Artists and their inspiration by LM Publishers

Artists and their Inspiration A Guide through Indonesian Art History (1930-2015)

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Artists and their Inspiration A Guide through Indonesian Art History (1930-2015) Helena Spanjaard

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Artists and their Inspiration A Guide through Indonesion Art History

Jakarta

(1930-2015) Bandung l

java

LM Publishers

l Semarang

Surabaya l Magelang l

Parallelweg 37

bali

l Yogyakarta

1131 dm Volendam

Ubud

0031 (0)85-8772397

info@lmpublishers.nl www.lmpublishers.nl

Nusa Dua

Places with Museums and/or Galleries on Java and Bali

ÂŠ Mei 2016 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; LM Publishers, Volendam, The Netherlands

author Helena Spanjaard

Photography Plates:

Cha p te r iv

editing Thecla Berghuis

P r e fa ce

ohd Museum Magelang: 15,16,17,18a,19

graphic design Ad van Helmond, Amsterdam

Helena Spanjaard: pg 13

production Hightrade bv, Zwolle

Cha p te r i

Cemeti Art House: 20,21,26,29b

National Gallery Jakarta: 8,19

Nadi Gallery Jakarta: 35,26b

Tropenmuseum Amsterdam: 12,13,14,16a,16b

Dyan Anggraini: 37a,37b

Affandi Museum Yogyakarta: 24,25,36

Helena Spanjaard: 1ab,2,3,4,5,6 ab,7,8,9ab,10,11,12,13,14,

isbn 978-94-6022-387-7

ab,22,23,38,39,40,41,42

Support for the publication of this book was provided

ohd Museum Magelang: 26,43

by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands

Cha p te r ii

Cha p te r v

through the Dutch Embassy in Jakarta

National Gallery Jakarta: 6,8,12,18

ohd Museum Magelang: 5,6,8,9,13,14,15a,21,23

ohd Museum Magelang: 5,14,16,19,20,21

Erna Sukarelawanto: 11abc

Helena Spanjaard: 1a, 1b, 9b,32 abcd, 33,34,36,41

Helena Spanjaard: 1,2,3,4ab,7,10,12,15b,16,17,18,19,20,22

Archive H.Spanjaard: 35abcd

Co nclu si o n

Cha p te r iii

Helena Spanjaard: pg 189,190,191

18b,24,25,27,28,29a,32,33,34ab,36a

National Gallery Jakarta: 2,3a,4,5a,18,27 Affandi Museum Yogyakarta: 41,43b ohd Museum Magelang: 11,21,22,23,24,25,33,34,35,36, 39,42,44a,45a,46 Helena Spanjaard: 1b,1c,3b,5b,6,8,9abcd,10,12 ab,13 ab,14 ab,15 ab,16ab,20ab,26,28,29 ab,30 ab,31,32, 37 ab,38,40,43a,44b,45b,47ab,48a,48d Bettie Ringma: 48b,48c

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Contents

<< Widayat, Gathering, 1970,

7 Preface

oil on canvas, 130 x 180 cm, Collection ohd Museum

chapter i 15 Colonial Times, Independence and Revolution (1930-1950)

chapter ii 47 The Art Academy of Yogyakarta, The Sukarno Collection, and the Art Academy of Bandung (1950-1965)

chapter iii 83 Modernity and Tradition: The Development of New Art Concepts (1965-1995)

chapter iv 127 Reformation and Globalization (1995-2015)

chapter v 161 Balinese Contemporary Art (1970-2015)

185 Conclusion

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Preface

Dullah, Halimah, a Girl from Aceh, oil on canvas, 94 x 75 cm

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In the following chapters, several phases of Indonesian art history are described. The five chapters cover the development of modern and contemporary art, from the colonial period in the nineteen-thirties to the present time of globalization. Each chapter is based on important historical moments that changed the course of the art world. Special attention is paid to individual artists who invented new concepts, styles and techniques. This book is meant as a guide through Indonesian art history. It does not give a complete overview. Therefore, a limited selection of artists, art movements and art centers is inevitable. The Indonesian art world is divided over several geographic centers that are far away from each other (Jakarta, Bandung, Yogyakarta and Bali). For an outsider, it is not that easy to discover the places where modern and contemporary art can be found. A digital guide has been added to the book in which more information is given about places that can be visited (museums, galleries and cultural centers). In Chapter I, colonial times, independence and the revolutionary period are addressed (1930-1950). Much attention is paid to the role of Sudjojono and his articles about the future of Indonesian painting. Since the beginning of modern Indonesian painting took place in the colonial times, a short survey is given of education and culture in the colonial period. The foundation of Persagi (1938), the first nationalist painters’ association, was a milestone in Indonesia’s art history. During the Japanese occupation and the following struggle for independence, the art world was strongly influenced by the dramatic events that took place. The documentation of the guerilla war against the Dutch brought artists together in the center of the revolution, Yogyakarta. President Sukarno, who proclaimed independence on 17 August 1945, became the first Maecenas and promoter of modern Indonesian art. His collection of paintings can be considered as the basis for later developments in the Indonesian art world.

In Chapter II, the art academy of Yogyakarta, the collection of Sukarno and the art academy of Bandung are discussed (1950-1965). During the period of Sukarno (1945-1965), the art world developed in various directions based on different artistic concepts. In Yogyakarta, discussions took place about the Indonesian identity, and about how to create an Indonesian art. Some artists found the solution in a connection with the content and visual language of traditional art. Other artists continued to make realistic, socially engaged art, which had been dominant during the revolutionary times. The artists, especially those that were close to President Sukarno, developed a romantic realism, in which the Indonesian people and the Indonesian landscape were the main subject. While the art of Yogyakarta was aimed at an Indonesian identity, a completely different attitude dominated the art world of Bandung. The art academy of Bandung was established in 1947, when Bandung still belonged to Dutch colonial territory. Until 1950, the teachers were all Dutch, and the curriculum was given in the Dutch language. The aim of the Bandung academy was to make modern, international art, based on varieties of ‘modernism’ that were current in Holland during the nineteen-fifties. The Dutch teacher/painter Ries Mulder introduced a semi-abstract, geometric style that became a trade mark of the Bandung academy during the fifties. The academy was part of the Technical University Bandung, and closely connected to the department of architecture. After 1950, the staff of the academy became Indonesian, but several Dutch teachers stayed until 1958. Many Bandung artists went abroad for a study period, first to the Netherlands and Europe, and later to the usa. These journeys abroad enlarged their horizons. When the government of Sukarno became more and more leftist, a group of artists (writers and painters) presented a Cultural Manifesto (Manikebu, 1963) in which they underlined the need for more individual freedom.

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The polarization between the two first art academies of Indonesia was based on their different political backgrounds. Yogyakarta had been the center of the revolution. Bandung had been the colonial center of technical education, including an art academy that was originally founded to educate art teachers for high school. In the following decennia, the differences between Yogyakarta and Bandung diminished leading to a wider variety of artistic concepts. In Chapter III, modernity and tradition, the development of new art concepts (1965-1995), the research of traditional culture and incorporation of traditional motifs in contemporary art are examined. These concepts were initiated by artists and art critics that had been abroad for a shorter or longer period. In 1965, the government of Sukarno fell and was replaced by the New Order of President Soeharto. The socially engaged art of the nineteen-fifties and sixties became taboo, shaping the way for a more decorative and abstract art. These art forms became fashionable for the decoration of offices, hotels, banks and private houses. The experiences of Bandung artists that had been in Europe and the USA led to the flourishing of abstract art, often mixed with visual motifs inspired by local traditions. In the nineteen-seventies, a counter movement by the young generation, Gerakan Seni Rupa Baru (New Art Movement), attacked the esthetic art that had become the dominant stream in Indonesian art. The gsrb presented itself with performances and happenings, and promoted new forms of socially engaged art. At the same time, painters of the older generation followed their individual course, based on the humanist ideas of the revolutionary period. The three pioneers of Indonesian painting (Sudjojono, Affandi, Hendra) continued to depict the daily life of the poor, in expressive, figurative styles. Realism kept flourishing in Yogyakarta where a group of young painters developed varieties of magic realism. These refined oil paintings were inspired by Javanese mysticism, in which the visible and invisible worlds are connected.

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During the nineteen-nineties, Indonesian art became known abroad due to a growing amount of international exhibitions. One of them, Modern Indonesian Art, three generations of tradition and change, could be seen in five different cities in the usa (1990-1992). The event took place to commemorate 45 years of independence (1945-1990). It marked the beginning of the growing globalization of Indonesian art in the following decade. In Chapter IV, reformation and globalization (19952015), the last decades are approached. The course of Indonesian art has always been closely connected with important political changes. In the nineteen-nineties, the New Order government of Soeharto became more and more restrictive. Artists started to protest against the growing corruption and the lack of individual freedom. In demonstrations people asked for â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Reformationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, and the installation of a more democratic government. In May 1998, the New Order government was replaced by an interim government of President Habibie. A year later democratic elections led to the installment of Abdurrahman Wahid (President) and Megawati Soekarnoputri (Vice President). The process of reformation was depicted by many artists between 1995 and 2000. Their critical, dramatic art works were much appreciated abroad. In Indonesia, alternative art centers exhibited the reformation art, often in the form of performances. Cemeti Gallery (1988) in Yogyakarta was a platform for young artists, who could experiment with new media. Many artists who became well known by their protest actions started their careers in Cemeti Gallery (since 1999 Cemeti Art House). The founders of Cemeti, the artist couple Mella Jaarsma and Nindityo Adipurnomo, were also active in the organization of international exhibitions and exchange programs for foreign artists. Between 1990 and 2015, impressive international exhibitions took place where Indonesian art was shown. The three Triennials of Asia Pacific Contemporary Art in Brisbane (1993, 1996 and 1999) opened the eyes of an international public for Indonesian art. Other

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Preface

Widayat, Disembarkation of Noahâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Ark, 1983, 140 x 196 cm, Collection ohd Museum

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exhibitions took place in Singapore, Hongkong, Japan, the usa and Europe. At the moment, a select group of Indonesian contemporary artists travel around the world, supported by museums, gallery owners, or private collectors. In Indonesia the contemporary art world is strongly connected with private collectors, who promote Indonesian art with the foundation of museums and galleries. Since the reformation period, the content of art shifted from political criticism to a more psychological approach. The subject of Indonesian identity is still important, but now the old discussion about East and West has taken a new direction. Artists research their own individual histories (family, gender, ethnic background, religion) and place it in a wider, global context. In this research a dilemma can be observed that was already present in the writings of Sudjojono: on the one

hand, they admire certain local traditions, and on the other hand they criticize the social restrictions that are part of these traditions. In Chapter V, Balinese contemporary art (19702015), a selection of contemporary Balinese artists is discussed. These Balinese artists were educated at the art academy of Yogyakarta. In the nineteen-seventies, the Sanggar Dewata Group was founded in Yogyakarta by Nyoman Gunarsa and Made Wianta. This group became an important medium for the promotion of contemporary Balinese art. Most of the members of Sanggar Dewata returned to Bali after finishing the academy. The Balinese artists have an intimate relationship with their own local Hindu culture. Their contemporary art differs from the traditional Balinese paintings of Kamasan or the local art of Ubud. In one way, these artists are still connected with their local backgrounds.

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Contemporary Art in Indonesia

Djoko Pekik, Hunting the Wild Boar, 1998, oil on canvas, 100 x 200 cm

In another way, they live in a part of Indonesia (Bali), where large amounts of foreign artists reside (including Indonesian artists from other islands). The mixture of local, national and international art leads to a wide range of subjects and styles in contemporary Balinese art. Some artists find inspiration in the Hindu ceremonies and philosophy, others are inspired by international trends.

Artists and their inspiration The title of this book is â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;artists and their inspirationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. I have chosen this title because the information in this book is partly based on my personal contacts with artists between 1978 and 2015. During my initial research in Bandung (1984-1986), there were not many books available to study Indonesian painting. To get practical information, I documented the art of individual painters in their homes; in Bandung, Jakarta, Yogyakarta and Bali.

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The results of my research and following visits have been published in several books, catalogues and articles. In recent years, the topic of contemporary Indonesian art has become more international in parallel with the developments of the growing Indonesian art market. Nowadays, Indonesian contemporary art is shown frequently and the amount of publications has grown, often in the form of catalogues or monographs about individual artists. Being Dutch gave me, from the beginning, the chance to research the colonial history between Holland and Indonesia. Since Indonesian modern art began during colonial rule, the relationship with Dutch culture has been an essential part of the development of Indonesian modern art. This part of Indonesian art history has often been neglected by Indonesian scholars, or it has been treated in a prejudiced, anti-Dutch point of view by several foreign researchers. When I lived in Bandung, most of the artists from the first generation of Indonesian painters could speak

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Preface

Dutch. They invited me into their homes and did not mind at all speaking Dutch with me. The interior of their houses looked also strangely familiar, since many artist houses were located in the hills of north Bandung, built by Dutch architects. Of course there were sensitive subjects in our conversations, such as the struggle for independence and former discriminating attitudes of

the Dutch government. But in general, the art world of Bandung seemed firmly rooted in a colonial past that was still clearly visible in the colonial architecture and in the educational background of many older artists. If one takes a closer look at the background of the first generation of Indonesian painters, it becomes clear that most of them grew up in aristocratic or elite

Sadali, Structured Field with Golden Remnants, 1977, oil, sand and plaster on canvas, 95 x 95 cm

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Contemporary Art in Indonesia

families. This position gave them the chance to visit colonial schools where the Dutch language was spoken. After finishing these schools, higher institutes of learning could also be entered, possibly leading to a study in the Netherlands (for the happy few). In the colonial primary schools and high schools, drawing was taught as an official part of the curriculum. In the teacher training schools (kweekschool) drawing was also an official subject. In the nineteen-thirties new educational theories were introduced in Dutch schools, based on the pedagogic methods of Richard Rothe and Frans Cizek (Vienna). Some of these theories were also used in schools in Indonesia. The purpose of these new methods was to develop the character of the children in a positive way, avoiding the dominance of the rational learning process. Children drawings should be free and expressive, and not any longer based on copying realistic examples.1 In the articles of Sudjojono, who gave advice for the future of Indonesian art (Chapter I), traces of these ideas about the importance of expressiveness can be found. The importance of drawing and sketching is often mentioned by Indonesian art teachers (Kusnadi, Widayat). Drawing and sketching were important subjects in the original curriculum of the Indonesian art academies. It was considered essential to learn the basics of academic training: portrait, model, still life and outdoor sketching. These artistic concepts were imported from the west. They were alien to Javanese concepts of art, in which most forms are not realistic but symbolic, referring to another, invisible reality. They were also alien to the basics of orthodox Islam, in which representation of humans is not allowed.2 In the process of decolonization an Indonesian identity was shaped. Artists mixed elements of two worlds: the colonial figurative (and sometimes modernist) styles with the symbolic and more â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;decorativeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; forms of traditional art. Behind the visual results of this mixture western and eastern philosophical, ethical and religious ideas played a role. In the texts of Sudjojono,

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expressiveness and spontaneity were promoted. These terms belonged to western educational methods of that period, in which free expression was considered to complement the mostly rational curriculum. In oriental Javanese philosophy, beauty (keindahan) and truth (kebenaran) are closely connected. It is the task of the artist to use his soul as a source of inspiration, to form a bridge between the visible and invisible worlds. In the texts of Sudjojono, a mixture of all these ideas can be found. His concepts paved the way for future generations. Up until the present time, discussions about east and west continue, in ever changing moods and terminology. In the next chapters several art movements and art discussions will be addressed. They are selected to get a better insight into the background of modern Indonesian art. The basic question that underlies this selection is: How did the relationship between western imported realism and oriental symbolic art develop? Notes 1

Groeneboer, K., Gateway to the West, The Dutch Language in Colonial Indonesia, 1600-1950, A History of Language Policy, Amsterdam University Press, 1998. Rheeden, H.van, Formalisme en Expressie, Ontwikkelingen in de geschiedenis van het teken-en kunstonderwijs in Nederland en Nederlands-Indie gedurende de 19e en 20e eeuw, Dissertation University of Amsterdam, 1988. Spanjaard, H., Het ideaal van een moderne Indonesische schilderkunst, 1900-1995, De creatie van een nationale culturele identiteit, Dissertation Leiden University, 1998.

2 Koentjaraningrat, Javanese Culture, Oxford Univwersity Press, Singapore, 1985. Mulder, N., Mysticism and everyday life in contemporary Java, Singapore University Press, 1978.

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Preface

Handiwirman Saputra, Paintings exhibited by Nadi Gallery, Art Stage Singapore, 2013

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chapter i

Colonial Time, Independence and Revolution 1930-1950 < Sudibio, To You, People of Yogya, 1949, oil on canvas, 200 x 136 cm,

‘Beautiful Indies’, and the Future of Indonesian Painting (1930-1942)

Collection ohd Museum

Sudjojono

Ernest Dezentje, A Corner of Jakarta,

oil on canvas, 61 x 95 cm, Collection Sukarno

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The starting point of modern Indonesian painting took place at the end of the nineteen-thirties. In this period, Indonesia was still a part of Dutch colonial territory. This historical fact had its impact on the development of modern art in Indonesia. In the years before the Second World War (1930-1942), the art world of the former Dutch Indies (Nederlands Indie) mirrored the cultural, social and political reality of the colonial government. Two opposite parties existed simultaneously: at one side the Dutch colonial government, with its specific cultural institutions, educational systems and social rules, and on the other side the rising Indonesian nationalism, with its own cultural and educational institutions. Most Indonesian artists could not participate in the colonial art world. They were not allowed to exhibit in important exhibition spaces. This situation led to the foundation of Persagi (Persatuan Ahli Gambar Indonesia), the Indonesian Association of Painters (1938). The

foundation of Persagi by Sindudarsono Sudjojono (1913-1986) and Agus Djaya Suminta (1913-1994) can be considered a significant moment in Indonesian art history. The establishment of Persagi was meant to create an ‘Indonesian’ art that would no longer obey colonial rules. This ‘Indonesian’ art was meant to depict the reality of Indonesia rather than the romantic concepts that existed in colonial times. The painter Sudjojono became the spokesman of these new ideas. In 1946, a collection of his articles was published in the brochure: Painting, Art and the Artist (Seni Loekis, Kesenian dan Seniman). Two of the thirteen articles, originally published in 1939 and 1940, can be considered cultural manifestos. In these articles, the ideals of an Indonesian art of the future were laid down in a revolutionary, emotional style. Several concepts and phrases that were introduced in these texts are still playing a role in Indonesian art discussions today.Plate 1 In the articles, Sudjojono opposes the romantic paintings that were popular in this period. The texts of the brochure skls are polemical pamphlets, using art as a symbol for the more complex social and political situation at the end of the nineteen-thirties. The title of the first article in the brochure is Painting in Indonesia, Now and in the Future (Seni Loekis di Indonesia, sekarang dan jang akan datang).1 According to Sudjojono, most paintings that were made in the nineteen thirties belonged to the romantic landscape genre. The subject matter of these paintings was restricted to the ‘holy trinity’ of the mountain, the coconut palm and the rice field. These peaceful, idyllic landscapes were made for the Dutch inhabitants of Indonesia. Sudjojono introduced a new term for this type of landscape. He called this genre Mooi-Indie (Beautiful Indies). The Beautiful Indies landscapes were meant for the Dutch in Indonesia, the tourist market and for Dutch people who went back to The Netherlands after their retirement.Plate 2, 3, 4 The foreign painters (mainly Dutch) who produced this ‘tourist art’ were imitated by Indonesian painters,

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Ernest Dezentje, Ricefield, oil on canvas,

76 x 110 cm, Collection Sukarno

Adolfs, Flamboyant, oil on canvas,

179 x 240 cm, Collection Sukarno

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because this genre sold very well. If a painter would dare to paint something else than the dogma of the mountain, the coconut tree and the rice field, his work would not be sold and the painter would suffer badly. Sudjojono describes the need for a new context in Indonesian art. The future subjects should depict the reality of the Indonesian people: farmers at work or laborers in sugar factories. The artist should have the courage (keberanian) to depict the truth (kebenaran) and not the sweet subjects that were so popular. If the artist would depict the truth (kebenaran) his art works would

become beautiful (indah), because truth (kebenaran) is beauty (keindahan). At the end of the text, Sudjojono admonishes the Indonesian painters in a visionary speech to leave the tourist dogma. The Indonesian painters should break the chains that prevent their freedom. They should fly on the wings of the Garuda bird to the palace of the Goddess of Art. Probably they will be burned by the sun, gasp for breath and suffer of hunger. They should knock on the door of her palace and she will open the door. The artist will ask her then: did I offer enough to prove my love for you? And the Goddess will answer: enough, enough, enough. In the second article of the brochure, Towards a New Indonesian Painting Style, (Menoedjoe tjorak seni loekis Indonesia baroe) advice is given about how to obtain this new style.2 Sudjojono criticizes the Indonesian paintings that were exhibited in 1940 by the members of Persagi in the bookshop Kolff in Jakarta. He mentions the fact that the subjects (mainly landscapes, market scenes, portraits or still lives) are not different from the subjects painted by foreign painters in Indonesia: Adolfs, Locatelli, Frank and Sayers: ‘our art has not yet found an Indonesian style’ (Seni loekis kita beloem bertjorak, berstijl Indonesia). He continues: ‘their brushstrokes and colors are still western, and their way of expression is also still western’ (Tjorak kwas (penseelvoering) dan rasa warna mereka masih tjorak dan rasa Barat, dan tjara mewoedjoedkan mereka masih tjara mewoedjoedkan Barat). After this criticism, Sudjojono gives some suggestions about the creation of ‘Indonesian’ art. 1. First of all the artists should study western art, from the Renaissance to Picasso. Not only the technique but also the philosophy behind the art works, because different philosophies have created different styles. After that the artists should study the so called ‘Primitive Art’ from Africa, America, India, China and Japan. Finally, the Indonesian artists should study the many forms of traditional art in Indonesia from Java, Bali, Batak, Minangkabau, Dajak, Papua.

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Colonial Time, Independence and Revolution 1930-1950

ent from the ‘civilized’ taste of the Dutch inhabitants of Indonesia. It does not mean that the artist should throw away the western taste and other western influences. Indonesian artists need to learn the western technique first before they will be able to create their own, oriental art. Sudjojono concludes that the Indonesian painters will not become famous or rich when they struggle for a new identity. But this uncertain process towards a modern Indonesian art with a distinct Indonesian identity is necessary to pave the way for future generations.

Basoeki Abdullah

Basoeki Abdullah, Naughty Boy,

oil on canvas, 90 x 60 cm, Collection Sukarno

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2. Besides the study of traditional art the artists could visit the museum in Jakarta to admire the HinduJavanese archeological art of the old Hindu kingdoms Majapahit, Mataram and Sriwidjaja. This art is interesting to study, but its soul is already dead. It would be better to look at the paintings of children from the primary school in the village. Their art is not yet spoiled by western drawing education. They still paint with the strong colors of local traditions. These colors are differ-

One of the examples of an Indonesian painter who painted in a western, romantic style is Basoeki Abdullah (1915-1993). In the same period that the first Persagi exhibitions took place, Basoeki Abdullah had several solo exhibitions in Jakarta. These exhibitions were criticized by Sudjojono in the third article of skls : Basoeki Abdullah and the Art of Painting (Basoeki Abdullah dan kesenian meloekis).3 Sudjojono agrees that Abdullah has talent, but states that talent is not enough to become a good artist. He criticizes the fact that Abdullah needed to find his inspiration outside Indonesia, in ‘artistic, imposing and picturesque places’ as the catalogue mentions. The titles of the paintings were ‘too dramatic and bombastic’: Fiery Dance (Spanish Flamenco Dancer), Realm of Sunshine, Mysticism of the Oriental Woman, What Rome learns, etc.). In one painting, Laundry Woman, a beautiful oriental woman is depicted washing some clothes in a river. According to Sudjojono, the woman looks more like an American movie star, and has little in common with real life. Sudjojono compares Abdullah’s paintings with the billboards for American movies. Regarding technique, the spokesman of Persagi notices that Abdullah uses a combination of techniques borrowed from Rembrandt, Ingres, Murillo, Velazquez, Locatelli and Adolfs. These academic techniques are used in a dramatic and bombastic way, leading to a pleasant image that sells well. For Sudjojono, the

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Contemporary Art in Indonesia

romantic approach of Abdullah gives an erroneous image of Indonesian reality. Plate 5

Before the Open Mosquito Net and Balinese Girl

Art Circle Building

Exhibition of the Collection Regnault

in the Art Circle

Sudjojono, Before the Open Mosquito

Net, 1939, oil on canvas, 86 x 66 cm, Collection Sukarno

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The artistic differences between Sudjojono and Basoeki Abdullah are symbolic for the situation of the art world between 1930 and 1942. To understand their different approaches, it is useful to compare two paintings of the same period. In 1941, the painters of the Persagi group exhibited their works in the prestigious building of the Bataviasche Kunstkring (Batavian Art Circle). This building, designed by the Dutch architect Moojen, opened its doors in 1914. The first floor contained an exhibition space, a meeting hall, a library, and rooms for drawing lessons and administration. On the ground floor, the central space was occupied by an exclusive restaurant, surrounded by a beautiful garden. The main purpose of the Art Circle was the promotion of western art in Indonesia. This promotion took place through exhibitions, lectures and art courses. Besides western art, much attention was paid to local Indonesian craft (wayang, batik, metalwork, wooden and stone sculpture, weaving). The activities were not restricted to the visual arts. Many concert tours took place as well.Plate 6, 7 After the foundation of Persagi (1938), the members of the association wanted to exhibit their works in the Art Circle building. This was refused by the secretary of the Art Circle, Mrs. De Loos-Haaxman. In an interview (1949), Sudjojono says the following: ‘After we founded Persagi in 1938, we wanted to exhibit our paintings in the Art Circle. The secretary, Mrs. De Loos-Haaxman, said to us: ‘We only organize exhibitions of artists that are already well known’, without even seeing our paintings. Then we organized our own exhibition in the Bookshop Kolff (1940). There, Mrs. De Loos-Haaxman came three times to take a look. When one of us, Agus Djaya Suminta, asked if he could have a solo exhibition in the Art Circle, she did not approve. But we were

allowed to have a group exhibition’.4 This was the first time that the members of Persagi could exhibit in the prestigious colonial building of the Art Circle. The exhibition (1941) was criticized in several colonial newspapers and magazines. Generally, the critics were surprised to learn about the existence of these Indonesian painters, who were mostly self taught, because no art academy existed in Indonesia till 1947. Many gave positive comments, but they criticized the lack of technical knowledge. One painting of Sudjojono attracted special attention. This was the portrait of an Indonesian woman sitting in front of a bed, before an open mosquito net. The painting, Before the Open Mosquito Net (1939), has become an icon of Indonesian art history. Plate 8 The portrait shows a seated Indonesian woman staring at the observer. The expression on her face is somber, hiding the worries that occupy her. She is dressed in a common sarong (skirt) and kebaya (blouse) and leans heavily on the wooden chair with both of her arms. Some branches of frangipani flowers are attached to the mosquito net, held together by red ribbons. In this painting, Sudjojono is developing a new style and content, a style and content that are different from the Beautiful Indies paintings that he attacked in his writing. He depicts the Indonesian reality of that moment in which the rising nationalism was restricted by the colonial Dutch government. Instead of the sweet romantic formula of many foreign painters in Indonesia, Sudjojono depicts the depressing reality of that period. The empathy with the subject, and the expressive brushstroke resemble the emotional oeuvre of Van Gogh, a painter that was much admired by Sudjojono.

Balinese Girl Before the outbreak of the Second World War (1942), regular exhibitions were held in Jakarta in a variety of cultural spaces. Besides the building of the Batavian Art Circle, exhibitions took place in big hotels, publishing houses, bookshops, social meeting places and

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Basoeki Abdullah, Balinese Girl, 1942,

oil on canvas, 68 x 51 cm, Collection Sukarno

Loges of the Freemasonry. Basoeki Abdullah, who had studied at the Royal Academy in The Hague (the Netherlands, 1933-1935), returned to Indonesia at the end of the thirties and exhibited several times. One of his paintings, Balinese Girl (1942), is a good example of the academic style Abdullah had mastered.Plate 9a+b This portrait is in every aspect the contrary of Sudjojono’s Indonesian woman. The style is based on the western, romantic tradition that was current among many foreign artists in Indonesia. The image of Bali that is evoked is the romantic image of a far away paradise. The girl is depicted half naked, hiding her breasts, while looking seductively at the observer. This type of portrait was indeed ‘sellable’ as Sudjojono remarked in his criticism. It responded to the taste of the art market in Indonesia, an art market that was dominated by western buyers.

Basoeki Abdullah

The colonial art education in the nineteen-thirties In order to understand the starting point of the modern art world in Indonesia, it is necessary to take a step aside and to show the wider context of the cultural life in the former colony. The hierarchy in the colonial society was complex. There were two basic cultures in one state: The modern Dutch, European culture and the ‘traditional’ oriental local culture(s). The modern European culture was imported by the Dutch to educate the Dutch inhabitants of Indonesia. This was an official government policy to prevent the Dutch people from ‘going native’. The basis of this policy was the education: the primary, secondary and higher education institutes that were established in the former colony. The school system was divided into several categories: exclusive schools for the Dutch (Dutch language), schools for the local Indonesians (Malayan language) and schools where both Dutch and Indonesians could attend classes (Dutch language). The nobility of Indonesia could attend the Dutch schools, which gave them a chance to continue their study in the Netherlands. In these schools, the subject of drawing was an official course, from pri-

CONTEMPORARY_p014_045.indd 21

mary school to the higher education institutions. The drawing lessons of the colonial schools paid attention to the mastery of figure drawing, still life, landscape or decorative patterns. Besides these lessons in drawing, art history was taught at several high schools and higher education institutions.5

The promotion of oriental art The colonial government also stimulated the study of oriental, traditional art. This oriental art was again divided into two categories: 1. The archeology of the great classical monuments of medieval time: the Buddhist and Hindu temples (Borobudur, Prambanan, etc.) 2. The many forms of art and craft that were still flourishing in Java, Bali and other islands (wayang, batik, metalwork, woodcraft, dance and music). To promote the study of archeology and traditional art and craft, the National Museum in Jakarta was founded in the middle of the nineteenth century. In 1919, the Java-Institute was established, an organization to study the local, traditional culture of Java, Bali and Madura. The researchers published their conclusions in the quarterly magazine Djawa. The articles were written by both Indonesian and Dutch researchers, in the Dutch language. In 1935, the Sono Budoyo museum for oriental art and archeology was founded in Yogyakarta. The museum belonged to the Java-Institute. Three years earlier, the Bali Museum had been established in Denpasar to promote traditional Balinese art. In colonial cultural circles, many discussions took place about the so-called ‘oriental traditional culture’. These discussions were attended by the Dutch, but also by the Indonesian elite. For many years, the JavaInstitute intended to make an art and craft school in Jakarta, but these plans never worked out.6

The promotion of modern art In the field of modern art another cultural discussion took place, led by the Art Circles, about the foundation

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Contemporary Art in Indonesia

Magazine Verf en Kunst (Paint and Art)

of a museum of modern art in Jakarta. Again, this ideal never became a reality. Due to the lack of an official museum of modern art, the Batavian Art Circle building became the most prestigious place in Jakarta to exhibit modern art. Between 1935 and 1940, an extraordinary event took place. Each year, a selection of modern art works were exhibited from the Collection Regnault. This collection contained famous avant-garde works bought by the Dutch businessman Regnault in Europe. In the nineteen-thirties, Regnault had loaned his collection to the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam. The director did not appreciate the paintings that belonged to the avant-garde of European art. He thought they were too modern for the public and moved the paintings to the cellar of the Stedelijk Museum. As a reaction, Regnault (who owned paint factories in Indonesia), decided to show the works in Jakarta in the five following years. The works that had been too modern for the Stedelijk Museum were now exhibited in an even much more conservative surrounding: the colonial society of Indonesia. The Dutch and some members of the Indonesian nobility could now admire Van Gogh, Picasso and Chagall in Jakarta. Regnault was also the editor of an art magazine, Verf en Kunst, in which many articles were written in an attempt to explain modern art to the colonial public. Plate 10, 11

East or West

Magazine Verf en Kunst (Paint and Art)

CONTEMPORARY_p014_045.indd 22

The writings of Sudjojono should be placed in the context of this complicated cultural situation. Sudjojono wanted to develop a modern Indonesian art. His wishes were based on the nationalist struggle of those years. The Dutch repression of nationalist movements had led to the imprisonment of several nationalist leaders. The tensions between the Dutch and the Indonesians escalated at the end of the nineteen-thirties. In that political climate, Sudjojono wrote his articles. The future of Indonesian art had to be different from the romantic dogma that was dominant in Indonesia. However, there was one big, practical problem.

There were no art academies in Indonesia until 1947. Also, the most important exhibition places were not accessible for Indonesians, except for a small elite that belonged to the Indonesian nobility. Most Indonesian painters were self taught. Many of them took private lessons from foreign painters that were living in Indonesia. For Indonesian painters that belonged to the nobility the situation was different. They could attend drawing classes (for example in the Art Circle building), take private lessons or go abroad to study in Europe. In all these cases, the visual vocabulary that Indonesian painters were learning was western. The average foreign painter in Indonesia used academic skills that were common in Europe. The subjects taught, privately or in school, were anatomy, portrait, figure, still life and landscape drawing. The style in which most artists in Indonesia worked was rather conservative compared to the styles that were fashionable in the west. Romantic naturalism dominated, besides variations of impressionism. Some artists worked in a more contemporary style, such as Ouborg, Frank, Sayers, and Breetveld. Their surrealist (Ouborg) or partly abstract art works were unusually modern compared with the majority of romantic landscapes and picturesque market scenes. Sudjojono wanted to develop a different â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Indonesianâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; art. He asked the members of Persagi to study the following subjects: 1. Modern western art, 2. Primitive art, 3. Traditional Indonesian art, 4. The Hindu-Buddhist archeological monuments, and 5. The colors of the paintings made by village children. Sudjojono was a self-taught artist who had educated himself intensively about the five items mentioned above. Sudjojono raised basic questions about how to create a modern Indonesian art with a distinct Indonesian identity. The solution was not easy, and it took several decades before the fruits of this new identity could grow. The colonial government had divided art into different categories: modern western art and traditional oriental art. This division concealed a political agenda. The Indonesians were supposed to continue the local

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Colonial Time, Independence and Revolution 1930-1950

‘art and craft’, while the Dutch inhabitants were supposed to make ‘modern art’. The gap between east and west was an artificial construction, invented by the Dutch to keep the social hierarchy intact.7 In reality, several Indonesians had already entered the modern art circles. Most of them belonged to the Javanese nobility. They were the first Indonesian artists to exhibit in the exclusive Dutch exhibition spaces. Their most important subject was the Indonesian landscape.

The Romantic School of Landscape Painting

Basoeki Abdullah, The Gedeh Vulcano

in West Java, oil on canvas, 61 x 80 cm, Collection Tropenmuseum

CONTEMPORARY_p014_045.indd 23

Sudjojono attacked the so-called Beautiful Indies art. He criticized the fact that Indonesian painters copied the works of foreign painters because this sort of work was easy to sell. The favorite subject for a painter (foreign or Indonesian) in the nineteen-thirties was the

depiction of the Indonesian landscape. How had this genre become so popular? The center of landscape painting was Bandung in West Java. Bandung was a model example of modern city-planning. The city had been established at the beginning of the twentieth century to accommodate both government buildings and private houses. The still-famous Technical University (former itb, Technical Institute Bandung) was founded there and attracted people from all over Indonesia. The architecture of Bandung mirrored the modern lifestyle of its citizens. The cool mountain climate attracted many Dutch citizens who lived in luxurious villas in the upper part of town. In colonial times, Bandung was labeled the ‘Paris’ of Indonesia. The environment of Bandung, with its mountains, lakes and tea plantations, was ideal for artists. The economical situation was also positive. The walls of the spacious villas and government buildings needed decoration. Landscape paintings were the favorite subject, besides market scenes, tropical fruit still lives or portraits of beautiful Balinese girls. In between the many foreign artists that lived and worked in Bandung, some exceptional Indonesian artists started their own genre of landscape painting. The ‘father’ of Indonesian landscape painting in Bandung was Abdullah Soerjo Soebroto (1878-1942). Raden Soerjo Soebroto, born in Semarang, was the adopted son of the nationalist Dr. Wahidin Soedirohoesodo (1852-1916). Around 1900, after a medical study in Jakarta, Soerjo Soebroto went to the Netherlands to continue his medical education. The young student preferred to study painting, and after returning to Indonesia, worked for some time as a painter in the sultan’s palace in Yogyakarta. In 1930, Soerjo Soebroto went back to Holland and studied for three years at the Preparatory Drawing School in Leiden, after which he was admitted to the Art Academy in Amsterdam (Rijks Akademie). Later, he travelled to France and studied art in Paris for two years. In 1935 the artist returned to Indonesia and settled in Bandung where he taught

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The paintings of Ernest Dezentje (1885-1972) were also much appreciated in Indonesia. Dezentje was born in Jakarta, had a mixed French-Indonesian background, and lived in Indonesia all his life. The artist was a member of the Batavian Art Circle and attended many exhibitions in the Art Circle building. In 1946, he became an Indonesian citizen, and was a close friend of President Sukarno.Plate 14

Wakidi and Pirngadie Two other Indonesian painters, who were experts in landscape paintings, need to be mentioned here. Wakidi (1890-1979) lived in Sumatra. His parents came from Semarang and immigrated to Palembang where Wakidi was born. Later, the family moved to Bukittinggi in West Sumatra, where Wakidi attended the teacher training school (kweekschool). There, his drawing talent was discovered by one of his Dutch teachers, who sent him to Semarang to study painting with the Dutch artist Van Dijk. Wakidi later returned to Sumatra where he continued to paint the scenery and people of Sumatra. Plate 15

Leonardus Eland, Ricefield in West-Java,

1929, oil on canvas, 80 x 141 cm, Collection Tropenmuseum

Ernest Dezentje, Flooded Rice Fields in

landscape painting. His paintings sold well and equaled those of other popular landscape painters from the same generation (Eland, Dezentje). One of his sons, Basoeki Abdullah, also specialized in landscape painting. Plate 12

Java, 1925, oil on canvas, 95 x 142 cm, Collection Tropenmuseum

Leonardus Eland en Ernest Dezentje Eland (1884-1952) was born in Salatiga in 1884. He was a self-taught artist whoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;d had some private lessons from C. L. Dake. In 1920, Eland went to The Hague (Holland), where he continued to make paintings with Indonesian subjects. In 1929, he returned to Indonesia to prepare dioramas for the world fair in Paris (1931). Later, he went back to Holland and became one of the most prolific painters of Indonesian landscapes.Plate 13

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Raden Mas Pirngadie (1875-1936) was born in Banyumas (West Java) in an aristocratic family. Because of his background, Pirngadie could easily mix with officials of the colonial government. As a child he took private lessons from the Dutch painter Van Rossum Du Chattel (1856-1917), who lived several years in Indonesia, and was famous for his watercolors. Pirngadie was very skilled in the technique of water color and drawings of nature. He became the illustrator of Five Volumes about Indonesian Art and Craft written by Jasper between 1912 and 1927. Plate 16

Raden Saleh The first Indonesian landscape painters followed in the footsteps of their legendary forefather, Raden Saleh (1807-1880). This painter had made a solo career in Europe in the nineteenth century. Initially he came to the Netherlands to work as an illustrator in the service

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Wakidi, A Village Meeting Place in

Minangkabau, oil on canvas, 55 x 80 cm, Collection Sukarno

16a

J.E. Jasper en Mas Pirngadie, De

Inlandsche Kunstnijverheid in Nederlandsch Indie, Deel I, Het Vlechtwerk, Den Haag, 1912, Collection Tropenmuseum

16b

Illustration by Mas Pirngadie, Plate

Cover (Hanematan) from Beloe

of the colonial government. After arrival he changed his mind and took private lessons from well-known Dutch painters. Raden Saleh spent most of his life in Germany, at the Saxe-Coburg Court. His paintings were much admired by his aristocratic friends. In style and subject, Raden Saleh followed the romantic tradition in which he had been educated in Europe. The Javanese Prince specialized in landscapes, horses, oriental hunting scenes and portraits Plate 17. After returning to Indonesia, Raden Saleh became the curator of the paintings in the palace in Bogor (Buitenzorg), where he passed away in 1880.8

CONTEMPORARY_p014_045.indd 25

Basoeki Abdullah and the legacy of romantic painting The portrait of the Balinese Girl that Abdullah painted in 1942 fits into the academic, romantic tradition of the Beautiful Indies art. The flamboyant technical skills that were criticized by Sudjojono in his article were acquired during Abdullahâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s stay in Europe. Raden Basoeki Abdullah was born in Surakarta (Solo) in 1915. His father was the well-known landscape painter Abdullah Soerjo Soebroto. His mother, Raden Ajeng Sukarsih, belonged to the nobility of Solo. As a child, Abdullah was raised by his uncle, Suleman Mangunhusodo, the private doctor of Kanjeng Sunan X, prince of Solo. From his childhood onwards, Abdullah showed a talent for drawing and painting. In 1933, after finishing the colonial Dutch high school (mulo, Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs) in Yogyakarta, Basuki received a grant from the Catholic Mission to study art in The Netherlands. Just before his journey began, the eighteen year old Abdullah exhibited a huge, dramatic painting in the annual trade fair of Bandung, The fight between Gatotkaca and Antasena. The size (200 x 300cm) and the dramatic composition impressed the public. The content comes from Javanese mythology. The fiery, flying hero Gatotkaca throws thunderbolts to his dark enemy in the water, Antasena. In this period, Indonesian artists often used mythological subjects to express their feelings about the colonial

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Raden Saleh, The Lion Hunt, 1840,

oil on canvas, 85 x 140 cm

CONTEMPORARY_p014_045.indd 26

situation in a symbolic way. The dramatic scene was very different from the quiet landscapes that dominated the art world in Bandung.Plate 18 From 1933-1935, Abdullah attended the Royal Art Academy in The Hague. After his study and trips to France and Italy, Abdullah married a Dutch woman in 1937. The marriage did not last long (until 1940) and Abdullah returned to Indonesia. It was exactly in this period that Sudjojono founded Persagi, and started to attack the romantic painting style that was dominant in the nineteen-thirties in Indonesia. Both Basoeki Abdullah and his father, Abdullah Soerjo Soebroto, studied at art academies in Holland. Abdullah had one older brother, Soedjono Abdullah (1911-1993), who

worked with his father in Bandung. Soedjono Abdulah developed his own style of landscape painting, influenced by mystical experiences at the holy beach of Parangtritis. In his landscapes the eternal cycle of life and death is depicted in a mysterious way.

Sudjojono and the foundation of Persagi The life story of Sudjojono is more or less the opposite of the life story of Basoeki Abdullah. The different social layers in which they grew up explain why the two artists always stayed each otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s opposites.

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Basoeki Abdullah, The Fight between

Gatotkaca and Antasena, oil on canvas, 200 x 300 cm, Collection Sukarno

CONTEMPORARY_p014_045.indd 27

Sindudarsono Sudjojono was born in Kisaran (North Sumatra). His parents emigrated from Java to work as contract laborers in a tobacco plantation. Later, his father, Sindudarmo, became an employee in a hospital of the Dutch Deli Company in Tebingtinggi. Sudjojono followed the his (Hollands Inlandsche School), a primary school where education was given in the Dutch language. The headmaster of that school, Marsudi Yudhokusumo, discovered the artistic talent of the young child. In 1926, Yudhokusomo moved to Jakarta to teach at another his, the Arjuna school. The family adopted Sudjojono as their son and took him with them to Jakarta. During the last three months of the Arjuna school, Sudjojono was allowed to study painting and

drawing with the famous artist Pirngadie. Sudjojonoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cultural education was not restricted to the technical skills of visual art. Yudhokusomo adviced the young boy to read books about art, philosophy and literature. He also took him to meetings of nationalists where religion, philosophy and politics were discussed. In 1928, Sudjojono finished the Arjuna school and wanted to continue his studies to become a medical doctor. This was impossible due to his parentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s inability to pay the expenses. His foster father, Yudhokusomo, was a member of the Theosophical Society, an institute that had many branches in Indonesia. The Theosophical Movement studied all the religions and philosophies of the world, searching for a universal wisdom. The

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Sudjojono, Cap Go Meh, 1940,

oil on canvas, 73 x 51 cm, Collection National Gallery Jakarta

CONTEMPORARY_p014_045.indd 29

Theosophical Society gave Sudjojono a grant to study, not for medicine, but to attend a teacher’s training at a school that was sponsored by them. Sudjojono went to Lembang (near Bandung) where he became a student of the Gunungsari School (hik, Hollands Indische Kweekschool). Each student had a number, and Sudjojono’s number was ss-101. Later, Sudjojono would sign his paintings with this number, instead of using a signature. The curriculum of the teacher’s training included pedagogy, world history, Indonesian history, Dutch language and Indonesian language. The school was based on ideals of liberalism and equality, and according to Sudjojono ‘an oasis in the Sahara of the Dutch colonial society’. Some of his favorite activities were sport, particularly tennis and soccer. Unfortunately, Sudjojono could not finish his studies because he needed to assist his father. Sindudarmo lived in Jakarta and worked for a medical research firm, the Eykman Institute. His salary was not enough to support his family. Back in Jakarta, Sudjojono met Yudhokusomo again. Yudhokusumo advised him to go to Yogyakarta to meet teachers of the nationalist Taman Siswa movement. This movement had been founded by Suwardi Surjaningrat (who later changed his name to Ki Hadjar Dewantoro, 1889-1959), one of the nationalist leaders. The education of the Taman Siswa schools was based on Indonesian cultural values that had been neglected by the colonial government schools. The Taman Siswa education was meant for Indonesian pupils. The schools were privately owned and did not belong to the colonial government. In Yogyakarta, Sudjojono followed a course to become a Taman Siswa teacher. After completing the course he was sent to a small village in East Java, Rogojampi, to teach. Besides teaching, Sudjojono played in the local football team that later became well known. In Rogojampi, Sudjojono read nationalist texts and pamphlets written by Sukarno, Ki Hadjar Dewantoro and others. He also made caricatures for the nationalist magazine Pikiran Rakyat. After a year, Sudjojono returned to Jakarta to

teach at another Taman Siswa school in Petojo. In 1935, he met the Japanese painter Chiyoji Yazaki (1889-1959) and took painting lessons from him. Yazaki was on a world tour, visiting Indonesia for three months. Yazaki had lived in Paris for ten years and was painting in an impressionist style. For three months, Yazaki and Sudjojono worked together in Jakarta, documenting local scenes. They were mostly sketching on paper with ink, watercolor, pencil and crayon. The teachers of Taman Siswa earnt very little, and Sudjojono’s health declined. He became severely ill and had to recover in a hospital on the island of Onrust, in front of the coast of Jakarta. While recovering from his illness, Sudjojono continued to exercise his painting skills. One day, he discovered an announcement in the newspaper Java Bode to submit paintings for an exhibition in the Batavian Art Circle (Bataviasche Kunstkring). Any painter working in Indonesia (Dutch, foreign, Indonesian) could submit an art work. The submitted paintings would then be selected by a jury. Sudjojono took the chance and submitted a small oil painting, Children with Cat. To his surprise, the painting was not only selected for exhibition, but it won the first prize and was depicted on the cover of the catalogue. Finally, Sudjojono’s art had entered the castle of the colonial elite. The painting does not exist anymore, but a bad reproduction shows a homely scene, made in a charming, naïve painting style. In 1940, Sudjojono made another painting in a colorful, expressive style, Cap Go Meh (The Chinese New Year Festival). The figures in this painting are almost caricatures, an aspect that would become an important part of Sudjojono’s future oeuvre Plate 19 . In these years, the artist was experimenting with many forms and styles, looking for his own, personal artistic vocabulary. In the same period Sudjojono and Agus Djaya founded Persagi.9

The foundation of Persagi On 23 October 1938, a group of artists gathered in the Ksatrian School in Jakarta and established the foun-

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Contemporary Art in Indonesia

Magazine Poedjangga Baroe

(The New Poet)

20b

Takdir Alisjahbana

dation Persagi (Persatuan Ahli Gambar Indonesia). The word pelukis (painter) was not yet used in this period. Literally the name means: The Indonesian Foundation of Drawing Experts. The use of the word gambar refers to the importance of drawing as a basic technique to learn painting. Agus Djaya Suminta was elected as chairman and Sudjojono as secretary. Officially Persagi existed from 1938 until 1942. The revolutionary character of the foundation laid the basis for the development of a distinctly Indonesian art. The foundation of Persagi was first of all a political, anti-Dutch statement. During the nineteen-thirties, the government policy of the Dutch became more and more repressive. Nationalist leaders were imprisoned and real political power in the parliament was denied to

CONTEMPORARY_p014_045.indd 30

the Indonesians. In this repressive climate, Indonesian nationalists had to look for other ways to obtain their goals. Education and culture were used to cover nationalist aspirations. In 1922, the nationalist Ki Hajar Dewantoro founded the Taman Siswa schools, a non-governmental, Indonesian school system. In these schools attention was paid to the local needs of Indonesian pupils and students, instead of using the western school system that had thus far prevailed in Indonesia. Sudjojono had been instructed in both a Dutch teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s training (Lembang) and in the nationalist Taman Siswa training (Yogyakarta). Agus Djaya had also obtained a degree in teaching at the hik, (Hogere Inlandsche Kweekschool) in Lembang. Both of them were teaching at the Arjuna School, where Persagi gathered in one of the classrooms. The Arjuna school was a meeting point for nationalists, where many subjects were discussed by writers, painters, journalists and politicians. In the field of literature another important event had taken place five years earlier, in 1933, when Takdir Alisjahbana (1908-1994) founded the magazine Pujangga Baru (The New Poet). This magazine published articles, poetry and literature with a nationalist character. Plate 20 The language used was Bahasa Indonesia. In 1928, Bahasa Indonesia had been proclaimed as the national language during an Indonesian Youth Conference. In the Dutch Indies, Malayan was the common language used among government officers. The Malayan language was also used in local education institutions. The foundation of Pujangga Baru was meant to break the dominant social hierarchy of the Dutch and Malayan language. Between 1935 and 1939, Indonesian intellectuals discussed the problem of the future of the Indonesian culture in Pujangga Baru. These articles were later (1948) bundled in the Cultural Polemic (Polemik Kebudayaan). The Sumatran writers Alisjahbana and Sanusi Pane exchanged ideas with the Javanese Raden Sutomo and Ki Hadjar Dewantoro. The questions they posed themselves concerned the

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Members of Persagi

Indonesian cultural identity: How to combine east and west? Is the term modernization identical with westernization? Should Indonesia embrace western culture as an addition to western industrialization? How should the Indonesian identity take shape?10

The first exhibitions of Persagi The nationalist idealism of Pujangga Baru was also the binding element of the Persagi group. Not much documentation is left of the Persagi organization itself, but some photographs survived. In one of these photo’s members of Persagi are grouped around a painting with the text: Rapat Tahoenan Persagi (Yearly Meeting of Persagi). Under the text a caricature of ‘the artist’ is depicted: a grinning man with a beard, smoking a pipe. He holds a palette in his hand with the date 14 April 1940. Some brushes arise from his breast pocket. In the background a volcano and a palm tree can be discerned. The second from the left (standing) is Sudjojono, the fifth from the left (standing) is Agus Djaya. Most of the artists earned a living as illustrators in a publishing house or in the advertisement industry. Very few could live from their art works.Plate 21

CONTEMPORARY_p014_045.indd 31

The goal of Persagi was to practice together and to learn from each other. Until 1947, there was no art academy in Indonesia. The only way to become an artist was to take private lessons from another artist, or practice alone. The members of Persagi met in the Arjuna school. They did not only talk about art but also about politics, philosophy and religion. There were no dogmas regarding the style or content of the art works. In this nationalist climate, Sujojono wrote his pamphlet: Painting in Indonesia, Now and in the Future. (October 1939). After the group had worked together for a year, Sudjojono challenged the cultural stronghold of the Dutch elite; the Batavian Art Circle. He asked for a group exhibition in their building. This request was refused by Mrs. De Loos- Haaxman, the secretary of the Art Circle. The first exhibition of Persagi then took place in the bookshop Kolff, April 1940. The Dutch art critics were surprised to see paintings by Indonesian painters they had never heard of before. Mrs. De Loos-Haaxman visited the exhibition three times, and was finally convinced that the quality of the paintings was high enough for the prestigious Art Circle. The second exhibition of Persagi took place in the Batavian Art Circle from 7-30 May 1941. The exhibition contained sixty paintings from fourteen artists. Half of the exhibition, thirty paintings, were made by Agus Djaya. This was no coincidence. Agus Djaya had asked the Art Circle if he could have a solo exhibition, but this was refused. His wish was converted into another idea: a group exhibition of Persagi. The fact that finally Indonesian painters were allowed in the Art Circle was certainly connected to the high status of Raden Agus Djaya who belonged to the nobility. He had followed courses in drawing and courses in oriental philosophy given by the Theosophical World University. The paintings of Agus Djaya showed his interest in the old Hindu-Javanese culture. He painted women offering in the old temples of Middle Java, or religious, ritual dance scenes.Plate 22 In the circle of the Theosophical Society, Djaya met Yudhokusomo, a teacher at the

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Agus Djaya, State of Nirwana,

oil on canvas, 150 x 92 cm, Collection Sukarno

Arjuna school. Both Agus Djaya and Sudjojono were teaching at the Arjuna School. As colleagues, the two artists shared similar cultural and nationalist ideals.

Nationalism and Colonialism The history of Persagi is rooted in the controversy between nationalism and colonialism. The ideal of Persagi was to create art with an Indonesian Identity. This art had to be different from the romantic type of painting that was current in the Dutch Indies. When the first exhibitions of Persagi took place, even Sudjojono was critical about the result, because he could not yet see a typical Indonesian identity. Many of the paintings were still done in the same visual vocabulary that was current in Indonesia at that period of time. This is not so surprising, because the modern cultural climate in Indonesia mirrored western culture. Most nationalist leaders were educated at colonial Dutch schools, in the Dutch language (and also in English, French and German, which was the normal curriculum in a Dutch

CONTEMPORARY_p014_045.indd 32

High School). Some Indonesians who belonged to the elite of the nobility studied in the Netherlands, including several painters. Sudjojono himself had not been to Europe, but the cultural discussions that took place in the Arjuna School were based on a broad knowledge of western and eastern literature, art, religion and philosophy. In the field of modern painting, regular exhibitions took place, and a certain amount of art magazines were available in libraries. Although it is true that generally â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;nativeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; citizens were not allowed in the prestigious Art Circle, there were certainly exceptions to this rule. In the case of Sudjojono, his writings reveal his eager interest in both western and eastern art and culture. His call for an Indonesian Identity was a brave and highly original initiative. But the development of this concept needed time. The Future of Indonesian Painting was not yet clear at that moment. Most painters were self taught and their development was restricted by colonial rules. In 1942, two years after the first Persagi Exhibition in

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the Batavian Art Circle, colonial rule ended abruptly with the Japanese Invasion of Indonesia. The Japanese occupation created new possibilities for the Indonesian artists.

War, Independence and Revolution (1942-1950) Public life changed in many ways after the invasion of the Japanese in 1942. The cultural dominance of the Dutch colonial institutions disappeared. The Dutch inhabitants of Indonesia were interned in Japanese camps. Their role was taken over by the Japanese who wanted to incorporate Indonesia in a future ‘Great Asia’. The Japanese presented themselves as the friend of their Asian brother, and wanted to ‘liberate’ Indonesia of western influences. This agenda was welcomed by the Indonesian nationalists, who finally got a chance to organize themselves. In the cultural field, the Japanese expected the Indonesian artists to make propaganda work for the Great Asian War. This expectation was only partly fulfilled since the Indonesian artists had their own nationalist ideals. Compared to the colonial situation, the Indonesian artists could now develop their skills in a more professional way. The Japanese provided them with painting materials and studio’s to work in. The propaganda goal of the Japanese was mostly neglected by the Indonesian artists, who used the situation for their own future purpose: the Independence of Indonesia. Sukarno, who had been imprisoned by the Dutch in Sumatra, returned to Jakarta, where he was enthusiastically received by the Indonesian people. Shortly after the invasion of Indonesia, the Japanese wanted to make an exhibition to celebrate the victory of the Great Asian War. Before this exhibition could take place, the Indonesian nationalists organized an independent exhibition of their own in Jakarta (September 1942). Some of the works exhibited there had already been

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shown in the Batavian Art Circle. Three months later, in December 1942, the Japanese exhibition took place. Sudjojono wrote an article about this exhibition that has been published later in the brochure skls: Painting Exhibition of 8 December (Steleng-Gambar 8 Desember).11 The descriptions of the paintings reveal that the Indonesian painters did not make much propaganda for the Asian War. They continued to paint the subjects that interested them individually. Sudjojono talks mainly about the technique, and the necessity to find an individual style. Like before, Agus Djaya’s paintings mainly related to Buddhist and Hindu religion and mythology. Henk Ngantung depicted an archer. Much attention had been paid to the anatomy of the body. Affandi painted a dead cock, a subject that most people would not like. But for Affandi a dead fighting cock was a heroic subject. The paintings of Emiria Sunassa were charming in their naïve approach. A garden landscape of the still young Kartono Yudhokusomo showed his talent (Kartono was the son of the teacher Yudhokusomo who was Sudjojono’s foster father). The paintings of Basoeki Abdullah were reviewed in a more critical way. Sudjojono repeats his (lifelong) judgment of Basoeki that technical knowledge is not enough to become an artist. What Basoeki lacks is ‘jiwa’ (soul), and the soul ‘can only be developed by the influence of truth (kebenaran) and simplicity (kesederhanaan)’. One of the biggest problems for Sudjojono seemed to be the size of the exhibition space that was too small, and not fit for art exhibitions. He complained that that there was not a good exhibition space in Jakarta and hoped that one day a new building would be made.

Japanese Cultural Centers In March 1943, the Indonesian nationalist’s organization Putera (Pusat Tenaga Rakyat, Center of the Power of the People) was founded by Sukarno, Hatta, Dewantoro and Mansur. The cultural department was guided by Suwandi and Sudjojono. Parallel to the Japanese ideal to erase all western influence, Putera

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Contemporary Art in Indonesia

was against liberalism, individualism and capitalism. A month later, the Japanese founded their own cultural organization, the Keimin Bunka Shidosho (Cultural Center). The organization wanted to promote the conservation of traditional oriental art in Indonesia. Besides that, they stimulated the development of modern art. The Center had several art departments: literature, visual art, music and theater. The head of the visual art department was Agus Djaya, with Basuki Resobowo and Emiria Sunassa as assistents. Painting lessons were given by Basoeki Abdullah and Subanto Suriosubandrio. In March 1944, the nationalist center Putera was closed down and converted into the cultural foundation

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Java Hokokai (Javanese Devotion). The Japanese KBS was also closed and united with the new organization Java Hokokai. The painting lessons given by the Java Hokokai between 1943 and 1945 were very important for the development of many Indonesian artists. The older artists (Sudjojono, Agus Djaya, Basoeki Abdullah) taught the younger ones: Baharudin, Mochtar Apin, Zaini, Harijadi, Hendra Gunawan, Kusnadi, Trubus. The Japanese provided painting material, art studios and exhibition places. They did expect the Indonesian artists to make propaganda for the Great Asian War, but in reality this seldom happened. When the Japanese wanted them to paint the romusha (the forced laborers recruited by the Japanese) as heroes, Affandi (1907-

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Contemporary Art in Indonesia

Affandi, Blind Beggar and a Boy,

1944, watercolor on paper, 70 x 39 cm, Collection Sukarno

Affandi, He comes, waits and goes, 1944,

oil on canvas, 40 x 56 cm, Collection Museum Affandi, Yogyakarta

Affandi, Selfportrait, 1943, oil on board,

45 x 36 cm, Collection Museum Affandi, Yogyakarta

Affandi, In the Bedroom, 1944,

watercolor on paper, 56 x 78 cm, Collection Museum ohd

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1990) submitted a painting for the exhibition that was refused. Affandi had depicted an emaciated laborer instead of the Japanese ideal of a hero, working for the Japanese War. The exhibitions that were organized by the Japanese attracted many visitors. The subjects depicted followed the genres that had been developed before the war: portraits, city views, landscapes, oriental mythology. But the harsh reality of most Indonesian people was also an important subject. Several painters documented the poor and hungry in the streets They responded to the admonishment of Sudjojono to depict social reality. Affandi made impressive drawings and paintings of these subjects. 12 In the watercolor Blind Beggar and a Boy, a child guides his blind companion Plate23 . In another painting, He Comes, Waits and Goes, a meager man begs for food with his empty, protruded hand. The man is depicted three times. First with his

empty hand, then using his farmerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hat as a begging bowl, coming nearer. Finally he turns away, with an empty hand, the hat put back on his head. His attempt to get some food has clearly failed.Plate 24 During the Japanese occupation, the Indonesian painters could exercise their technical skills. The Japanese provided them with studios, painting materials and exhibition spaces. The painters used this opportunity to master the technique of portrait painting Plate 25 and model painting. Plate 26 In the texts of Sudjojono and other art critics, the importance of these technical skills were mentioned as an important basis for future artistic development. Many paintings of this period have a sketchy character. They evolved from the technical experience of drawings, watercolors and pastels.

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