AGENCY OF MAPPING MEKONG - RIVER POLITICS
RIVER POLITICS
The Third Pole and the Nine Dragons Jordan Kiehne The Mekong is a trans-boundary river in Southeast Asia, with an estimated length of 4,350 km and total catchment area of 795,000 km2. From the Tibetan Plateau the river runs through China’s Yunnan Province, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam. This transnational river has forced a connection between these countries. In 1995, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam established the Mekong River Commission (MRC) to assist in the management and coordinated use of the Mekong’s resources23. In 1996 China and Myanmar became “dialogue partners”23 of the MRC and the six countries now work together within a cooperative framework. The river is an interconnected series of greater basin streams, these streams create habits that allow for biodiversity, enabling the communities around them to benefit from the interconnected ecosystems. These countries along the Mekong have established trade routes, fisheries, agriculture and markets2. The river provides life to the cultures of these societies. The politics of which has created controversy as water management becomes a large concern, and the stability of electricity sustainability. Large-scale damming projects upstream have begun to effect communities downstream4,3,9, creating pressures between certain groups while parties attempt to control the resources of the Mekong7,11. China has begun to establish large scale hydroelectricity dams within its border, controlling the flow of 18
Agency of Mapping
water downstream5. In addition to controlling large amounts of electricity, this is then exported to countries such as Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam21; creating an interdependency between the nations. Expanding these utilities China has begun investing in damming projects in Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia10. These projects have had large protests in response to their construction, having lacked proper community consultation. The dams are predicted to result in the destruction of fisheries, farming communities and existing infrastructure10,20. These projects have also called for the mass relocation of people from certain areas making way for new flood basins, which would occur when water is released from these dams. All of this results in a total reconfiguration of the Mekong River, changing the way that the river functions from the Delta on the coast of Vietnam to the Mountains in Tibet. These effects can be seen to have a net negative impact on the ecosystems and biodiversity of the catchment, while also destroy much of the communities and economy of the river12. China now sees this area as an asset and has begun moving to utilise these resources. Under the pretext of protection from rebels China has begun military patrols deep into Laos14,17, while also reinforcing its positions through SEZs8. Special Economics Zones or SEZs, were established in Laos along important logistical locations around the Mekong.
Third Pole to the Nine Dragons
TIBET
INDIA The Mekong region of the Province of Yunnan in China, is in part the major contributor to the forces felt down stream. A total of 13 Hydro electric dams cover this area, which have accounted for 76880 people being displaced in China alone. These dams control the flow of water downstream effecting either flood or drought
CHINA
Xishuangbanna is an autonomous prefecture in China's southwestern Yunnan province. This region acts as the buffer and control point of Chinas soft power in the Mekong region.
MYANMAR Within Myanmar tensions are high with armed guerrilla warfare being carried out with the eastern jungles. This border with the Mekong effects pressures on the surrounding countries, as armed groups harass travellers
LAOS
Due to tensions along the river China has begun Military patrols along the river. These intrusions are lead deep into Laos, and are performed under the pretext of protection of trade and safety of visitors.
The Mekong River runs through the centre of the Golden Triangle, this notorious area is renowned with the opium trade. This border shapes the views of the river as a drug logistical network effect all trade along the river.
THAILAND
Due to the major damming of the Mekong river basin, this man made interventions have changed the landscape creating new boundaries of the Mekong Catchment. This has effected the fishing in these areas, as fish have become trapped between these catchments.
Flooding from mass release of upstream water has been seen in Cambodia and Vietnam, cause mass destruction to properties and farms. Effecting the Mekong Delta has caused Vietnam to suffer, as 27% of their GDP is generated in this region.
CAMBODIA
VIETNAM
Saline soil has effected the coastline of the Mekong delta and is estimated to increase as river levels shrink due to the damming up stream. As this occurs the rice farming done on the delta will shrink, due to the salt destroy the potential for crops.
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These dams create a system of control, as the Mekong acts as the main highway of movement for all people along it. The dams, acting as walls, displace these communities; the barriers trap, divert and control the populations along the river, creating microcosms of control24. Therefore the power of the river comes from the control of these walls and the ability of movement between them9. As both ecological disaster and economic control the dams create hierarchies of control between the nations and peoples in the Mekong watershed. Occupation of the river has been subverted by the dams and the river patrols, leaving the communities around it disconnected from their culture and economy. This proposal for re-occupying the river by communities demands agency from the nationstates dividing it up. Intervening between foreign agents, these new communities act at a local level of intervention, helping the river to regenerate to a sustainable goal. Re-establishing the ecological island refuges that occupy the river helps fish species and sediment build up once again, alleviating some of the pressure caused by the dams that are already built, and potentially preventing new dams in the future. Due to Chinese mining of the refuge islands that occupy the river24,25, sediment is being removed from the watershed leading to fertile soil depletion that replenishes the agricultural communities downstream. This mining is being done to enable faster downstream currents for the proposed hydroelectric dams. By building these proposed settlements on the river water, energy is absorbed by the piers placed into the river, slowing the current and the potential energy of the river. In effect this will negate the potential for dams in these areas, as energy potentials will not be sustainable against the cost of investment. Regenerating the sustainability of the community 20
Agency of Mapping
and river will become one and the same with this proposal through the creation of a combined ecosystem. While expanding the boundary of friction along the river enables a potential for transformation, the ability to ignore the concerns of these communities is removed. Sustaining these floating communities leads to the interventions of soft path energy generation26 and sustainable fishing already practiced by these communities, which seeks to reveal the unnecessariness of the hydroelectric dams. Solar generation and hydroelectric electricity can be generated through small scale interventions of solar panels, and or water wheels, enabling low tech energy generation that does not impact the river at significant scale. The power of mapping these conditions reveals the scope and the extension of the power structures embedded in the Mekon, shinging a light on how soft power is manipulated and used by countries to shape their priorities within the borders of other communities. The maps and proposal demonstrate the natural equilibriums within the context of either geopolitics, sustainable ecology or cultural social agency. Mapping creates a platform where interconnection can be viewed in a holistic sense, enabling a platform for critics to express entangled concepts. Mapping the territory of these new politics of the Mekong reveals the underlying tensions and soft power politics at hand. Following Elden27, the political is used as the method of territory, therefore mapping is inherently a political tool in itself. This political nature reveals that as the map is understood to be mapping the politics it is being used by the politics in its mapping, synthesizing the medium and the message. Therefore, while acting as liberating tools, the maps also enforce a function of control28. The act of mapping reveals another layer that is not inherently embedded in the map itself
but rather the cartographer.
and the greater Mekong subregion”, Australian Journal of internation Affiars, 2015, Vol.69, pp.185-204
The cartographer naturally traces the landscape of these politics and territories, shaping the way that the messaged is consumed. Though what becomes embed within the map is the perspective of understanding that has been undergone via the cartographer, is a map of thought, a map of bias, a map of the subjective. These ideas shape the very basis of mapping as an interpretation of the politics of the cartographic.
9.J. Perlez, “In Life on the Mekong, Chinas Dams dominate”, The New York Times, 19 March 2015
What is the cartographic? Is it something physical, is it a manifestation of the mind, or does there lie something fundamental in our understanding in actions we take to map? Perhaps mapping is arrangement of ideas into spatial cohesion, underlined by a sense of perspective and interpretation. Does not the fundamental nature of the mind undergo this same repetition, therefore leaving the cartographer as mere perspective of the fundamental nature of subjective existence.
14.S. LaFraniere, “China to join effort to patrol Mekong River”, New York Times, 10 November 2011
1.Huw Pohlner, Asialink, “Big Money, big dams: large-scale Chinese investment in Laos”, East Asia Forum, 25 May 2013, http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2013/05/25/big-money-bigdams-large-scale-chinese-investment-in-laos/ 2.Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, “Australia’s Mekong Water Resources Program”, 1 January 2015, Issue 1 3.T Anh Le, “Impacts of climate change and sea level rise to the integrated agriculture aquaculture systems in the Mekong”, Dec 2010 4.B Spegele, E Bellman, “World News: China considers Armed Mekong Patrols”, The Wall Street Journal, 10 November 2011 5.H Wang, L Yao, “Soil and water loss in the Lancang RiverMekong River watershed (in Yunnan section, China) and its control measures”, Journal of Environmental Sceinces,Vol.12, 2000, pp.90-97 6.S Ho, “River Politics: China’s policies in the Mekong and the Brahmaputra in comparative perspectives”, Journal of Contemporary China, 2014, Vol.23,pp.1-20 7.J Xu, R Grumbine,P Beckschafer, “Landscape transformation through the use of ecological and socioeconmomic indicators in Xishuangbanna, Southwest China, Mekong Region “, Ecological Indicators, 2014
10.Y. Santasombat, “Impacts of China’s rise on the Mekong region”, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015, pp. 262 11.H. Yoshimatsu, “The Untied States, China and geopolitics in the Mekong Region”, Asian Affiars: An American Review, Vol.42, 2015, pp.173-194 12.B.A Galipeau, M. Ingman, B. Tilt, “Dam induced Displacement and Agricultural Livelihoods in Chinas Mekong Basin”, Human Ecology, 2013, Vol.41, pp.437-446 13.S.P Ogden, “Chinas controversial role in developing the Mekong River Basin”, Transitional Approaches to Rural Asia, 2012
15.T. Summers, “China and the Mekong Region”, Perspectives china”, 2008, Vol.3, pp.68-77 16.F. Pearce, “China drains life from Mekong River”, New Scientist, 2004, Vol.182 17.B. Spegele, “China Deploys Patrols along Mekong”, The Wall Street Journal, 12 December 2011 18.S. Biba, “Chinas Continuous Dam-Building on the Mekong”, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 2012, Vol.42, pp.603628 19.E. Wong, “China and Neighbours begin joint Mekong River Patrols”, The New York Times, 11 December 2011 20.T.M Vu, “Between system maker and privileges taker: the role of China in the greater Mekong sub-region”, Revista Brasileira De Politica Internacional, Vol.57, pp.157-173 21.D.S Wan Chan, “Asymmetric bargaining between Mynmar and China in the Myitsone Dam Controversy: Social opposition akin to Davids stone against Goliath”, The Pacific Review, 2017 22.Mekong River Commission Secretariat, “Proposed Xayaburi Dam Project – Mekong River”, MRC, 24 March 2011 23.Mekong River Commission Secretariat, “ Strategic Environmental Assessment for hydropower on the Mekong Mainstream”, 2010 24.G.Siciliano, J. Nordensvard, “Chinas, dam-builders: their role in the trans boundary river management in South East Asia”, Internation Journal of Water Resources Development, 13 June 2017, pp:1-24 25.J.P Bravard, M.Goichot, S. Gaillot, “Geography of Sand and gravel Mining in the lower Mekong River”, Echo Geo, 2013, Vol.26 26.A. Lovins, “Soft Energy Paths”, 1977 27.Elden, Stuart, ‘Land, terrain, territory.’ Progress in human geography.2010,, 34 (6). pp. 799-817. 28.Nora, Akawi, “Mapping intervals: towards an emancipated cartography”, The Funambulist
8.C. Tubilewicz, K. Jayasuriya, “Internationalisation of the Chinese subnational state and capital: the case of Yunnan Jordan Kiehne
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Soft Power Invasion Xiaowan; 小灣壩
The Dam is a large hydroelectric dam in China. It is built on the Mekong River with a capacity of 4,200 MW. Water capacity of 9,895,000,000 m3
Manwan; 漫灣大壩
9,895,000,000 m3
The Dam is a large hydroelectric dam in China. Built on the Mekong River with a capacity of 1,750 MW. With a water capacity of 920,000,000 m3
Dachaoshan; 大朝山大坝
The Dam is a gravity fed electric dam in Yunnan Province. Built on the Mekong River with a capacity of 1,750 MW. With a water capacity of 940,000,000 m3. 2,300 were displaced
Nuozhadu; 糯扎渡大壩
The Dam is a large hydroelectric dam in China. It is built on the Mekong River with a capacity of 5,850 MW. Water capacity of 21,749,000,000 m3
940,000,000 m3
21,749,000,000 m3
CHINA
Jinghong; 景洪大坝
249,000,000 m3
The Dam is a large hydroelectric dam in China. It is built on the Mekong River with a capacity of 1,750 MW. Water capacity of 249,000,000 m3
Ganlanba;
316,000,000 m3
The Dam is a large hydroelectric dam in China. It is built on the Mekong River with a capacity of 900 MW. Water capacity of 316,000,000 m3
China has began mining and destroying islands along the river. Allowing the river to speed up in these areas, gathering momnetumn for further hydroelectric dams.
SEZ or Special Economic Zones, have been set up in Laos to provide opportunity to Chinese business’ to establish a presence in Laos. This also acts as a soft power mechanism as China is provided with colonial opportunities within Laos along the Mekong.
MYANMAR
LAOS Luang Prabang;
The Dam is a large hydroelectric dam in Laos. It is built on the Mekong River with a capacity of 1,200 MW. Water capacity of 1,589,000,000 m3
Pak Beng;
The Dam is a large hydroelectric dam in Laos. It is built on the Mekong River with a capacity of 912 MW. 6,700 will be displaced when it is built
Xayabouri;
The Dam is a large hydroelectric dam in Laos. It is built on the Mekong River with a capacity of 1,285 MW. With Water capacity of 920,000,000 m3. 2,100 will be displaced when it is built
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Agency of Mapping
THAILAND
Due to the major damming of the Mekong river basin, this man made interventions have changed the landscape creating new boundaries of the Mekong Catchment. This in effect has locked certain parts of the rivers, as the dams act as walls preventing access along the entire river.
Due to tensions along the river China has begun Military patrols along the river. These intrusions are lead deep into Laos, and are performed under the pretext of protection of trade and safety of visitors.
Scorched Earth
Flooding from mass release of upstream water has been seen in Cambodia and Vietnam, cause mass destruction to properties and farms. Effecting the Mekong Delta has caused Vietnam to suffer, as 27% of their GDP is generated in this region.
CAMBODIA
VIETNAM
Due to Sea Level rise the dotted line indicates a 1m change. This will significantly effect farming and saline levels of the whole Mekong River delta. Additionally this change will effect Ho Chi Min City potentially displacing thousands. The Mekong River delta accounts for 27% of Vietnam’s GDP, though on top of this 90% of Vietnam’s Rice is produced here and 60% of their seafood exports. The shrinking of the river due to damming up river is increasing saline levels further up the river destroying these industries Mimosa Pigra is an invasive species, native to America. This plant has spread all over the delta and made its way upstream, destroying local ecosystems and effect fishery’s and farming.
Saline soil has effected the coastline of the Mekong delta and is estimated to increase as river levels shrink due to the damming up stream. As this occurs the rice farming done on the delta will shrink, due to the salt destroy the potential for crops.
Flooding from mass release of upstream water has been seen in Cambodia and Vietnam, cause mass destruction to properties and farms. Additionally due to lack of sediment from upstream and sand/gravel mining the area has began to collapse from these factors, leading to further devastation. There has been a 45% reduction in the amount of sediment flowing down from upstream. Down from 160 million tons/y to 75 million tons/y
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ADDITION
RESTRICTION
WITHHOLDING
Due to tensions along the river China has begun Military patrols along the river. These intrusions are lead deep into Laos, and are performed under the pretext of protection of trade and safety of visitors. These patrols raise tensions between protesters and the military potentially leading to conflict.
DESTRUCTION
The retention of water is causing drought and famine downstream, leaving many without food. This damming is done mostly in China however dams with the tributaries are causing similar effects. This also leads to sediment not flowing downstream, and replenishing the soil downstream with fertile sediment. Along the delta the lack of water is leading to saline intrusion and sea level rise.
Flooding from mass release of upstream water has been seen in Cambodia and Vietnam, cause mass destruction to properties and farms. Effecting the Mekong Delta has caused Vietnam to suffer, as 27% of their GDP is generated in this region.
MULTIPLICATION
DIVERSITY
The Mekong provides the medium for the marketplace of the communities to take place, creating space for interaction and culture.
INNOVATION
SUSTAINABILITY
Adaptation to the area has allowed the people of the Mekong to create a sustainable source of food and income providing for both their families and the wider community. These technologies have been created over centuries.
After centuries of living of the Mekong river the communities have adapted to act in harmony with the river allowing it to provide what is only necessary to sustain the system. The communities and cultures become part of this system creating an equilibrium between them and the greater basin.
REPRODUCTION
Island refuges provide safe habitats for the ecosystems of the Mekong river. Allowing spaces for both reproduction and feeding.
DIVISION
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SEPARATION
WATER SCARCITY
EROSION / SOIL DEPLETION
The dams have a serious effect on the social mobility of the communities living along the river, as these dams act as walls prevent access through different communities. This separation also effects fish migration and trade, shaping the whole Mekong Basin into a series of segregated basins.
Saline soil has effected the coastline of the Mekong delta and is estimated to increase as river levels shrink due to the damming up stream. As this occurs the rice farming done on the delta will shrink, due to the salt destroy the potential for crops.
Flooding from mass release of upstream water has been seen in Cambodia and Vietnam, cause mass destruction to properties and farms. Additionally due to lack of sediment from upstream and sand/gravel mining the area has began to collapse from these factors, leading to further devastation.
Agency of Mapping
Tactical Agency
The intervention takes the systems of division and adapts them to create a net benifit outcome. By slowing the downstream water the intervention slows the potential energy of the water preventing the viability of the hydroelectric dams. While also slowing the water down to deposit sediment and regenerate the landscape. The adaption of these spaces in the refuge islands, recereating the local systems maintains refuge spaces for the ecosystem as a whole, regenerating the habitats of the Mekong River.
MEKONG
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River Renegotation
Island refuges provide safe habitats for the ecosystems of the Mekong river. Allowing spaces for both reproduction and feeding. These spaces are now protected by the communities surrounding them, combined them into the new urban domian
Due to the destruction of the refuge islands the intlet spaces are destroyed. These lead to degredation of habits and the slow destrction of the entire Mekong ecosystem.
The intervention is placed either where an island has been removed or in open stretches of the river. These spaces provide new refuge islands for habitats, while also slowing the potential energy of the river. Preventing the potential for a hydroelectric dam
China has began mining and destroying islands along the river. Allowing the river to speed up in these areas, gathering momnetumn for further hydroelectric dams.
Due to the dam, flooding will flow back into the basin, causing perment raised river level, potentially leading to the displacement of thousands of people.
With the speed of the dam being slowed down and the direct impact on the community, the dam will need to be built else where or not at all. Due to the site work done on the islands and the deeping of the river chanels the dam is proposed and goes ahead without any intervention from government agencies.
PRESENT
PROPOSED
Soft Energy Invasion
The spaces created form housing for the community bringing them closer to the resource of the Mekong river, the platforms remain adaptable. Allowing for the expansion of the community and support for varition as required due to the changing political landscape
The intervention is placed either where an island has been removed or in open stretches of the river. These spaces provide new refuge islands for habitats, while also slowing the potential energy of the river. Preventing the potential for a hydroelectric dam
Once the intervention is placed into the site the action of slowing the potential energy of the water will take hold preventing the nessecity of the hydroelectric dam to begin with.
Sustaining these floating communities leads to the interventions of soft path energy generation and sustainable fishing, already practiced by these communities, which will inevitably reveal the unnecessariness of the hydroelectric dams. Solar generation and hydroelectric electricity can be generated through small scale interventions of solar panels, and or water wheels, enable low tech energy generation that does not impact on the river at significant scale.