04 Technological Modernities

[“GATEWAY TO GREEN”, FREDERIC C. ROBIE HOUSE, SHANE STONE]

[CRAFTSMANSHIP OF THE HAMPSTEAD GARDEN SUBURB, NICHOLAS MORAES]

Revolution was roaring, the house was designed in order to reintroduce and reconnect with nature and the environment. (Shane Stone CC BY) adapted from Adapted by John Hill, Section, Houzz, December 22, 2021, https://www.houzz.com/magazine/section-stsetivwvs~14613063?share=clipboard Around the early 1900’s, a new movement had taken the industrial era by storm. New ideas from Craftsman magazine had turned America into a new Arts and Craft period of design. A big early contender to the movement was Architect Frank Lloyd Wright, who used these attributes in his early work. Later, Wright disassociated with the movement, turning away from the “Arts and Crafts Machine” and setting sail on prairie house designs. His greatest breakthrough at the time was his work on the Frederick C. Robie House. This prairie home set itself in Chicago, IL, a bustling city in the heart of industrialization. With such a project, he took a more original approach. His response was a new set of joists, screens and ceilings to connect the house together and with the outside environment. “... using concealed steel joists to sustain their cantilever. Long banks of ‘light screens' rather than ordinary sash windows connected the interior and exterior. Inside, the major social spaces flowed together, rotating asymmetrically around the massive hearth. The grooved patterns in the wooden ceilings, built-in furniture and leaded windows were completely integrated with the plan of the house…”1 The Robie House took a new take in the attempt to reintroduce natural aspects in the height of an industrial society via it’s layout and structure. Art Nouveau was featured in architecture as well as decorative arts and included distinct forms and designs that were organic and influenced primarily by nature. Many works and structures were shaped to look like leaves and birds, for example. Many works of art were often found among city buildings, the art done in earthy materials such as terracotta or clay (Przybyłek, 1). Some other decorative elements would include mosaics, such as stained glass, as well as wrought iron. There were a lot of uses in curves and asymmetrical shapes in this art style. Some prominent examples would include the Museum of Applied Arts and the Lindenbaum House located in Budapest, Hungary. (Jan Lerddeekunlam)

The Downfall of Art Nouveau Architecture

Unfortunately, Art Nouveau was shut down and fallen out of favor by the time World War I began in 1914; it was then replaced by Modernism and Art Deco shortly after. There are many reasons behind this. One reason is due to the fact that it focused too much on craft and framework. “It’s success had to be short - lived because, as with Gaudi, its view of technology lay too much in the framework of craft - poor underpaid artisans quenching, bending and hammering iron into fabulous ornament that ended up in the palaces of the middle class in Brussels and Paris” (The Victorian Web). Another reason for the conclusion of Art Nouveau is because of the appearance “New Art” made; it made a evitable change and eventually took over Art Nouveau and made it unpopular. In addition, there were many customers with different needs that are not in similarity with the arts and decorations in Art Nouveau. (Eskilson, 2007). Even though there are many reasons for the end of this type of Architecture style, one of the main causes was costs. It was quite expensive due to the techniques and materials used to manufacture it all. In conclusion, even though Art Nouveau was not around for very long, it did have quite an impact on Architecture past and present - day. (Rachel Carfagno)

Into the arts and crafts movement.

With industrialization roaring and houses being mass-produced throughout the new world, Philip Webb decided to take a step back, designing a house more accustomed to everyday living, implemented into the nature that surrounds it. He brought his ideas into fruition when he designed the Red House, which exemplified the arts and crafts style. The furniture was handcrafted by William Morris, who chose solely natural materials and illustrated the importance of a comfortable, personalized interior design in the making of his own long-term home. It was crucial for clients to contribute their own ideas to the design process, as the definition of “home” is unique to each individual’s vision, not determined by one universal system. In conclusion, Although the arts and crafts movement quickly lost some of its momentum going into the 20th century, its successes highlighted the significance of visual arts, creativity, and individuality even as industrialization increased in popularity and became more widespread.

The Arts and Crafts movement vs. Modern Architecture Santiago Diaz, Alex Markarian, Oliver Burdick Individuality and Uniqueness Santiago Diaz

The arts and crafts movement initiated after many concerns about the social impact the Industrial Revolution was brought into many cities around the world. Many architects and designers were quite worried about the change and possible damage all the big companies and manufacturers were created for their careers. These large companies were starting to corrupt design and architecture to become a more generic field rather than creative. “This began with the work of William Morris, an architect-designer who saw the separation between the designer and the manufacturer as a dehumanization of production. In his work he tried to create a united design in all areas of décor, emphasizing nature and simple form” 1. During this movement, handcrafted pieces were more connected to natural and organic forms rather than a manufactured piece that would be created in a larger number. This movement gave designers the freedom to be themselves and design for an individual client rather than big companies that wanted to have many industrial pieces. However, the rise of technology and creation of machinery put an end to this movement. In the present, many items like carpets, cabinets and clocks are being generated in large magnitudes. Originality and spirit of design has been becoming a matter of a more affordable way to live rather than the virtuous sense of uniqueness.

The 19th century brought about the era of industrialization. Products were being mass-produced and buildings were being mass-constructed. This was great for the economy, but meant that the consumer was now becoming less and less connected to the products that they were consuming (whether this be food, tools, or a place to live). William Morris, an architectural designer in London, was particularly annoyed by this. He felt that being surrounded by industrialization deprived people of creativity and inspiration. He believed that the interpersonal connections between the things around us was important for everyday function. He also believed that the home is where we needed these connections the most, so Morris partnered with architect Philip Webb to design his house by his own means. He had a say in the entire design process, he handcrafted all of the furniture, and made sure to only use naturally occurring materials. His house was inspired by the Gothic era, which he saw “as a time of perfection in the craft and building trades, as well as a period of great faith and belief in human dignity”¹. Finally, he laid his house out in such a way that the garden would have maximum visibility and connect the inside and outside world. During a time when industrialization was new and sometimes confusing, the Red House was able to regress to a more primitive and comfortable time. It ultimately played a large part in kicking off a new era of arts and crafts which shared these values.

Originality in the Industrial Age, Bexleyheath, London. Red House, Philip Webb, I860 (Luc Thorington CC BY) Adapted from Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A CrossCultural Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 743., Harkness, Kristen M. “William Morris and Philip Webb, Red House (Article).” Khan Academy. Khan Academy. Accessed February 24, 2022. https:// www.khanacademy. org/humanities/ becoming-modern/ victorian-art-architecture/ pre-raphaelites/a/williammorris-and-philip-we bbred-house.

‘ARTS AND CRAFTS’ - EMBODIED IN SCOTLAND The Hill House in Helensburgh Scotland was designed by Charlie Mackintosh and his wife Margaret and is a prime example of the Arts and Crafts movement. Designed in the early 1900s, this house has a unique story to itself unlike many others of its kind. Mackintosh aimed to design the house for Walter Blackie. While Mackintosh used an ‘artsy’ approach in the process, including the unorthodox plan as well as the window placement. He aimed to make it a “Dwelling House”2. He also spent time learning about his client and the way they used their living spaces, really trying to understand how to better design the house. Mackintosh spent time with details, and this is seen in the design. In a way, Mackintosh accomplished something even architects today struggle with - balancing artistic creativity with practicality and though it has its own problems, the Hill House now belongs to the National Trust for Scotland and is an icon for many more years to come.

Frontal facade view of the Hill House, Helensburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom (Jonathan Yiu CC BY) adapted from Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A CrossCultural Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 747.

Comparing Freeform and Systematic Architecture Oliver Burdick

During the 19th century, architecture saw great advances in efficiency and yield as industrialization began to spread rapidly throughout Europe and the western world. Progressively, this led to the popularization of modernism, a less artistic, more systematic style that allowed businesses to maximize profits while also saving time: “...manufacture has step by step taken the place of the art of building, and all the minor processes of construction have shifted from the job itself to the factory”2(Mumford 2016). Unfortunately, modernism was so system-focused that it led to unappealing residential blocks, often utilizing a simple grid pattern to layout lines of neighboring houses, which from a distance appear as the same structure, copied, and pasted to its own right and left façades (Figure 1).

(Figure 1) Cheap, mass produced, shoulder-to shoulder housing grids with minimal exterior space. Image captured from Lewis Mumford, ”Mass Production and the Modern House” 2016 Understandably so, seasoned architects questioned the credibility of the new modernist style, stating that it subtracted from the creativity and artistry that it previously took to be a designer. This pull-back from industrialization inspired a focus on the hand arts and structural individuality, eventually leading

“Casa Milà.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, January 22, 2022. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casa_Mil%C3%A0.

FREEFORM [THE STONE QUARRY (CASA MILA), COLE WATSON] Casa Milà has a freestanding stone facade. The facade is connected to the internal structure of each floor by a curved iron beam that surrounds the perimeter of each floor. This building system allows light to enter the house by allowing large openings in the facade to allow for the freedom to configure different levels to add and remove interior walls without compromising the stability of the building. The facade consists of a large block of limestone from the Garraf massif on the ground floor and the Villefranche quarry above. The blocks were cut to follow the model's projection chart, then lifted into place and adjusted to align with the surrounding pieces in a continuous curve. From the outside, the building consists of three parts. The body of a six-story block with a serpentine stone floor, two layers forming the back of the block with different wavy curves with a softer texture and white color, and embrasures, and finally a small hole that looks like the body of the roof. The roof has 6 skylights/stairs on the roof, 28 chimneys in several groups, 2 semi-concealed vents designed to refresh the building's air, and 4 front-facing domes. There is also a water tank on the stairs. Some of them are snail-shaped.

The Geometric Expression of a Roof. Elevation of Frank Lloyd Wright’s Home and Studio, Illinois, 1889 by Frank Lloyd Wright (Milo Oliva CC BY). “Adapted from” Wright, Frank Lloyd. Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio. Images, n.d. https:// jstor.org/stable/ community.16520318.

SYSTEMATIC [FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT HOME & STUDIO, MILO OLIVA] Frank Lloyd Wright’s home and studio expresses geometric shapes with its steep gabled roof, minimal eaves, and gridded windows.¹ The combination of these elements produces a simple volume with a distinctive appearance that is repeated in several of his home designs. The eaves of the roof are closed and come to a sharp point, which helps preserve the triangular expression of the gable. The windows on the gable end also have a geometric appearance due to the repeated rectangular frames, and diagonally gridded muntins. The use of wood shingles also adds to the expression of geometry due to its repeated pattern that creates a surface texture. Since both the roof and walls are clad with shingles, it creates the sense of a single volume rather than reading as two separate elements.

Machinery vs Hand Work

During the modern age, most architecture relies more on machines than before, they make the structures of our cities livable. Machines help to install the essentials to each building such as water, electricity, heating, cooling, fire safety, and elevators. Without machines repairs and maintenance would become impossible. It would be hard to sustain life within the building. Modern buildings would not be able to function without modern technology. However, the use of machines does affect the overall structure and design of new modern buildings. In today's age newly constructed buildings rely heavily on machinery due to the increase in size. Therefore, they all look remarkably familiar in an industrial way. Because buildings are becoming larger and more advanced (figure 1) and so the main material used to construct such behemoth buildings requires steel, reinforced concrete, and glass. These materials require machines to combine these together.

(Figure 1) Shows a mass construction project using modern machines to construct large scale buildings. Main materials: reinforced concrete and glass.

However, the use of arts and crafts creates more uniqueness to the building. Craft is the understanding of the process of making artifacts, objects, cities, and a story. In architecture arts and crafts used these processes into the components of light, surface, volume, place, and tools. Arts and crafts with skilled craftsmen can truly Enhance the identity and character of the building. Material that can be used can be wood, steel, stone, and glass. In some cases arts and craft can be integrated into large scale buildings that are constructed by machine but only in. For example, a school in the rural village of Rudrapur Bangladesh was created only by hand. Designed by Anna Heringer the school Construction was built from the locals made of local resources and knowledge: “The building reinforces the school’s mission by expressing the potential of the local materials as well as the local population, and the architect hopes the techniques will be reproduced to further improve the quality of life in the region while preserving its traditions.”3

[POSTAL SAVINGS BANK, ALEX RITHIPHONG] HOW MINIMAL MATERIALS BRING MODERN FORM The simple use of materials gives a modern appearance to most buildings. In this example of Wagner’s work, the Postal Savings Bank is one of his larger projects where he uses a specific palette of materials to achieve a modern look. It is also worth noting how simple the design of the building is. “The lines of load and support, the panel-like treatment of surfaces, the greatest simplicity, and an energetic emphasis on construction and material” (Ingersoll 789). Otto implemented the use of panels for the walls to maximize efficiency and avoid the need to paint any walls. Other materials such as glass, wood, concrete, metal, and stone are used throughout the entire building to achieve a modern and functional design. However, these materials were selected due to their durability, economy, and functionality.3 Even looking at this example of Wagner’s building, we still see a similar composition of materials in buildings in the 21st century. Buildings during the 20th century still followed somewhat of a symmetrical design whereas the 21st century is pushing for more asymmetrical buildings, sparking the idea of contemporary design. The same materials Wagner used in his projects will still likely be seen in the future decades from now.

Interior Perspective of Postal Savings Bank atrium. Perspective of the Postal Savings Bank, Vienna, 1906 by Otto Wagner (Alex Rithiphong CC BY). Dr. Elizabeth M. Merrill, "Otto Wagner, Postal Savings Bank," in Smarthistory, November 28, 2015, accessed February 24, 2022, https:// smarthistory.org/ottowagner-postal-savingsbank/.

[THE LARKIN COMPANY ADMINISTRATION BUILDING, CAMILLE POLLAK] The Larkin Administration building was the beginning of a major office-space breakthrough. Frank Lloyd Wright created an egalitarian concept where workers were meant to feel they could better communicate, trust each other, and share culture. The point of the space was to foster a non-oppressive work environment.4 By manipulating aspects of the space such as light, order, and the overall program, this centralized and balanced design benefitted from high quality air flow and an abundance of light. The central set of desks were surrounded by other seating arrangements, overseeing what would have been a secretary space. Wright used the corner towers to house utilities as well as the main extent of circulation, maximizing the use of the central spaces. By moving all services to the corner towers, Wright was able to provide more emphasis on the individual work spaces, separating each department while keeping everyone together. The layout led the company to be incredibly successful, as well as carry out a new way of business. The forward thinking of both architect and client helped benefit everyone. The manufacturing of their own products combined with the connection to the consumer put this company at the forefront of a new type of retail.

Plan view of The Larkin Admin Building, Buffalo, New York (Camille Pollak CC BY) adapted from Gou, Zhonghua. (2016). Workplace Design Revolution: Inside-Out Urbanism.

Garden Cities (w/ Charlie Clarke and Camilla Maruca)

As the nineteenth century industrial revolution era came to an end, designers and engineers began to realize the effects of their compacted urban designs. Cities we’re overcrowded and polluted from the surge of newly built industrial structures. This new idea of “Garden Cities” came upon these designers as a way to fix the overcrowded industrialized cities. The idea was to bring back the scale of medieval designs to break up the city's compacted layout. Raymond Unwin and Ebenezer Howard were two architects that sparked the garden city movement. Ebenezer developed the “social cities” theory and plan that proposed self sustaining circles of urban communities. Unwin continued the developments of this plan with a Baroque style urban plan but had different results than Howard originally intended. When it came to the actual approach that architects and designers wanted to take, going about these Garden cities was to break the norm of a rigid scale of buildings and structures throughout city scapes. To break this norm was in an effort to develop gardenscapes which broke up cities. We started to see an effort for these urban garden cities at the end of the 19th century in which just when the industrial revolution was nearing its conclusion cities were becoming overcrowded and due to overgrowth which lead to a congested feeling in the civilians of these cities and times. To go back to Sir Ebenizer Howard and his ideal push for Garden cities. Howard actually had steps in which he would begin the process of developing a Garden City “(1) the purchase of a large area of agricultural land within a ring fence; (2) the planning of a compact town surrounded by a wide rural belt; (3) the accommodation of residents, industry, and agriculture within the town; (4) the limitation of the extent of the town and prevention of encroachment upon the rural belt; and (5) the natural rise in land values to be used for the town’s own general welfare”. Howard also looked at it from a political point of view stating that these gardens cities have to be governed “By their own site” in relation to a mayor or such> These garden cities were an effort to make an easier life for people wanted to move out of rampant and congested cities to a more suburban scaled style of living. Though there was a clear approach to how Garden Cities were meant to be designed, in practice things weren’t quite as they would seem. The first city built to the Garden City method was Letchworth, which adhered to the arts and crafts movement as well. The land in the city actually proved to be denser than the name would suggest, however there was still plenty of space for gardens and other green spaces. Commons and parks were frequently set aside, as the construction began for specific houses and residences, such as the architect’s own home, the Glade House. While Letchworth was close by London, and was advertised as a true Garden City, it didn’t attract quite as much attention as it should have, only gaining a population of about 5,000. The next attempt at a Garden City, the Hampstead Garden Suburb, deviated further from the initial proposal, and would ultimately be a failure. While the movement for more specific Garden Cities would falter from there, the ideals and suggestions that came from the movement would live on in the future. Garden cities were an attempt to de- industrialize the polluted and over populated cities but were mostly unsuccessful in these attempts due to the contradictions in scales of the urban plans. However, lt leaves designers with an interesting thought to contemplate on considering the problem and solution of the movement and whether or not this has ever, or will ever be solved.

Conclusion: The Importance of Craft in an Industrial Age

The Industrial Revolution was a time of great change and growth for society as a whole, yet not all of that change was beneficial. The implementation of factoryproduced materials and new technologies allowed people to appreciate and amend previous classical styles which provided more opportunities for individual expression. The Beaux-Arts style and Arts and Crafts movement was a response to the conflicts arising in industrial building, such as the exploitation of the workingclass and the machine-run design. Due to this, socialist philosophies became popular and corresponded to the metropolis form being redesigned by Ebenezer Howard, which he called Garden City. Buildings such as the Red House by William Morris and Philip Webb and the Robie House by Fredrick C. Robie are prime examples of craft driving design rather than necessity. These structures inspired other architects to use design to call for a synthesis of the arts and social reform. This movement produced “Craftsmen” style designers, such as Frank Lloyd Wright, who influenced many more original designers at the turn of the century. An even more radical form of the Arts and Crafts movement was the Art Nouveau movement- a new style which opposed the academic approaches of previous craft styles. It spawned global variations, such as the Japanese forms, which heavily affected the arts. Defined by novel ornamentation and natural, organic shapes, Art Nouveau was a popular style in fashion and a stark contrast to the earlier Industrial Revolution.

07 Interwar Modernisms

Introduction [ Nicholas Moraes ]

During the early twentieth century, the International style changed the way people thought about architecture. Henry Russell Hitchback and Phillp Johnson were the influences of the modern movement in 1932. The style is characterized by “volume over mass”- the use of lightweight, mass-produced, industrial materials, and repetitive modular forms. The increased supply of building materials due to industrialization made housing more affordable. As a result, the U.S. incorporated materials like concrete, steel, and glass in residential architecture after the war, which contributed to the spread of the style.

The Construction & Materiality of International Style Homes [ Milo Oliva, Camille Pollak, Rajan Raut ]

Buildings constructed in the International Style were often stripped of unnecessary ornament. Some other common characteristics among these buildings were flat roofs, exposed structural elements, free plans, and curtain walls. Architects used these principles to design houses like the Glass House, the E-1027 House, and the Eames House. Other notable International Style homes are the Lovell Beach House and Villa Tugendhat, shown below.

AEG TURBINE BUILDING, CHARLIE CLARKE

Immense access to light through steel framing, Interior perspective of the AEG Turbine Factory, Berlin, Germany 1909 by Peter Behrens (Adam Bourque CC BY) adapted from Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture“Peter Behrens, Turbine Factory (Article).” Khan Academy. Khan Academy. AccessedMarch3,2022. https://www.khanacademy. org/humanities/art-1010/ architecture-design/ international-style/a/peterbehrens-turbine-factory. LOVELL BEACH HOUSE, DEAN KURPICKI

VILLA TUGENDHAT, CESAR DASILVA

“Less I more” McCarthy, D. (2004). Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s Villa Tugendhat. Arch Web. Retrieved March 3, 2022, from https://nam04.safelinks. protection.outlook. com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archweb.com%2F%2Farchitetture%2Fopera%2FVilla-Tuge ndhat%2F&data=04%7C01%7Cdasilv ac5%40wit.

Reinterpreting Corbusier[ Milo Oliva ]

The E-1027 House is an example of a home constructed in the International Style. It was designed by Eileen Gray and finished in 1929. She used several of Le Corbusier’s principles, which helped contribute to its industrial and pure appearance, common with many International Style buildings. These include elements such as concrete pilotis, a flat roof, white color, and horizontal glazing.⊃3; The concrete pilotis elevate the house from the ground and support the structural loads. Since the roof is

flat, it allows for an additional outdoor space that is accessible from a staircase. Despite the structural capabilities of the concrete and steel that were used, the house does not have a free plan or strip windows like Le Corbusier’s designs. Instead, the spaces are layered which creates a higher amount of privacy. Most of the glazing in the house is sliding glass doors and windows, which provide a sensitive relationship to the site and allow for ventilation.

FARNSWORTH HOUSE, SANTIAGO DIAZ

The Perfect Asymmetry of The International Style. Front perspective view, plan and elevation of the Farnsworth House, Plano, Illinois 1946-1951 by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (Santiago Diaz CC BY) adapted from Grigas, Victor. “Farnsworth House.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, January 7, 2022. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farnsworth_ House#/media/File:Farnsworth_House_by_Mies_Van_Der_ Rohe_-_exterior-8.jpg. FARNSWORTH HOUSE, OLIVIA KIERSTEAD

Identifying elements of the Farnsworth House that work to connect the structure with nature and the International style. Exploded Axon view of the Farnsworth House, 1951, by architect Mies van der Rohe. Adapted from Thienhee. “Project 2- Farnsworth House.” E, July 12, 2015. https:// thienhee.wordpress.com/2015/07/11/project-2-farnsworthhouse/.

The E-1027 House, Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, France. Designed by Eileen Gray. Photo by Manuel Bougot The Eames House designed by Charles and Ray Eames is another example of an International Style home built after WWII. They utilized a steel frame to mount prefabricated units divided up by panels. These panels were made of materials ranging from glass, wood, and aluminum, which allowed for a modular configuration. The house was originally part of a case study for technology and materials to rebuild and construct after WWII. The steel frame of the house was filled with transparent panels that created a shifting light throughout the interior. This aspect of the house emphasizes the contrast between the hard, steel frame and the soft, welcoming interior that the light creates. The materiality of the house contributes to an interesting dialogue between the natural. Secluded environment, and the mass-produced materials that the house is made of.

EAMES HOUSE, ALEX MARKARIAN

An isometric showing more detail of the Eames house. The skeletal structure, roof, and the front facade. Each part of the house has modern and international styles. Structures: https://eamesfoundation.org/house/ eames-house/ structures/, Eames foundation | Welcome. March 5 2021. SEAGRAM BUILDING, JAN LERDDEEKUNLAM

Perspective view of 1958 Seagram Building in New York City, by architects Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Philip Johnson, drawing adapted from Laurent Ruamp https:// www.britannica.com/topic/Sea- gram-Building,, accessed 2 March 2022

Living in a Glass Box [ Rajan Raut ]

A third example of a notable International Style home is The Glass House, designed by Philip Johnson and constructed in 1949. He used several of the style’s principles such as an exposed steel structure, a flat roof, minimal ornamentation, and curtain walls. The use of glass for all exterior walls allows the house to fit right into the landscape. The only opaque structure in the house is the cylindrical brick fireplace. The interior also follows the idea of a free plan where there are no walls, but the pieces of furniture divide the space into separate zones. The construction and materiality of the house contribute to its unique and modern appearance, which is why it is so highly recognized.

The Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut. Designed by Philip Johnson. Photo by Michael Biondo

Overall, the International Style inspired architects to make use of the materials made readily available by the industrial revolution. Although the use of steel, concrete, and glass was previously unconventional for residential architecture, the materials contribute to a simple, minimal, and functional building to live in. Even though the Glass House, the E-1027 house, and the Eames house were all the same style of architecture, why are they so different from one another? Perhaps it is a result of their different locations, personal influence, and intentions from the architects.

Bauhaus - Textiles[ Luc Thorington ]

The early 20th century was a very transformative time for women. The women’s rights movement was making progress and would eventually lead to the passage of the 19th amendment in 1920, giving women the right to vote. Around this same time, in 1919, Walter Gropius created the Bauhaus school and “called for an environment that treated art and design— as well as men and women—with the same level of respect. “Every eligible person whose talent and training are considered adequate will be accepted without regard to age and sex””7 This claim, however, was far from being supported once the school opened its doors. Among the many art forms that were taught at the Bauhaus, women were confined only to an education in tactile making. Gropius, as well as many of his male colleagues, felt that women weren’t fit to work in what they thought to be more physical and intellectual areas of design like painting, woodworking, and architecture. Gropius even said that he considered the male and female brain entirely different, in the sense that men could think in three dimensions while women could not. Nevertheless, by the end of the Bauhaus’ short lifespan (1919 - 1933), the women working on textiles had become the most successful of the sectors at the school and changed the way people thought about art.

Anni Albers, Ancient Writing, 1936. Image courtesy of Vogue Magazine. 1

Names like Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinski, and Marcel Breuer are usually associated with the movement, but often neglected are the names of women who made such a great impact on the Bauhaus. Maybe the most well known of the textile women was Anni Albers. Albers grew up studying painting and hoped to pursue it at the Bauhaus, but was pushed towards weaving, and quickly mastered it. She was able to use abstraction and geometric shapes similar to Bauhaus paintings, but create them through weaving. She was also well known for creating a curtain that could both absorb light and reflect sound. In 1931, she was given the first female leadership role at the school, and later held the first textile exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art. Another famous textile artist was Marianne Brandt, who was known not for her textile work but for her metal working. Like the other women, Brandt began at the Bauhaus with weaving, but showed such creativity and skill that she was allowed in the metal workshop. She would eventually go on to become the workshop’s director, as well as design lighting fixtures for the school’s buildings. Her work is some of the most influential of the movement, and some of the metal objects that she created can be found at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Marianne Brandt, Théière et passe-thé, ca. 1924, Les Arts Décoratifs2

Conclusion [ Cris Vasquez ]

The International Style le d to one of the biggest changes to the art and architecture world. Qualities in design such as flat surfaces and repetitive modular forms influenced by Henry Russel and Phillip Johnson created affordable homes for the people. Simple geometry and straight lines were popular decisions after the war. At this time in history, architecture design was doing more by doing less. Using materials such as glass and steel to amplify volume over mass.

ALLEN PARKWAY VILLAGE, OLIVER BURDICK

WEISSENHOFSIEDLUNG, RACHEL CARFAGNO

Axonometric View of Weissenhofsiedlung located in Stuttgart, Germany 1927 by Walter Gropius. Accessed 03/01/22 and adapted from 07 High Modernists.History 2.22, https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1BZQQPWvwhJBX1eHHHLA-XKR2jafCq3kWifM5FJJjeQ/edit#slide=id.p79.

08 Totalitarianism

How Nazi architects expressed power through buildings [Alex Markarian]

Neoclassical architecture took over during the 18th and 19th centuries. Neoclassical is characterized by grandeur of scale, and simple geometric forms with columns that are heavily influenced by the Greeks and Romans. During the Neoclassicalism movement, WWII broke out and began to switch the tides of the architecture characteristics through fascism of Nazi Germany. Germany became a fascist regime and started to establish new buildings that symbolized their ideology, which is dictatorship. The power of fascism was expressed through architecture by creating large scale buildings in a neoclassical style. However, the Germans customized the Neoclassical style by adding more modern features such as Geometry, symmetry, and simple farms such as squares and rectangles. Another customization the Nazis developed was adding symbolic features such as large banners, statues, and large symbols. “A stripped Neo-Classicism, - Government and State buildings were to be in a simplified, even rudimentary NeoClassical style; social housing, hostels, etc.” All these customizations through Neoclassical by the Nazis truly represent power.

The Nuremberg rally grounds was a large government campus only meant for the highest-powered people such as Hitler. Massive propaganda exercises where Hitler and other leaders addressed the faithful from the iconic grand stand designed by the Führer’s favorite architect, Albert Speer. https://www.theguardian.com/books/gallery/2016/jun/02/nazi architecturethen-and-now-in-pictures The Zeppelinfeld in Nuremberg was a building designed by Albert Speer. The monumental structure designed with Nazi Architecture was constructed in 1933. With 11 square kilometers, this structure was designed for their Monumental Nazi Parties, The Cathedral of Light was a main feature of the Nazi Party rallies. With 130 anti-aircraft searchlights, with the length of 12 meters aiming to the sky, it creates a unique lighting. The large scale of space was used for a military parade or a political speech to express their actions. Speer described the effect: “The feeling was of a vast room, with the beams serving as mighty pillars of infinitely light outer walls.” When the war began, the lights were used for highlighting enemy airplanes so that the flak could easily shoot them down at night. Creating this structure for the purpose of showing power is unique. With having the Nazi Architecture with similar neo-classical column walls and a very large structure to show scale can express the power that they had and how it was used for multiple things.

Perspective view of The Zeppelinfeld , Nuremberg ,1933 by Albert Speer (Nicholas Moraes CC BY)