Decentralised Water Infrastructure in Urban Slums
Decentralised Water Infrastructure in Urban Slums: A Case Study of African Cities towards Sustainable Development
Jong Hee Paik Technical University of Darmstadt Mundus Urbano MSc. International Cooperation in Urban Development 2019/2020 Research Proposal
Abstract The focus of this research proposal is in the area of decentralised water infrastructure in urban slums. Such a study is important in order to provide an alternative to the existing problems of conventional centralised water and sanitation systems in developing countries. The research approach adopted in this paper includes a case study of successful implementation of decentralised water and sanitation systems in Nairobi, Kenya and Lagos, Nigeria for the period of 2000-2020. The findings from this will be analysed and evaluated for its feasibility. Indicators will be used to investigate the impacts of these systems in sustainable development of the cities. This research will conclude with policy recommendations for the city governments in hope to revitalise the implementations of decentralised water infrastructure in urban slums to provide safe and affordable water for all. Keywords: Decentralised Water Infrastructure; Decentralised System; Sustainable Development; Urban Slums
This proposal was written as a partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of Science in International Cooperation in Urban Development at Technical University of Darmstadt. Jong Hee Paik
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Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………………1 I.
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………..3-5 i.
Research Background
ii.
Research Aim and Objectives
II.
Preliminary Literature Review..…………………………………………………………………………6-8 i.
Definition of a Decentralised System
ii.
Centralised and Decentralised Water Infrastructure
iii.
Advantages and Challenges of Decentralised Systems
III.
Research Methodology……………………………………………………………………………….……9
IV. Value of this Research……………………………………………………………………………………10 V.
Preliminary Data Collection……………………………………………………………………..……….11 i.
Nairobi, Kenya
ii.
Lagos, Nigeria
VI. Working Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..……12-13 VII. References………………………………………………………………………………………….….14-16
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I. Introduction The modern concept of sustainable development has emerged in the 1980s as the need for environmental protection was recognised in the practices of development planning around the world (Cobbinah et al., 2015). Widely used definition of sustainable development is by Brundtland Commission, which defines it as development that “[meets] the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Satterthwaite, 1997). As various problems have appeared in this urbanising world, sustainable development was perceived as a paradigm shift and a new notion of development (Du Pisani, 2006). Achieving sustainable development in cities require a number of factors that play a significant role, such as sustainable consumption of finite resources and implementation of renewable resources. For instance, the provision of water and sanitation systems in cities serves as a crucial part in the sustainable development of cities. Especially in the developing countries, rapid urbanisation has caused uncontrolled growth of population, causing numerous problems such as increase in urban density, vulnerability, insecurity, and poverty (Cobbinah et al., 2015). This further creates uncontrolled and unplanned growth of slums, and insufficient provision of water and sanitation systems aggravate the situation.
i. Research Background According to UNICEF and WHO (2019), 1 in 3 people do not have access to safe drinking water, and around 3 billion people lack basic handwashing facilities with soap and water. This is a major issue especially for the countries in the Global South. Particularly, the low-income groups of the society, many living in slum areas, do not have the privilege to be connected to centralised water infrastructure. A recent report by the World Resources Institute on 15 cities in the Global South, including Lagos, Mumbai and Caracas, states that 42% of the households in these cities lack access to in-house piped water (McDonnell, 2019). Moreover, it is also reported that the number of residents in the urban areas that lack access to piped water has increased by over 200 million since 1990. In urban slum areas, those who do not have access to in-house piped water often get water from a tanker truck. In the case of Mumbai, however, the cost of the water from the tanker truck is 52 times more expensive than the water from public pipe (McDonnell, 2019).
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It is not just the problem of in-house piped freshwater supply that these slums lack of, but most of the cases they also lack of proper sanitation and wastewater management systems. Cornell University (2019) also referred to the report by the World Resources Institute, and stated that 62% of sewage and faecal sludge is unsafely managed in the above mentioned 15 cities. They further reported that according to WHO, the number of people who lack well-managed sanitation in cities has increased more than 20% since the 2000, from 1.9 billion to 2.5 billion, around the world, and that it is expected to reach 6 billion by 2030. In the case of India, 120,000 tonnes of faecal sludge is produced daily, but only around one-third of the toilets are connected to the sewer system (Sivaramakrishnan, 2019). This means that, most of the human waste is dumped on open land and in water, contaminating the natural resources. According to Sivaramakrishnan (2019), inadequate urban sanitation and wastewater management can greatly affect not only the health of the residents, but also a country’s economic growth and productivity, as well as the natural environment of our planet. According to United Nations (2018), “universal access to safe, affordable drinking water and basic sanitation has a direct effect on urban development, providing higher standards of living and health, and better conditions in the living environments of cities.” United Nations (n.d.) 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals (SGDs) clearly shows the correlation of ‘Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation for all’ and ‘Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities.’ Currently, a large proportion of the world’s population is already living in cities. Hence if SDGs 6 and 11 can be realised, they will become increasingly symbiotic (United Nations, 2018). For instance, the indicator for Target 11.1 addresses upgrading of slums and ensuring access to “adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services” to all, including water and sanitation (Rudd et al., 2018; United Nations, n.d.). The achievement of Target 11.1 will directly contribute to achievement of SDG 3 on good health and wellbeing and SDG 5 on gender equality, and further indirectly contribute to other SDGs. In most parts of the developed world, water and wastewater systems are centralised by the government and the private sector (Sitzenfrei and Rauch, 2014). Many developing countries have also adapted the centralised water infrastructure, mainly in the urban areas; however, in the case of lowincome areas, it is difficult to rely on the centrally managed water systems, because of the inconsistency in the provision due to political manipulation and deliberate overlooking of the slum areas by the municipality (De and Nag, 2016). The lack of water infrastructure in urban slums not only generates potential health risks and environmental problems for the residents, but this further affects their economic capabilities. According to Nhapi (2004), the concept of decentralised water and natural Jong Hee Paik
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treatment of wastewater systems suits developing countries because they are more financially affordable, as well as socially responsible, and better for the environment.
ii. Research Aims and Objectives The overall aim of this research is to explore the potential of decentralised water infrastructure in urban slums in developing countries and how this contributes to sustainable development of cities. This research will focus on two African cities—Nairobi, Kenya and Lagos, Nigeria. Case studies of implementations of decentralised water infrastructure in the slums of each city for the time period of 2000-2020 will be conducted. Within the context of decentralised water infrastructure, the objectives of this research are to: 1.
Identify different approaches of decentralised water and sanitation systems in urban slums.
2.
Analyse and evaluate the feasibility of each approach of the decentralised systems.
3.
Investigate the social, economic, and environmental impacts on the development of that city.
4.
Propose policy suggestions for the city municipality for revitalisation of the decentralised water and sanitation systems in low-income areas.
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II. Preliminary Literature Review i. Definition of a Decentralised System According to United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (2002), the term decentralised system was first used to refer to on-site wastewater systems that are adopted in rural areas or properties in remote or small communities, where the implementation of conventional sewer system was not feasible due to technical, economic or environmental restrictions. Nowadays, decentralised systems are perceived as an alternative to centralised systems, and are implemented not only in remote and rural areas, but also in urban and peri-urban context providing water, wastewater, and stormwater services (Sharma et al., 2013). The modern concept of decentralised water systems emerged due to possible threats like water scarcity, climate change, and population growth (Sitzenfrei & Rauch, 2014). Sharma et al. (2013) defines decentralised system as a system “provided for water, wastewater and stormwater services at the property, cluster and development scale that utilises alternative water resources, including rainwater, wastewater and stormwater, based on a ‘fit-for-purpose’ concept.” In other words, it is a water system that uses and reuses water from local sources, instead of bringing water from a distant source (Domènech, 2011). Ali (2010) claims that decentralised water systems in urban and peri-urban slums have significant potentials not only at the household level but also at the community level. He claims that many underdeveloped countries tend to follow the norms of the North, with installations of centralised water infrastructure; however, they don’t always work in the countries in the Global South.
ii. Centralised and Decentralised Water Infrastructure The centralised water infrastructure has only been a part of our modern society from the mid-19th century (Domènech, 2011). Until then, water was mainly supplied locally. As urbanisation and industrialisation took place, more and more people were populating in urban areas, and the concerns for the public health grew. The surface water was being contaminated by the human and animal faeces, resulting in cause of diseases like cholera and typhoid fever (Domènech, 2011). It was in the mid-19th century, Edwin Chadwick, an English sanitary reformer, had the provision of a piped sewage network and fresh water supply system (Dingle, 2008), and this completely changed the provision of water infrastructure. Since then, centralised water infrastructure has provided substantial amount of benefits in the modern society, such as reliable fresh water supply, removal and treatment of
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wastewater, and flood mitigation. This has improved the health and hygiene of the people, and brought convenience for the residents. However, as cities were constantly growing, the demand for fresh water also increased, hence large-scale infrastructures were built to bring water from distant sources (Dingle, 2008). The demand for water is especially high in a densely populated urban context, and in the case of centralised system, the freshwater and wastewater are transported through long distances to be supplied and treated, thus wasting significant amount of energy in transporting water in long distances. Moreover, according to Gandy (2004), political control and accumulation of capital also took an important role in centralising such infrastructures. Unfortunately, the provision of basic water services, such as potable water and sanitation, in developing countries is disadvantaged by the low capacity of local governments, corruption, elite capture and political influences (De and Nag, 2016). In the case of Kenya, the provision of water services in the densely populated and unplanned informal settlements in urban areas are underserved and there are “severe inequalities in water-service provision between the rich and the poor” (Cherunya et al. 2015, 5438). Cherunya et al. (2015) also claim that in often cases, the only feasible way to improve both the quality and quantity of water provision is with the implementations of decentralised systems. Likewise, Nigeria is also going through many challenges in the slums of big cities like Lagos, with the provision of water infrastructure and water scarcity due to rapid urbanisation and population growth (Oyegoke et al., 2012). Oyegoke et al. (2012) further states that there are many issues regarding water supply, such as the state of water resources, management of access to water, regulatory framework, and pricing policy of water. Instead of being dependent on the unreliable public water sector or overpriced private water sector, the implementations of decentralised water infrastructure can be made possible by utilising local water sources, including storm water, rainwater, wastewater and greywater (Domènech, 2011). Rainwater harvesting, greywater reuse and treatment of wastewater for reuse can contribute significantly in the provision of water and also financial sustainability in urban slums in developing countries. According to Orth (2007), decentralised systems are “environmentally-compatible, good and correct,” and that these short water cycles are considered ecological and efficient. However, for decentralised systems to achieve the same level of safety standards as centralised systems, a good deal of engineering and management efforts needs to be made. This is definitely not an easy task especially in the context of densely populated areas of urban slums.
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iii. Advantages and Challenges of Decentralised Systems As the concerns for climate change and water scarcity increase, and urban population grow rapidly, decentralised systems are seen as a potential solution in overcoming the negative impacts of urban development in many aspects. First of all, decentralised systems, compared to centralised systems, have less impact on the natural environment. Centralised water infrastructure requires excessive amount of resources to be constructed, and even with such construction, most of slums do not have access to such facilities. This also makes the centralised water infrastructure very costly, and on the other hand, decentralised systems are usually low-cost and low-maintenance (Cherunya et al. 2015). Economically speaking, decentralised systems are more cost effective compared to the centralised system due to the possibility of full cost recovery, as well as the initial demand for fresh water can be reduced by using greywater. Especially for the low-income areas, decentralised water treatment systems can be a long-term solution and a potential for financial sustainability and improved welfare of the communities (Cherunya et al. 2015). Another advantage of decentralised water systems is the flexibility. Large centralised water infrastructures take a long time to be planed and be built (Domènech, 2011), and this is not compatible with the context of urban slums, because normally slums are not planned or controlled. Decentralised systems, on the other hand, are more flexible in regards to climate change and fluctuation in demand due to population growth. The decentralised water systems can be installed at the household or the community level, and this context-specific approach of the local areas can ensure higher chances of safe water quality (Ali, 2010). This flexibility enables the neighbourhood and the city to be more resilient, and it can further contribute to sustainability and improvement of public health. Some limitations and challenges of decentralised systems include lack of regulatory and legislative frameworks in urban contexts, appropriate skills and resources are needed for effective management, operation and maintenance, and possible health risks due to malfunctioning of the systems (Sharma et al., 2013). The main obstacle lies at the institutional level, where the main stakeholders in the water management do not wish to take a risk in switching to decentralised approach with more risks of failure (Domènech, 2011). Domènech (2011) further emphasises that for successful implementation of decentralised water systems, the role of the government is crucial, and that a series of changes in the formal and informal water management institutional framework are required.
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III. Research Methodology This research will comprise of literature reviews (objectives 1, 2 and 4) and collection of empirical data (objective 3) through a case study context specific to two African countries—Kenya and Nigeria. The case study of two cities—Nairobi and Lagos—will be conducted mainly through secondary data from journals and books on the implementations of decentralised water infrastructure in slums in the two cities. News articles and personal blogs/vlogs can also be referenced to gain better insights to the sites. Followed by literature reviews, will be data collection. Quantitative data of the two cities’ social, economic, and environmental performances will be collected for the time period of 2000-2010. Some factors of this would include but not limited to mortality rate, water accessibility, household income, and unemployment rate. This data will be analysed and evaluated to investigate how the implementations of decentralised water infrastructure have affected the development of that city. Moreover, sustainability performance indicators can be used to measure sustainability level of the cities for a comparison, as well as indicators like Environmental Performance Index (EPI) and Human Development Index (HDI) can be used to compare the development performances of the cities. Furthermore, if it is possible, a site visit to Nairobi and Lagos is recommended. In that case, qualitative data collection is also possible. This can be done through semi-structured interviews to collect feedbacks of the local residents of the decentralised systems, as well as satisfaction surveys. Finally, the current policies on water provision and infrastructure in the two cities will be studied through secondary literature, and based on the results from the case study, policy suggestions will be made by the author. This research will be carried out from April to June 2021. The literature reviews for the first two objectives will take place in April. In the first two weeks of May, the empirical data will be collected for objective 3, and this data will be compared to the analysis and evaluation from objective 2. The findings from the objective 3 will be further studied along with the current policies of the two cities during the second half of May. In June, all of the findings will be written down and based on the results from the case study, relevant policy suggestions will be made for the city municipality.
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IV. Value of this Research African cities are constantly going through struggles from the impacts of the urbanisation including unemployment, poverty, and water and sanitation challenges (Cobbinah et al., 2015). These threats are stronger in low-income areas that are more vulnerable in many aspects. This research will provide insights and give hope for the local communities in the low-income areas of cities around the world for access to clean and affordable water. Although this research is focused on African cities, the applications of this research can also be realised in other parts of the developing world. This case study will give insights to individuals, business owners and private investors who are unaware of the potential of the implementations of decentralised water and sanitation systems in urban slums, and act as a guide to those who wish to implement such systems into practice. There are numerous decentralised water projects around the globe in various scales. However, usually they are in a small-scale neighbourhood level, and they are not often linked to the municipal level. This research will show the relevance of how decentralised small- or medium-scale water infrastructure can have an impact on the city scale. This research will give visions to national and municipal governments of the potential of sustainable development of their cities through the implementations of decentralised water infrastructure in vulnerable areas in the cities. This will provide a better quality of life for the citizens, as well as contribution to the natural environment and to economic development of the city and the country. This research can also lead to policy reforms and paradigm shifts of urban governance in the water sector. According to Cobbinah et al. (2015), lack of country level policies along with limited capacity of planning institutions have increased vulnerabilities in urban Africa. This research adds value of joining the current practices of decentralised water system technologies and national policies and frameworks in the water sector. Through policy reforms, city governments can also benefit from gaining more trust from the public, and the citizens can have more access to safe and affordable water, which will improve their health and standard of living.
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V. Preliminary Data Collection According to the World Bank, decentralisation is “the assignment of fiscal, political, and administrative responsibilities to lower levels of government,” and that main advantages of decentralisation include improved efficiency, governance, and/or equity (Litvack et al., 1998). They also state that decentralisation is an inherently country-specific and sometimes activity-specific process where contextual information is crucial to analyse and assess each case. Hence, detailed and informationintensive case studies are essential, and along with the collected data, a cross-country dataset should be developed to provide a context in the assessment of country experiences within the developing countries (Litvack et al., 1998).
i. Nairobi, Kenya In Nairobi, there are approximately 2.5 million people living in slums in about 200 settlements representing around 60% of the Nairobi population (APHCR, 2014). Kibera in Nairobi is the biggest slum in Africa and one of the biggest in the world. According to Knoema (n.d.), the urbanisation rate in Kenya is unimaginable at 27.5% for 2019. In the case of Kibera, the population was at only at 3,000 in 1960 and it grew to 287,000 in 1999 (APHCR, 2014). One of the reasons the author has chosen Nairobi as one of the sites for the case study is the headquarters of UN-Habitat is located in Nairobi, and numerous projects have taken a place there. Nonetheless, the water and sanitation provision in slums in Nairobi is still at vulnerable state, and through this research, the author plans to gain an indepth understanding of the status quo.
ii. Lagos, Nigeria Lagos is the largest city in Nigeria and of Africa by population, and also one of the fastest growing cities in the world. Nigeria has even higher urbanisation rate of 51.2% for 2019 (Knoema, n.d.), and around two thirds of the population lives in slum areas with no or limited access to basic services (Akinwale, 2018). Although Lagos is no longer the capital of Nigeria, it still serves as a centre of trade and commerce. The metropolitan area of Lagos is home to around 80% of the population of Nigeria, and ironically, it is the financial centre of Nigeria and Africa as well as home of many slum dwellers (Akinwale, 2018). Lagos is an important city in both Nigeria and Africa, and it has caught many attention globally. The extreme urbanisation in Lagos is a rather unique case; hence the author has chosen Lagos as the other site for the case study.
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VI. Working Conclusion Through this research, different approaches of decentralised water and sanitation systems in two African cities—Nairobi and Lagos—will be studied through literature reviews, with a focus on the time period of 2000-2020. These decentralised approaches will be analysed and evaluated based on the feasibility of the systems. Empirical data of the two cities will be collected though secondary sources. This is to investigate the social, economic, and environmental performances of the cities, and its relation to the implementations of decentralised water infrastructure in low-income areas. The centralised water infrastructure has its advantages, but it is not suitable or affordable for the lowincome areas in the cities and also highly unreliable due to its inconsistency in water supply. Currently, some limitations and challenges of the decentralised water systems can be observed. Through context-specific case studies, the decentralisation of water infrastructure in developing cities can be improved. These limitations and challenges are not due to technological factors, but rather lack of institutional, educational, operational and managerial performances. Decentralised water and wastewater infrastructure, if implemented correctly, can reduce the amount of wastewater generated as well as the initial demand for fresh water. This can be achieved by managing storm water, harvesting rainwater, separating wastewater, and reusing greywater. It is also crucial to include community participation in the process, as well as proper operation and management of the systems. Technical innovations are also important, and environmental protection should also be a priority. It is believed that through proper implementation of decentralised water and wastewater infrastructure systems, this will contribute to sustainable development of the cities. This development includes social, economic and environmental aspects. It is also the world’s concern of how the water and wastewater are managed in these parts of the world, due to the impact they bring to global ecological environment and sustainability. In order to provide access to safe, affordable water and adequate, clean sanitation to all, integrated water resource management is compulsory; hence, provision of decentralised water and wastewater infrastructure systems are viable options in achieving these targets. With the implementation of decentralised water and wastewater systems, the local communities can have independent access to water, and this could further reduce their economic burden and also improve their daily living conditions. Decentralised water and wastewater systems have the potential to be the long term sustainable alternative to the centralised systems. In order to do so, it is crucial for the locals to be Jong Hee Paik
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educated in learning how decentralised water and wastewater systems work, and establish the right behavioural norms amongst the residents. This requires active participation of the local community and the residents; they must realise their need to dispose the wastewater they generated in a responsible manner; be aware of the environmental impacts of water management; and learn to treat and manage different types of water accordingly. Additionally, in order to effectively manage for decentralised infrastructure in long-term, new institutional frameworks and a multi-governance model are strongly recommended. The governments should play a guiding role in the promotion of decentralised systems, and encourage stakeholders to participate. Finally, this research will conclude with policy suggestions for the city governments, this could be implemented by the government officials to provide safe and affordable water access to residents in the low-income areas, further contributing to sustainable development of the city.
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VII. References African Population and Health Research Center (APHRC). 2014. “Population and Health Dynamics in Nairobi’s Informal Settlements: Report of the Nairobi Cross-Sectional Slums Survey (NCSS) 2012.” Nairobi: APHRC, no. April: 1–185. Akinwale, Olaoluwa Pheabian. 2018.”Urban Slums in Nigeria: Ensuring Healthy Living Conditions.” Urbanet. Accessed June 27, 2020. https://www.urbanet.info/nigeria-urban-slums-health/ Ali, Syed Imran. 2010. “Alternatives for Safe Water Provision in Urban and Peri-Urban Slums.” Journal of Water and Health 8 (4): 720–34. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.141. Cherunya, Pauline Chepchirchir, Christine Janezic, and Michael Leuchner. 2015. “Sustainable Supply of Safe Drinking Water for Underserved Households in Kenya: Investigating the Viability of Decentralized Solutions.” Water 7 (10): 5437–57. https://doi.org/10.3390/w7105437. Cobbinah, Patrick Brandful, Michael Odei Erdiaw-Kwasie, and Paul Amoateng. 2015. “Africa’s Urbanisation: Implications for Sustainable Development.” Cities 47: 62–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2015.03.013. Cornell University. 2019. “In Global South, urban sanitation crisis harms health, economy.” PHYS, December 18, 2019. https://phys.org/news/2019-12-global-south-urban-sanitation-crisis.html Dingle, T. 2008. “The life and times of the Chadwickian solution.” In: Troy, P. (ed.). Troubled waters: Confronting the water crisis in Australia’s cities. ANU E Press. The Australian National University. Camberra, Australia, 7-18. De, Indranil, and Tirthankar Nag. 2016. “Dangers of Decentralisation in Urban Slums: A Comparative Study of Water Supply and Drainage Service Delivery in Kolkata, India.” Development Policy Review 34 (2): 253–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12149. Domènech, Laia. 2011. “Rethinking Water Management: From Centralised to Decentralised Water Supply and Sanitation Models.” Documents d’Analisi Geografica 57 (2): 293–310. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/dag.280. Du Pisani, Jacobus A. 2006. “Sustainable Development – Historical Roots of the Concept.” Environmental Sciences 3 (2): 83–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/15693430600688831. Gandy, Matthew. 2004. “Rethinking Urban Metabolism: Water, Space and the Modern City.” City 8 (3): 363–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360481042000313509. Knoema, n.d. “Kenya - Urban population as a share of total population.” Accessed June 27, 2020. https://knoema.com/atlas/Kenya/Urban-population Jong Hee Paik
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Knoema, n.d. “Nigeria - Urban population as a share of total population.” Accessed June 27, 2020. https://knoema.com/atlas/Nigeria/Urban-population Langergraber, Günter, and Elke Muellegger. 2005. “Ecological Sanitation - A Way to Solve Global Sanitation Problems?” Environment International 31 (3): 433–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2004.08.006. Litvack, J., Ahmad, J., and Bird, R. 1998. “Rethinking decentralization in developing countries (English).” World Bank Sector Studies Series. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/938101468764361146/Rethinking-decentralizationin-developing-countries Mansour, G., Oyaya, C., and Owor, M. 2017. “Situation Analysis of the Urban Sanitation Sector in Kenya.” WSUP - Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor. https://www.wsup.com/content/uploads/2017/09/Situation-analysis-of-the-urban-sanitationsector-in-Kenya.pdf. McDonnell, Tim. 2019. “Report: There's A Growing Water Crisis In The Global South.” NPR, August 13, 2019. https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2019/08/13/750777462/report-theres-agrowing-water-crisis-in-the-global-south?t=1579482499059 Nhapi, Innocent. 2004. “A Framework for the Decentralised Management of Wastewater in Zimbabwe.” Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29 (15-18 SPEC.ISS.): 1265–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2004.09.031. Orth, H. 2007. “Centralised versus Decentralised Wastewater Systems?” Water Science and Technology 56 (5): 259–66. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2007.579. Oyegoke, S., A. Adeyemi, and A. Sojobi. 2012. “The Challenges of Water Supply for A Megacity: A Case Study of Lagos Metropolis.” International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research 3 (2): 1–10. https://www.ijser.org/paper/The-Challenges-of-Water-Supply-For-A-Megacity-A-CaseStudy-Of-Lagos-Metropolis.html Rudd, Andrew, David Simon, Maruxa Cardama, Eugénie L. Birch, and Aromar Revi. 2018. “The UN, the Urban Sustainable Development Goal, and the New Urban Agenda.” In Urban Planet, 180– 96. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316647554.011. Satterthwaite, David. 1997. “Sustainable Cities or Cities That Contribute to Sustainable Development?” Urban Studies 34 (10): 1667–91. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/0042098975394. Sharma, A. K., Tjandraatmadja, G., Cook, S., and Gardner, T. 2013. “Decentralised systems Definition and drivers in the current context.” Water Science and Technology, 67(9), 2091–2101. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2013.093 Jong Hee Paik
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Sitzenfrei, R., and W. Rauch. 2014. “Investigating Transitions of Centralized Water Infrastructure to Decentralized Solutions - An Integrated Approach.” Procedia Engineering 70: 1549–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.02.171. Sivaramakrishnan, Sharmishta. 2019. “120,000 tonnes of faecal sludge: why India needs a market for human waste.” World Economic Forum, September 29, 2019. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/09/how-to-improve-sanitation-in-india/ UNICEF, WHO. 2019. “1 in 3 people globally do not have access to safe drinking water.” WHO, June 18, 2019. https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/18-06-2019-1-in-3-people-globally-do-not-haveaccess-to-safe-drinking-water-unicef-who United Nations. 2018. Sustainable Development Goal 6 Synthesis Report on Water and Sanitation. New York: United Nations. https://doi.org/10.18356/e8fc060b-en. United Nations. n.d. “Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all.” Sustainable Development Goals. Accessed June 21, 2020. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-andsanitation/ United Nations. n.d. “Goal 11: Make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.” Sustainable Development Goals. Accessed June 21, 2020. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/cities/ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2002. Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual, EPA/ 625/R-00/008, Washington, DC, USA.
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