Dutch envoys in Arabia
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Dutch envoys in Arabia
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F.C. van Leeuwen D. Oostdam S.A. Vink
1880-1950
Photographic impressions
Royal Tropical Institute The Netherlands
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Relations between the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Kingdom of the Netherlands are deep rooted and longstanding. The history of this very special relationship has been captured in photographs by Dutch officials, many of them taken by Daniel van der Meulen, our Consul in Jeddah in the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. The first publication of this book was in 1999, on the centenary of the establishment of Saudi Arabia. Other editions followed. As the interest in this unique photographic document continues to be very high – in particular among our Saudi friends – the decision was made to print a fourth, limited edition. I hope you will enjoy this special tribute to the bilateral ties between our two Kingdoms.
Dutch Ambassador to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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Colophon Dutch envoys in Arabia 1880-1950: Photographic impressions was published to coincide with the centenary celebrations of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1999. The fourth edition was financed by the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in Riyadh. We are also thankful to the following Netherlands based organisations for their permission to use photographs from their archives: the Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, Spaarnestad in Haarlem and the Royal Institute of Linguistics and Anthropology (historic documentation) in Leyden.
Royal Tropical Institute KIT Publishers PO Box 95001, 1090 HA Amsterdam The Netherlands Tel: (31) 20 5688 272 Fax: (31) 20 5688 286 Email: publishers@kit.nl Website: www.kitpublishers.nl
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© 1999 - Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam © Fourth edition 2011 – Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam Calligraphy: Mohamed Zakariya Editing: Abraham Mnatzaganian and Sarah Mnatzaganian M.A. Oxon Arabic translation: Dr Ahmed Balkis, Apptek, Mcleane, Virginia USA Graphic design: Ad van Helmond, Amsterdam Coordination: Thomas Milo, DECOtype, Amsterdam, www.decotype.com The Arabic body text is set in DecoType Naskh, designed by Thomas Milo and Mirjam Somers. Chapter headings are set set in DecoType Nastaliq, designed by Mirjam Somers. The Ambassador’s foreword as well as the subtitles are set in DecoType Ruqah, designed by Mirjam Somers. The English text is set in Trinité, drawn by Bram de Does and digitized by Peter Matthias Noordzij. Printing: Hightrade, Zwolle isbn 978 94 6022 161 3
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Table of contents
Introduction
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F.C. van Leeuwen
Collecting Arabia: Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje and his work
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D. Oostdam 7 In dialogue with Arabia: Daniel van der Meulen and his work
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S.A. Vink
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Bibliography
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Photographic impressions
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Introduction
During the first half of the twentieth century, the pilgrimage
This book starts with a description of the pilgrimage to Mecca in
of Muslims to Mecca lay at the heart of the relationship
the latter half of the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth
between the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Kingdom of
century, and reviews the role of the Netherlands Consulate –
the Netherlands. This may seem surprising, but in those days
later a legation – both in supervising Netherlands East Indian
more pilgrims travelled from the Dutch colonial empire to
pilgrims and also in developing diplomatic relations specifically
Mecca than from any other country.These pilgrims were Dutch
aimed at stimulating trade and other areas of co-operation
citizens from the Netherlands East Indies (now Indonesia), who
between the kingdoms. The foundation stone of the relationship
undertook the long and perilous voyage across the Indian Ocean
between the two countries was laid by Christiaan Snouck
to fulfil their religious duties. The authorities of Western Arabia
Hurgronje, who is the subject of the second contribution. The
welcomed these pilgrims because they were co-operative and
third article deals with the life and works of another well-known
spent significant amounts of money on their visits to the Holy
Dutch Arabist, Daniel van der Meulen, who lived in Jeddah as
Places. In those days, however, the pilgrimage to Mecca was
a diplomat for many years. Both these men were outstanding
difficult and sometimes dangerous, which, in 1872, motivated
amateur photographers and therefore the heart of this book
the Dutch to found a consulate in Jeddah in order to safeguard
contains over sixty photographs showing Arabia as Snouck
the well-being of the pilgrims. With the rise of King Ibn Sa‘ûd in
Hurgronje and Van der Meulen saw it in the late nineteenth
the 1920s effective measures were taken to protect pilgrims and
and early twentieth centuries. Most of these photographs
their situation improved significantly, but successive consuls
are preserved in the library of the Royal Tropical Institute in
continued to care for Netherlands pilgrims until after the Second
Amsterdam.
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World War, when Indonesia became independent and the mission was handed over to the Indonesians. The focus of the relationship between the two kingdoms then shifted to trade.
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The Dutch mission at Jeddah: from pilgrimage to trade F.C. va n L e e u w e n
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The hajj, one of the pillars of Islam, takes place on the ninth day
Adam first set foot on earth. Arriving at Adam’s Peak was a special
of the last month of the Islamic year and attracts thousands of
occasion. An Abyssinian member of the crew was dressed up as
Muslim pilgrims from all over the world. Before the twentieth
an old man, given a false beard and a stick and was followed by
century pilgrims faced a dangerous and exhausting journey,
the whole crew, dancing. The ship’s boy explained to ‘Abd Allâh
whether they travelled by land or sea. Pilgrims travelling on foot
that every time a pilgrim ship reached Adam’s Peak the tradition
from West Africa, for example, could take eight years or more
was to make merry and to ask for money to buy some food. To
to reach Mecca. Those travelling by land converged on Riyâdh,
conclude the ceremony, they read the first surah of the Qur’ân in
San’â, Baghdad, Beirut or Suez which were starting points of
honour of our father Adam, peace be upon him.
caravans to Mecca. Those who journeyed by sea docked in Jeddah
The second part of the trip was more eventful than the first.
and went on from there to the Holy Places.
A storm blew up, churning the waves until they were higher
Gradually the number of hajjî’s arriving by boat overtook those
than the top of the main mast and everything and everyone was
who came over land. In 1859, 16,800 pilgrims travelled in
drenched. After three frightful nights and days the storm abated
caravans and 14,335 by boat, but by 1903 only 7,000 of the total
and the ship cast anchor in a harbour south of Goa in India.
40,000 hajjî’s came in caravans. Although sailing to Jeddah was an
Six days later their journey continued north-westwards, where
increasingly popular option, pilgrims still faced many hardships
‘Abd Allâh found a passenger ship, the Ita Rahman, to take him
th
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at sea. An evocative description of a 19 century pilgrimage by
to Arabia. The ship had 150 male and female passengers from
sea can be found in the diary of ‘Abd Allâh bin Abd al-Qadir
Bangalore, all pilgrims on their way to Mecca. Because the Ita
Munshî, a pilgrim from the Netherlands East Indies. ‘Abd Allâh
Rahman was the last pilgrim ship to leave for Mecca, the price
left Singapore in 1854 on board the vessel Subla Salam, which
for the crossing was high. They sailed on to Calicut, and from
belonged to Sheikh ‘Abd al-Karîm. Pilgrim sheikhs such as
there reached the island of Socotra in fourteen days, after a quiet
‘Abd al-Karîm recruited pilgrims in the Indies and made all the
passage. Soon after passing Aden, they arrived at Bab al Mandab
arrangements for the voyage to Mecca.
and the entrance to the perilous Red Sea.
The first leg of the journey went smoothly. The Subla Salam
The passage through the Red Sea was notoriously dangerous.
arrived safely in Ceylon (Sri Lanka), where ‘Abd Allâh visited the
Skirting barren rocks and small islands and, hindered by rain and
site known as ‘Adam’s Peak’ which Muslims believe is where
northern winds, the Ita Rahman took three days to get through.
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Drinking water had become scarce, and it was discovered that
days later he arrived in Mecca and composed a poem praising
twenty passengers had smallpox ; three of them died during
the Lord. Sadly, soon after that he died, and so ends this story of
those terrible nights at the entrance to the Red Sea. When the
a knowledgeable Indonesian who was one of the few who wrote
weather calmed down, the sun scorched everyone on board, its
about the trip to Jeddah and Mecca and the dangers of travelling
ferocity matched by the heat radiating from the ship’s cargo of
there about a hundred and fifty years ago.
rice. Nevertheless, the Ita Rahman arrived safely in Mocha which was the home town of the captain and the bosun, so it stayed
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The establishment of a Netherlands consulate
there for two weeks. The owner of the ship, who was also on
As we have seen in Abdallah’s account, the health of pilgrims
board, was from Hodeida, north of Mocha, and that was the next
was often under threat from contagious diseases contracted on
harbour to be visited.
their journeys. From the end of the nineteenth century onwards,
Two pilots joined the crew in Hodeida to lead the ship on the
not only ship owners and captains, but also the governments of
last leg of its journey. A week later the Ita Rahman sailed towards
the colonies involved began to worry about the dangers of the
Jeddah, through treacherous waters with coral reefs just below
pilgrimage to the health of the travellers. The governments of
the surface of the sea. One pilot climbed up the after-mast and
countries with large contingents of pilgrims, such as the Straits
the other positioned himself on the stem. The first mate stood
Settlements, British India and the Netherlands East Indies, were
amidships while the helmsman and the captain at the back
especially anxious to prevent the spread of contagious diseases
kept in constant touch, informing each other about the sharp
not only within their colonies but also throughout Europe. It
reefs they spotted. The rest of the crew and the passengers were
was to take 75 years of negotiation between the Sublime Porte,
forbidden to speak so as not to disturb the communication
the Sharif of Mecca and his successor King Ibn Sa‘ûd on one side
between pilots and officers.
and the colonial powers on the other, before agreement was
The next day, upon arrival on the road stead of Jeddah, small
reached and a convention was signed in 1926.
boats arrived to collect passengers and goods destined for Jeddah
However, the problems faced by pilgrims were not only of
and took them to the landing stage. There, the pilgrims’ luggage
a sanitary nature and so, towards the end of the nineteenth
was examined by the Ottoman authorities and tax officials in a
century, the governments of the countries they came from
way which would make a modern traveller’s hair stand on end. If
became increasingly involved in other aspects of the pilgrimage.
the lock of a box or chest was not opened quickly, it was smashed
Official relations between the Netherlands and Arabia began
with a stick, and ink pots were emptied on new paper. Tax had to
in 1872 with the establishment of a consulate in Jeddah. The
be paid even on used clothes.
consulate was the official responsibility of the legation in
Once these formalities were over, the pilgrims finally had the
Constantinople, but the consul remained fairly independent
chance to explore their surroundings. On Friday (as was the
from Constantinople. The Dutch consul’s main concern was
tradition in those times) ‘Abd Allâh visited the tomb of Eve, wife
to protect pilgrims from danger, sickness and extortion, which
of the prophet Adam. Then he was shown around Jeddah. A few
the sultan in Constantinople and his governor were unable to
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do. The consul issued regulations forcing pilgrims to have their
If the pilgrim sheikhs had been loyal and honest the situation
passports to Mecca initialled and to obtain visas in Jeddah. While
for the hajjî’s would have been tolerable. These sheikhs knew the
they completed their pilgrimage, the consulate kept pilgrims’
Indonesians and their archipelago very well. Most of them spoke
return voyage tickets to prevent their loss or theft. Another
Malay and knew which parts of the country were rich and where
important function of the consul was to issue civil deeds and
potential pilgrims could be found. The pilgrims depended upon
especially death certificates.
the sheikhs who knew the local situation in the Holy Land and
The consul would always send a representative to the quarantine
the tombs of the holy people, were their interpreters and – most
islands off Jeddah as soon as Dutch nationals arrived there. When
importantly – their mutawwif, guides to the believers in the Haram.
pilgrim ships reached the harbour, he would inspect every vessel
But the pilgrim sheikhs were often corrupt and collaborated
in person, checking to see that regulations were met. During the
with the sambûq owners, officials and bedouins. They would fail
high season this meant working from seven in the morning till
to return the property of deceased pilgrims and would sell their
five in the evening, a tiresome and suffocating task in Jeddah.
return tickets, until this practice was rendered impossible by the
During the years of Ottoman sovereignty the consul provided
Netherlands consulate’s regulations which required pilgrims to
money-changing facilities for pilgrims to change guilders to
leave the tickets at the consulate during their pilgrimage. As a
piasters for the payment of import and quarantine duties, as the
result of these practices, the authorities in the Netherlands East
Ottoman officials charged exorbitant rates. He also had to deal
Indies, at the request of the consul in Arabia, tried to counter the
with the authorities directly and seek their assistance when the
activities of the most corrupt pilgrim sheikhs by prohibiting the
owners of the sambûqs – open boats which transported pilgrims
recruitment of pilgrims in the colony.
from the liners to the quarantine islands or to the quay of Jeddah
The pilgrimage and the well-being of the pilgrims were the
– maltreated them. These owners sometimes let their boats run
basis of the relationship between the Dutch government and the
aground and waited for the pilgrims to get sunstroke on the open
government of the Holy Land, which, for its part, was keen to
boats, so that they would be glad to pay extra to get to the quay.
attract as large a number of pilgrims as possible each year. The
This kind of extortion was more the rule than the exception.
economy of the Holy Land depended almost entirely heavily on
Pilgrims faced excessive and unforeseen costs in many other
the income it obtained from the visiting pilgrims, as it had prac-
places on their pilgrimage and the consul was responsible for
tically no exports. At first, the Dutch government in Batavia (now
protecting Dutch subjects in all such circumstances. It happened,
Jakarta) was concerned that these large amounts of money were
for example, that the bedouins in the area between Mecca and
leaving their territory and being spent by pilgrims in the Holy
Medina had not received payments that guaranteed right of way
Land. But these concerns were outweighed by the importance of
for the pilgrims, and forced the pilgrims to pay. It was the task of
maintaining a stable situation in the colony and the realisation
the consul to reclaim this money from the Ottoman authorities.
that whatever measures a Christian government took would be
Only after the rise of King Ibn Sa‘ûd did the kidnapping, hijack
unlikely to have a significant effect on participation in the hajj.
ing and extortion of pilgrims by bedouins come to a halt.
As a result, the Dutch government chose not to intervene either
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in religious affairs or in the pilgrimage and even actively
Salif in Yemen. With the fall of the Ottoman empire in 1919,
facilitated them.
the British took over this quarantine island, which deprived Husain, King of the Hijâz and Sharîf of Mecca, of a rich source
On board
of income. To make up for the loss, the pilgrims were from then
When rumours of captains dumping pilgrims on barren shores
on quarantined on three other small islands off Jeddah : Abû
of the Indian Ocean proved to be fact, not fiction, the consulate
Sa’d, Wasta and ‘Abû ‘Alî. They stayed in quarantine for three to
issued its first regulations on transport. From the 1920s onwards,
four days, for which they had to pay a fee and other duties. It was
the pilgrims from the Netherlands East Indies travelled in
mostly British and Dutch subjects who fell victim to this policy.
special pilgrims’ liners. The most important transportation
During the 1920s and 1930s the ineffectiveness of the quarantine
companies were three Dutch firms : the Rotterdamsche Lloyd,
on isolated islands became apparent and ultimately this
the Maatschappij Nederland and the Maatschappij Oceaan,
method was abandoned. The costs of maintenance were very
which were known collectively as the Kongsi-Tiga. Pilgrim liners
high, the water supply was unsatisfactory, sanitary and medical
had to carry enough food for the trip and the quarantine period.
control were problematic and the debarkation, embarkation
This food was provided for free during the pilgrims’ journey to
and accommodation were troublesome for the pilgrims.
and from Jeddah, but its quality and diversity varied according
The shipping companies were also very unhappy with the
to class. Government regulations stipulated the items and
regulations. One case of small-pox, for example, could detain
facilities that must be taken on board. To give an example, the
a ship for a week or more.
following goods were to be bought in bulk (the daily amount in
Most pilgrims were in normal health, at least upon their arrival.
grams per economy class pilgrim are shown in brackets): dried
It was usually on their return from Mecca, however, that pilgrims
fish (100), one salted egg; dried vegetables (2), kacang hijau (small
felt the strain of the journey, the climate and inadequate diet
green beans) (50), rice (500), soya (0.07 litres), dried pepper (10),
and a number of them faced a stay in the hospital and a certain
dried onions (30), fresh coconut oil (0.01 litres), vinegar (0.01
death. Because to die and to be buried in the Holy City is more
litres), salt (10), roasted coffee (15), tea (4), palm sugar (4), sugar
meritorious than anywhere else, if at all possible, pilgrims would
(30) and five litres of drinking water. The pilgrims cooked their
try not to stay in Jeddah and certainly not in the hospital which
meals themselves, but were only allowed to make cooking fires in
had a very bad reputation.
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temporary galleys, which they could use from sunrise till sunset.
From Jeddah to Mecca Quarantine
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Jeddah was the place where pilgrims first set foot in the Holy
Pilgrims coming from the south were obliged to stay at the
Land. Here they were assembled to visit the Netherlands
Kamaran quarantine station for a few days in order to ensure that
consulate and have their passports stamped, although the
no fatal diseases entered the country. Kamaran is a small island
pilgrims themselves wanted to travel to Mecca as soon as
of about forty square kilometres in the Red Sea, a few miles off
possible. The pilgrim sheikhs also wanted them to leave Jeddah,
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since new liners were lying off-shore and new groups of pilgrims
pilgrims: they tried to arrive in Jeddah before Ramadân, three
were about to disembark. Up until the 1930s those who could
and a half months before the hajj starts. All of them visited
afford it usually left Jeddah on dromedaries, travelling in
Medina, which was profitable for the population there as well as
specially constructed seats with one person on either side of the
for the bedouins who earned money transporting them. In Mecca
animal. Those who did not have that kind of money walked the
it was said that the Jâwî were the rice and dates of the Meccans,
last seventy kilometres to the Holy City, the goal of their journey.
because those who resided there permanently spent about fifty
In Mecca, the Jeddah-based consul was represented by a Javanese
guilders each month (cf. a coolie earned about fifteen, a skilled
vice-consul, because non-Muslims were not allowed in the
worker thirty guilders per month). Almost everything they
Holy City. The vice-consul had his own house, but there was
bought was imported to the Hijâz, mainly from British India,
no official vice-consulate building. It was his task to assist the
Egypt and the Sudan, and paid for partly with British, Indian and
ten thousand Jâwî, pilgrims from the East Indies who stayed in
Egyptian money brought in by pilgrims from those countries,
Mecca either for short or long periods. From 1920 onwards the
but largely with Dutch guilders. The rate of exchange fluctuated
vice-consul was assisted by an Indonesian medical doctor. He not
greatly each year depending on the number of pilgrims from
only helped the pilgrims but was also responsible for obtaining
the East Indies. In the 1920s it varied between 12.50 and 17.50
information on the sanitary situation so as to be able to take the
guilders per pound sterling.
necessary measures for the prevention of diseases. The Jâwî played an important role in the religious life of Mecca.
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The return trip
For them, the pilgrim season seldom lasted less than six months
The return of the pilgrims from Mecca to the ships in Jeddah
because they preferred to be in the vicinity of Allah and the
was often a turbulent affair. Though the authorities tried to
Prophet (pbuh) as long as they could. Financial assistance from
regularise group departure, even in 1928 the first caravans
friends and believers in the Indies made it possible for Dutch
returning from Mecca after the hajj brought more than 5,000
students and scholars to establish homes in Mecca. They flocked
pilgrims to Jeddah in one morning. These people wanted to leave
together to meet and debate with religious teachers, to learn how
the country, with its harsh climate and high risks, as soon as they
to recite the Qur’ân and to study the rituals and the ceremonies.
could. On days like that, the streets of Jeddah would be full of
Others looked for a sheikh in order to be instructed in mysticism
sleeping pilgrims.
and eventually to become a member of his religious order, his
The day before the voyage home started, the pilgrims would
tarîqa. Believers from Java, Sumbawa and Sumatra became famous
gather on the quay. Their bulky luggage (beds, kitchen utensils,
scholars in their own right, who taught inquiring Indonesians
clothes etc.) was loaded first. The pilgrims themselves spent
the essentials of Islam. In this way, these scholars in Mecca paved
the last night on the quay or in the sambûq. Very early the next
the way for a better knowledge of Islam in Indonesia.
morning, favourable offshore winds would carry them to the
The Jâwî made a significant contribution to the economy of
waiting liners a few miles away. Usually, the departure went
the Hijâz, western Arabia. They stayed longer than most other
smoothly and quietly, for the pilgrims were happy to return
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home after months of travel and hardship. The return trip to the
The British, French and Italians in Arabia at the time tended
East Indies was a happy occasion, only to be interrupted by a spell
towards imperial and colonial policies. Not so the Dutch; and it
on the quarantine islands Onrust or Kuiper (from 1911 onwards).
was they who, in 1926, were given permission to open a bank in
These small islands near Batavia were the last stop before the
Jeddah, a branch office of the Nederlandsche Handels Maatschappij,
hajjî’s finally came home.
the nhm. This was also beneficial to Dutch pilgrims, because up
In the eighteenth century the hajjî’s pilgrimage earned him an
until then money from the Netherlands East Indies could only
important position in society, and his opinion counted heavily
be changed in Turkish piasters at money traders’, which meant
in social and religious matters. But from the 1920s onwards the
that the pilgrims lost heavily in the exchange, depending on
huge numbers of hajjî’s from the Netherlands East Indies (64,135
supply and demand. The office started on a small scale, but in
in the 1926-1927 season, for example) reduced the status of those
spite of competition from a British company, the profits from
who had dared to undertake the journey. So many believers from
money exchanges (especially in pounds sterling, American dollars
all ranks and classes travelled to Mecca to live or study there that
and Indian rupees), bills of exchange, insurance and commission
the hajjî was not an exception anymore.
made the branch profitable. With its arrival, exchange rates soon were stabilised.
New relations under King Ibn Sa‘ûd
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Over the years the role of the bank became more prominent. It
In 1902 ‘Abd al-‘Azîz ibn ‘Abd ar-Rahmân bin Faisal Âl Sa‘ûd
acted as an advisor to the King on the country’s financial policy
had become Emir of Nejd and in 1921 Sultan of Nejd and its
and it served as the central bank for the Saudi Kingdom for
dependencies. In 1926 he became King after conquering the
some years. From 1945 to 1952 the nhm acted as financial agent
Hijâz, the area where Mecca, Medina and Jeddah are located.
for the Saudi government in its relations with other financial
During subsequent years his power was consolidated and in
institutions and from 1933 up until 1950 the nhm performed
response to this new situation, the Saudi authorities decided to
banking functions for the oil companies later together known as
raise the status of all diplomatic representatives in the kingdom.
Aramco.
Therefore, in 1930, the Netherlands consulate became a legation.
Relations with Aramco started in 1933 when the Dutch Arabist
After King Ibn Sa‘ûd’s rise to power it became quiet in the desert
Snouck Hurgronje verified the Arabian text of the oil concession
and pilgrims were no longer badly treated. The King knew
to the Standard Oil of California (main founder of Aramco),
well that pilgrims from the Netherlands East Indies were an
which spelt out the operational terms of the oil company.
important financial asset for his kingdom – in some years, even
Passing Eastern Arabia on their way to the East Indies, Royal
more than half of the total number of pilgrims came from the
Dutch Airlines (klm) transported the equipment and personnel
Dutch colony – and this remained the focus of the relations
of the American oil companies to the Saudi oil wells. Huge
between the two countries. However, contact between them
consignments of material required for the company’s rapid
gradually extended into the fields of finance, economics and
expansion were transported by Dutch vessels from the American
medicine.
West Coast to Dammam and Ra’s Tannura. These close contacts
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led to the establishment of Aramco’s office at The Hague in
After Indonesia gained full independence in 1949, the nature of
later years.
the relations between the two Kingdoms changed. The legation
As the health condition not only of pilgrims but also of the
and its role of caring for pilgrims were handed over to the
local population needed more attention, the King asked the
Indonesians. In 1972 The Netherlands reopened their diplomatic
Dutch government to assist in updating facilities and finding a
mission in Jeddah, by that stage an Embassy, and from then on
bacteriologist and a laboratory where vaccines could be produced
Dutch official attention to Saudi Arabia was focused on more
and bacteriological and serological research could be carried out.
mundane interests, prompted by the rising importance of what
In September of 1927, Dr. Van der Hoog started work in one of
had become a major economic and political power on the Arab
the rooms in the hospital in Jeddah. He began by producing
peninsula. And so now the ‘Rouz al Hijâz’ (rice of the Hijâz), as the
a vaccine against smallpox and later also developed cholera
pilgrims from Indonesia used to be called, can be remembered as
and typhoid vaccines and remedies against dysentery. In the
the root of the relationship between the two Kingdoms.
early 1930s, Dr. Van der Hoog wrote a memorandum on the health situation and the need for medical doctors at the request of the government of the Kingdom of the Hijâz, Nejd and 16
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dependencies, as Saudi Arabia was officially referred to until 1932.
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Photographic impressions
List of photographs
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p. 33 Photographer: Fotobureau Gazendam, Arnhem. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 00029099. p. 34 Photographer: unknown. Collection Spaarnestad, Haarlem. P.35 Photographer: unknown. Royal Institute of Linguistics and Anthropology, Leyden, 8077. p. 36 Photographer: unknown. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. p. 37 Photographer: unknown. Van der Plas Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, (53):29J:395 N 4. p. 38 Photographer: probably Snouck Hurgronje. Bilder Atlas zu Mekka XIV. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. p. 39 Photographer: ‘Abd al-Ghaffar. Bilder aus Mekka XIII. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. p. 40-41 Photographer: ‘Abd al-Ghaffar. Bilder aus Mekka X, XI. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. p. 42-43 Photographer: ‘Abd al-Ghaffar. Bilder aus Mekka II, III, IV, V. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. p. 44 Photographer: ‘Abd al-Ghaffar. Bilder Atlas zu Mekka IV. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. p. 45 Photographer: ‘Abd al-Ghaffar. Bilder aus Mekka VI. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. p. 46 Photographer: ‘Abd al-Ghaffar. Bilder aus Mekka I. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. p. 47 Photographer: ‘Abd al-Ghaffar. Bilder Atlas zu Mekka XI. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. p. 48 Photographer: Daniel van der Meulen. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, I 16.
p. 49 Photographer: Daniel van der Meulen. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, V 99. p. 50 Photographer: Daniel van der Meulen. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, V 28. p. 51 Photographer: Daniel van der Meulen. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, V 29. p. 52 Photographer: unknown. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, album goldmine/28c neg. 7. p. 53 Photographer: unknown. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, album goldmine/29c neg. 18. p. 54 Photographer: unknown. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 297:291.37 N 17. p. 55 Photographer: unknown. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 0002 9103. p. 56 Photographer: Snouck Hurgronje. Bilder Atlas zu Mekka XXX. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. p. 57 Photographer: Snouck Hurgronje. Bilder Atlas zu Mekka XXXVI. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. p. 58 Photographer: unknown. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 0002 9089. p. 59 Photographer: Daniel van der Meulen. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. (53):725 N 2. p. 60 Photographer: Daniel van der Meulen. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, V 68. p. 61 Photographer: unknown, probably Prof. E.P. Snijders. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, (53)728 N 1. p. 62 Photographer: Daniel van der Meulen. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, I 63.
p. 63 Photographer: Daniel van der Meulen. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 172. p. 64 Photographer: Daniel van der Meulen. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, V 90. p. 65 Photographer: Daniel van der Meulen. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, Jeddah 3/18. p. 66 Photographer: Dr. Descoeudres. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, album goldmine/8c. p. 67 Photographer: Dr. Carl Rathjens. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, album 1402/40a, 0002 9097. p. 68 Photographer: Dr. Carl Rathjens. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, album 1402/40b. p. 69 Photographer: Dr. Carl Rathjens. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, album 1402/41 b, 00029096. p. 70 Photographer: Dr. Carl Rathjens. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 0001 0379. p. 71 Photographer: Dr. Carl Rathjens. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, album 1402/41C, 0002 9091. p. 72 Photographer: Dr. Carl Rathjens. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, album 1402/41a, 0002 9092. p. 73 Photographer: unknown, probably Charles Olke van der Plas. Van der Plas Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, (53) 725.96N 1. p. 74 Photographer: Daniel van der Meulen. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, I 65. p. 75 Photographer: probably Daniel van der Meulen. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, album 1400/3, 00010377. p. 76 Photographer: Dr. Descoeudres. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 0002 9094.
p. 77 Photographer: Daniel van der Meulen. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, I 84. p. 78 Photographer: Dr. Descoeudres. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 0002 9098 . p. 79 Photographer: Dr. Descoeudres. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 0002 9095. p. 80 Photographer: Dr. Carl Rathjens. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 0002 9093. p. 81 Photographer: Snouck Hurgronje. Bilder Atlas zu Mekka XXIV. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. p. 82 Photographer: unknown. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 197:291.37 N 41. p. 83 Photographer: Lonkhuyzen. Lonkhuyzen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, album 105/10a, 0001 1390. p. 84 Photographer: unknown. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 297:291.37 N 21. p. 85 Photographer: unknown. Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 297:291.37 N 59 . p. 86 Photographer: Daniel van der Meulen. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, V 86 . p. 87 Photographer: Daniel van der Meulen. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 0002 9090. p. 88 Photographer: unknown. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, album 1400/26,0002 9101. p. 89 Photographer: unknown. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, album 1400/27,0002 9102. p. 90 Photographer: unknown. Van der Meulen Collection Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, album 1400/13, 0002 9100
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33 ٩٢
أ أ � � � � �ك���ة �و�ص� ��ل ا ��ل�� �م�ي�ر ف�ي���ص� �إ ��ل�ى ��م �ك���ة ا ��ل ��ح��د�ي��د ��ف� �م� يد�� ن���ة � ب���ل��د �ور ن� �و�ه�و ��ف� ��ط �ر��ق��ه �ل ز ���ي�ا ر�ة ال�م��ل ��ح ���ط��ة ا �ل��س � و ل ي ي ي ت � �ف أ � � ن ت�ا خ تش ن � �أ � أ��ك�ت ف ق ن �ة ن�ا � له��ل�مـ�� ��� ��� �ه� �ل�و �� � ب��ل�د �ور� ب��� ري . �1926 �� � � �و�بر ��س/ ���� � ا �ل� �و�ل14 � �ي�و� � ي ي صر ي م ر�ي �ـ
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The arrival of Prince Faysal at the railway station in Apeldoorn on his way to visit Queen Wilhelmina at the Palace Het Loo in Apeldoorn on 14 October 1926.
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�أ � خ � �ف � ت � س�ا ة ض � س�ا ن � � ن ن ب�ا نة ف ت ن ���س�م�و ا �ل�� �م�ي�ر ��س�ع�ود �ع��ل� �و � �� � �و �هي،��ي��لر��ل ح�� �عر��� ا � �ل�فر�� � ا �ل�ه�و�ل��د �ي��ي� �� � �ل�قرب� �م� �م� يد����� د �ي��� ن���ر ى �ي �� ة � � ة ا ��ل ج��� �ذ �و ا �� �لق�ب��ع��ة ا ��ل�ع�ا ��ل���ة �ه� ا ��ل��س��د ��ف�ا ن� د ر ��ف�ا �ي��� �م�مث��� ا ��ل. �1935 ��ير ن � 12 �ب���ت�ا �ير خ ح ز� ا .��ح��ك�و�م�� ا ل�ه�و�ل ن��د �ي ي و ي فر ل م ر ل � �� ��ق�ا ئ �� �� س�ا ��س � �أ � � � ظ ��ا � �ة �� ئ ��ف�ا ن � ن � ه �ف ز ته ا ��� � �ة ل � ا � ا � � � � � ا ا م � م � ل � � �س ده � �د � ل . �� و ه�و ��د ح ي، ��هر ر ��د � � ل� �ي� �ب�� ع��س�كر � �ي،� �إو ل�ى ي�� ر م�و �ل� م�ي ر ع�ود ي
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Prince Sa‘ûd on the Wechelerveld, the parade ground of the Dutch cavalry near Deventer on 12 June 1935. The man in the high hat is Mr. Van de Vijver, who was there on behalf of the Dutch government. On Prince Sa’ud’s left, in uniform, is Major Van de Mandele, garrison commander.
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Prince Sa‘ûd in front of the old University Library in Leyden on 13 June 1935. From left to right: two guards; Prof. Wensinck; Prof. Snouck ;Hurgronje; Prince Sa‘ûd; Fuad Bey Hamzah, Minister of Foreign Affairs Dr. Midhat, a Syrian doctor; Dr. Pijper.
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�أ أ �ا �ت ة ��ل ة � ة ف � ف ظ� ز ن نة م���ب��� ا � �ج�ا �م�ع�� ا � �لق��دي��م�� ��ي� �لي��د ن� ب���ت�ا �ير خ� � 13 ح� ا ��س�م�و ا �ل�� �م�ي�ر ��س�ع�ود � �م � � ك �هر ��ي� �ير � ��س��� �1935م�� .ي �� � م � أ � � �ف ن ة ن � س�ا � �� ن ح�ا ��س�ا ن�؛ ا ��ل�� ��س�ت�ا�ذ ا ��ل�� � ��ف����س� � �� ن�� ن �س�وك ��س���ك؛ ا �لب��ر �و�ي����س�ور � � ا �ل�ص�ور� �م� ا �لي���� ر �إ �ل�ى ا �يل�م��ي� � :ر ب رو ي ور وي � �أ ف�ؤ � � ز ة ز � ش �ؤ ن ���خ�ا ة � � ك�ت �ت � �� ن ��� �و� ا ل � ر ج� �ي���؛ ا �ل�د � �� �ور �م�د ط�ي�� ب� �خر�و��ي��ه؛ ��س�م�و ا �ل� �م�ي�ر ��س�ع�ود؛ ��� ا د �ب�ك ح�م�� � ،و��ير ا �ل � ح� �� ،ب هر � � ���ك�ت � � ��س�ور ي�؛ ا �ل�د �ور ب��ي�ب� ر.
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;At the lunch table on 16 October 1926. 1 Mayor Patijn of the Hague; 2 Mgr. W.H. Nolens ;3 Dr. J.C. Koningsberger; 4 Prince Faysal; 5 Esq. Van Karnebeek, Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs 6 Mr. Damlûjî, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Hijaz; 7 Mr Th. Heemskerk, LL.M; 8 Mr Van der Meulen, Dutch Consul in Jeddah; 9 Dr. G.A. Scheltus, LL.M; 10 Dr. L. Karsten, LL.M; 11 Mr. Fadl, Secretary to the ;Prince; 12 Mr J. Schokking, LL.M; 13 Prof. Dr. C. Snouck Hurgronje; 14 Esq. Dr. J.C.E.C. Rendorp, LL.M ;15 Mr. J.C.A. Everwijn, LL.M, President of the NHM; 16 Esq. A.M. Snouck Hurgronje, LL.M 17 Mr. Th. van Voorthuysen; 18 Mr. Th. Koster; 19 R.H. Baron De Vos Van Steenwijk, LL.M.
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تش ن � �أ � أ �ك�ت � نة �ع��ل� �م�ا �ئ��د�ة ا �لغ���د ا ء ��ي �و� � ���� 16ا �ل� �و�ل� � / � �و�بر � �س��� . �1926 ى � �أ فم م ر�ي � �ك�ت � ن ن ة�ا �ن � ن � ن �غ
� �خ�ا � ة � � ز �� ن �� 1ب�ا �ت�� ن و��ير ا ��ل ي� �ع�م�د� �ل��ه�ا �ي�؛ 2ال�م�و���س��ي� ��ور �و �ه � �و�ل���� ؛ 3ا �ل��د �� �ور �ي� ��س ك���و��ن�� ��سب��ر��غر؛ 4ا �ل� �م��ير �ي���ص�ل؛ 5ال ب�م ج� ���ل ��ف�ا ن� � كر��ب��ي���ك� ، �ي��� ا ل�ه�و� نل��د �ي�؛ � رج س ي ة ف �� � � � � � � � � ن ا ��ل��ق ز ز ن ن ق � �ق ل � ت ا ن ش �ف�ا �ا �خ�ا � ت ن �ؤ � � � ل��س��د د�م��ل�و� ل ح � � ل��س��د � ه�ي�م��س��ك��يرك� ،م �ج���س���ير � �ي��� �� � �ج�ي�� ،و��ير ا � � ل��س��د � � د ر �م�يو���ل���� ،ص�ل ا �ل�ه�و�ل��د ي� ح� �و��؛ 8ا � ي �ج�ا�؛ 7ا � ي 6ا� ي ل��� �و� ا ر ج ي ة � ��ك�ت خ أ � ت � �أ � ���ك�ت �ف � � � ق ق ت ت �ق �ق ض خ � ن � �ا �ا �ا �� ت ت � ��ف� �ج��د� ؛ ا �ل��د � � ر � � �س � ح� �و��؛ 10ا �ل�د � �ور �ل ك� ر��س���� ،م �ج���س���ير � �ي���ل���� � ،م �ج���س���ير � ل��س��د �����ل�� ،س�� � ل��س��د �ي� كر��ير ا �ل� �م��ير؛ 12ا � ي ح� �و��؛ 11ا � ي س ي و� � ك�ت ك�ت � � � �ف � ق ق �ق � � ن ن � � ��� ا �ل��د � � �� ك ك �� ن��د � �� ،م�ا �ج� ت ��نك�غ� �ا ت ح�ق � ��؛ 13ا �ل��ر�و�����س� ر ا �ل��د � � ر ك ��س�� ك � � �و����ه؛ 14ال ب�م �� خ�س � � �و� � � � � � � ا ل��س��د ح 15 ؛ � ��س� � �� � ير ور ر ر �إ ج ب و و ي و ب ي و �� ،م �ج���س���ير و ي ل و هر�خر ي ي � أ أ � � ت ن � �ق ق �ج�ا ة � ش �� ن � �ق �ق ئ ��س� ك � � � ن����ه� ،م�ا �ج� ت ��س���ير ��ف� ا ��ل ن �ا � ت � �ف ��ل � ة � � ن ة �ل��لت� ال�م� � ل��س��د � ��ف�ا � ح� �و��؛ 17ا � ي �ي� ك � �إ ي���فر� او �ي �� ،م �ج ��س��ير �ي� ا ح� �و� �ور��ي����س ا �ل���رك��� ا �ل�ه�و�ل��د�ي�� � ر� ؛ 16ب ج���ل � �م �و هر�خرو ي ي � ف �ت ز ن � ��ق ق ت �� ��س��ت ؛ � 19ه ��ب�ا � ن� د �� ف��� �� ��ف�ا ن� ��س��ت�ن�� ���ك� ،م�ا �ج� ت ��س���ير ��ف� ا ��ل ح �و��. ل��س��د � ك��و ر ر رو ي و س ���ور� �ه�و�ي��؛ 18ا � ي ي ي وي
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37 ٨٨
أ � � �ج�ا � �ب�ا ��ل � ه�ا ا ��ل �ج�ا ر�ة ��ف � ث���ن�ا ء ا ��ل � ح �� �� . �١٩٥٠ � �ه� او �ل�ي� ا �ل�ع�ا، ح � ح � � ��ير�ج �م ي م م �ج �ج
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� �أ � ة � ث ا ث ا �� ت نة ن � � او د �ي� ا �ل� ع�م�د� ا �ل��ل� � ل��ي:�م� يد����� �م��ى
Minâ;the valley of the three pillars at which the pilgrims throw stones during the hajj, circa 1950.
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ب�ا � �أ�� � � �ك�ت � � غ ف�ا � ��ذ �تق � ��ث ن � � �و�ه�و �� �ل�ت� ك�ي��د ا �ل�د. �1888 �ص�ّور ق�ب���ل،�� ��ط�ي�� ب� � ك � �ور �عب��د ا �ل���� ر ا �ل� �ي� ا �ل��� ��ط ا � ك �م ل����ي�ر �م� ا �ل�ص�ور �� ب ي م � ن ��س�وك �هر .�خر� نو��ي��ه � � �ب���ن�ا ء �ع��ل�ى ��ط��ل ب
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A Meccan physician, photographed before 1888. This is almost certainly ‘Abd al-Ghaffâr who took so many photographs at the request of Snouck Hurgronje.
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39 ٨٦
أ � � ن ن ���� �ع ��ف�ا ت� ��ف � ث���ن�ا ء ا ��ل �ك��ا � ش����ا �ه�د �م ن ا ��ل � � ،�ج�ن�و ب �� ��م� ���ظرا �ل��س��ه�ل �ع��د ج� ب ل ر ي � �م ي،ح �ج � أ �ذ ق نة � � �خ��� ت� ا �ل�ص�ور�ة �ب���ل .�م1889 ����س
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View of the plain at the ‘Arafât mountain during the Hajj, seen from the south, photographed before 1889.
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� �ن � � �ش � ة ن �تق �ن �ف �� � � �ق ق ش .�ب���ل ا � �ل �و���س �ورب��م�ا ك���ا � ال�م�ص�ور �ي�� �� ع�ل�ى ج، ا �ل ��� ��ط �م ن� ا �ل����م�ا �ل،�م����ه�د ��ب�ا � �ورا �م�ي� �ل� او د �ي� �م� يد�� ن��� �م��ى ي أ � �ذ ق نة �خ ���د ا ��ل �و ��ف� ا ��ل�و��س ���ط ت��م�ا �م�ا �م���ج�س � � �خ��� ت� ا �ل�ص�ور�ة �ب���ل،��ي��ف .�م1889 ����س ي
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Panoramic view of the Minâ valley, taken from the north, the photographer probably standing on Jabal al-Quways. Right of centre is the al-Khayf mosque. Photographed before 1889.
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41 ٨٤
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