Fabric File Book

FABRIC FILE BOOK

KAMILLA MURTAZINA Professor Gemma Marsh FASH - 105

Table of Contents COTTON

WOOL

LINEN

VISCOSE

SILK

POLYESTER

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history properties functions environmental impact social impact fashion apparel use swatches

history properties functions environmental impact social impact fashion apparel use swatches

history properties functions environmental impact social impact fashion apparel use swatches

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history properties functions environmental impact social impact fashion apparel use swatches

history properties functions environmental impact social impact fashion apparel use swatches

history properties functions environmental impact social impact fashion apparel use swatches

COTTON

Cotton is a soft, staple fiber that grows in a form known as a boll around the seeds of the cotton plant, a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, India, and Africa. The fiber most often is spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile, which is the most widely used natural-fiber cloth in clothing today.

HISTORY OF COTTON

In the 1st century, when Arab traders brought their cotton products to Italy and Spain, that the fiber was introduced in Europe.

The first evidence of cotton use was found in India and Pakistan, and dates from about 6,000 B.C. Scientists believe that cotton was first cultivated in the Indus delta.

By the end of the 16th century, cotton was already cultivated throughout the warmer regions in Asia and America.

The Industrial Revolution brought about the invention of the spinning machine (1738) and the cotton gin (1793), providing a great boost to cotton manufacture, first of all in England.

In the late 1970ties, the Chinese Government took measures to encourage cotton production by subsidizing inputs and offering procurement funds.

It made China world largest cotton producer.

By 19th century, cotton had become the backbone of the southern North American economy, which was essentially based on slavery work. Due to the higher quality of American cotton and its cheaper price, European textile manufacturers started purchasing cotton from American plantations.

TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF COTTON 1. Comfortable ( Cotton fiber has large amorphous portion and this is why the air can be in and out through cotton fiber. So, the fabric made by cotton fiber is quite comfortable to use.)

2. Soft Hand ( Cotton fiber is too much regular fiber and if properly ginned; this fibre can be the best soft hand feeling fibre amongst the others. ) 3. Absorbent ( Cotton fiber has high absorbency power and this is why this fiber can be died properly and without any harassment. ) 4. Good colour retention ( if the printing is applied on cotton fiber, it seems it doesn’t spread the color outside the design. So printing efficiency is good on cotton fibre. ) 5. Machine Washable & Dry Cleanable ( It is seen that some fibers can’t be dried or washed due to it’s sensitivity and weak fastness properties but in case of Cotton fiber you will have large number of options to choose. You can easily wash the cotton made fabric by machines and even you will be able to dry this fiber by using electronic drier.)

6. Good strength ( If you want to seek an average strength which might be enough for you; then cotton fiber can be your ultimate choice. The strength of cotton fiber is quite good. ) 7. Drapes well ( The drape-ability of cotton fibre is awesome. You can use the cotton fibre made fabric in any kind of wear which needs more flexibility and drapes. ) 8.Easy sewing and handling ( The sewing efficiency on Cotton made fabric is easier and comfortable than other fiber. This is why the demand of cotton made fabric is higher in all over the world. )

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES • Acids: Cotton is attacked by hot dilute acids or cold concentrated acids, which it disintegrates. It is not affected by Acids.

• Alkalis (soap): Cotton has an excellent resistance to alkalis. It swells in caustic alkalis but it does not damaged. It can be washed repeatedly in soap solution without any problem.

• Insects: Cotton is not attacked by mothgrubs or beetles.

• Micro organism: Cotton is attacked by bacteria and mildews, which feed on cotton fabric, rotting and weakening the material. Micro organisms flourish on cotton under hot and humid condition.

Cotton can be protected by certain types of chemicals.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES • Color: The color of cotton fiber could be white, yellow, grey, brown) • Tensile strength: Cotton is moderately strong fiber. The wet strength of cotton is higher than dry strength.

• Elongation at break: Cotton does not stress easily. It has an elongation at break of 5-10%.

• Elastic recovery: Cotton is inelastic and rigid fiber.

• Effect of heat: Cotton has an excellent resistance to degradation by heat.

• Effect of sunlight: There is a gradual loss of strength when cotton is exposed to sun light and the finer turn yellow.

• Effect of age: Cotton shows a small loss of strength when stored carefully.

FUNCTIONS OF COTTON

TEXTILES: 1. VELVET 2. CORDUROY 3. TWILL 4. VELOUR 5. JERSEY 6. POPLIN

In addition to textile products like underwear, socks and t-shirts, cotton is also used in fishnets, coffee filters, book binding and archival paper. Cotton is a food and a fibre crop. Cotton seed is fed to cattle and crushed to make oil. This cottonseed oil is used for cooking and in products like soap, margarine, emulsifiers, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, rubber and plastics.

Linters are the very short fibres that remain on the cottonseed after ginning. They are used to produce goods such as bandages, swabs, bank notes, cotton buds and x-rays.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT Cotton is mostly grown in monoculture and is a very pesticide-intensive crop.

Although it is only grown on 2.5% of the world’s agricultural land, it consumes 16% of all the insecticides and 6,8% of all herbicides used worldwide. These pesticides are washed out of soils, and pollute rivers and groundwater. Pests often develop resistance to pesticides that are used on a continuous basis. Furthermore, the chemicals eliminate not only pests but also their natural enemies. This interference with the ecosystem considerably reduces biodiversity and can result in pests that were previously not so important (secondary pests) becoming a major problem.

If cotton is cultivated intensively, it requires large amounts of water for irrigation.

This causes soil salinisation, particularly in dry areas and hence a degradation of soil fertility. The diversion of entire rivers into huge irrigation channels in Central Asia has led to the gradual drying-up of the Aral Lake, one of the largest inland waters in the world. It is estimated that 60% of irrigation water in Central and Southern Asia is lost before reaching cotton fields because of poor infrastructure. If cotton is cultivated intensively, it requires large amounts of water for irrigation. This causes soil salinisation, particularly in dry areas and hence a degradation of soil fertility. The diversion of entire rivers into huge irrigation channels in Central Asia has led to the gradual drying-up of the Aral Lake, one of the largest inland waters in the world. It is estimated that 60% of irrigation water in Central and Southern Asia is lost before reaching cotton fields because of poor infrastructure.

Cotton production also contributes to climate change. Industrial fertilizers are produced using considerable quantities of finite energy sources (1.5% of the world’s annual energy consumption), releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide.

Furthermore, the excessive application of nitrates to agricultural land leads to their being transformed into nitrous oxide (“laughing gas”), a greenhouse gas that is 300 times more destructive than CO 2 in terms of global warming. Finally, soils are important carbon sinks. Soil degradation seriously reduces their carbon sequestration capacity, thereby contributing to the greenhouse effect.

SOCIAL IMPACT Conventional cotton production has a series of social and economic risks, especially for small farmers in developing countries. Many small farmers in the South fall ill or die due to a lack of adequate equipment and knowledge about how to handle pesticides properly.

Medical costs and an inability to work are a severe economic burden on affected families. The excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in monoculture causes soil degradation, reducing its nutrient and water retention capacity. As a consequence, farmers face declining yields and have to increase production inputs.

The resistance of some pests and the appearance of secondary pests only add to the problem. To pay for the increasing costs of farm input, small farmers are obliged to borrow from banks or cotton buyers.

However, a farmer’s income from his cotton harvest is often lower than the cost of the inputs due to low crop yields and market prices, driving more and more farmers into debt. As cotton is a cash crop, cotton farmers are highly dependent on volatile world markets. Growing only cotton reduces families’ food security, particularly in regions with unstable climatic conditions, since in bad years they are unlikely to have enough money to buy food.

FASHION APPAREL USE OF COTTON

WOMENSWEAR 60 percent of women’s clothing items contain cotton fibers, and 40 percent of women’s clothing items are made from all cotton. Among women’s clothing items, 75 percent of summer wear items contain cotton, while only 60 percent of winter wear does, proving that cotton’s light and breathable feel are what make it so essential for dressing during summer months. Among specific clothing items, 30 percent of women’s dress pants contain cotton, 38 percent of women’s dresses contain cotton, 45 percent of women’s skirts contain cotton, and 48 percent of women’s knit blouses contain cotton.

MENSWEAR Seventy-five percent of men’s clothing contains some kind of cotton blend.

Of the men’s clothing made from cotton fibers, 85 percent is made from 100-percent cotton. Cotton is used to make men’s cotton suits, cotton dress shirts, underwear, and men’s casual clothing, including jeans and sweatshirts.

Cotton’s absorbancy and breathability make it a suitable fabric for wearing in warm weather conditions; the use of cotton in men’s suits and shirts makes for comfortable business wear.

LINEN

Linen is one of the first fibers that people made into string and cloth. Linen comes from the flax plant, which grows all over the Mediterranean region and Central Asia.

Flax is a tall, reed-like plant, with long fibers which make it easy to spin into thread. You pick the plants, and then leave them to soak in a tub of water or a stream until the hard outside stem rots away and leaves the long, soft fibers underneath. People call this retting the flax. Then you take the fibers and spin them on a spindle into linen thread.

HISTORY OF LINEN

In ancient Egypt linen was used for mummification and for burial shrouds because it symbolized light and purity as well as wealth.

Linen was so valued in ancient Egypt that it was used as currency in some cases.

Dyed flax fibers are found in a prehistoric cave in Georgia which is evidence that woven linen fabrics from wild flax were used some 36,000 years ago.

The first written evidence of a linen comes from the Linear B tablets of Pylos, Greece, where linen hast its own ideogram and is also written as ÂŤli-noÂť in Greek.

The Phoenicians, who had their merchant fleet, brought flax growing and the making of linen into Ireland.

Belfast became in time the most famous linen producing center in history. The majority of the world’s linen was produced there during the Victorian era.

High quality linen fabrics are now produced in the United States for the upholstery market and in Belgium. Russia is currently the major flax cultivating nation.

TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF LINEN 1. Absorbency: Perhaps the single most notable property of linen is how absorbent it is. Fibers from plant basts are all hygroscopic, which means they can absorb lots of moisture. In fact, linen can absorb up to 20% of its weight in moisture. This makes it highly desirable for many garments and sheets as it will literally pull perspiration off the body. As an added bonus, linens actually increase their tensile strength when wet.

2. Breathability: Nobody wants to wear a fabric that will feel wet all the time, so what happens to the water in linen is very significant.

Linen fibers release the moisture back into the air very quickly.

In fact, linens dry almost instantly because the fiber itself cannot hold air or heat. As a result, linen fabrics tend to feel cool to the touch and extremely breathable. The fabric draws in perspiration, which cools the body, and allows heat to pass through essentially unobstructed. This makes linens highly desirable for sheets, clothing, and drapery in warm climates.

3.Durability: Finally, linens are famous for their durability. Unlike other fabrics, all the great things about linens tend to improve with use. Washing linens makes them stronger, shinier, and softer. The high durability of linen also makes it a little more rigid than other fabrics. This prevents it from clinging to the body. This drapelike quality of linen garments is another thing that contributes to its breathability. Finally, the durability of linen prevents it from producing lint.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES • Effect of Acids: Linen fiber is damaged by highly densified acids but low dense acids does not affect if it is wash instantly after application of acids.

• Effects of Alkalis: Linen has an excellent resistance to alkalis. It does not affected by the strong alkalis.

• Effect of Micro Organism: Mildews and bacteria will flourish on linen under hot and humid condition, feeding on linen, weakening the material. They can be protected by impregnation with certain types of chemicals like Copper Nepthenate • Effects of Insects: Linen fiber does not attacked by moth-grubs or beetles.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES • Color: The color of linen fiber is yellowish to grey.

• Tensile Strength: Linen is a strong fiber. The strength is greater than cotton fiber.

• Elongation at break: Linen does not stress easily.

• Elastic Recovery: Linen fiber has not enough elastic recovery properties like cotton fiber.

• Effect of Heat: Linen has an excellent resistance to degradation by heat. It is less affected than cotton fiber by the heat.

• Effect of Sun Light: Linen fiber is not affected by the sun light as others fiber.

It has enough ability to protect sun light.

FUNCTIONS OF LINEN

TYPES: 1. DAMASK 2. PLAIN-WOVEN 3. LOOSELY WOVEN 4. SHEETING

First of all, linen fabric is popular choice to make clothing. Linen fabrics are often a first choice for those buying the household textile, as they are strong and practical.

Apart from practical-only use, linen home textile serves decorative functions as well.

Flax is used to make products ranging from heat insulation, paper, and soap, to linoleum flooring, which is made from flax seed oil. Flax seeds are even touted for their nutritional and medicinal properties, due to high levels of lignans and Omega-3 fatty acids.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT Linen is one of the most environment friendly and sustainable fabrics. Those are major benefits of flax: • The whole flax plant can be used, leaving no waste.

• Flax grows naturally and requires less water and fewer pesticides than cotton, making it the more eco-friendly fabric. Because it’s a natural fiber, flax linen is recyclable and biodegrade.

• Flax is gentle on the land and is easy to incorporate into modern crop rotation cycles, preventing soil depletion.

• Very little energy is required to process flax.

• Linen yarn is inherently strong, which reduces the need for starching during spinning and weaving.

• Linen fabrics can be recycled into paper and insulation materials for the car industry.

• Flax linen is many times stronger than cotton, which means clothing, window treatments, and upholstery made from linen are made to last, rather than wind up in a landfill.

• The industrial processes of spinning and weaving have very little to no impact on the environment. One of our main suppliers is constantly investing in new equipment and production methods, reducing the need for energy and water and eliminating or recycling most of the waste.

SOCIAL IMPACT In the right conditions, linen can be cultivated without fertilizers and grown on marginal land that is unsuitable for food crop production. It is a very productive crop, yielding a far greater amount of fiber than cotton cropping. However, conventional linen is grown with chemical herbicides and fertilizers, which reduces some of the environmental benefits of the textile. Linen cultivated in areas that have had a long history with this fiber are less likely to use these chemicals. You can also find organic linen which guarantees that these chemicals have not been used.

Conventional linen is processed into fiber from the raw flax crop through a process of water-retting. This involves soaking the flax crop in rivers or waterways, and results in a high amount of pollutants making their way into the waterways. These include residual agro-chemicals, as well as natural waste. Excess plant matter in the waterways upsets the eco-system and leads to an imbalance. There are more ecofriendly method of processing. These are dew-retting and enzyme-retting. These processes turn the raw avoid the water pollution associated with the water-retting process.

FASHION APPAREL USE OF LINEN Some fashion designers opine that, unlike other fibre materials, the beauty of linen lies in its unique quality to crush. The outcome of crushes rather gives an exclusive look to linen, even when worn formally. Linen wrinkles easily, so avoid styling concepts that have creases firmly pressed into them. The cloth mills are making linen from colours ranging from creamy white to light brown; dying linen is easy and does not fade after washing. Presently, trousers, dresses, shirts are being made by linen. Interesting cuts, well-defined edges, frills, hand-painting and machine work can further highlight the look of the fabric.

Egyptian linen is used by most of the fashion designers. Scottish and Irish linen are very popular because of the unique white colour that is ideal for summers. Scottish linen is lighter than Irish linen. Similarly, Japanese and French linen have unique characteristics and are genuinely liked and bought by many people around. These linen types are mostly used for tops, shirts, men suits and pants.

Linen is still not the favourite fabric of every designer when it comes to detailing, but even then it is in fashion; it is not lagging behind. Long skirts, coats and dresses with delicate embroidery and thread work look best on linen. Heavy embroidery and beadwork take away natural charm of linen.

Linen fashion is much popular in neutral and lighter shades, because it is mostly worn in summers. White, beige and light brown are the colours that have gained high popularity in linen clothing. Some designers have tried to add brighter coloured linen clothes to their fashion trends. Linen fabric is known for its exclusivity, trendiness and elegance. It has a natural shine that gives it that extra touch of glamour. If you want to buy designer fashion or you want to make clothes on your own, linen is the true fabric.

SILK

Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity. The shimmering appearance of silk is due to the triangular prism-like structure of the silk fibre, which allows silk cloth to refract incoming light at different angles, thus producing different colors.

HISTORY OF SILK Silk cultivation spread to Japan around 300 AD, and, by 522 AD, the Byzantines managed to obtain silkworm eggs and were able to begin silkworm cultivation. The Arabs also began to manufacture silk during this same time. As a result of the spread of sericulture, Chinese silk exports became less important, although they still maintained dominance over the luxury silk market.

The production of silk originates in China, 4th millennium BC. Silk remained confined to China until the Silk Road opened during the later half of the first millennium BC. China maintained its monopoly over silk production for another thousand years. Not confined to clothing, silk was also used for writing, and the color of silk worn was an important guide of social class during the Tang Dynasty.

The Crusades brought silk production to Western Europe, in particular to many Italian states, which saw an economic boom exporting silk to the rest of Europe. Changes in manufacturing techniques also began to take place during the Middle Ages, with devices such as the spinning wheel first appearing. During the 16th century France joined Italy in developing a successful silk trade.

The Industrial Revolution changed much of Europe’s silk industry. Due to innovations on spinning cotton, cotton became much cheaper to manufacture and therefore caused more expensive silk production to become less mainstream. New weaving technologies, however, increased the efficiency of production. Among these was the Jacquard loom, developed for silk embroidery.

China is now once again the world’s largest producer of silk.

The rise of new fabrics such as nylon reduced the prevalence of silk throughout the world, and silk is now once again a rare luxury good, much less important than in its heyday.

An epidemic of several silkworm diseases caused production to fall, especially in France, where the industry never recovered. In the 20th century Japan and China regained their earlier role in silk production.

TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SILK • Composition: The silk fibre is chiefly composed of 80% of fibroin, which is protein in nature and 20% of sericin, which is otherwise called as silk gum.

• Cleanliness and Washability: Silk fabric does not attract dirt because of its smooth surface. The dirt, which gathers can be easily removed by washing or dry cleaning. It is often recommended for the silk garments to be dry-cleaned. Silk fabrics should always be washed with a mild soap and strong agitation in washing machine should be avoided. Silk water – spot easily, but subsequent washing or dry cleaning will restore the appearance of the fabric.

• Shrinkage: Silk fabrics are subjected only to normal shrinkage which can be restored by ironing. Crepe effect fabrics shrink considerably in washing, but careful ironing with a moderately hot iron will restore the fabric to its original size.

• Resistance to Perspiration: Perspiration and sunlight weakens and yellows silk fabrics. The silk itself deteriorates and the colour is affected causing staining. Garments worn next to the skin should be washed or other wise cleaned after each wearing.

• Effect of Heat: Silk is sensitive to heat and begins to decompose at 330° F (165° C). The silk fabrics thus have to be ironed when damp.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES • Effect of Acids: The Fibroin of silk can be decomposed by strong acids into its constitute amino acids. In moderate concentration, acids cause a contraction in silk. Dilute acids do not attack silk under mild conditions.

• Effect of Alkalis: Weak alkalis such as soap, borax and ammonia cause little appreciable damage. Silk dissolves in solutions of concentrated caustic alkalis.

• Effect of Organic Solvent: Silk is insoluble in the dry-cleaning solvents in common use.

• Effect of Insects: Insect does not affect silk.

• Effect of Mildew: Silk is affected by mildew slightly.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES • Color: The color of silk fiber could be yellow, brown, green or grey.

• Strength: Silk is a strong fiber. The wet strength of silk is higher than dry strength.

• Elastic Recovery: Not so good.

• Effect of Sun Light: Sun light tends to encourage the decomposition of silk by atmospheric oxygen.

• Luster: Bright

FUNCTIONS OF SILK

TYPES: 1. BROCADE 2. SATIN 3. CHIFFON 4. CREPE DE CHINE 5. GEORGETTE 6. ORGANZA

Clothes made of silk fiber are often expensive and have a high perceived value.

Silk chiffon makes flowing curtains and ruffles for pillows and comforters. Matka silk adds texture and thickness to upholstering due to the twist and amount of fibers used in manufacturing. Silk wall coverings give a finishing touch to bedrooms and living rooms. Woven silk fibers are used for the construction of parachutes and bicycle tires. Silk fibers that undergo a special manufacturing process are used to construct prosthetic arteries. Due to silk’s antibacterial properties, it’s often used in the medical field for wounds and burns.

Many silk fibers are woven into suitable backgrounds for pen and ink drawings and painting.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT Silk is a highly renewable resource with less impact on the environment that many other fabrics. The silk worms feed on mulberry leaves, which don’t require the use of pesticides or fertilizers to grow.

The process of making silk requires the killing of the larvae when the cocoon is boiled, because of this sericulture has been heavily criticized by the animal welfare and rights activists. The mulberry silkworm has been completely domesticated and cannot live without humans for their care and feeding. There are no wild silkworms or Bombyx mori moths living in the wild. Because of the long history of captivity, the Bombyx mori evolved into a blind moth that cannot fly and lives only a few days during which it lays about 500 eggs and then dies within four or five days. The silkworm moth has even lost the ability to eat because of undeveloped structures within their mouth. To prevent hurting the insects Gandhi promoted the cotton spinning machines, which do not directly involve hurting any living thing. He also promoted wild silk made from cocoons of wild and semi-wild silk moths, wild silk is promoted in parts of India for those who do not want to wear silk produced by killing silkworms. The organization PETA also campaigned against silk for similar reasons.

Silk for most places is not a local resource, so processing and transportation lead to pollution. Much of the silk in the US is from China and India. To clean silk many harsh and intensive treatments and chemicals are used, which can pollute the ground water. Producing silk uses a very large amount of resources to produce a small amount of silk, some estimate that only thirty-five pounds of silk come from one acre of mulberry trees. The process is also very labor intensive, so it requires many workers.

As an attempt to start the silk industry in The United States the Mulberry tree was introduced to American soil. This fast-growing Paper Mulberry tree was introduced into many non-native areas. It quickly disrupted the native habitat; it became a highly invasive species and upset the natural ecosystem. This has happened in many places such as Latin America, the United States, and South Asia. Since the tree does not have any native predators it is replacing the native flora. The Paper Mulberry tree chokes out the native flora because of its extremely high consumption of water, which ends up leaving less water to sustain the native flora.

SOCIAL IMPACT The ancient Silk Road contributed greatly to the cultural exchange between China and the West. From the second century BC to the fifteenth century AD, splendid civilizations among China, India, Greece, Persia and Rome were exchanged along this famous trade route, making the route a great ÂŤCultural BridgeÂť between Asia and Europe.

Together with the economic and political exchange between the East and West, religions of the West were introduced into China via the world-famous route.

Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Nestorianism and Islam were cultural treasure of the ancient west, which were bestowed upon China during the old times.

The cultural exchange between China and the West offered mutual benefit and achieved common progress. The Chinese Four Great Inventions (paper making, printing, gunpowder and compass) as well as the skills of silkworm breeding and silk spinning were transmitted to the West. This greatly sped up the development of the entire world.

FASHION APPAREL USE OF SILK

Silk fabric is used for many different types of dresses, including wedding gowns, evening gowns and sarongs. In addition, silk can be used to make dress shirts, skirts or scarves.

Some items of men’s clothing are made from silk fabric, including dress shirts and suits. Ties can also be made from silk fabric, as well as pocket squares for the pocket on suit jackets.

Clothes made of silk fiber are often expensive and have a high perceived value.

When silk fiber is twisted in the weaving process, different silk fabrics are created, such as crepe, shantung and satin. Dupioni is a type of Indian silk suitable for men’s shirts or women’s dresses. The woven silk fiber makes soft, flowing nightgowns, underwear and robes. Chiffon silk is a soft and light silk made from a very highly twisted yarn — strong but still very thin used for women’s formal dresses.

Raw silk is often used for men’s sport coats, women’s suits and coats, when layers of liquid serecin is left on the silk fiber a rough and coarse silk is produced — known as «raw silk.»

Silk is often blended with other fabrics. Synthetics give silk more stability, as well as sun and water spotting resistance. For sport attire, adding cotton to silk fiber gives strength, stain resistance and body to the fabric. Draperies and upholstery are also more durable and easy to take care of with synthetic fibers mixed with the silk fibers.

WOOL

Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and other animals, including cashmere and mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, angora from rabbits, and other types of wool from camelids. Wool mainly consists of protein together with a few percent lipids. Wool is produced by follicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the upper layer of the skin called the epidermis and push down into the second skin layer called the dermis as the wool fibers grow.

HISTORY OF WOOL

In Roman times, the finest wool came from Tarentum, a coastal city in today’s Puglia, Southern Italy.

First woven wool garments date from 400BC to 300BC. At about the same time woolly-sheep came to Europe from the Near East.

In the beginning, wool was plucked from the sheep by hand or by bronze combs.

In medieval times the wool trade became serious business and whole series of fair. After the Restoration fine English wool began to compete with silk on the international market.

The Medici and other great houses of Florence had built their wealth on their textile industry based on wool. In the 16th century, Spain allowed export of Merino lambs, a breed of ship that gives highly valued type of wool, only with royal permission.

In middle 20th century, wool production falls because of the appearing of the synthetic fibers.

Superwash wool (or washable wool), a type of wool that is specially treated so it can be washed in machine and tumbledried, first appeared in the early 1970s.

The German wool market in time overtook British wool which in turn was overtaken by Australia’s colonial economy which was based on sheep raising.

TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOL • Wool’s surface structure: Wool fibres have a unique surface structure of overlapping scales called cuticle cells. The cuticle cells anchor the fibre in the sheep’s skin. Wool’s surface is very different to typical synthetic fibres, which have a very smooth surface.

• Fibre surface is water repellent: The cuticle cells provide a tough exterior, protecting the fibre from damage. The cells have a waxy coating, making wool water repellent, but still allowing absorption of water vapour. The water-repellent surface makes wool garments naturally shower-proof and also reduces staining because spills don’t soak in easily.

• Interior structure creates flexibility and absorbency: The cortical cells also have a complex interior structure. The smallest component within these cells is a spring-like structure, which gives wool its flexibility, elasticity, resilience and wrinkle recovery properties.

• Absorbency creates comfort: When wool absorbs moisture, it produces heat, so if you go from a warm room into a cold, damp night wearing a wool jersey, the wool picks up water vapour from the air, keeping you warm. The reverse occurs when you go back into the warm room – the moisture in your jersey passes into the atmosphere, cooling you down. Tiny pores in the cuticle cells allow water vapour to pass through the wool fibre. This makes wool comfortable to wear in both warm and cool conditions.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES • Effect of Acids: Wool is attacked by hot concentrated sulphuric acid and decomposes completely. It is in general resistant to mineral acids of all strength even at high temperature though nitric acids tend to cause damage by oxidation.

• Effects of Alkalis: Wool will dissolve in caustic soda solutions. Strong alkaline affect on wool fiber.

• Effect of Resilience: Wool fibers can be stretched up to 50 percent of their original length when wet and 30 percent when dry.

• Effects of Insects: Wool affected by insects.

• Effect of Micro Organism: It is affected by mildew if it remains wet for long time.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES • Color: The color of wool fiber could be white, near white, brown and black.

• Flame reaction : Odor of burnt horn.

• Luster: Luster of course fiber is higher than fine fiber.

• Moisture Regain: 13-16% , very absorbent, decrease strength when wet, seem warmth, will shrink in washing.

• Electrostatic reaction: Highly electrostatic at dry conditions.

• Feel or Hand: Soft.

• Effect of Heat: Heat affects the wool fiber greatly.

• Effect of Sun Light: The fibers become discolored and develop a harsh feel.

FUNCTIONS OF WOOL

TYPES: 1. SHEEP WOOL 2. LAMBSWOOL 3. MERINO 4. CASHMERE 5. MOHAIR 6. ANGORA 7. ALPACA

Wool utilized in garment production can be woven, knitted, crocheted, felted, and worked in other ways. In addition to being used as a fabric for clothes such as sweaters, hats, pants, coats, and scarves, wool can also be used for embroidery and other threadwork. Wool fabric can also be used for blankets, drapes, and upholstery.

Stuffing for furniture can be made from wool, and recycled wool can be utilized to make insulation and sound proofing. Wool also has a long history of being used in carpets and carpet padding. Uses of wool felt include shoes, hats, and waterproof outer garments. It is also famously used in pianos to muffle the impact of the hammers, creating the distinctive sound which differentiates pianos from harpsichords.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT Wool is essentially a renewable resource-a sheep’s coat. Sheep are relatively low impact animals since they can eat just about anything and live just about anywhere. However, mass production and processing of wool can have some hefty environmental impacts.

Manure generated from livestock has significantly contributed to the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gasses over the last 250 years.

In that time, the concentration of methane has increased by more than 130 percent in the U.S. “Enteric fermentation,” or livestock belching and passing gas, accounts for roughly one-quarter of annual agricultural methane emissions.

In the first half of the 20th century, Patagonia, Argentina, was second to Australia in wool production. But when local sheep farmers got too greedy, the scale of their operations outgrew the ability of the land to sustain them. Soil erosion in the region has triggered a desertification process that officials estimate threatens as much as 93 percent of the land. Argentina is no longer a major wool producer.

Sheep “dip,” which is a toxic chemical used to rid sheep of parasites, presents disposal problems and can harm the environment. A Scottish study of 795 sheep-dip facilities found that 40 percent presented a pollution risk. The study found evidence of a 1995 incident in which a cupful of spent dip, full of a highly toxic synthetic called pyrethroid cypermethrin, killed 1,200 fish downstream from where it was dumped into a river.

SOCIAL IMPACT Most sheep farms dip their sheep in poisonous insecticide baths to ward off lice and ticks. Organophosphate insecticides can harm farm workers, impacting the central nervous system.

These pesticides also leave residues on wool that makes its way into your clothes.

Sheep themselves can tear up land and easily overgraze, especially in sensitive environments. Cleaning wool can take a great deal of water, as can irrigating their grazing land. Finally, wool dyes and mothproofing chemicals can be highly toxic.

FASHION APPAREL USE OF WOOL Wool utilized in garment production can be woven, knitted, crocheted, felted, and worked in other ways. In addition to being used as a fabric for clothes such as sweaters, hats, pants, coats, and scarves, wool can also be used for embroidery and other threadwork.

VISCOSE

Viscose fiber is made from purified cellulose, it is produced from specially processed wood pulp. Viscose is very similar to cotton and silk . It is a fine and soft material commonly used in t-shirts , tunics , shirts and dresses. Viscose raw material for viscose is cellulose which is broken down either mechanically or chemically and reformed as fibres.

HISTORY OF VISCOSE

Finally, in 1894, Charles Frederick Cross, Edward John Bevan, and Clayton Beadle patented the first safe and practical artificial silk, which they named «viscose».

Mr.Georges Audemars developed the first rayon fibre around 1855, but his method was impractical for commercial use. Hilaire de Charbonnet, Comte de Chardonnay, patented «Chardonnay silk» in 1884, but it was so flammable it had no safe use.

The use of viscose is declining. Instead, rayon may be manufactured using the Lyocell process, which uses N-methylmorpholine N-oxide as the solvent and produces little waste product, making it relatively eco-friendly.

First manufacturer is an American Company Avtex Fibers Inc. They made first production in 1910. Viscose material is softer than cotton and more springy than silk.

Viscose is comfortable to wear

TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF VISCOSE • Viscose fibers may be available in bright or dull luster.

• Viscose fabrics have good absorbency for water or perspiration but they do not dry quickly.

• Like cotton, fabrics made from viscose fibers have high tendency of creasing.

• Viscose fibers have tendency to shrink on washing.

• Viscose fabrics do not soil as easily as cotton fabrics because smoother surface of viscose fibers attracts less soil.

• Viscose fibers have good dyeability, which is usually better than cotton.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES • Action of Acids: The resistance of regenerated cellulose rayon’s to acids is generally less than that of cotton to the same concentrations of the same acids.

• Action of Soaps: Ordinary soaps in usual textile concentration have no direct effect on regenerated cellulose materials.

Improper use of soap or use of poorly made soap results in rancidity and odor in rayon fabrics or yarns.

• Effect of Iron: Contact with iron in the form of ferrous hydroxide weakens viscose rayon yarns. Therefore staining, marking or touching of rayon to iron or iron surface should be avoided.

• Action of Microorganisms: Microorganisms affect the colour, strength, dyeing properties and lustre of rayon. Clean and dry viscose rayon is rarely attacked by moulds and mildew.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES • Moisture Absorption: It absorbs more moisture than cotton. Moisture Content of Coton is 6% at 70 deg F and 65% RH, and for Viscose Rayon it is 13% under the same conditions.

• Tensile Strength: The Tensile Strength of the fibre is less when the fibre is wet than when dry.

• Elasticity: The elasticity of Viscose Rayon is less than 2-3%. This is very important in handling viscose yarns during weaving, stentering etc when sudden tensions are applied.

• Action of Heat and Light: At 300 deg F or more, VR loses its strength and begins to decompose at 350-400 deg F. Prolonged exposure to sunlight also weakens the fibre due to moisture and ultraviolet light of the sunlight.

FUNCTIONS OF VISCOSE

TYPES: 1. RAYON 2. MODAL RAYON 3. HIGH TENACY RAYON 4. LYOCELL

Rayon is a manufactured fiber made from regenerated cellulose fiber. The many types and grades of rayon can imitate the feel and texture of natural fibers such as silk, wool, cotton, and linen. The types that resemble silk are often called artificial silk. Cellophane is a thin, transparent sheet made of regenerated cellulose.

Its low permeability to air, oils, greases, bacteria, and water makes it useful for food packaging. Artificial sausage casing is made from cellophane as well. Viscose is used in some of the velvet making methods. Lyocell is a form of rayon which consists of cellulose fibre. As of 2010, Lyocell is more expensive to produce than cotton or viscose rayon. It is used in many everyday fabrics. Staple fibres are used in clothes such as denim, chino, underwear, casual wear, and towels.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT As a plant-based fibre, viscose is not inherently toxic or polluting.

However, because of the growing fast-fashion industry, much of the viscose on the market today is manufactured cheaply using energy, water and chemically-intensive processes that have devastating impacts on workers, local communities and the environment. This is why viscose (including bamboo viscose) was given a ‘D’ score for sustainability in the Made-By Environmental Benchmark for Fibres.

A recent article in the Guardian detailed an investigation undertaken by the Changing Markets Foundation that linked international fashion brands such as Zara, H&M, ASOS and Marks and Spencer to highly polluting viscose factories in China, India and Indonesia. Concerns have also been raised regarding the devastating impact of wood pulp production on forests, people and vulnerable animal populations.

The production of viscose is contributing to the rapid depletion of the world’s forests, which are being cleared to make way for pulpwood plantations. It is estimated that around 30% of rayon and viscose used in fashion is made from pulp sourced from endangered and ancient forests.

This leads not only to habitat destruction, creating a significant threat to endangered species, but also often involves human rights abuses and land grabbing from Indigenous communities.

SOCIAL IMPACT The wood pulp that viscose is made from is manufactured by treating it with sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and carbon disulphide, which is then filtered and spun into a fine thread. This is a highly polluting process and releases many toxic chemicals into the air and waterways surrounding production plants. Carbon disulphide is another toxic chemical which has been linked to higher levels of coronary heart disease, birth defects, skin conditions and cancer, not just in textile workers but also in those who live near viscose factories.

Though the viscose production process is multi-faceted, retailers play a significant role in the problem. Fast-fashion giants are placing pressure on manufacturers to produce and distribute clothes at ever-increasing speeds and cheaper costs. This encourages these unsustainable social and environmental practices. Big brands have the money and power to step up and encourage responsible and sustainable manufacturing, but we are yet to see enough meaningful action.

FASHION APPAREL USE OF VISCOSE Rayon is used for a range of apparel as either 100 percent rayon or blended to create blouses, dresses, suiting, sport shirts, work clothes, slacks, and accessories. Acetate fiber is primarily used for linings and also special occasion apparel, such as taffeta, satin, and brocade wedding and prom dresses.

Because it is nearly twice the price of rayon, lyocell has been targeted primarily to upscale apparel, such as business wear, dresses, slacks, and coats. Recent innovations resulting from the Tencel Inc., Intellect research program has moved lyocell into more formal wear, such as men’s suits. Lyocell is also being seen in lingerie, hosiery, and casual wear.

POLYESTER

Polyester is a generalised term for any fabric or textile, which is made using polyester yarns or fibres. It is a shortened name for a synthetic, man-made polymer, which, as a specific material, is most commonly referred to as a type called polyethylene terephthalate (PET). It is made by mixing ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid.

HISTORY OF POLYESTER Once Carothers discovered nylon. A group of Brittish scientists took up Carothers’ work in 1939. In 1941 they created the first polester fiber called Terylene. In 1946 duPont bought all legal rights from the Brits and came up with another polyester fiber which they named Dacron.

Polyester began as a group of polymers in W.H. Carothers’ laboratory.

Carothers was working for duPont at the time when he discovered that alcohols and carboxyl acids could be successfully combined to form fibers.

Polyester was first introduced to the American public in 1951. It was advertised as a miracle fiber that could be worn for 68 days straight without ironing and still look presentable.

Polyester was first introduced to the American public in 1951. It was advertised as a miracle fiber that could be worn for 68 days straight without ironing and still look presentable. In 1958 another polyester fiber called Kodel was developed

by Eastman Chemical Products, Inc.

The polyester market kept expanding. Since it was such an inexpensive and durable fiber, amny small textile mills emerged all over the country--many located in old gas stations--to produce cheap polyester apprel items. Polyester experienced a constant growth until the 1970s when sales drastically declined due to the negative public image that emerged in the late 60s as a result of the infamous polyester double-knit fabric.

Polyester was first introduced to the American public in 1951. It was advertised as a miracle fiber that could be worn for 68 days straight without ironing and still look presentable. In 1958 another polyester fiber called Kodel was developed

by Eastman Chemical Products, Inc.

TECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF POLYESTER • Polyester is very durable and is resistant to many chemicals • This is a popular fabric in the fashion industry, as it is resistant to shrining and stretching. It is also resistant to wrinkling and abrasions • The fibres used to create Polyester are very strong yet lightweight • The fibres are easily dyed • It retains its shape very well • Polyester fabric is easy to look after and it can be washed and dried at home • It is a quick drying fabric, so a popular choice for outdoors clothing

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES • Effect of acids: These polymers are resistant to acids.

• Effetc of alkalis: Continued laundering results in hydrolysis and materials get fewer as the surface film of the fibre gets lost.

• Effect of bleaches: It does nor requie bleaching. It retains its whiteness and requires only chlorine bleaches to be used when essential.

• Sunlight: It withstands the sun’s ultraviolate radiations and is resistant to acidic pollutants in atmosphere.

• Color Fastness: It is not easy for dye molecule to penetrate the fibre when dyed, it retains its color after regular wash.

• Micro-Organisms: It is resistant to bacteria and other mcro-organisms.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES • Tenacity: Polyester filaments and staple fibre are strong due to their crystalline nature.

• Elastic plastic nature: The very crystallinity of the fibre prevents wrinkling and creasing.

• Hygroscopic nature: Filaments and staple fibres are hydrophobic. The lack of polarity and the very crystalline structure resists the entry of water molecules into the polymer system. The hydrophobic nature of the polymer system attracts fats, greases, oils, acid or any other greasy soils.

• Thermal properties: It is a poor heat conductor and it has low resistance to heat. It melts on heating. It is a thermoplastic fibre meaning that it is capable of being shaped or turned when heated.

FUNCTIONS OF POLYESTER

TYPES: 1. PET 2. PCDC 3. YARNS

Polyester is used in the manufacturing of all kinds of clothes and home furnishings like bedspreads, sheets, pillows, furniture, carpets and even curtains. The disco clothing of the 70s with all its jazz and flash was made of polyester. The most common use of polyester today is to make the plastic bottles that store our much beloved beverages. Shatterproof and cheap these bottles are an absolute boon to the beverages industry. An unusual and little known use of polyester is in the manufacturing of balloons. Polyester is also used to manufacture high strength ropes, thread, hoses, sails, floppy disk liners, power belting and much more in industries.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT Polyester is a synthetic petroleum-based fibre, and is therefore made from a carbon-intensive non-renewable resource. Petroleum products are used as feedstock (raw material to make the fibre) and also used to generate the energy needed to manufacture. More than 70 million barrels of oil are used to make polyester each year. It is not bio-degradable and will persist in the eco-system even as it eventually breaks apart. In fact, it is believed that synthetic garments are the biggest source of microplastic pollution in the oceans because up to 1900 fibres can be washed off one garment every time it is washed.

Although it is less energy intensive than nylon to produce, it still requires more than double the energy of conventional cotton to produce. The production of polyester uses harmful chemicals, including carcinogens, and if emitted to water and air untreated, can cause significant environmental damage. Most polyester is produced in countries such as China, Indonesia and Bangladesh where environmental regulations are lax, and air and water pollution is often discharged untreated, resulting in significant pollution and harm to communities in the vicinity of (as well as downstream and downwind of) manufacturing plants. The waterintensity of production is much lower than for natural fibres. However, polyester cannot be dyed using low impact and natural dyes. This means that the detrimental impact on water supplies is potentially far greater.

One of the most positive aspects of polyester is that it is completely recyclable, and it is also possible to manufacture polyester from recycled plastics. This means that we can access the benefits of polyester without needing to manufacture from virgin petroleum stocks. There are an increasing number of new polyester-type fabrics that are made from recycled plastics, including the certified recycled fabric Repreve, which is made from recycled plastic bottles and is commonly used in sportswear and men’s swimwear. There are also some producers, such as Eco Intelligent Polyester that are infinitely recycleable and recycle old polyester clothing to create new polyester, however these are not yet common or easy to access.

SOCIAL IMPACT Our love for Fast Fashion has caused the demand for all fibers to increase. And while natural fibers are the best, the supply cannot meet the demand. This lack of supply has caused annual production of polyester to increase from 5.8 tons in 1980 to 30.9 tons by 2007. Producing polyester requires a high amount of energy which uses fuel contributing to high emissions of carbon dioxide. The clothing industry releases 2.1 million tons of carbon dioxide every year which amounts to 10% of all carbon pollution.2 While the production of polyester is bad enough, the real problem is our consumption of clothing. 150 billion units of clothing are made every year. Fast Fashion has created a cycle of consumption and discarding. On average, we only wear each article of clothing 7 times before we give it away or find other ways to dispose of it.

So we buy a lot of clothes and dispose of it very quickly, thus filling up landfills with our clothing. Polyester is not biodegradable. It takes 200 years for polyester to break down which is why we now have landfills full of clothing that cannot be disposed of.

FASHION APPAREL USE OF POLYESTER Polyester could be called the tofu of manufactured fibers since its appearance takes on many forms. Depending upon the actual manufacturing process, polyester can resemble silk, cotton, linen, or wool. When blended with other fibers, polyester takes on even more forms, combining the good qualities of each contributing fiber.

Polyester is used for all kinds of apparel, by itself and in blends.

It is found in every type of clothing, from loungewear to formal eveningwear. Some common blends include polyester and cotton for shirts and polyester, and wool for suits. Polyester contributes easy-care properties to both of those blends while cotton and wool provide comfort. Another use of polyester fiber is found inside some garments. A ski jacket with hollow polyester fibers used between the outer fabric and the lining provides warmth without weight.

FABRIC SUPPLIER LIST BHN International Textile Address: 1050 Stanford Ave Los Angeles CA Phone: 213 688 4070 Contact: Mike Rafi E-mail: bhn95@live.com Focus: Denim

Fabka Fabrics Address: 2770 East Slauson Ave Huntington Park CA Phone: 323 588 3000 Contact: Carol Lee E-mail: info@fabkafabrics.com Focus: Knits

Carr Textile Address: 243 Wolfner dr. Fenton MO Phone: 636 343 6620 Contact: Steve Carr E-mail: sales@carrtextile.com Focus: Denim

Fabrika Address: 2 E Liberty st. Savannah GA Phone: 912 236 1122 E-mail: fabrikafinefabrics@yahoo. com Focus: Natural fabric

Cinergy Textiles Address: 1422 Griffith Ave Los Angeles CA Phone: 213 748 4400 Contact: Ramin E-mail: cinergytextiles@aol.com Focus: Cotton

Fishman’s Fabrics Address: 1101 South Desplaines st.

Chicago IL Phone: 312 922 7250 Contact: Gregg Fishman E-mail: gfishman@fishmanfabrics.com Focus: Cotton

Clevis Bend Address: 269 Maple Ave Rahway NJ Phone: 732 259 8886 Contact: Jim Mark E-mail: jim@clevisbend.com Focus: Nylon

Global Luxury Address: 37 W 26th st. New York NY Phone: 212 221 2323 Contact: Shkendie Kaziu-Basler E-mail: shkendie@global-lxry.com Focus: Hi-Tech fabrics

Doubletex Address: 9785 Jeanne Mance Montreal Quebec Phone: 514 382 1770 Contact: Richard Zuckerman E-mail: sales@doubletex.com Focus: Nylon

Hemp Traders Address: 8001 Somerset blvd Paramount CA Phone: 562 630 3334 Contact: Lawrence Serbin E-mail: contact@hemptraders.com Focus: Organic fabrics

Hemp Traders Address: 8001 Somerset blvd Paramount CA Phone: 562 630 3334 Contact: Lawrence Serbin E-mail: contact@hemptraders.com Focus: Organic fabrics

Mood Address: 225 W 37th st. New York NY Phone: 855 630 6663 E-mail: moodfabrics.com Focus: Designer fabrics

Joann Address: 7400 Abercorn st.

Savannah GA Phone: 912 691 0616 E-mail: joann.com Focus: Fabric & craft retailer

M. J. Cahn Co. Address: 510 W 27th st. New York NY Phone: 212 563 7292 Contact: Mr. Cahn E-mail: woolens@gmail.com Focus: Linen

Magna Fabrics Address: 160 Hoover dr. Cresskill NJ Phone: 201 693 2281 Contact: Lawrence Fink E-mail: info@magnafabrics.com Focus: Organic fabrics

Matt Textile Address: 248 W 35th st. New York NY Phone: 212 967 6010 Contact: Fred Nili E-mail: sales@matttextiles.com Focus: Acrylic Measure Address: 311 Whitaker st. Savannah GA Phone: 912 209 0942 E-mail: contact@measurefabric.com Focus: One-of-a-kind selection in limited quantities

Natasha International Address: 226 W 37th st. New York NY Phone: 212 629 0880 Contact: Vishal E-mail: vishal@vishalent.com Focus: Knits

Ramtex Address: 13812 Figueroa st. Los Angeles CA Phone: 310 515 9494 Contact: Danny Korori E-mail: dannykorori@msn.com Focus: Acrylic

Robert’s Textile Company Address: 109 W 38th st. New York NY Phone: 212 695 5887 Contact: Bob Goldberger E-mail: bobgold@rcn.com Focus: Denim