01 Colonialism

Offense through defensive positions. Perspective of El Morro, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1591 by Juan de Tejada and Battista Antonelli, (Dean Kurpicki CC BY). Adapted from Mickael Cantello, “Aerial view of El Morro fortress in San Juan, Puerto Rico.” http://www.lemag -arthurimmo.com/lhabitat-ailleurs, accessed January 19 2022.

[EL MORRO, DEAN KURPICKI] The many defensive fortresses built along the coasts of island colonies such as Puerto Rico were built to dissuade not only pirates, but other colonizing nations as well. It is no secret that the various colonizing nations at the time were racing to be the first to settle in strategic and prosperous locations, which led to a need to protect the colonies that one had already settled, lest another nation sweep in and take what could be theirs. “Wary of pirates and local rebellions, Europeans built fortresses in the region. On Haiti alone the French built forty such structures, using the criteria of Vauban. The Spanish planted as many Italian-inspired forts on Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico, and Cuba.” The fortress of El Morro, then, was placed in an extremely strategic location, being on the valuable colony of Puerto Rico, dangerously close to other colonies by the English or the Dutch. The fortress overlooks the ocean, providing a clear view of any approaching ships, while also standing out as a warning to any who might think of attacking the island. The high walls and tiered structure impose over the water’s edge, almost artificially increasing the size of the cliff, making the prospect of landing a daunting task.

Axonometric view of 1558 Suleymaniye Mosque Complex, Istanbul by Mimar Sinan, adapted from Imanuel Jason, accessed 19 January 2022 https://imanueljason.artstation.com/projects/ O099y, section cut adapted from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S2095263517300195#bbib24, accessed 19 January 2022

SULEYMANIYE MOSQUE COMPLEX, JAN LERDDEEKUNLAM Certain styles of architecture show the importance and use of a building, and its impact on history as a whole. Since religion was very prominent, the more grand and detailed the religious building, the more influence it had on its people and empire. The Ottoman architect Sinan created this mosque complex for Suleiman the Magnificent, who ruled the Ottoman Empire. Many sultans are said to have built a mosque during their reign to boast of their importance and power. Sinan’s mosque was built in an attempt to succeed Justinian’s Hagia Sophia, to show Suleiman’s superiority. This mosque complex is said to exude Suleiman’s power, as well as provide charitable services to nearby communities, such as education. A pyramid shape is created by a cascade of descending domes and semi-domes. There are four large monolithic columns of red granite in the courtyard, each 9 meters high. Great royalty is symbolized by multiple minarets, and they are embedded in the corners of the forecourt and reach towards God. The 4 minarets are believed to represent Süleyman, being the 4th Sultan to rule Constantinople. The use of more than one minaret was synonymous with royal mosques. Like all mosques, it faces Mecca, and in Istanbul, it is more or less southeast. The lamps hanging from the ceiling create an almost cosmological space, guiding the gaze upwards.The interior is very well illuminated and gives natural light through the 249 windows that adorn the walls and domes. This lighting strategy creates a divine atmosphere on the inside, a reminder of the sultan who is a ruler believed to be appointed by God. The open and unified space further emphasizes the importance of simple faith and law in Islam. With a building as grand as the Hagia Sophia being a source of inspiration for the Suleymaniye Mosque, other empires would have the same idea to take inspiration from grand buildings, and thus, conducted competition between Islamic empires, using detailed architecture as symbol of power and wealth.

Perspective view of the facade of Japan’s Historic Diet building built in 1936 Sessions of the House of Representatives take place in the left wing and sessions of the House of Councillors in the right wing.

NATIONAL DIET BUILDING} TOKYO, JAPAN NOVEMBER 7, 1936 CESAR D. The Japanese diet building is one of the best looking judiciary buildings built in the 20th century. It embodies a classic style of judiciary architecture in the United States with commums that riddle the front entrance symbolizing the strength of the system as well as the classic symmetry we see in these buildings. While embodying this style of architecture they were also able to bring in pieces of japanese architecture that we see in the center of the building. In most American judicial buildings the tower or hi point is a dome but in this instance a secondary box like structure resembling the first floor but smaller is used in combination with a pyramid step like a steeple is used. This resembles the traditional Japanese home where two story buildings have a smaller footprint on the second floor and so on. The stepping design of the steeple also correlates with the stepping and layering of traditional monuments and places of importance. All this and the simplistic design of the rest of the building that is rectangular and lacks intricacy in the facade allows for the clean yet collaborative design that is the Japanese diet building.

Walls, columns, and monuments surround the center point of the Cathedral. Section, St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, England, 1710 by Sir Christopher Wren. Adapted from: Ingersoll, Richard. 2018. World Architecture: A Cross Cultural History

ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL, OLIVER BURDICK Neoclassical and Gothic architecture were merged during the construction of St. Paul’s Cathedral, which was used as a tool to form a bridge between the English restoration and the upcoming theories of scientific philosophy. Dating back centuries, this location has had a long and complicated history, with four smaller Cathedrals built on the same site previously. St Paul’s, on the other hand, was much grander than its predecessors, measuring 350 feet high. Its focal point sits in the center of the largest tower, which splits the corridor right down the middle. Lining the halls are countless columns and monuments, each one unique to itself. Most of the Cathedral’s exterior façade features neoclassical elements, with noticeable gothic touches to thoughtfully merge the two styles into one. St. Paul’s Cathedral was built to last, and as a result ahead of its time, as it oversees the London skyline even to this day.

The Chiswick house is a mixture of different styles of architecture by expressing it to the front facade. These styles are Greek, Italian, and English. From the Greek columns and triangular roof representing the ancient Greeks to the Italian stairways and railings. Also the square like structure which is more influenced by English architecture.(Palazzo Della Cancelleria. mediakron.bc.edu/rome/palazzo-della-cancelleria Ingersoll, Richard. 2018. World Architecture: A CrossCultural History)

CHISWICK HOUSE, ALEX MARKARIAN Designed by Lord Burlington and William Kent in 1775. The building was heavily influenced by Italian architecture but also has a few different styles under some influence by Greece and England. For example the Greek elements that involve the residence are at the front entrance with columns supporting the triangular roofline. However the overall structure is shaped like the Italian building, Villa Rotonda with the Greek like facades and roof pattern. “Kent placed a pure temple- front porch in the center of the main block, terminating the volume with corner towers before stepping down to four lower side wings. He pulled these lower volumes away from the main block as separate pavilions, giving the whole a crab-like layout.“ The interior contains two wings that are separated by the marble hall. The lower and upper floors are separated with a marble based slab.

THE SULEYMANIYE MOSQUE, OLIVIA KIERSTEAD Enhancing light and acoustics by creating multiheight spaces with large domes and arches. Section view of the 1557 Suleymaniye mosque adapted from a graduate student at PennState, Stella Murray. “Stella Murray.” Sites at Penn State - WordPress, April 17, 2020. https://sites.psu.edu/ aagrads/portfolio/stella-murray/. The Suleymaniye Mosque is a distinctive architectural feat for its use of space and building typology. The 53-meter-high great dome in the center of the structure is a testament to the grandiosity and beauty that the mosque conveys throughout its construction. The center dome and two medium-sized domes on either side help to expand the largest space in the building and dramatize the amount of light being allowed in through the mosque’s 138 windows. Similar to its sister-structure, the Hagia Sophia, the Suleymaniye mosque boasts the large dome space accompanied by many windows to minimize the need for candles in the upper space while illuminating the lower space with a chandelier of lamps. This use of candles is also a careful nod to the divinity of the Islamic religion. After the mosque’s fire in 1660, the style shifted more towards the Baroque and farther from the Islamic. The marble and granite columns in the outer and inner courtyards, protecting people from the sun and rain, as well as the hidden buttresses are an example of the Baroque style being uniquely combined with the imperial architecture of the time. “By perfecting the Ottoman architectural method, Sinan assisted a new empire in acquiring the order and grandeur of those of the past.”[1]

Conclusion:

Replacing the medieval Gothic style, Renaissance archiecture spread throughout Europe during the 15th century. Finding harmony between buildings and human proportions made it clear to understand the difference between space and mass. This helped it stand out from the previous and more complex Gothic style. Buildings like the Suleymaniye Mosque which is a prime example of use of space helped put the Renaissance movement on the map. Renaissance is associated with rebirth, freedom, light, creativity and openness. A differenmt artistic view of life and reality. It was not a sudden change, it was a period of questioning all aspects of life through trial and error.

03 Identity Tectonics

Introduction

Foreign styles heavily influenced architecture in the early 19th century. New engineering methods and materials were fused with old styles of architecture. New elements are also being used like iron and how iron structures paved the way for more modern techniques in construction. Gothic architecture revival and what makes something gothic. Progressing the movement more and more while harmonizing its nature, beauty, and connection to the heavens. Neoclassical architecture is classical Greek and Roman architecture combined. Being more simplistic than the rest, the movement played an essential role in the development of the country’s style.

Paris, Les Halles, Interior View, Victor Baltard

The New Elements [Alex Rithiphong | Shane Stone | Luc Thorington]

In the 19th century, iron gained popularity because of its structural potential and had favorable properties over stone and wood. Iron was cheaper than stone and had better structural capacity. It could withstand fire better than wood, which made it favorable to prevent catastrophic fire damage in buildings. Casting iron parts made the assembly of buildings much easier because they could be prefabricated in bulk and shipped to the site. The pros of iron outweigh the cons, which explains why it was used as a structural element in buildings in this time period. Relating back to the Les Halles, the interior of the building has exposed iron trusses, which was a popular design element. The columns were likely made of iron because of their structural strength, which supported the weight of glass. Iron and glass were a popular combination for buildings in the early nineteenth century, and were especially seen in France and England. During this time, glass became another elemental breakthrough for buildings. Following another of the great elementals of construction, Glass had become an expressive entity in the mid-19th century. The success of using glass in new construction was the very purpose of filling enclo-sures in architecture. Commonly used in a web-like pattern, the new ingenuity in glass paved the way for more aesthetic pleasure and art galleries. Popular uses of glass involved integration within commercial and agricultural buildings in the mid-19th century. The most noticeable combination of glass was the Hal-le au Ble’s dome after it had suffered major damage in a fire. In 1813, François-Joseph Belanger changed the wooden and glass frame to a stronger iron structure to accompany the glass in the dome.

Paris, Halle au Ble, rebuilt by Francois-Joseph Belanger, 1813

Following another of the great elementals of construction, Glass had become an expressive entity in the mid-19th century. The success of using glass in new construction was the very purpose of filling enclosures in architecture. Commonly used in a web-like pattern the new enginuity in glass paved the way for more aesthetica pleasure and artistic galleries. Popular uses of glass involved integration within commercial and agricultural buildings in the mid-19th century. Most noticeable combination of glass was the Halle au Ble’s dome after it had suffered major damage in a fire. In 1813, François-Joseph Belanger changed out the wooden and glass frame to a stronger iron structure to accompany the glass in the dome.

Glass continued to have more or a spread and influence due to its harmonic combination with Iron. More and more this style of design began to pop across more important structures in France. A big use of the Glass aesthetics was in the Galerie Vivienne, finished in 1823, where the use of leftover space was covered and integrated into the building itself with the material combinations. The inner facades and shops were brought to harmony with the mosaic pavements, complemented by the overhead iron and glass roofs on metal struts. Thanks to the creative idea of Francois Jean Delannoy, Paris, France began to develop over 150 arcades with this design. Glass’s impact on light, aesthetic, and enclosure purposes is what ruled superior during the mid-19th century. Besides the Iron and Glass combination of construction, building identities included another element in their ways of building. Joining glass and iron was the use of steel construction in these aesthetically pleasing buildings.

In the mid-19th century, Gustave Eiffel had begun to perfect the art of iron construction, particularly in the area of webbed trusses. Web trusses were “Systems of open web struts, organized into triangular, folded or criss-cross patterns… made from skeletal trusses that have the depth of beams without the mass”. These structures were a monumental feat in constructing bridges, notably used by Eiffel in his Maria Pia Viaduct in 1877. Although incredibly structural, these Iron webbed trusses would soon transition into steel, a material even stronger in tension. Steel webbed trusses would kickstart the second industrial revolution with the building of the Forth Bridge near Edinburgh.

This beautiful steel bridge then gave way to an American icon, the Brooklyn Bridge. It was created by “America’s greatest bridge-builder”, John Roebling, who had revolutionized bridges by using much stronger woven steel cables instead of iron chains. His ability to implement old techniques with innovative steel technologies allowed him to create a number of large structures that still stand today. With the fast-paced transitions between new materials and architectural strategies during the 19th century, we can only wonder what new material breakthroughs we’ll see in our lifetime. [1]

The Beauty of Gothic Architecture [Rodrigo Moreno | Camille Pollak | Cole Watson]

Gothic architecture evolved from a medieval aesthetic, valuing height and delicate design. The quest for height led architects to thin out their walls and implement flying buttresses. These supports allowed the buildings to reach new heights, emphasizing the distance toward the heavens. The reach towards the sky also emphasized the delicate, almost too perfect for earth aesthetic, that went along with Gothic architecture. To counteract the overwhelming space, the columns were slimmed down, no longer supporting so much of the structure thanks to the support of the flying buttresses. As decoration developed further with the fast spread of Gothic architecture throughout Europe, windows were enlarged and the vault became more complex. The use of stained glass in the enlarged windows only added more to the soft “ethereal” style, capturing the viewer’s attention towards the heavens. The adaption of these structural aspects into tall, natural lit-up spaces, was the goal of Gothic architecture. The architects saw light as heavenly, with the ability to assist in alleviating a human consciousness from Earth to Heaven. They continued to push the limits of the style, progressing the design stages more and more. [2]

WORCESTERSHIRE, BROADWAY TOWER [DEAN KURPICKI The Broadway Tower is a pristine example of architecture that is nearly functionally useless, besides expressing one’s pride for their country and avoiding putting it harshly, their ego. Gothic architecture can easily be considered one of the most complex and visually appealing styles of the Middle Ages. So, it is no surprise that during the 18th century, it experienced a sort of spiritual rebirth. Not all of the buildings constructed in this style, though, were necessarily successful as a gothic construction. One such example is the Broadway Tower, an almost odd-looking tower, constructed on Beacon Hill at the cusp of the 18th century. The tower was built as an amalgamation of architectural styles, and the evidence of gothic is certainly available. What makes the gothic nature of its construction so much more important than the other styles, however, is the meaning that was attributed to it at the time. For, the gothic style emerged again at the time of the British Empire’s push for expansion. Europe as a whole, in fact, was experiencing an increase in the strengthening of their nations. Germany, for example, was modernizing under the Prussians and turned to gothic nationalistic architecture to express that. [3]

John Ruskin, a prominent Victorian writer exerted an outstanding influence on his latest artists and sociologists. His ideas on aesthetics, architecture, and humanity found many supporters in his lifetime. Although the facade of a Gothic building was not very exciting to the eyes of modern pedestrians, it materialized a harmony with nature and original beauty, “a mountain brotherhood between the cathedral and the Alp.” is what Ruskin would say. The uniqueness of Gothic architecture is an obvious disagreement with the symmetrical appearance of modern buildings. As well as other things, such roughness represents nature, and natural beauty, as opposed to mechanical and industrialized urban life, which results in separation from nature. That is why Ruskin judges the misinterpretation of the term Gothic “It is true, greatly and deeply true, that the architecture of the North is rude and wild but it is not true that, for this reason, we are to judge it or despise it. The next characteristic of Gothic architecture, according to Ruskin, is “Grotesqueness.” Unlike other elements, the term “grotesque” isn’t clearly defined in “The Nature of Gothic”, Ruskin says that he will delay the definition of the word as any reader familiar with Gothic already knows what is meant by “grotesqueness.” [4]

BERLIN, GERMANY, ALTES MUSEUM [RACHEL CARFAGNO, ALEX MARKARIAN, AND CAMILLA MARUCA] Became the first significant museum in Berlin in 1822, designed by Schinkel. His idea was to bring Enlightenment architecture and ideology into the Gothic era. The rather shape of the building has both enlightenment and also Gothic style characteristics. The Altes Museum represented its enlightenment qualities through its geometric cylinder-like columns and its overall box-shaped symmetry. Also, the museum shared gothic characteristics. The building consists of cavernous openings through the front entrance that is broken up by the 18 columns and the empty space between the main building and the front columns. The Altes Museum’s plan shows the true symmetry that the Enlightenment and gothic share. “dictates neither a square grid nor forcing all of the rooms into perfect symmetrical relations.” The material that the majority consists of is stone which is the main building material in both architectural eras. [5]

Neoclassical architecture is a revival of the classical Greek and Roman elements and ideas which occurred during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The architectural style shares the same principles as classical architecture such as the use of symmetry, proportion, and grids. These influences also include the work by Vitruvius and Palladio. Unlike the Baroque and Rococo, Neoclassical architecture is more simplistic in detail and utilizes the orders of the Greeks and Romans. In America, Neoclassical architecture was born after the establishment of its democratic government. The founding principle of the country was that everyone should have a voice. This idea was originally established by the Greeks and Romans, so reviving their architectural style for America’s urban planning and political buildings made sense.

CHARLOTTESVILLE, VIRGINIA THE ROTUNDA [JAN LERDDEEKUNLAM] The Jeffersonian architecture was a style diverted from the Neoclassical architecture movement which was respectfully named after the US president, Thomas Jefferson. These styles were noticeable in his home and the university he founded, as well as in the designs of his friends’ and allies’ homes. Jefferson was influenced by the architecture of Rome, specifically The Pantheon, and tried to replicate the style as he designed the University of Virginia’s Rotunda. He designed it to represent the “authority of nature and power of reason.” [6] Thomas Jefferson used the dimensions of the Pantheon to guide the proportions of the Rotunda. However, the dimensions of his building are much smaller in comparison, with the exterior diameter of Jefferson’s dome being only 77 feet, and the interior diameter of the Pantheon’s dome being 143 feet, so, the university is “ half that of the Pantheon and consequently one fourth in area, and one eighth in volume.” [7] THE BRANDENBURG GATE [SANTIAGO DIAZ] A former symbol of the divided city, it drew visitors who used to climb an observation platform to get a glimpse of the world behind the Iron Curtain, on the other side of the barren “death-strip” which separated East from West Berlin, geographically and politically. Moreover, the horse seems to be an important animal figure in German architecture. Throughout Northern Europe, the horse was not only regarded as a symbol, given the powerful means of travel; but embodied something powerfully in that regard. It was believed that the thunder of their invading hoofbeats combined with their shrill whinnies could even drive away from the weights of their enemies. Furthermore, the Doric columns have a constructional difference from the other classical paragons: On the inner surface, they are massively intensified with stonework. The composition of the six-column Doric portico flanked symmetrically by lower colonnaded structures evoked Julien-David Leroy’s depictions of the Propylaea in Athens. The attic and the inner surfaces of the passages are covered with reliefs which are showing among other things the deeds of Hercules. [8]

FRIEDRICHSWERDSCHE CHURCH [ERICSON BONILLA] Fredrich Schinkel had the Fredrichswerdsche Church Built in the early 19th Century in 1823. This Building had been built with Reinforced Concrete. The Columns used were Non-loadbearing.

OLD ROYAL HIGH SCHOOL [OLIVER BURDICK] Sitting atop a hill, towering over the Edinburgh skyline, the Old Royal High School certainly lives up to its name, displaying a neoclassical, Greek Doric style.1 The school was designed by Thomas Hamilton, and construction was completed in 1829, but the original design was a bit more extravagant than what is seen today, featuring more statues and in-depth landscape architecture. With significant donations from the royal family and the rest covered by the state, Hamilton focused on the “royal” aesthetics of the high school in an attempt to satisfy the donors. The Dynamic Nature of neoclassical architecture considers the chance of future repurposing, as the once High School was later used by the Scottish Assembly. This worked out smoothly, given that the building’s façade only implies its significance, not its function. Concurrently, the school was moved to a larger site to account for more students. [9] AWQAF MINISTRY BUILDING, CAIRO [CESAR DASILVA] While finding the history of the Awqaf Ministry Building in Cairo Egypt is not an easy task, when looking at its facade we can see a complex mix of colors and patterning. We can see the precedent in this use of intricacy and bright coloring throughout Islamic architecture where historically the harder-to-obtain colored stone was used in only places of importance. The choices in the stone color create accents that draw the eye inward to the center of the building. This is done using the crisp while and dark almost bluestone to create a funnel. While lighter colored with intricate detailing and bright coloring show the importance of the building. The blue colors are known to represent perfection, peace, and loyalty while the yellow and brown surrounding stone can indicate ease of mind and social security. The color and placement of the stone regardless of the intricate engravings notify us that it is a place of peace and importance inside. Without knowing the importance of this building we can see it is valued just through the richness in the quality of its stonework. [10] After the American revolutionary war, the new country was seeking to build itself, so it took inspiration from Britain and France. They “largely followed the neoclassical models of their ex-mother country but, because of the fledgling republic’s alliance with France during the war, also looked to French models for pure forms and geometric planning”(Ingersoll 652). Due to this, many early and significant structures in America have similar characteristics to French and British classical architecture. This includes banks, city planning, capital building, and other important buildings. One of the first and most innovative architects of the new America was Benjamin Henry Latrobe. He designed many buildings that followed the classical and neoclassical styles. One such building was The Baltimore Basilica. It was the first Roman Catholic cathedral built in the United States that followed the Neoclassical style by Benjamin Henry Latrobe. He combined Roman and Greek architecture while designing the church. “The Basilica follows the model established by the Roman Pantheon ... Here, Latrobe successfully married Catholic liturgical traditions with the bold rational geometry of the neoclassical style”(Lavoie). The church used simple geometric forms and had a temple front with a dramatic series of ionic columns. Figure x: Baltimore. St. Mary’s Cathedral, Latrobe, 1806. [11]

KEDLESTON, DERBYSHIRE, KEDLESTON HALL [OLIVIA KIERSTEAD] Kedleston Hall is a structure of evolving architectural styles and ideas with the purpose of exuding power and accommodating guests in large numbers. The grand project of the hall was begun by James Paine, who followed the more “correct” interpretation of the Palladian style, and the project was completed in 1759 by Robert Adams who continued to follow Palladian forms but with modest, modern twists. The two variations in design can be seen in the difference between Paine’s north side of the hall and Robert’s south side. “Endowed with an accomplished archaeological perspective on ancient works, Adam created an original style by combining and imitating rather than copying classical models.” [12]

ROYAL SCOTTISH ACADEMY [CHARLIE CLARKE] The Royal Scottish Academy was conjured in part by the “Scottish Academy” which was established by a group of successful artists in 1826. The academy did not see many accomplishments till the implication of a “Royal charter” by the Royal family of the United Kingdom in the year 1838. A royal charter is when the royal family backs or incorporates themselves into the development of their choice signifying the “Charter” aspect. The detailed drawing that I developed was actually part of a package of renditions of what the school was supposed to look like and be developed after. The renditions vary but the building which is now called the “Royal Highschool” is a keystone to the actual modeling and development as these two developments are very similar in terms of a grand scale and developed elevations. As mentioned above, Neoclassicism architecture played an important role in the development of countries’ “architectural style”. Using these principles of symmetry, order, etc., buildings were given a stately demeanor, and thus their presence was (and still is) notable. Especially was this seen in democratic countries such as the United States and France. The early architects of America chose this style to represent their beliefs, that the people should have a say in their governments. Knowing this leads us to ask the question; Can architecture really have a role in determining ‘national identity. When architecture and politics meet, what are the results? Are they good or bad? This form of syncretism seems to be able to pave the way for newly developed countries/ governments to “find their voice”, which can be seen by the example of neoclassical structures adopted by the United States of America. [13]

Conclusion

The 19th century was innovative and took inspiration from past architectural movements/languages. This chapter made it easy to understand where the different movements derived from and why. Finding new ways to express design and having different materials can join to create beautiful pieces of art. The revival of Gothic architecture getting thrown into the mix was extremely different from the Neoclassical movement but achieved the same goal of innovation

04 Technological Modernities

Introduction

When it comes to the topic of iron, it was barely seen in architecture until the 19th century, but it was continuously in use. As the nineteenth century eventually came around, people began to realize how reliable, and durable it is, as well as the structural potential it provides, and, as a result, stopped constructing buildings and structures in the forms of arcades. Many examples of the positive outcomes this material provides is a decrease in expenses due to iron being cheaper than stone. It does better with fire than wood ever would, and the material is lightweight and easier to ship in bulk due to its prefabrication and ready-made assembly. As a result of what this material is capable of, it has been used in many structures and buildings over the years, such as: the Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton, the Halle au Ble by Francois - Joseph Belanger, and the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II by Giuseppe Mengoni. Explained throughout this chapter is the way iron and glass are used in the construction of a building and many examples of structures and buildings that use these materials.

Building with Iron: From Living to Transportation [Olivia Kierstead]

Iron is one of the most prominent materials which emerged from the Industrial Revolution as an essential building element, not only for architecture but for emerging feats of engineering, too. A form of architecture which became important during this time was known as the ferrovitreous technique. It used iron and glass to construct large, fireproof structures such as factories, train stations, bridges, and warehouses. Using iron to build things like web-trusses, suspension cables, and tubes for bridges, architects and engineers worked hand-in-hand to discover the possibilities of the material. “The greatest advances in iron construction commenced with Stephenson’s long-span bridges for his railways. His posthumously completed Britannia Bridge of 1850 over the Menai Strait, located within view of Telford’s suspension bridge, introduced another kind of national symbol.”9. Using the newly created iron railways, iron truss pieces and other large elements were able to be transported more quickly and efficiently. Though it sacrificed the beauty seen in the previous common styles of delicate and ornamental classical forms, the age of iron buildings allowed the pace of engineering and architectural innovations to skyrocket.

Challenges in Skyscraper Construction [Santiago Diaz | Charlie Clarke]

As a result of population growth during the 19th century and an inevitable outcome of increasing urbanization, skyscrapers became indispensable to expanding residential space in many cities across the country. This settlement process was a radical and laborious challenge for numerous urban designers, given the long history of human inhabitation during the construction of these towers. The earliest highrise buildings were placed on a very thick stone wall on the first floor, and the architects soon used cast iron and wrought iron frames to support the weight of the upper floors. However, other challenges were difficult to overcome. Elevators and fireproof materials were essential for the success of these types of tall buildings. The problems defining the progress of skyscraper developments are many, and it could be easy to get lost in the various logistic difficulties, without even considering the demographic and environmental possibilities. During the 19th century, though, the most defining issue was a simple one: How could a structural system support the weight of so many levels? Architectural use of iron was a new innovation, and the limits were just barely beginning to be tested, but it was this technology that would ultimately prove to be skyscrapers’ salvation. By using steel girders and supports, skyscrapers were made to be strong, and resistant to the ever-present pressure of gravity. This was in contrast to some of the architectural preferences at the time though, as many still wanted these buildings to be adorned with the decorations of the past, which provided more structural concerns. In time, though, this desire was stripped away, with skyscrapers in particular developing a rough, much more industrial look. A second structural concern was with the involvement of windows, and glass. They were necessary for the use of the building; however, the taller nature of skyscrapers would inherently restrict natural light, causing the windows to be functionally useless. The solution to this, the 1916 Zoning Law in New York, set the stage for Manhattanism, a common way of designing these structures to maximize natural light. It dictated a method of stepping onto skyscrapers every few levels, creating an almost ziggurat-like effect. The Chrysler Building and Empire State Building would become prime examples of this. While the issue of structure was solved, though, there was still an underlying problem in terms of usage - though that was quickly solved as well. The use of elevators in the early age of sky rises and skyscrapers was fundamental to the layout of a particular sky rise. The development of elevators essentially flipped the fundamentals of the program

layout in a skyscraper. Traditionally the more important and successful companies would be housed on the lower floors of the building because it was less work for them to have to make the effort to walk up several flights of staircases. Leaving the less influential and successful companies to have to make the trek up the flights of stairs, the establishment of an elevator truly flipped this around. The development of an elevator was truly in the intention of developing convenience and economy. Truly the only downside to having and developing the elevator was that it changed the way buildings were being developed as there had to be a true process to the design and actual development. The whole point of the elevator was to relieve the stress of having to climb multiple staircases as well as to make easy access for patrons articulating around a certain structure. Skyscrapers have become an essential piece of urbanism. Perhaps, it is the most popular building type nowadays; however, it was a completely revolutionary structure during the 19th century. It led architects and engineers to go out of their comfort zone and explore new techniques and ways to utilize materials in better ways. They managed to find a way to make iron structures, moving on from the thicker masonry used before for most foundations. Moreover, technology and innovation like elevators helped them find faster vertical transport through these buildings. “The development of steel I-beams was precisely what architects needed in order to build taller buildings; as a result, skyscrapers began to shoot up high into the sky”

HOW IRON REVOLUTIONIZED CONSTRUCTION [LUC THORINGTON] The Galleria Vittorio paved the way for the glazed arcade typology in the 19th century. With iron technology on the rise, architect Giuseppe Mengoni set out to make a connection between Milan’s two major public spaces, Piazza del Duomo and Piazza Della Scala. This connection occupied four blocks, and consisted of multi-story masonry buildings surrounding perpendicular avenues, each covered with a vaulted glass ceiling. The buildings included “two levels of retail, three levels of office space, and residential units above the glass vaults”2. At the center was a cupola measuring almost 12m high and 39m in diameter. This domeshaped ceiling proved to be a serious challenge, but resulted in what would have been an architectural feat at the time and inspired every major city in Italy to replicate it. In order to construct it, iron pullins needed to be connected to horizontal I beams which spanned between sections of the masonry buildings. Additionally, iron walkways and sliding stairs were needed for maintenance around the vaulted ceilings of double-paned, laminated glass. These architectural advancements in structure as well as preservation have allowed this building to stand for over 150 years

The Benefits of Ferro vitreous Construction [Oliver Burdick | Alex Markarian | Cesar Dasilva]

The Rand McNally Building was the first skyscraper with an all-steel frame, setting the groundwork for modern American cities. It was completed in 1889 by Burnham and Root, costing over one million dollars, which is equivalent to around 33 million in 2021. It was the tallest building on the Chicago skyline, standing at 148 feet.3 The frame of the building was made entirely out of Z bar steel columns, covered by a neoclassical façade. This style would set the stage for other projects, lining the streets in cities throughout America soon after. As a result, tall commercial office buildings became a crucial component for large businesses. Surprisingly, with 16 stores and 300 offices, it was common to see over 500 workers inhabiting the Rand McNally building daily until its eventual demolition in 1911. An important moment in architectural history was destroyed, but it left its foundation for bigger, better projects to come.