably used for space heat distribution if the temperature difference between heat source and delivered heat is small.

Figure 1.7

An example of Ground Source Heat Pump (GSHP)

1.2.2.4 Solar Thermal Energy Solar thermal energy is the energy from the sun that is absorbed by solar thermal collectors. The solar collectors can be air or water based, and they are in forms of evacuated tubes or flat plates (Figure 1.8) [20].

Figure 1.8

Types of solar collectors 8

There are three main ways that solar thermal collectors can be used in building―hot water supply, space heating and cooling. For domestic hot water systems (DHWS), there are passive and active systems [11]. Passive systems use gravity and the tendency for water to naturally circulate as it is heated through the system without a pump. They are generally very reliable and easy to maintain. Active systems use electric pumps, valves, and controllers to circulate water or other heat-transfer fluids through the collectors. For cooling, solar chillers use thermal energy to produce cold air and dehumidification. It can be closed or open cycle. Other type of solar thermal system includes high temperature collectors, such as parabolic troughs, dish system, and central-receiver systems. These systems can produce vast amount of electricity. 1.2.2.5 Solar Photovoltaics Photovoltaic cells capture direct and diffused sunlight to convert solar energy directly into electricity. The three main types of Si PV cells are monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous thin film, shown in Figure 1.9 [21]. Monocrystalline cells are in well ordered structure, most efficient and most expensive. Polycrystalline cells are in order with some grain boundaries, lightly less efficient than monocrystalline, and cost less. Amorphous thin films are arranged randomly, least efficient and cost least among three. These cells are put into panels, and are covered with a thin layer of anti-reflection coating to minimise light reflection. PV system can be stand alone, with or without a battery bank, or grid connected.

Figure 1.8

Types of photovoltaic modules

The advantages of PV power technology are its reliability due to no moving parts, quick installation, very low operation and maintenance costs, and no fuel is needed. It doesn’t cause 9

noises or atmospheric pollution. It provides power generation where electricity is needed, there are no transmission losses. PV panels can be installed within buildings, referred to as Building Integrates Photovoltaics (BIPV). Figure 1.10 [22] illustrates some options for BIPV installations. In BIPV, the power from PV goes to PCU and inverter, and the AC output from PCU goes to building or to grid if supply exceeds demand [11].

Figure 1.10

Options for BIPV installations

Benefits of BIPV are that there is no need for extra land area; it may be used in densely populated areas. There is no need for additional infrastructure, integrates with other installations. It supplies all or a significant part of building electricity use. It provides electricity during peak times; it reduces utility’s peak delivery requirements. It can replace conventional building materials, and also provide an innovative, aesthetic appearance for the building. 1.3

Project Aims and Objectives

The aim of this report is to provide information on energy uses in buildings, especially in further and higher education sectors. Moreover, a literature review on the different types of renewable energy, such as solar and wind, has been presented, and renewable energy system that can be integrated into the built environment and their applications has been discussed. A case study on the University of Nottingham’s main campus―University Park campus―has been conducted. The main objectives of this research include descriptions of the sustainable policy of the University of Nottingham, to identify the existing renewable systems on 10

University Park campus, to find out the total available roof areas of the buildings in University Park. Taking account that photovoltaic panels will be installed on the usable roof areas, the annual energy production will be estimated. Finally, through economic and environmental analyses, the annual electricity cost saved, the payback of the PV systems, and the annual CO2 emissions will be determined, hence its feasibility will be analysed. 1.4

Methodology

The preliminary literature survey has been carried out using sources available on internet and from the library. The statistics were found from websites and publications of organisations such as DECC and Carbon Trust. The sustainable policies of University of Nottingham have been studied from documents that were available on the University’s Eastes Office website. The document Environmental Strategy 2010 gives the strategies that University has to care for the environment and reduction of energy, and the Carbon Management Plan 2010-2020 sets out goals and objectives for the University to reduce its carbon emissions. Site surveys were carried out with the use of Google maps/Earth and direct observations across the campus. Some of the new and refurbished buildings were not shown on the Google maps; hence the roof plans of those buildings were obtained from the Estates Office. The information on existing renewable systems on campus was available on the University website and sustainability reports, and through direct site observations. The data collected from the site surveys was analysed based on the availability and suitability for renewable installations. Further analytical interpretation of the actual usable roof areas have been determined based on the roof area available and the orientation of the building. As a rule of thumb, it has been assumed for 1kWp of photovoltaics to be installed per 10m 2 of roof area. With this, the total size of the solar PV system to be integrated into University Park and the estimated annual production has been calculated. Economic analysis was carried out with the method of Net Present Value (NPV) and Payback period (PB). The annual electricity demand and costs were found in the Annual Reports produced by the Estates. The discount rate has been electricity cost increase rate have been assumed in the calculations. The Feed-in-Tariff rate was available on the Ofgem website. In environmental analysis, using the CO2 conversion factors given in the University Carbon Management report, the annual CO2 emission savings from generating electricity with the 11

possible installations of solar photovoltaics were estimated. This value was compared with the annual CO2 emission of the University Park campus. The results obtained from economic and environmental analyses further helped in the feasibility analysis of the renewable system integration in the University Park campus CHAPTER 2 2.1

CASE STUDY / COLLECTION OF SITE DATA

Introduction

Across all its campuses, the University is currently investing £90m in new teaching and learning facilities, with the new and refurbished designs meeting the highest environment standards. In addition, a range of renewable energy systems have been installed in existing and new buildings. The University of Nottingham has a strong research portfolio in environmental sustainability. The Centre for Sustainable Energy Technologies (CSET) at the Ningbo campus in China serves as a model building representing advanced techniques for environmentally-responsible, sustainable construction. Moreover, the Creative Energy Homes project, on the University Park campus in Nottingham UK, features six innovative eco-homes that serve as ‘living laboratories’ in which new techniques are tested and demonstrated. 2.2

The University of Nottingham’s Sustainable Policy

The University’s aim is to become a sector-leading green university in all its activities. The Environment Committee directs policy on all environmental issues on Campus, monitoring the sustainability programmes through internal reporting and external assessment. The Estates Office of University of Nottingham takes great responsibility in making this happen, by providing strategic and operational services support to the University infrastructure, buildings and landholdings [23]. The Estates Office Mission is: “To provide, maintain and develop a high quality environment in a professional, efficient, cost effective and customer focused manner to enable the University to meet its aims today and in the future.” [24] The Estates office produces several annual reports, including annual energy reports and sustainability reports. Moreover, the Sustainability Team of the Estates Office has been producing Carbon Management Reports since 2010. 12

2.2.1 Environmental Strategy 2010 The document Environmental Strategy (2010), shown in Figure 2.1 [25], covers the strategies that the University of Nottingham has developed which will lead the university to become a leading green University. Some of the aims include: improving the environmental performance of our building and the University’s infrastructure by moving towards carbon neutral energy performance, adopting environmentally conscious procurement practice, promoting renewable energy systems, reducing water consumption and waste output.

Figure 2.1

Environmental Strategy 2010

The objectives in delivering this are centred on: - reducing energy usage, cost and waste, - generating energy from renewable energy sources - specifying carbon neutral or low carbon energy products via procurement and energy contracts The University has its base on the carbon reduction strategy that has been published by the 13

Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE). The HEFCE set out the vision that: “within the next 10 years, the higher education sector in this country will be recognised as a major contributor to society’s efforts to achieve sustainability – through the skills and knowledge that its graduates learn and put into practice, and through its own strategies and The HEFCE’s carbon reduction strategy for higher education links to requirements in the UK’s Climate Change Act 2008, which aims to improve carbon management and help the transition towards a low-carbon economy in UK. It sets the world’s first legally binding reduction targets for greenhouse gas emission of at least 34% by 2020 and at least 80% by 2050, against a 1990 baseline. The Estate’s Environmental Strategy in Operation includes: - Waste and recycling - Energy and water - Travel and transport - Procurement - Campus development - Awareness raising, training and communication - Corporate governance - Information services - Landscape -Teaching and learning -Research 2.2.2

The Carbon Management Plan 2010-2020

The Carbon Management Plan (CMP), shown in Figure 2.2 [26], was approved in December 2010, with the main areas of investment to be centred on: 1. Improvements in energy efficiency of buildings, including insulation, heating, and lighting. 2. More efficient use of existing equipment including switching off when not in use. 3. Generation of energy from small/medium scale renewable energy systems 4. Provision of information and training to staff and students to engage them with the objectives of the Plan. 14

5. A cultural change in the use of high energy consumption activities within premises and a strategy to replace the lower energy alternatives.

Figure 2.2

Carbon Management Plan 2010-2010

Carbon management is becoming of increasing importance at global and local level. The UK has set legally binding CO2 reduction targets and, in turn, funding bodies including HEFCE and reflecting these in their strategies, investment criteria and reporting requirements [26]. The Carbon Reduction Commitment Energy Efficient Scheme (CRC) came into force in April 2010 to significantly reduce carbon emissions in the UK. The CRC is a mandatory carbon emissions reporting and pricing scheme to cover all organisations using more than 6,000 MWh per year of electricity, which is equivalent to an annual electricity bill of about £500,000. It comprises 3 elements: 1. Participants measure and report carbon emissions annually 2. Starting in 2012, participants buy allowances from Government each year to cover emissions in the previous year.

3. A publicly available CRC performance league tables will show how participants are performing compared to others in the scheme. Each year from 2012 the University will be taxed on its carbon emissions; this will cost c. £750k, based on a rate set at £12 / tonne CO2. Evidence from other UK environmental taxation policies would suggest that there is a strong likelihood that these costs could raise significantly in future years. Table 2.1

Summary of University’s 5-year Plan Performance Targets

Total Energy Consumption p.a. Total Carbon (CO2) Emissions p.a.

Baseline 2008/09

Objective 2014-15

198 GWh

168 GWh

68,000 tonnes

54,000 tonnes

The targets require average annual reductions in energy consumption of 6 GWh and CO2 emissions of 2,800 tonnes. The Table 2.2 summarises the University’s carbon baseline, which: - 1990/91 as the year against which most national and sectoral targets are set. - 2005/06 as a more recent year for which high quality data are available. Table 2.2

Summary of Total Carbon Emissions Baseline year

Total Carbon Emissions

1990/91

42,643 t CO2

2005/06

62,036 t CO2

The University Plan commitment is for a 20% absolute reduction in CO2 emissions from a 2009/10 level to be achieved by 2015. This will equate to a 13% absolute reduction from the 2005/06 baseline. The estimated newbuild increase to 2015 is circa 30,000m2 and a corresponding estimated annual increase in CO2 of circa 3,000 tonnes. On a like for like basis taking into account expansion of the estate, the planned reduction in CO2 emissions by 2015 will equate to a reduction of 24% from the 2009/10 level. For the period 2015-2020, the target would be to

reduce out absolute emissions to 41,000 tCO2 per annum. This will equate to a total reduction of 40% from the 2009/10 level and 34% reduction from the 2005/06 baseline. 2.3

Site Description and Observation

The University of Nottingham comprise of four UK campuses and a number of NHS facilities across the East Midlands, including University Park, Jubilee, Sutton Bonington, and King’s Meadow campuses and Queen’s Medical Centre (QMC). The University Park (52.94° N, 1.19° W) is the main and original campus approximately 330 acres (1.34 km 2) and is considered as one of the largest and most attractive campus in the UK. It has been part of the University of Nottingham since 1929, set in greenery and near a lake. In 2011, University Park was awarded a Green Flag Award for the nine consecutive years (the only University Campus to do so in the UK). Figure2.3 [27] shows the map of the University Park.

Figure 2.3

Map of University Park Campus

The University Park campus consists of 12 halls of student residence, which accommodate total number of 3,200 students, period buildings, teaching and research facilities, libraries, a conference and exhibition centre, a hotel, sports facilities, and the Lakeside Arts Centre. The

main University building is the Portland building which houses the Student Union and Student Support Centre. Academic buildings are located around North-east part of the campus, including the Faculty of Engineering, Science, Social Sciences, and Arts. The Estates Office continues to make improvements to the University Park campus. In 2009, new UP Masterplan has been produced to explore strategies to reorganise and improve the pedestrian, cycle and vehicle routes. In 2010, Environmental Strategy and Carbon Management Plan were launched, both aiming to save the energy and low the carbon emission for the environment. In 2011, a number of teaching and learning facilities opened on UP campus: (a) Humanities, (b) Mathematics buildings, and the (c) Engineering and Science Learning Centre (Figures 2.4). These buildings are not only designed aesthetically, but also in highest standards, maximising the use of daylight and other energy saving measures.

(a)

(b)

(a) Humanities Buidling, (b) Mathematics Building, and (c) Engineering and

Science Learning Centre (ESLC) In 2012, the grade II listed Highfield House (a) reopened after the refurbishment and extension, and the Orchard Hotel (b) has been built, shown in Figure 2.5, in highest environmental standards, featuring state-of-art technology to reduce the carbon emissions. In 18

addition to these new buildings, the University has also installed various renewable energy systems, generating carbon free energy.

(a) Figure 2.5 2.4

(b)

(a) Highfield House and (b) The Orchard Hotel

Existing Renewable Systems in University Park

University Park contains a number of renewable energy systems, including solar photovoltaic panels, solar thermal systems, and ground and air source heat pumps. Table 2.3 summarises the renewable systems in University Park. Some of the systems have been monitored and reported in the University Annual Energy Reports and some of them have just recently been installed hence the annual production is not known. Figures 2.6 to 2.12 show some of the solar thermal collectors and photovoltaic panels installed on University Park. Table 2.3 Type PV

Solar Thermal GSHP

ASHP

Summary of Renewable Systems in University Park Building Name Derby Hall Lincoln Hall Environmental Education Centre Sustainable Research Building Orchard Hotel Rutland/Sherwood Hall Marmont Centre Mathematics Humanities Cooling Orchard Hotel Heating Centre for Advanced Studies Orchard Hotel 19

Size 66 kWp 57 kWp 10 kWp 10 kWp 4.7 kWp 60.21 m2 1.2 kWp 146 kW 146 kW 45 kW 156.6 kW 129.9 kW 563.3 kW

Annual Production 52,900 kWh 52,000 kWh 14,400 kWh 7100 kWh 11,300 kWh -

Figure 2.6

Solar thermal collectors in Sherwood Hall

Figure 2.7

BIPV Roof Installations in Derby Hall

Figure 2.8

BIPV Roof Installations in Lincoln Hall 1

Figure 2.9

BIPV Roof Installations in Lincoln Hall 2

Figure 2.10 BIPV Roof Installations in Sustainable Research Building

Figure 2.11

Wind turbine and solar thermal collectors in Marmont Centre

Figure 2.12

Solar PV panels in Built Environment

Additionally, some renewable systems in the Built Environment were installed for experiments and research, such as systems in Creative Energy Homes shown in Figure 2.13. These systems are not always in working conditions, therefore exact annual productions are unknown.

Figure 2.13

Creative Energy Homes in University Park

The University has also submitted plans for three wind turbines on land close to the River Trent, near Clifton Bridge in Nottingham. Figure 2.14 [23] illustrates how the wind turbines would look like on the field. Although they have not been approved yet, if approved, they would supply green electricity directly to its University Park campus. This would meet onethird of the electricity needs of the University Park campus, and would reduce the University’s carbon emissions by 7,000 tonnes per year, equating to 40 per cent of the target reductions required by 2015. 22

Figure 2.14 2.5

Proposed Wind Turbines at Grove Farm

Data Collection and Calculation

The roof areas of the buildings in the University Park campus were recorded using online area calculator software. It has been tested with the area of the University Park first to make sure the online software gives correct values. Figure 2.15 [28] proves that the software is relatively accurate, giving the University Park campus area of 334 acres, which is only 4 acres different from the area given on University Website. Hence this software has been used to find out the available roof areas of buildings on University Park campus.

Figure 2.15

Use of online area calculator, showing the area of University Park campus 23

Most of the buildings on the University Park campus were available on the Google maps. However, recently built or refurbished buildings like the Humanities buildings did not exist on the maps. Hence the AutoCAD plans of the new or refurbished buildings were obtained from the Estates office, and using the area measure tool in AutoCAD, the available roof areas were calculated. Although site observations were carried out and photos of the building have been taken, it was not possible to see the exact form of the roofs, thus some analytic assumptions were made. Table 2.4 lists the buildings that have available roof areas for PV installations. Table 2.4

List of buildings on University Park campus with available roof area for BIPV Buildling No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Building Name Florence Boot Hall Willoughby Hall Ancaster Hall Cavendish Hall Nightingale Hall Rutland Hall Sherwood Hall Derby Hall Lincoln Hall Lenton & Wortley Hall Cripps Hall High Stewart Hall Portland Building Trent Building History/Lenton Grove Humanities Building Law/Social Sicences Building Hallward Library Sir Clive Granger Building Sir Peter Mansfield Building Physics Building Chemistry Building Mathematics Building Keighton Auditorium George Green Library Cripps Computing Centre 24

27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41

Astronomy Builidng Tower Building Estates/Biology Building Pharmacy/Psychology Building Coates Building Pope Building ESLC Laboratory/Research Buildings Recital Hall Sports Centre Child Care Services East Midlands Conference Centre Cripps Health Clinic New Theatre Highfield House

The available roof areas were selected based on the size (>100m 2) and orientation (S/SW). It is recommended to have at least 100m2 of roof area facing south, to install PV system of minimum 100kWp. 1kWp on average takes up 10m2 of space, as with the rule of thumb, it has been assumed that 10kWp of PV systems are to be installed per 100m 2. The Orchard Hotel, Lakeside Arts Centre, and the Queens Medical Centre have not been included in this calculation. The images and roof plans of each building can be found in Appendix 1, and the locations of these buildings were shown in the map in Appendix 2. The roof areas highlighted with green areas are available spaces, and the parts highlighted with yellows indicate the locations of solar PV panels and thermal collectors. The total available area obtained was then multiplied by a factor of 0.8. This is to take into account of the non-usable spaces on the roof, such as due to pipes and other installations. An example of this is shown in Figure 2.16. Figure 2.16 (a) is a picture of part of Pharmacy building, and (b) is the rooftop of Physics building. Not common in buildings where only lectures are carried out, most of the engineering/science buildings have laboratories and experiments where these pipes in the buildings cannot be avoided. With the total number of usable roof area, the total size of possible installation of PV system has been assumed―total 7,811 kWp of PV system.

(a)

(b) Figure 2.16

Examples of building roofs with pipes and other installations

Finally, the annual production of energy can be calculated by multiplying the total number of sunshine hours in Nottingham in a year. The number of sunshine hours, 1440.1 hours per year, was found from the Nottingham Average Weather Data, MET Office [29], which can be found in Appendix 3. Table 2.5 shows the summary of the data. It has been calculated that the total energy that can be generated from the PV systems is 11,249 kWh. This is around 25 per cent of the annual electricity consumption in the University Park. The screenshot of the Excel has been attached in Appendix 4, where details of each building can be found. Table 2.5

Summary of Data Total Available Roof Area

97,638 m2

Total Usable Roof Area

78,110 m2

Size of the System

7,811 kWp

Annual Production

11,249 MWh

CHAPTER 3 ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL AND FEASIBILITY ANALYSES 3.1

Introduction

The renewable energy systems on University Park will have a great effect on various areas. As the UK government encourages installing renewable systems, there exists a Feed-in-Tariff that can help to reduce the cost of electricity. Moreover, not only it will reduce the electricity bill, it will reduce the carbon emission, which is good for the environment. Furthermore, the UK’s Carbon Reduction Commitment Energy Efficient Scheme (CRC) came into force in 2010, where the University is required to pay about £12 per tonne of CO2 generated. The University has paid £657k in year 2012, based on the emissions of 54,751 tonnes of CO2 [30]. Hence reducing carbon emission will also reduce the annual cost of CRC participation. Table 3.1 shows the summary of energy consumption and carbon emission in past few years, based on electricity and gas. Table 3.1

University Park Energy Consumption and Carbon Emission (Electricity + Gas)

Year

3.2

Energy Consumption (MWh)

CO2 Emission (tonnes)

2005/06

109,088

35,910

2007/08

111,718

37,610

2009/10

115,800

39,160

2010/11

112,818

38,007

2011/12

109,770

37,578

Economic Analysis

The University Park’s 2011-2012 annual energy consumption was equivalent to 109,770MWh, where electricity account for around 40% of total energy consumed. The breakdown of energy consumption in 2011-2012 is shown in Table 3.2. Table 3.2

Breakdown of Energy Consumption 2011/12 Electricity

Fossil Fuels

Total

45,058 MWh

64,712 MWh

109,770 MWh

With the annual production of 11,249 MWh of energy from PVs, it is possible to save around £1,765k of electricity bill per year. This corresponds to saving more than half of the electricity cost in the past. The summary of electricity consumption, cost and carbon emission is shown in Table 3.3. Table 3.3 Year

Summary of Electricity Consumption and Cost, and Carbon Emission (UP) Electricity Consumption

Electricity Cost (£)

(MWh)

CO2 Emission (tonnes of CO2)

2009/10

45,867

2,825,400

24,860

2010/11

44,487

2,887,877

24,067

2011/12

45,058

3,152,484

24,376

Further economic analysis on the PV integration into University Park has been carried out in two methods: NPV and PB. Moreover, the data was analysed and calculated under a number of conditions: taking account of the Feed-in-Tariff, and time value of the money. 3.2.1

Net Present Value (NPV)

NPV is widely used method in companies and management as a capital budgeting method. It indicates how much value an investment or a project is worth to the company/business. In the NPV method, the difference between the present value of cash inflows and the present value of cash outflows is calculated to analyse the profitability. It is a realistic analysis method because it takes into account of the time value of the money. First of all, the investment cost has been assumed based on the average cost of PV installation, which is around £3,000-£4,000 per 1kWp of PV installed [31]. There is no maintenance or operation costs for PV systems. The discount rate of 7.5% has been assumed in the calculation. The average unit price of electricity was used, which is 15.69p/kWh [32], and this has been assumed to increase 3.5% per year. The Feed-in-Tariff rates were available from Ofgem [33], this can be found in Appendix 5. The rate of 6.85p/kWh was used since the total size of the PV system exceeds 250kW, and will be installed in the future. Table 3.4 summarises the NPVs obtained. With the assumption of £30,000,000 of installation cost,

looking at the 30 years of lifetime, the NPVs equal to £10,146,647 of profit when taking FiT into account, and £1,046,336 without FiT. Table 3.4

NPV of PV integration into University Park

Net Present Value

3.2.2

With FiT

Without FiT

£10,146,647

£1,046,336

Payback Period

The payback period was calculated simply by calculating the cumulative NPV each year, and finding out the breakeven point. Breakeven point is the point where the cumulative NPV turns from negative to positive. With taking into account of the time value of the money, it has been calculated that with the benefit of FiT, it will take 18 years to have the initial cost back, and 28.2 years without FiT. Furthermore, the simple payback method was also used, which not take the time values of the money into account. The simple payback has been calculated simply by dividing the initial cost of investment by the amount of money saved per year. The summary of payback periods are shown in Table 3.5. Table 3.5

Payback of PV integration into University Park

Payback Simple Payback

With FiT

Without FiT

18 years

28.2 years

11.8 years

17 yeas

The detailed calculations of NVP and PB can be found in Appendix 6. 3.3

Environmental Analysis

In 2011-2012, the total annual CO2 emission from electricity and gas consumption in University Park was equivalent to 37,578 tonnes (Figure 3.1). The CO2 emission from the electricity consumption takes around 65% of total emission, where electricity only took about 40% of the energy consumption in University Park. This implies that the electricity generates more carbon than the fossil fuels. This is due to the carbon that has been emitted during the process of generating electricity. Thus, by creating electricity from renewable sources, carbon 29

emission can be reduced significantly. Table 3.6 shows the breakdown of CO2 emissions of electricity and fossil fuels in University Park. Table 3.6

Breakdown of CO2 Emissions 2011/12 Electricity

Fossil Fuels

Total

24,376 tonnes

13,201 tonnes

37,578 tonnes

The CO2 emission savings from the electricity generated from the possible PV installations on University Park campus has been calculated by multiplying the CO2 conversion factor that has been provided in the University Carbon Management Plan reports [30], which is equivalent to 0.541 kg of CO2 per kWh for electricity. Table 3.7 summarises the annual CO2 emission savings that has been estimated. Table 3.7

Summary of annual renewable generation and CO2 emission savings

Annual Renewable Energy Generation

Annual CO2 Emission Savings

11,248,679 kWh

6,086 tonnes

This is equivalent to the amount of carbon emission that can be saved from the three wind turbines designed to be mounted near River Trent. The energy generated from the PV system will reduce the carbon emission from electricity by 25%, equating to 16% of total carbon emission from energy consumption in University Park. The screenshot of calculations of the carbon emission is attached in Appendix 7. 3.4

Feasibility Analysis

In an evaluation of a project, there are number of areas that must be qualified for the project to be viable. 3.4.1

Project Feasibility

The project itself has to be feasible in first place. In other words, if it is not possible to carry out the project at all, then the whole project is not viable. There are already various types and sizes of renewable systems on University Park campus. However, not all of them are working 30

properly. For instance, the PV panels installed in Derby and Lincoln Halls have not only generated over 100MWh of energy per year, saving around 57 tonnes of CO2, but also produced an income of c. £32k in year 2011/12 from the Feed-in-Tariff. On the other hand, a small wind turbine installed on the roof of David Wilson Millennium Eco-House (Figure 3.1) for an experiment, which is supposed to be generating energy for the house, cannot be operated due to the sound and the vibration produced by the turbine to the house.

Figure 3.1

David Wilson Millennium Eco-House

Another example is the Strata Tower mentioned in section 1.2.2.1 earlier. There are buildings like the Strata Tower that have building integrated wind turbines. Thus it shows that it is possible to have the wind turbines integrated into buildings. However, like the David Wilson Millennium Eco-House, the three giant wind turbines are rarely in operation due to noise and vibration issues, followed by complaints of the building occupants. BIPV is one of the most known and widely used renewable technologies integrated into the built environment. Not only it does not require maintenance, there is also no operating cost. It does not make any noise, and it can even replace the building materials. Therefore, it has been widely proven that the PV systems in buildings are feasible.

3.4.2

Resource Feasibility

Another important area to cover is to make sure plenty of resources are available. For instance, Indonesia has extensive amount of biomass available for generations of bioenergy. For UK, great amount of wind is available for wind turbines. Realistically, UK is not the best location for solar energy systems, only around 1440 hours of sunshine per year in Nottingham, which is only half of the hours in Australia. Nevertheless, there are solar energy resources available which are free to use, thus might as well take advantage of it. Statistics have shown that the solar energy system capacity has reached 1,000 MW by February 2012 [34]. 3.4.2

Operational Feasibility

In addition to availability of resources, the projects need to be operated in a good condition. Although it has all the resources available, if the system is not operated well, then the project is considered not viable. An example is the PV panels installed in Marmont Centre of University Park. There are two PV systems installed on the Marmont Centre, in Built Environment, size of 1kW and 1.2kW each. These systems only run for around 2 hours a day due to shading and other installation issues. Although the PV panel and the solar radiation available have the potential to generate energy, the systems are not being operated due to location dependent installation issues. This highlights the importance of the location and good installation. In this BIPV integration project, the roof areas, locations, and their orientations have been carefully observed and analysed to avoid any shading or other issues. 3.4.3

Economic Feasibility

One of the main areas that companies and institutions look at when evaluating a project is the project’s profitability. Economic analysis was carried out in section 3.2. The project was evaluated in a life span of 30 years. The time value of the money was taken into account to obtain more realistic results. With the aid of FiT, the project has a payback of 18 years, which is very good. And even without FiT, the project has the present value of £1,046,336 in 30 years. Solar photovoltaics are one of the expensive renewable energy systems, due to its high initial cost. However, since the Feed-in-Tariff came into action in April 2010, the number of solar PV systems in UK has increased significantly. As a result of the FiT, the solar PV systems have become more viable. With the 11,248,679 kWh of energy generated per year, it can save around £1,828k per year of electricity bill, and will produce an income of £770k 32

from FiT. Moreover, it will also save the annual cost of CRC participation of around £73k, from saving 6,086 tonnes of CO2 per year, where carbon emission is priced at £12 per tonne of CO2. 3.4.4

Financial Feasibility

As mentioned, the high initial cost of the solar PV systems in a big obstruction. Especially, large scale systems are costly. The University of Nottingham currently utilises the Salix Finance revolving green funds, and has used it to invest more than £525k in carbon saving projects [30]. Based on the assumptions made in the economic analysis, it will cost £30M to install PV panels on all buildings with usable roof areas. If the University is able to find a loan of this cost, then it is possible to install PV panels on all of the roof areas available. 3.4.5

Environmental Feasibility

In 2011/12, the annual carbon emission of University Park has totalled 37,578 tonnes, including electricity and fossil fuels. Only the electricity consumption in the University Park has caused 24,376 tonnes of CO2. By installed 7,811 kWp of PV system in the University Park, it can save around 6,086 tonnes of CO2 per year, which is 25% of CO2 savings from electricity consumption in University Park, equating to around 10% of the total CO2 emissions of University of Nottingham. The university target shown in Table 2.1 in section 2.2.2 gives the amount of CO2 emission target of 54,000 tonnes by 2014/15. The CO2 savings from the PV systems account for around 45% of the target. Currently in University of Nottingham, various carbon projects are being carried out, not just the renewable projects. With the other carbon projects as well as renewable energy projects, it can be concluded that it is possible to achieve this target.

CHAPTER 4 4.1

CONCLUSIONS

Introduction

This chapter briefly restates the aims of the project, and the results obtained. The objectives achieved are also discussed, as well as conclusions reached and further suggestions and recommendations of further research. 4.2

Conclusion

The aim of this report was to provide information on energy uses in further and higher education buildings, and how renewable systems can be integrated. A literature review on the different types of renewable energy was given to provide the information on their possibility of integration into the built environment. A case study on the University of Nottingham’s main campus―University Park campus―has been conducted. The sustainable policy of the University of Nottingham has been studied with the documents available on the University’s Estates website, and the existing renewable systems were also been identified and observed. The total available efficient roof area of buildings in University Park has been calculated via use of online area calculator software and Auto CAD plans obtained from the Estates Office. Furthermore, approximate annual energy production was calculated, and this value was used to carry out economic and environmental analyses. The NPV and PB of the PV system have been calculated and it has been concluded that the project is profitable. In the environmental analysis, the annual CO2 emission savings were calculated, which account for 25% of CO2 emission from electricity consumption in University Park. Finally, feasibility analysis has been carried out, evaluating a number of feasibilities, including resource and operation feasibilities. It has been concluded that the BPV integration into University Park project is viable as long as the University is capable of producing the finance for the initial costs. Moreover, it has been concluded that with the other carbon projects that are being carried out, the University is capable of achieving the performance targets of 54,000 tonnes of CO2 for 2014/15.

4.3

Recommendations for Further Research

Due to the limited amount time given to carry out this research, not all of the possible methodology was taken into account. For further research, it is advised to perform more detailed site analysis, and find out the exact area of the roof space available for BIPV installations. Moreover, 3D drawings can be very useful to determine the location and orientation of the PV panels, and Ecotect software can also be used to analyse the performance of the energy on the building fabric. Also, further analysis and evaluations of the project can be conducted, such as sensitivity and risk analysis; RetScreen is a very useful tool for analysing a renewable energy project.

References 1

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<Available at:

Appendices Appendix 1: Images and Plans of Buildings with Available Area for PV Installations Appendix 2: Map of University Park Campus with the Buildings Locations Appendix 3: Nottingham Average Weather Data 1981-2010 Appendix 4: Screenshot of Calculations of Total Available Roof Areas, Size of the system, and Annual Production Appendix 5: Feed-in-Tariff Payment Rate Table for Photovoltaic Eligible Installations for FiT Appendix 6: Screenshot of Calculations of NPV and PB of the PV Project Appendix 7: Screenshot of Calculations Annual CO2 Emission Savings and its percentage

Appendix 1: Images and Plans of Buildings with Available Area for PV Installations 1) Florence Boot Hall

2) Willoughby Hall

3) Ancaster Hall

4) Cavendish Hall

5) Nightingale Hall

6) Rutland Hall

7) Sherwood Hall

8) Derby Hall

9) Lincoln Hall

10) Lenton & Wortley Hall

11) Cripps Hall

12) High Stewart Hall

13) Portland Building

14) Trent Building

15) History/Lenton Grove

16) Humanities Building

17) Law/Social Sicences Building

18) Hallward Library

19) Sir Clive Granger Building

20) Sir Peter Mansfield Building

21) Physics Building

22) Chemistry Building

23) Mathematics Building

24) Keighton Auditorium

25) George Green Library

26) Cripps Computing Centre

27) Astronomy Builidng

28) Tower Building

29) Estates/Biology Building

30) Pharmacy/Psychology Building

31) Coates Building

32) Pope Building

33) ESLC

34) Laboratory/Research Buildings (the rest of engineering buildings)

35) Recital Hall

36) Sports Centre

37) Child Care Services

38) East Midlands Conference Centre

39) Cripps Health Clinic

40) New Theatre

41) Highfield House

Appendix 2: Map of University Park Campus with the Buildings Locations

Appendix 3: Nottingham Average Weather Data 1981-2010 (Source: MET Office)

Appendix 4: Screenshot of Calculations of Total Available Roof Areas, Size of the system, and Annual Production

Appendix 5: Feed-in-Tariff Payment Rate Table for Photovoltaic Eligible Installations for FiT

Appendix 6: Screenshot of Calculations of NPVs and PBs of the PV Project

Appendix 7: Screenshot of Calculations Annual CO2 Emission Savings and its percentage