05 Housing and the Metropolis

Axonometric Drawing of a Half Cape House, Cape Cod, (Milo Oliva CC BY). “Adapted from” Williams, Eric. “A Simple and Direct Plan: Celebrating and Highlighting the Cape-Style House.” Cape Cod Times. Cape Cod Times, Axonometric Drawing of Heimatstil Housing, Germany, (Milo Oliva CC BY). “Adapted from” Schürmann, Wilhelm. Deutsche Boerse Photography Foundation. Accessed March 16, 2022. https://www.deutscheboersephotographyfoundation.org/de/sammeln/kuenstler/ wilhelm-schuermann.php.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF SUBURBAN CAPE COD AND GERMAN HOMES The Nazi Era model of Heimatstil housing shares a close resemblence to the traditional homes of suburban Cape Cod. They appear very similar with their small simple form, minimal ornamentation, steep gabled roof, and small eaves. Despite these similarities, they are constructed very differently. Most American homes are constructed with wood framing, and are cladded in wood shingles. This is because wood is an economical and readily available building material. In Germany heavier materials are more commonly used such as concrete, brick, tile, and stucco. The Heimatstil housing settlements shared a common concept from suburban America of a single family home with a large grass lawn, which was repeated over and over, resulting in streets with nearly identical homes. It was not really a Nazi invention, but rather a reinterpretation.¹

Comparing Fascist Architecture in Italy and Germany [Jan Lerddeekunlam]

Fascist architecture began in Germany when Adolf Hitler was elected Chancellor in 1933. Because they were both dictatorships and absolutist regimes, architecture became a tool of political propaganda, and it was used to demonstrate power and promote Fascist ideologies. The new buildings were vast to demonstrate the strength of the ruling party, since they could serve to concentrate on large crowds or key institutions. Civic structures were a major motif in Fascist design. The designs were famous for their resemblances to ancient Rome, with the goal of instilling historical pride and a sense of nationalism in the public. They were also affected by the early twentieth century's development of Modern Architecture, which was known for its simplicity. An example of Fascist architecture in Italy would be the Como Casa Del Fascio. This building was designed to host Fascist Party rallies. It was designed by Giuseppe Terragni and has a strong International Style architectural influence. The building is straightforward, with little adornment and a volumetric front. The exterior was made of concrete and glass, while the interior was made entirely of marble.

The Casa Malaparte was conceived around 1937 by the well-known Italian architect Adalberto Libera for Curzio Malaparte. Curzio was a respected journalist and diplomat with critical views about the regime. In 1933, he was exiled to Scillian island for criticism against Hitler and Mussolini. This is the island where the Casa Malaparte stands. The modern building is made up of 3 levels. The main focus is on the views from the windows showing the landscape of Punta Massullo. Another important feature is the inverted pyramidal staircase that starts at the and makes its way to the rooftop terrace. It's made up of bricks, cement, and stone. The house is an individual's expression of the resistance both to the regime and the structure of society.

Casa Malaparte, Cristofer Vasquez CC BY. “Richard Ingersoll World Architecture a Cross Cultural History : Richard Ingersol : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming.” Internet Archive. Accessed March 17, 2022.

Architecture as a Tool to Express Soviet Totalitarian Power [Oliver Burdick]

Communist leaders used architecture as a tool to communicate the totalitarian power that the government held. The Soviet Union relied on one central source of power, which held dominance over the general population. When Lenin was the leader, his goal was to translate his political ideologies and propaganda through physical form, cementing his reign in the long term. One style that was used to do so was monumental architecture, the most direct form to signify the power of an individual. Although his plans fell through in the end, Lenin imagined himself in the sky, larger than life, and permanently implemented in the country he saw as his own:

Axon a metric drawing of casa malaparte,(Rodrigo Moreno CC BY)“Adapted from“Morphology,” Casa Malaparte, accessed March 17, 2022, http://red2malaparte.blogspot.com/p/morphology.html.

Elevation drawing of casa malaparte,(Rodrigo Moreno CC BY)“Adapted from“Morphology,” Casa Malaparte, accessed March 17, 2022, http://red2malaparte.blogspot.com/p/morphology.html.

LA CASA DE LA SOLEDAD Malaparte enlisted the help of Adalberto Libera to design his Capri residence. He was later dismissed when Malaparte was unsatisfied with his ideas and decided to complete the building himself.

Malaparte imagined the perfect atmosphere in which he would spend the rest of his life following his release during his years of solitary confinement. The goal of constructing a residence in complete isolation was to create the ideal writing atmosphere by recreating the seclusion of a jail cell. Casa Malaparte was the only structure erected atop Punto Massullo at the time of its construction. It was isolated on a clifftop, surrounded on three sides by the sea and a long way from civilization. Casa Malaparte gave him the privacy he needed to focus on his work.

Symbolism of Casa Malaparte, Punto Massullo, Capri, Italy. Casa Malaparte, Alaberto Libera, 1937 (Luc Thorington CC BY) Adapted from Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 837, “Casa Malaparte in Capri / Adalberto Libera.” ArchEyes, December 8, 2021. https://archeyes.com/ casa-malaparte-in-capriadalberto-libera/.

CASA MALAPARTE After writer Curzio Malaparte was exiled from Italy for his opinion on Hitler and Mussolini, he decided to build a house on the edge of a small island where he had been allowed to live. Within the history of the house's creation are many examples of how the house came to be incredibly symbolic. Malaparte was banished for standing for an idea, so it’s fitting for the house to represent such ideas as well. First, the location is distinctly symbolic, placed right at the edge of the island of Capri. This makes the house appear like a landmark, standing off against Italy and reminding the country of why the house stands where it does. It’s also very remote, only able to be approached through treacherous journeys from the land and sea. This represents Malaparte taking advantage of his new solitude. The color he chose to use gives the house contrast over the gray cliffside, again making it stand out over the island. The house was also made only using materials found on the island. This represents Malaparte taking claim of his new home and standing out in defiance. Finally, The large massing and smaller, sparsely placed windows make the house appear “starkly prismatic inside and out”¹, reminding onlookers of the man who lives inside.

Power Plant, commonly referred to as Chernobyl was a large quad-reactor power plant constructed to generate massive amounts of power to nearby cities and throughout the USSR- occupied Ukraine. (Shane Stone CC BY) adapted from Adapted by Sergeev Kirill, Live Science, June 03, 2019, www.livescience. com/65618- are-chernobylstyle-reactors- stilloperating-safe.html

The architectural form that Lenin sought after emphasized his interpretation of communism, which tends to stem away from the foundation of ideologies that Communism is built on. Pedestrians live on the ground, working, socializing, and trying to make the most of themselves, while his body towers over them in totalitarian dominance, represented at a superhuman level that they can never attain. In addition, nuclear power was another source of Russian dominance, and as a result, the architecture containing it was designed accordingly. The Vladimir Lenin Nuclear Power Plant was designed to mirror the intimidating nature of the Soviet government. Standing both tall and wide, Chernobyl’s rigid, simple form sits menacingly on the West side of the country, scaring away any unwanted visitors, and giving a preview of the physical expression of political propaganda seen throughout the country (4). With the second World War coming to a halt, unfortunately, another political war appears right behind, gaining the name “The Cold War.” A war with the United States and the Soviet Union as its front-runners. Political and Economic propaganda were destined to begin societal changes. One of the more significant being a shift in the once earlier urbanistic ideals. World War II being the earlier hindrance has taken a toll on the war - stricken society of Russia, welcoming architectural urbanism such as the switch from brick to concrete. A lot of the changes in Architecture during the Cold War were based on politics, socialism, communism and so many other things. In addition, many parts of Europe were in battle with each other, such as West Berlin and East Berlin. This occurred during the Cold War due to the urbanism and architecture being created and designed. The government thought Urbanism and the Cold War would fix all the issues that happened with Architecture in Berlin, but it made it a lot worse politically and socially than it ever was before. Some of the structures that set an example of these issues with urbanism, brought out the socialists, and were the result of the ongoing battles during the Cold War are the Stalinallee and Hansaviertel.

Stalinallee vs. Hansaviertel [Rachel Carfagno]

The Stalinallee and Hansaviertel play a key role in the Cold War and Urbanism and are based on their comparisons when it comes to Architecture and Totalitarianisms. Stalinallee is an example of architecture propaganda and is in East Berlin, Germany. This construction was built as a symbol of Socialist, particularly communism. It was built as a reaction to the reconstruction of West Berlin. Located in the opposite direction of East Berlin is the Hansaviertel, which is a district that consists of a model apartment building. It is meant to stand for the ideas of modernism around the time it was designed and built. This structure was destroyed during World War II, but was rebuilt from 1957 to 1961. Even though both the Stalinallee and Hansaviertel are on opposite sides of Berlin, there are many similarities between them. They are both pieces of political architecture, the Cold War and urbanism. In addition, both constructions stood for the Cold War and the commitment they have to it through their style of architecture and urbanism. “Two noteworthy urban ensembles, East Berlin’s Stalinallee (today’s Karl-MarxAllee and its entrance from Alexander Platz) and West Berlin’s International Building Exhibition (Interbau) of 1957, with its buildings particularly around the Hansaviertel, are a perfect example of what have been called “thinking and acting on lines of political as well as aesthetic confrontation” (BBS, 2020).

Stalinallee Hansaviertel

(Cole Watson CC BY). Dalusaboral, /. “Restitución Infográfica y Análisis De La Vivienda Unifamiliar Weissenhof De Le Corbusier.” dalusaboral arquitectura, January 7, 2015. https://dalusaboralarquitectura.wordpress.com/2015/01/07/ restitucion-infografica-y-analisis-de-la-vivienda-unifamiliarweissenhof-de-le-corbusier/.

Urbipedia. “Vivienda Doble En La Colonia Weissenhof - Urbipedia - Archivo De Arquitectura.” Urbipedia. Urbipedia, January 13, 2022. https://www.urbipedia.org/hoja/Vivienda_ doble_en_la_Colonia_Weissenhof. The construction is based on some of its theoretical principles, such as the "five points of a new architecture". Le Corbusier uses the principles of; pilotis, isolated concrete columns allow the building to float in the air. For Le Corbusier, the ground floor, like the street, belongs to the car, which is why the house is raised on stilts leaving the entire ground floor free to allow vehicular traffic. The terraced garden, flat roof, in front of the traditional sloping roof becomes a roof garden. For Le Corbusier, the surface occupied by the planned house had to be returned to nature in the form of a garden on the roof of the building. The open plan, made possible by the structure of concrete columns, counteracts the stiffness of the loadbearing walls. In this way, usability and useful surfaces are improved, freeing the plant from structural conditions. Vertical windows allow natural light to enter the interior of the house evenly, for the same reason as above, when the external load-bearing walls are unobstructed, the window can cover the entire dimension. width of the project. Free facade. Piles are placed back on the facade, freeing it from its structural function.

Cold War / Urbanism and Stalinallee / Hansaviertel [Rachel Carfagno]

Towards the end of World War II everything in Germany was dilapidated and destroyed completely, especially the Architecture. As a result, there were many structures and buildings being reconstructed but they were done differently than they were before. As the Cold War was beginning a contemporary style of Architecture was being created, it would stand for urbanism, and politics. Certain structures that were designed and built, such as the Stalinallee and Hansaviertel structures made a significant impact on urbanism and construction of Architecture during the Cold War for many reasons. They are both part of the political and communist issues that existed during this time of history and in this war. The Stalinallee was the first large – scale housing project and was created and constructed in the modern style of socialist realism. When it came to the urbanism of the Stalinallee structure, it was intended to stand for the socialism occurring in the city of GDR. “A new urban space in the zone of the Alexander Platz would act as a nexus, with a place for demonstrations and a building shared by the government and the parliament. Finally, in the eastern end, the Great Frankfurter Strasseand the Frankfurter Allee were re-urbanized to become the Stalinallee” (Gomez, 1999). In addition, the Hansaviertel affected Berlin during the Cold War politically and in an urbanist way with the way it was constructed and designed. This structure was built and designed as a housing exhibition that affected the Cold War the same way the Stalinallee did. “A pair of extravagant housing developments in East and West Berlin, the Stalinallee and the Hansaviertel, provide precise illustrations of the divergence of postwar German architecture and urbanism” (Castillo, 2001). In conclusion, urbanism during the Cold War would not be what it was if it were not for the politics and socialism the Stalinallee and Hansaviertel brought into Germany.

Section Perspective of Congress Hall square shaft with vaulted roof. Section Perspective of the Congress Hall, Italy, 1947 by Adalberto Libera (Alex Rithiphong CC BY). Cilento, Amedeo. “B-4.5.5Liberaadalberto-1938_54palazzoricevimenti_ congressi_eur42_52_dwg_ archidiap-It.roma.EUR-L: Palazzi, Progetti Scolastici, Prospettiva.” Pinterest. Accessed March 17, 2022. https://www.pinterest.co.kr/ pin/421438477641150473/.

The simple form of a box can be turned into a building with beauty when done in an intricate way. It is about the materials, details, and concepts that can make any building beautiful. Libera treated the structure as a simple hangarlike box and cladded the exterior with alternating courses of marble masonry. Another elegant feature of the Congress Hall is the marble columns that are placed in a grid pattern. The use of these columns imitate a modern interpretation of the Pantheon. However, the centerpiece is the monolithic square shaft at the center of the hall which showcases an atrium-style room that gives the hall a grand appearance. The form is simply a box, but its large scale and detail of materials give a special meaning behind this area of the hall. Inside, the space is capped by a series of arched vaults which allow light to seep into the space from above. Simple details such as the skylighting give the space a more special appearance. A takeaway from this is how scale can play a large role in a building. With a simple box-shaped design, the overall form may not be exactly exciting or complicated, but rather simple and minimalistic, which is what Libera has achieved with this project.

Futurama [Dean Kurpicki w/ Charlie Clarke]

In the 1900s, there was no architectural scale greater than the metropolis. Visions of the future were in high demand, and architects were more than willing to provide. Exhibitions of future architectural and technological developments were received well, with none being more prominent than the World’s Fair. This was an exhibition presented in cities around the world, showcasing all sorts of technological marvels and possible developments. Architecturally, though, none were perhaps as influential as the Futurama Exhibition. A display of the future in real life, the title of Futurama was surely an apt choice. Consisting of an almost amusement-park like ride structure, participants would get into a sleek car to be taken around several life scale models of the future of metropolises in America. The future they were seeing, though, would be considered bleak by today’s standards. The exhibit focused mainly on the introduction of automobiles as a means to traverse and populate cities, which resulted in major freeways separating skyscrapers and overpasses. Some of these freeways would be as wide as fourteen lanes, which would enable cities to cater to a much greater array of people. To imitate this “display” of the future takes a very creative mindstate. An individual who can take a step to the side of our present day and age, look at our technological advancements through infrastructure and simplicity, ignore them. To imagine a future city is not as much as taking a look at our progress in structures and assuming what it would look like 50 years down the line. Imagining a future cityscape takes ignoring what it might look like and to imagine something completely different and outside the box in order to create a combination of structures that will be utilized to perform the necessities of the future, which is ultimately what we see happening in the Futurama exhibition. In conclusion, the Futurama was a marvel of its age and gave individuals and architects alike hope for an extravagant amount of beautiful architecture. Almost promising the undertaking of a successful economic infrastructure, which leads to the question of asking oneself how and what lead to these developments of a future scape being conceivable but unattainable.

Front Perspective of the Stockholm Public Library, Sweden, 1928 by Gunnar Asplund. Perspective photograph by Christian Lauersen (Camille Pollak CC BY). Adopted from https://libraryplanet.net/2020/11/26/stockholm-city-library-an-aesthetic-experience/

The Stockholm library was built using a combination of modern and classical designs, mixing organic shapes with modern fashion. The organic shapes added to the political views of the architect, whose beliefs aligned with democracy more than totalitarianism. The overall plan was distilled in an attempt to design a more modernized building, breaking the plans down into basic shapes with minimal flourishes. This led the architect to rely on specific details to draw people in from the street. Making the space as easy to access as possible and using the modern take on organic shapes to make the building stand out helped the architect believe the space could provide worldly knowledge to all. Critics later said the rough shape and size of the structure along with the centralized emphasis led the design to be contradicting to what the space was desired to be for. By designing a centralized space, the overall structure promotes community and inclusivity as well as a large social aspect. Libraries themselves provide social and economic benefits, as they are a space anyone can enter when looking for interaction, community, shelter, and anything the inhabitants can imagine.

Tokyo Station, front facade view, Tokyo, Japan. (Jonathan Yiu CC-BY) Adapted from guen-k. Tokyo Station. November 18, 2012. Flickr.com. https://live.staticflickr. com/8339/8195822433_ e2f48c9611_b.jpg.

THE OLD AMID THE NEW A prime example of the Beaux Arts Style, Tokyo Station sits next to the Kyobashi district of Tokyo . Designed in 1914 by Kingo Tatsuno, this structure undoubtedly serves as one of the ‘gates’ to the Japanese empire at that time. With many Japanese architects using ‘aesthetic movements’ to show their prowess overseas, here at home this showed the Meiji architecture, a different look than the pagoda-like buildings seen in the past. A more modern style was adopted, and proved to be eye catching. It has survived intense bombings during World War II, as well as numerous renovations to its benefit.

Today, as another new era of architecture is being built around Tokyo Station, it has become an iconic stance that shows the power of good architecture.

IDENTITY OF IMPERIAL JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE

Perspective Study, Tokyo National Museum, Tokyo, Japan, 1938 by Watanabe Jin (Rajan Raut CC BY) “Adapted from” Bate, A., 2020. Tokyo National Museum. [online] History Hit. Available at: <https://www.historyhit.com/locations/tokyo-national-museum/> [Accessed 17 March 2022]. After the Japanese opened up to the world, they displayed their power by combining the world’s modern style with their traditional style to create the identity of Imperial Japan. One such example is the Tokyo National Museum located in Ueno Park, Tokyo. The building has a minimalist modern form of the 1930s, created using mainly concrete frames and structures. But then topped off with an expressive roof form that clearly manifests sense national aspirations to establish the identity of the Japanese during its Imperial project in Asia. Unlike many modern buildings with flat roofs, the Japanese added their traditional roof style to emphasize their power and strength. They also integrated the building with nature. The change of the roof style and environment showed how adaptable and in control the Japanese were of design. CARPENTERS HALL The carpenters hall is famous for the meeting of the first Continental Congress in 1774. Robert Smith was a Scottish born American architect who was based in Philadelphia. The main design Robert Smith went for was a Georgian style based on both the town halls of Scotland giving the structure a lot of character.The construction and design consist of Delegates of the Colonies with verve and Sinew for the Tolls of War. The Georgian style became a very famous style that quickly found its way to many colonies which eventually became a norm for architects to use this specific design in the 1700s and 1800s.

The Carpenter Hall has a specific type of architecture that many consist of Georgian style. The Georgian Style is identified by its symmetrical Composition with Formal classical details which can be very noticeable from a distance. http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/portal/communities/architecture/styles/georgian. html#:~:text=The%20Georgian%20style%2C%20identified%20by,colonies%20throughout%20the%2018th%20century.&text=As%20the%20style%20 spread%20to,for%20more%20formally%20designed%20buildings. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_architecture - Ryan Jeune

Conclusion: The Influence of Architecture in a Totalitarian World [ Olivia Kierstead]

After World War I, architecture was used as a tool to navigate the oppressive political and economic times that were ridden with propaganda and power-hungry dictators taking advantage of the ruins the war caused. Major characteristics of architecture during this time were monumental, towering concrete structures with large domes and planar surfaces. With political movements like Fascism and Nazism taking over all aspects of Europe’s growing society, decoration and ornament were rarely considered in design. Instead, military strength was displayed through functionalist buildings such as the AGIP Colonia Summer Camp at Cesenatico on the Adriatic coast1. However, there were individuals who used architecture to express their opposition to the tyrannical regimes, like how Curzio Malaparte constructed his contemporary-style house on the edge of a small island after his exile from Italy by Hitler and Mussolini. It was difficult to be an architect during this time if you believed in individual expression more than totalitarianism and classicism, to the point of potentially losing your life or your home if you publicly acknowledged this opposition. Some architects were able to subtly indicate their true motivations with small design choices, such as when Gunnar Asplund added organic shapes to the centralized classical design he was required to create for the Stockholm Public Library. Later, with Cold War urbanism, came a more modern and less monumental shift in design when places like Stalinallee, Berlin moved away from the styles related to the oppression of the war. By the mid-twentieth century, architecture demonstrated how instrumental it can be in representing political ideals and even enacting change.

09 High Modernisms

[Introduction] Milo Oliva, Camille Pollak

During the early twentieth century, the western world was full of innovations in building, engineering, and mass production. Architects like Le Corbusier utilized reinforced concrete to create buildings with organic and expressive forms which defied traditional methods of construction. Photography allowed people to easily document architecture and share with others, which led to a widespread influence of modernism. The expressions of the western world eventually made their way to Japan. Architects like Kenzo Tange were influenced by modernism, and they incorporated simple geometric forms into their designs. They combined modern construction materials such as reinforced concrete with traditional techtonics such as timber joinery, which led to a new style of architecture. In America, the innovations in steel construction allowed for a new building type called skyscrapers. Their structures removed the need for heavy load bearing walls, which gave architects freedom to express whatever they wanted. Architects like Mies van der Rohe took advantage of this freedom to incorporate thin exterior walls of glass. Some cities competed against each other, such as Chicago and New York City. Their skylines rapidly changed, and populations densified.

LE CORBUSIER AND HIS FIVE POINTS Charles-Édouard Jeannere, also known more commonly as Le Corbusier was one of the pioneers in what is known today as modern architecture. He stressed Five Points that he believed every well-built structure should have. One prime example of this ideology is found in Villa Savoye, located in Poissy, France. The first point was that the structure should be elevated, or built above the ground, the elevation on the ‘pilotis’. Loadbearing concrete columns support the Villa on its flat surface, which allows free programmatic placement underneath the living space, in this case a garden. Second, according to Le Corbusier, a free plan should be emulated. This would be achieved through developing walls in a way that they would not be relied on completely for support, allowing a flexible plan to be developed without having to worry too much about whether it would be structurally sound. Moving these critical walls to the exterior frame of the structure would achieve this purpose. Third, having a free facade. This would be related to the second point of having a free plan. By accomplishing this , the facade would depend less on the structural elements, and resulting in a more creative design. Fourth, windows are to be long and ribbon-like. Maximizing views and allowing the most sunlight to enter the home, these were integral to the structure, and well documented in the Villa.

Finally, a roof garden. The roof garden both symbolically and literally ‘replaced’ the ground that was disrupted by the built structure, as can also be seen through the rooftop terrace atop the Villa Savoye. By developing these Five Points, Le Corbusier ushered in a new era of modernist architectural principles. Of course, his principles were and still are criticized today, which begs the question if these principles can truly be called “principles”.

The Vertical City. Perspective/Section of Unité d’ Habitation, Marseille, France, 1952 by Le Corbusier, (Dean Kurpicki CC BY). Imm cologne 2017: Dauphin Home in "Les Couleurs® Le Corbusier" - DAUPHIN HOME (dauphin-home.de), accessed March 23 2022.

[THE VERTICAL CITY, DEAN KURPICKI] [L’UNITÉ D’HABITATION, MARSEILLE FRANCE] One could say that it is human nature to want more. More possessions, more companions, and most relevantly to this analysis, more space. It’s why so many are drawn to cities, with their vast streets and wide sprawl of buildings and territories. Yet, cities weren’t always the dominating urban force that they are today. In the 1950s, there was a different proposal for a city-like structure, by the architect Le Corbusier. He proposed, and designed, a residential building that engaged residents vertically, rather than the more traditional horizontal option. He was able to do this through his implementation of residential spaces with multiple levels, and that spanned the entire width of the building. This is in contrast to most of today’s apartment complexes, which would have the residential spaces only span a portion of the building, and have one on each side of the floor. Through Le Corbusier’s unique method of interlocking these spaces, he was able to create a more efficient building overall. In World Architecture, Ingersoll states that “The transverse section of the Unité showed its greatest innovation for mass housing: by eliminating a public corridor on alternate floors, the two-story apartments crossed over from one side to the other, gaining an increase in natural light and cross-ventilation.” The interlocking residential scheme also allowed the building to be more community focused, which was just emphasized by the communal pool and playground on the roof of the building. In fact, the communal aspect was an important part of the design, as otherwise there would be no need for the building to serve as a vertical city. In short- Le Corbusier, while attempting to create an efficient means of housing for a community of people, succeeded wildly in the creation of a truly vertical style of living.

1 – main corridor, 2 – entrance, 3 – kitchen, 4 – living room and lunchroom, 5 – lunchroom, 6 – double bedroom, 7 – single bedroom, 8 – balcony, 9 – void, 10 – double bedroom, 11 – living room, 12 – built-in wardrobe, 13 – bathroom, 14 – shower. “Interlocking Dwellings” Bianchini, R. (2022). Plans and cross-section of typical two-level apartments. Le Corbusier, Unité d’Habitation / Cité Radieuse, Marseille. Retrieved March 24, 2022, from https://www.inexhibit.com/mymuseum/le-corbusierunite-dhabitation-cite-radieuse-marseille/.

[UNITE D’ HABITATION / LE CORBUSIER AND CESAR DASILVA] [MARSEILLE FRANCE] In 1952, Le Corbusier completed an iconic representation of brutalism and his idea of building the 18 storey high Unite d'Habitation. This building containing 337 apartments, two shopping streets, a hotel and rooftop terrace boasted some of the best designed apartments to this day. These apartments still counted on their own some 70 years later came in 8 different shapes and sizes but each with their own terrace and centered around a common corridor. Le Corbusier believed this light was an essential part of the design with many homes receiving the well-known double height spacing. This allowed generous amounts of light to pour into the concrete apartment, giving it a homelike feel opposed to the more common window lit apartment style. This double height terrace spacing worked in conjunction with double high spacing inside some of the apartments to create a unique living space. This combination uses alternating floors to create double height spaces that use minimum space. Unlike most residential double height housing that with corridors on each floor he designed the units to span from one side of the building to the other, reducing the number of corridors to 1 every 3 floors. This building with apartment style in conjunction with the double height spaces allowed Le Corbusier to efficiently interlock apartment spaces and create what I believe to be one of the best apartment styles to be created. Le Corbusier believed the home was ‘ a machine for living in’ and he created a magnificent machine in the form of the well spatially balanced apartments, these apartments allowed people access to sun, multiple floors of living space and a tight community. [VERSATILITY IN FORM, OLIVER BURDICK] [BAGSVÆRD CHURCH, DENMARK] Jørn Utzon contrasted a simple, orthogonal exterior with a curvaceous interior ceiling to create a profound expression of modernity and Lutheranism, flawlessly controlling auditory sensation and natural light within the Bagsværd Church. Sitting unassertive next to a local street, hiding behind a layer of birch trees, its horizontal concrete paneling and beach wood façade presents itself in a simple modern style, masking the extraneous forms exclusive to its occupants. Built in 1976, this was the first church presented to the Bagsværd suburb of Denmark since the 16th century, so its significance was to be reflected in its design, and in this case, its interior:

The curves of the ceilings captured the diffused light from the upper clerestory, creating an atmosphere of blanched mystery.3 The ceiling, which rises to its highest point directly above the altar, takes the form of lightly tinted rolling clouds, with sunlight slipping between them, bringing out the expressionist style, and emphasizing the floor’s most important aspects.4 In addition, Utzon placed significance on audio control within the church, allowing the Reverend’s voice to bounce off the walls and curved ceilings to reach his audience. He used the geometries of the interior to ensure a quintessential space for contemplation, with ample levels of vibration and harmony to idealize the ambiance throughout. As a result, the interior was isolated from the surrounding suburb, keeping the noise in, allowing the experience to be dedicated solely to its attendees.

Ceiling perspective surrounding a section cut of the Bagsværd Church, Bagsværd, Denmark, 1976 by Jørn Utzon. Adapted from: Fracalossi, Igor, “AD Classics: Bagsvaerd Church / Jørn Utzon”, archdaily. com/160390/ad-classicsbagsvaerd-church-jornutzon, Arch Daily

[VILLA SAVOYE, SANTIAGO DIAZ] [POISSY FRANCE] Villa Savoye's architectural decisions integrate both static and dynamic elements. The choice of concrete reveals that structural stability was the architect's primary goal, despite the building's light and 'floating' appearance. The light that enters the Villa through the enormous clear windows reflects off the solid white walls, creating a bright and airy feeling. Corbusier clearly planned to let as much light into the building as possible because of the health advantages of natural light. Villa Savoye's main geometrical form is a rectangle with a continuous ribbon of huge square windows running the length of the walls. The groundfloor walls are recessed and painted green to give the impression that the building is floating in the air among the trees. The structure was elevated off the ground by pilotis, reinforced concrete stilts designed by Le Corbusier himself. These pilotis supported the house's structural integrity. “Unlike classical buildings. Villa Savoye had an uneven number of columns on each side. Long bands of windows on the second floor extended the length of the facade, exaggerating its horizontally”. (5)

Structural Jungle. Exploded Axonometric of Villa Savoye, Poissy Paris, France 1928-1931 by Le Corbusier (Santiago Diaz CC BY) adapted from Louw, Michael. “Figure 2 the Promenade through the Villa Savoye (Drawing ...” Accessed March 24, 2022. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-promenade-through-theVilla-Savoye-drawing-by-the-author_fig2_342657325. [VILLA SAVOYE, OLIVIA KIERSTEAD] [POISSY FRANCE] In the battle between neoclassicism and the new modernist movement post World War II, Villa Savoye stands out as a prime example of the main ideas of modernism. Le Corbusier, a well-known French architect, was given design freedom by the Savoye’s, and he delivered a structure which became a standard residential form in the style. The structure demonstrates the five key points of this New Architecture and allows for creative freedom when it comes to layout. The simple cubic volume sits in a green field, elevated by pilotis which serve as loadbearing concrete columns. This is done to protect the first floor from humidity and to allow for the garden to grow underneath- a garden which is mirrored in the rooftop terrace above. While seeming symmetrical on the outside, the interior layout is quite the opposite, as the lack of load bearing walls allows for creative program interpretation. This freedom is also granted to the façade skin, which doesn’t serve any structural purpose. The last defined feature of Villa Savoye are the long horizontal ribbon windows- a staple in International and Modern design. This is done to distribute light more evenly than vertical windows might, also allowing eight times more light in. The simplicity of the design is what made it so powerful, “the flat box on stilts conveyed a feeling of rupture from the architecture of the past, as powerful as the shock of Cubist paintings, yet with a pure volumetric starkness that evoked a Greek temple.”[6].

Identifying the five key points of modern architecture and how they’re demonstrated in Villa Savoye. Exploded Axon view of Villa Savoye, 1931, by architects Le Corbusier and his cousin Pierre Jeanneret. Adapted from Masha Casey. “Villa Savoye by Masha Casey.” Pixels. Accessed March 24, 2022. https://pixels.com/ featured/villa-savoye-masha-casey.html.

[VILLA SAVOYE, ERICSON BONILLA] Le Corbusier has always been flexible with form when it comes to his designs combining functionalism and sculptural aspects, such as shown in the Villa Savoye. The Villa Savoye is a modernist building that was built in France in 1931. It worked primarily in rectangular planes as well as being an open plan. The series of ramps are consistent throughout the building, allowing for residents to take time to experience the building.

Axonometric of the Minerals and Metal Research Building at the ITT College of Architecture in Chicago, Illinois, 1942 – 1943 by Mies Van Der Rohe (Rachel Carfagno CC BY). “Adapted from” Mies Van Der Rohe’s Minerals and Metals Building, Chicago Old and New, http://www. connectingthewindycity.com/2013/01/mies-van-der-rohes-minerals-and-metals.html. [MINERAL AND METAL RESEARCH BUILDING, RACHEL CARFAGNO] [CHICAGO ILLINOIS] The Minerals and Metal Research Building at the IIT College of Architecture in Chicago, Illinois serves as a notable example of the exterior typologies and geometries used in a modernistic structure that was designed and constructed in the early eighteenth century. When it comes to this building, it is clearly seen that not only is the building brought out the way it is by its typologies and materiality, but also geometries. As a certain individual comes across this building, a lot of steel was used since there are a lot of advantages, especially when it comes to structures of this kind. Steel was constructed quite a bit due to its durability, the appropriateness, and to bring out a modernist style throughout the building. In addition, there are also many wide flange beams and columns that construct the entire frame of the building; these consist of brick and glass. “The I.I.T. Campus Guide describes the building in this way, ‘Mies constructed the entire frame of the Minerals and Metals Building, vertical and horizontal members alike, of wide-flange beams and mullions. Freestanding walls of the building were designed in glass and brick and were inserted within the frame. Indicative of the primacy of structure in the abstract, the wideflange steel section would later become Mies’s signature element”. (10)

[SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE, ALEX MARKARIAN] [SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA] After WWII the word of architecture turned towards the style of internalism which consists of geometric shapes, straight lines, and modernism. However, another style started to emerge called expressionist architecture. This new architecture was a new way for many architects to create a new identity for the future. Shortly after the war, Australia was ready to create its own identity after the British left. ”It was hungry to forge its own identity. Little did the people of Sydney suspect that a new opera house adjacent to the harbor would become the symbol of that new identity not only to the citizens of Australia but to the world.” (7) It was the right opportunity for the architect, Jorn Utzon to design the sydney opera house. The opera house was constructed from 1959 to 1973, 14 years in the making. It is located on the banks of Sydney Harbour. The purpose of the Sydney Opera house was to showcase Expressionism to the world. Separating from Internasionalim, Expressionism characteristics consist of organic shapes, angular melodies with wide leaps, and distortion. The Sydney Opera house is a prime example of Expressionism because its main structure are the sails which truly represent the self identity with no other surrounding buildings that match the architect style. Expressionism is meant to create a sense to evoke inner feelings and extreme emotions. In other words, it is meant to focus on the bright future and to let go of the dark past of the world wars.

Perspective Drawing of the Sydney Opera house demonstrates symbolic architecture, Sydney Australia, Architect : Jorn Utzon (https://cleantechnica. com/2017/02/02/storysydney-opera-house/)

“Functionality of curvature” In the Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut or Ronchamp Chapel.Sectional perspective of the RonChamp Chapel, Paris, France. 1954 by Le Corbusier adapted from Richard Ingersoll, World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 468.

Anna Winston |24 July 20165 comments. “Le Corbusier's Ronchamp Chapel Is One of His Most Important Buildings.” Dezeen, August 5, 2016. https://www.dezeen.com/2016/07/24/le-corbusier-notre-dame-du-haut-ronchamp-chapel-france-unescoworld-heritage-list/.

Kroll, Andrew. “Ad Classics: Ronchamp / Le Corbusier.” ArchDaily. ArchDaily, November 3, 2010. https://www.archdaily. com/84988/ad-classics-ronchamp-le-corbusier.

[CHAPELLE NOTRE DAME DU HAUT BY CHARLIE CLARKE] [PARIS, FRANCE] The site of Ronchamp itself has been a location of religious pilgrimage for decades, but it wasn't till after World War ll that individuals in France thought it would be best to enact a structure to represent this spiritual area. The Ronchamp is actually referred to as LE Corbusier's most Prominent religious building of his day and age. The concept of that Le Corbusier wanted to enact when it came to the approach of developing this church of sorts was that he wanted to cite to be “Meditative” and “Reflective in purpose” which possibly relates to the function of self judgment and self consciousness of one's faults, imperfections, and most importantly sins. The use of curvature in the chapel was meant to propel sound, and it is said to project the sound of him over the adjoining pastures. With the walls themselves being used as acoustic mechanisms. The structure itself is quoted to “represents a key shift away from the sparse, functionalist form of Modernism that Le Corbusier displayed in his earlier projects.”

Perspective view of 1951 Farnsworth House in Piano, Illinois, by architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, drawing adapted from James Nanasca, accessed 24 March 2022

[FARNSWORTH HOUSE, JAN LERDDEEKUNLAM] [PIANO, ILLINOIS] The Farnsworth House is a very recognizable icon that is of the International Style in architecture. The house has open views from all sides that make it for nature to seemingly flow into the living spaces. The architect, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, wanted to define the concept of simple living, as well as having a strong relationship with nature, with this house.(8) The building, which is elevated off the ground, was to be protected from the highest predicted floods according to the architect. What is most significant about the house is the fact that it is both an observer, and the subject of observation at the same time. (9) The beams, floors, and roofing are colored white to minimize any distractions on the exterior of the house. Due to this, the sunlight’s reflection allows the house to appear illuminated, This is especially true during sunsets as the house’s materials are seemingly painted in colors. With how the windows reach from the ceiling to the floor, whilst inside the house, nature is framed everywhere around you.

[Conclusion] Milo Oliva, Camille Pollak

Construction and design took off during the twentieth century, influencing different parts of the world in many ways. Larger, growing cities, saw the development of building codes as the skyscraper, took into account the necessity for space but not the necessity for hygiene. The construction of the skyscraper gave way to a new era of modern building as architects like Mies took a new route, combining glass and steel. New forms of expression started to take shape when architects like Le Corbusier started to push the boundaries of construction to create organic, sensitive shapes. In an attempt to maintain historical context and connections, as the designs of the western ideas started to influence Japan, Japanese architects combined traditional building methods with new construction materials and ideas. This movement in Japan led to a new style of architecture, one that represented much of the modern changes that were being made at the time, and one that considered the cultural and environmental differences found between these worlds.

10 Exchange

The Benefits of Large-Scale & Small-Scale Abstraction Oliver Burdick

The National Congress building in Brazil is an example of large-scale abstraction, with grand motions to make a powerful statement, whereas the Casa de Vidro in a São Paulo jungle reveals how smallscale abstraction is a universal concept, often coming down to the details within. Although local opinions are mixed about its exterior design, the National Congress building encapsulates Niemeyer’s style, only enriched by Le Corbusier’s abstract influence. It represents the construction of both building and landscape, with a vast, flat base and a roof that serves as both cover and circulation, but most importantly, “Rising above the flat roof, two ‘cupolas’ indicate the assembly chambers of Brazil’s bicameral legislature” (ArchDaily). The cupolas are large, wide domes, one being flipped on its back, sitting polar to each other with 2 rectangular towers, standing tall and between. On the contrary, Casa de Vidro by Lina Bo Bardi was designed hidden in a jungle, with an elevated glass façade, only visible to its intended occupants. Finished in 1951, it was constructed in São Paulo Brazil and meant for the residence of Bo Bardi herself, who emphasized abstraction and how it could be used as a universal language. The façade and form of the house would work in many dissimilar locations, not subject to a jungle, or even South America. The interior design is where the cultural aspects are revealed, with an emphasis on beautiful furniture and an open plan. People inside are promoted to go out, as the jungle reveals itself around every corner.

Local vs Foreign Designers Rachel Carfagno

When it comes to architects, there are many differences between them all. Local architects tend to encapsulate the style of the region, focusing on function and cultural construction. Although abstraction can work as a universal language, it is also crucial that it holds some significance and relation to the country and its surroundings. One local architect that is well known for their work is Louis Kahn. He was born in Estonia, but raised in Philadelphia as an American citizen. On the other hand, Germany-born Mies van der Rohe is represented through his work across the globe, often unknowing of the local style, sticking to his universal craft which can be understood by all. Mies Van Der Rohe designed the Bacardi Administration Building, which is well known to this day. This simple, orthogonal structure serves as one of the important buildings from Mies Van Der Rohe and represents modernist industrial methods. “This advancement in the architectural language of capitalism through Mies van der Rohe simultaneously supported an increase in the development of buildings that reflect new and innovative architectural features” (Rethinking the Future). The Bacardi Administration Building was constructed in Mexico and sets a prolific example of modernist, abstract Architecture designed by a foreigner. Louis Kahn is a local Architect in America who is known for designing the Salk Institute for Biological Studies located in San Diego, California. It is a modern, abstract masterpiece and effortlessly serves its function as a building for Biomedical research: “With his parametric approach to architecture not everyone would expect him to be influenced by the geometric rigidity of modernism” (Arch Daily). Louis Kahn, one of the most modernistic, wellknown American architects, advanced the style of modernism when he designed and constructed this beautiful structure known as the Salk Institute for Biological Studies.

Old world vs new world abstraction connects to many points of design as an important contrast. As we have seen in my examples, architects like to look at pieces of history for influence and not so much to directly copy but to take design principles and apply them to their buildings whether it is through structure or actual design. Old world abstraction has to do with the relationship of what was plausible and doable for the time. We see in old world abstraction that it took more time and did not receive abundant amounts of funding to support ideas and designs, which were seen as aloof and unusual compared to architecture of the old world. New world abstraction on the other hand has to do with increased support on abstraction projects and designs, which means they would get more financial backing as well as support from development committees to get these projects approved and on the road. Abstraction is deep and complex and gives the impression of a piece of art. Art which is to be interpreted by individuals in separate ways as they interact with a building.

The Many Influences of Modernism in India Olivia Kierstead

Along with Le Corbusier, India had many internal and foreign architectural influences when it came to postcolonial styles and the absorption of Modernism. Even before the war ended, India was leading in urban landscape and classical architecture for the British Empire. However, the catalyst for real change regarding postcolonial architecture was the separation of India into 5 states; East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), West Pakistan (now simply Pakistan), Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Surma, and India. Places in India such as Ahmedabad and Chandigarh were established as the centers of Indian architectural talent and connection with foreign designers, committed to progressing modernity. Parallel to the influence that Le Corbusier had on Indian modernism was the impact of Charles Correa (19302015)- an MIT graduate who designed the Smarak Sangrahalaya memorial to Gandhi. Correa focused on low-income and luxury housing, specifically with the Kanchanjunga Tower (Figure 1), which was a twenty-seven-story concrete structure. Like Correa, another prominent Modernist Indian architect named Doshi (1927) also began by studying low-income housing and eventually drove Modernism in India by transforming ancient Hindu shapes - like the mandala grid, into Modern forms. This was the tactic of another postcolonial Indian architect, Raj Rewal (1934), who constructed the Exhibition Complex in New Delhi. “While the truncated pyramids appeared to be made with metal members, he used hand-poured concrete to make the thin struts of the polyhedron trusses. Rewal s Nehru Memorial Pavilion in New Delhi, also built in 1972, set a re-dented mandala plan on an artificial mound. He recuperated traditional abstract forms while exploiting the maximum technical possibilities of reinforced concrete construction, creating deep cuts for natural light and columnless spans within the mound.” The absorption of post-war Modernism in India was important for its ability to conserve its connection with historical traditions and forms.

Ancient Mud Brick architecture Dean Kurpicki

Since the beginning of time, humans have looked to the Earth to find their shelter. From the most primitive cave canopies, to the green technologies used in today’s constructions, we seek inspiration from what surrounds us: nature. One such way humans had translated to earth to our buildings was a prominent method of construction in ancient Iraq - the mud brick. Mud bricks were made from, predictably, mud, however most civilizations used additional materials to reinforce the bricks. This was often straw, or rough grass. Because of this natural recipe, mud bricks were adaptable to different environments, as seen in the prevalence of them around the world. In Iraq, there were many examples of ancient and important buildings that primarily used mud bricks. There were many palaces and worship sites, but one of the most impressive displays of The mud brick architecture is the Ctesiphon Arch. The arch is actually part of a larger building, the Taq Kasra, which has unfortunately been lost to time. What remains, however, is one of the largest archways made of nonreinforced bricks in the entire world. Based on this, we can see that even from the late 120s BC, architects knew the physics required to create such an expansive structure.

Sectional perspective study, Kanchanjunga, Mumbai, India, 1974 by Charles Correa (Rajan Raut CC BY) “Adapted from” Editors, AR, AR Editors, Robert Powell, AR Editors, Peter Davey, William Curtis, Iain Jackson, and AR Editors. 2015. “Folio: Charles Correa’s Kanchanjunga Apartments - Architectural Review”. Architectural Review. https://www.architectural-review. com/today/folio-charles-correas-kanchanjunga-apartments.

MODERN HIGH RISE RESPONSE TO CLIMATE KANCHANJUNGA, RAJAN RAUT The kanchanjunga apartments in Mumbai are a modern high-rise response to the climate. The square-shaped tower is an interlocking layer of two apartments per floor. Each apartment has two terraces that go through the building from West to East. The Arabian Sea is located to the west, which allows the building to get natural ventilation. “Using the sea breeze and just two apartments per floor, so you can get the cross ventilation”. “Now the thing about your veranda is that it protects the space but of course, the problem is there’s no privacy so then what I tried to do is I realized that if you had the veranda thing then you could have in the split-level you could have interlocking apartments.” Having this veranda allows for a threshold that helps transition the outside to the inside. Also allows for more space and room for larger vegetation and plant life.

Perspective view of The West Sumatra Province Trade Building , East Jakarta ,2010 by Gunawan Kartapranata (Nicholas Moraes CC BY)

MODERN INDONESIAN ARCHITECTURE NICHOLAS MORAES The West Sumatra Province Trade Building, located in East Jakarta, is known as a famous hotel. This structure is known as an international style building due to its all glass, steel and concrete skyscraper. Indonesia wanted to combine their cultural elements with modernization to create a unique architectural structure. A modern element that was included in this building is the roof. According to the article, “Modern buildings were topped with Minangkabau style roofs or the Meru-style multi-tiered roofs, as is seen in the University of Indonesia and state offices in Padang.” This structure has a multi-tiered roof, which makes the building look more interesting and eye appealing.