SPA Delhi | Dissertation 2020
Ephemeral Architecture Designing for Disassembly
Dissertation Report
Author: Mansanjam Kaur
Guide- Dr. Shweta Manchanda
Roll no: A/2939/2016,
Coordinator- Prof. Jaya Kumar
5th Year B.Arch
SPA Delhi | Dissertation 2020
DECLARATION The research work embodied in this dissertation titled “Ephemeral Architecture- Designing for Disassembly” has been carried out by the undersigned as part of the undergraduate Dissertation programme in the Department of Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, under the supervision of Dr. Shweta Manchanda (name of guide). The undersigned hereby declares that this is his/her original work and has not been plagiarised in part or full form from any source.
Signature of candidate
Name : Mansanjam Kaur Roll No.: A/2939/2016 Year and Section: 5th year, section A Date: 2nd December 2020
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Certificate This dissertation, titled ‘Ephemeral Architecture- Designing for Disassembly’ by Mansanjam Kaur, roll no. A/2939/2016, was carried out during the Fifth Year, Ninth Semester (2020) B.Arch. Program in the Department of Architecture, under our guidance during September - December 2020. On completion of the report in all aspects and based on the declaration by the candidate above, we provisionally accept this dissertation report and forward the same to the Department of Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, India.
Dr. SHWETA MANCHANDA Research Guide
Prof. Dr. JAYA KUMAR Research Coordinator
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Acknowledgement This dissertation would not have been possible without the help and support of a number of individuals, and I would like to give them due credit. I would like to thank my guide Dr. Shweta Manchanda for her guidance, encouragement and utmost patience as well as for providing the necessary information and support required to go through with this dissertation. I would also like to thank my dissertation coordinator, Prof. Jaya Kumar for her inputs and supervising my work throughout the course of this semester. Last but not the least, I would like to thank my friends and family who supported me throughout the semester and helped me gain a better understanding of the topic.
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Abstract Early obsolescence in the built environment is increasing the number of demolitions and hence the generation of waste, making architectural practice an unsustainable affair. However, architects still continue to design buildings for permanence, without giving much thought to their future possibilities. That being the case, the study attempts to understand the potential of ephemerality as a sustainable alternative to contemporary architecture, through a design for disassembly model (Dfd). Previous research has majorly explored the adaptive advantages of ephemeral architecture, with a limited focus on its environment friendly aspects due to its deployability. Thus, to understand the working of a dfd model and measure its potential in the real world, a review of the existing literature has been done along with a case study analysis of different types of ephemeral structures. Also, an assessment of the prevalent certification systems has been conducted along with an in-depth expert interview, to get a deeper insight into its implementation. The study has found out that even though the execution of a dfd model is economically, socially, and environmentally feasible, its application is limited to achieving cost effective design solutions only, with a neglectance towards its significance as a tool for sustainability. It further reveals the significant role of the user in taking decisions regarding the disassembly of the structure. Therefore, the study concludes that the adoption of a modular approach and incorporation of dfd as a criteria for sustainability in the environmental certification systems enhance its applicability by helping architects to make environmentally informed decisions and simultaneously encourage the users to opt for disassembly. This makes the application of a dfd approach to rise out of sustainability considerations, thus, raising the value of sustainable design from being an optional addition to an unavoidable design criteria in architecture. Keywords: Design for disassembly, ephemeral architecture, circular design, sustainability
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1- Introduction 1.1 Background 1.2 Research Question 1.3 Need for study 1.4 Aim and Objectives 1.5 Scope and Limitations 1.6 Summary
13 13 14 14 15 15 16
Chapter 2- Permanence in architecture 2.1 Introduction 2.2 What are permanent structures? 2.3 Why are permanent structures still prevalent? 2.3.1 Intersection of permanence with durability 2.1.2 Intersection of permanence with aesthetics 2.4‘Cradle to grave’- The design approach for permanent structures 2.5 Summary
18 18 18 19 19 19 20 22
Chapter 3--Shift towards ephemerality 3.1 Introduction 3.2. Transformation to tackle Obsolescence 3.3. Ephemeral architecture 3.4.Designing for disassembly 3.4.1 Disassembly characteristics of a structure: 3.5 Disassembly and building transformation: 3.6 Summary
23 23 23 23 24 24 27 28
Chapter 4- The sustainable ephemeral 4.1 Introduction: 4.2 Dfd and the 3R system: 4.3 Dfd as a means for energy reduction 4.4 Dfd as a means for future preservation: 4.5 Conclusion:
29 29 29 30 31 32
Chapter 5- Detailed Methodology
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5.1 Introduction 5.2 Justification for the methodology 5.3 Research Framework 5.4 Research Procedures 5.4.1 Case study Identification: 5.4.2 Selected Case studies 5.4.3 Expert Interview 5.5 Ethical considerations 5.6 Summary
33 33 33 35 35 37 38 38 38
Chapter 6- Case Study Analysis 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Case study 1- Cellophane House, New York 6.3 Case study 2- Pop up House, France 6.4 Case study 4-Puma City 6.5 Case study 3-COVID-Responsive Pop-Up School 6.6 Case studies : Comparative matrix 6.7. Assessment of LEED and Griha: 6.8. Expert interview 6.9. Summary:
39 39 39 46 53 59 64 68 69 70
Chapter 7- Findings
71
Chapter 8-Conclusions 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Conclusions 8.3 Further Research 8.4 Summary
74 74 74 77 77
References
78
Bibliography
79
Appendix A:
82
Appendix B:
83
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Literature review structure…………………….....……………………....…………………....…………...17 (author) Figure 2: integration of material, structure and space within a permanent structure…………………...…….....…...18 (Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer) Figure 3: ‘cradle to grave’ flow of resources in buildings ..........................................................................................20 (Design for disassembly. Crowther P.) Figure 4: showing the aspect of functional decomposition...........................................................................................24 (Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer) Figure 5: showing the aspect of clustering/systemisation.............................................................................................25 (Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer) Figure 6: showing the aspect of open v/s closed hierarchy..........................................................................................25 (Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer) Figure 7: showing the aspect of assembly sequences..................................................................................................26 (Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer) Figure 8. Parallel assembly sequence............................................................................................................................26 (Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer) Figure 9. Sequential assembly sequence.......................................................................................................................26 (Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer) Figure 10: disassembly - the key for building transformation, ....................................................................................27 (Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer) Figure 11. Significance of the dfd model in waste management hierarchy .................................................................30 (Design for disassembly and deconstruction-challenges and opportunities, Rios, Chong & Grau, p.)
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Figure 12. Detailed research framework.......................................................................................................................34 (author) Figure 13 . Cellophane house exterior view ………………………....………………………………………………,39 (inhabitat.com) Figure 14: showing the smartwrap facade………………….………………..………………………………...….….40 (flickr.com) Figure 15 : showing the separation of the structure, facade, and internal partitions……..…………………………...41 (kierantimberlake.com) Figure 16: showing the clustering systems in cellophane house ………………..………………………......……,…42 (wordpress.com) Figure 17: showing prefabricated industrially procured aluminium frames……...…………………………….……,42 (researchgate.net) Figure 18: showing a pre assembled bathroom pod…….………….…..…………………………………….………,43 (researchgate.net) Figure 19: Diagram showing the breakup of subassemblies in cellophane house…...….…………………...………,43 (author) Figure 20: Diagram showing single dependence of all the building components to the base element.,……………...44 (author) Figure 21: Pop up house…………………………………………………………………………...…...………,…….46 (archdaily.com) Figure 22:showing separation of rainscreen facade with the structure …………………………………………..,….47 (philippespagnoli.com) Figure 23:showing the EPS blocks and wooden frames as the load bearing walls of the house...……………….,….47 (archdaily.com)
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SPA Delhi | Dissertation 2020 Figure 24: showing the sequential arrangement of different layers in the building………………...…………….,….48 ( popup-house.com) Figure 25: showing one lego module of EPS block and structural timber ..................................………………...….49 (source: popup-house.com) Figure 26: showing the floor assembly …...................................................................................................……,...….49 (source: archdaily.com) Figure 27: showing the connection of floor assembly to the ground………...............................................……,...….49 (popup-house.com) Figure 28:showing the sequential layering of material finishes as well as the lego blocks…………….....……,...….50 (philippespagnoli.com) Figure 29: Diagram showing the sequential clustering of lego blocks.……...…………………………...……,...….51 (author) Figure 30; showing the screw connections for floor assembly………………..………...…………………...…,...….51 (designboom.com) Figure 31: Puma City…………...………………………………………………..……………………………..,...….53 (lot-ek.com) Figure 32: showing the interior space of puma city……...…………………………………………..…………,...….55 (lot-ek.com) Figure 33 showing plug in electrical and HVAC systems ……...………………………………………………,...….55 (retaildesignblog.net) Figure 34: showing clusters of shipping containers stacked to form the building……...………………………,...….56 (lot-ek.com) Figure 35: COVID responsive pop up school…………...…………………………………………………,..…,...….59 (archdaily.com) Figure 36: showing additive nature of the classroom modules to form bigger clusters …………………,..…..,...….59 (archdaily.com)
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Figure 37: showing the interior space of one classroom…………………………………...………………,..…,...….61 ( archdaily.com) Figure 38: showing the three subassemblies and the clustering sequence…………………,..…,..…,..…,..,..…,...….62 (archdaily.com) Figure 39: showing dependent relations between the three subassemblies …,..…..…,....…,....,..…,..…,..,..…,....….62 (author)
List of tables Table 1: Parameters for case study evaluation……………………………………………..……………………...…,36 (author) Table 2: Selected case studies……………………………………………….……………..………………..….…,…37 (author) Table 3: Analysis- Cellophane house………………………………….…………………...………………..…..…,.44 ( author) Table 4: Analysis- Pop up house……………………….…………………...…………………...…....………….…,52 (author) Table 5: Analysis- Puma city…………….…………….…………………...…………………...…....…………,.…57 (author) Table 6: Analysis- Covid responsive school…….…………………..……...…………………...…....………….....63 (author) Table 7- Comparative matrix: case studies.……...…………………...…....……...…....…..…...…....……………,65 (author) Table 8-Inclusion of design criteria for dfd in:LEED and Griha……...…....…..…...…..…...…….....……………,69 ( author)
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List of Abbreviations ● Dfd- Designing for disassembly ● LCA- Life cycle assessment ● C & D waste - Construction and demolition waste
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Chapter 1- Introduction
This chapter briefly touches upon the background and need for study which then help to formulate the research hypothesis. The research problem is divided up into a set of more focussed aims and objectives. These objectives help to set the scope of the study as well as its limitations.
1.1 Background ‘Obsolescence paves way for impermanence’.(Crowther, 1999a) Contemporary culture is constantly changing, new technological advancements take place every day, creating a state of transience and uncertainty in the urban realm. This influences the expectations towards the physical surroundings as well. Contrary to this, the buildings are still based on the ideas of permanence. Architects intend to design buildings that defy the course of time. But, as our expectations of the built environment keep on changing, the majority of buildings designed on this idea are rendered as mere liabilities in a very short span of time. This constant need to make buildings that outlive their creators in the hope that these would last as symbols of eternity as the monuments do in our time, overshadows the reality of death in buildings. It introduces an element of linearity in the life cycle of a building which ends with the building getting demolished, on turning obsolete. The most convenient practice then becomes to remove things which are of immediate value and demolish the rest of the building due to difficulty of disassembling the building components.(Crowther, 1999a) Therefore, demolition often precedes construction in order to make way for new buildings. (Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, 2018)
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Regular demolitions and construction activities increase resource consumption and C & D waste generation by significant amounts, putting an enormous impact on the environment. (Ferreira Silva, et al., 2020) The disposable nature of the fast paced modern world, thus, demands the alteration of the contemporary architectural practices fixated upon the notions of permanence, in order to replenish the fast depleting natural resources by reducing waste generation.
1.2 Research Question How can ephemerality be applied to contemporary architecture as a potentially sustainable alternative ?
1.3 Need for study Currently, India is under a construction boom. (Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, 2018) Indian cities being densely populated, land shortage always remains an issue. Land paucity makes it difficult for the setup of waste management facilities. (Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, 2018) In addition to this, the constantly increasing demolition waste and limited amount of landfill sites, add extra burden on solid waste management plans, which are already in a fix to tackle the rising municipal waste due to the increasing urban population and urban developments. (Shrivastava & Chini, 2009) Dearth of proper waste management facilities and frequent demolitions rising out of the constant ignorance towards the mortality of the built environment, cause large amounts of construction material and the embodied energy of the building components to get wasted. Embodied energy of a building entails the energy required in the construction process, building assembly and the manufacturing of the raw materials used in that building. (Crowther, 1999b)
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As the focus of the contemporary sustainability practices centre majorly around the optimisation of a building’s operational energy, its embodied energy gets sidelined somewhere. The current strategies to reduce the embodied energy also, are limited to reducing the energy contained within the building materials. These strategies completely neglect the energy that goes into the assembly of the various building components. But as it is a significant contributor to the large carbon footprint, it becomes imperative to forsake the linearity rising out of the notions of permanence and pick up on a circular approach through a more ephemeral variant of architecture.
1.4 Aim and Objectives Aim: The aim of the study is to analyse the potential of ephemeral architecture as a sustainable alternative to contemporary practice. Objectives: ● To understand the connection between ephemerality and sustainability through designing for disassembly.(dfd) ● To identify the key design principles which form the basis for a dfd model ● To understand the current situation regarding the use of dfd as a tool for sustainable architecture. ● To analyse the possible ways in which dfd can be incorporated in architectural practice as a sustainable tool for design.
1.5 Scope and Limitations Scope: The scope of the study is limited to the aspect of designing for disassembly in achieving circular design through ephemeral architecture. The focus area of the study is restricted at the building level and does not take into account the impacts at the larger urban scale.
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Limitations: ● Due to the situation of global pandemic, it is beyond the scope of the study to draw conclusions on the basis of primary sources. Hence, the study relies on secondary sources only. ● Time constraint of four months limits the study. ● The author’s knowledge on circular design and designing for disassembly is limited and this restricts the overall analysis of the study.
1.6 Summary The transience of contemporary culture, thus urges the current architectural practice to reduce the huge carbon footprint produced due to frequent demolitions of the more permanent built forms. Therefore, the study attempts to explore the potential and application of this ephemeral variant in the field of sustainable construction.
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Figure 1: Literature review structure (source-author)
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Chapter 2- Permanence in architecture
2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews literature on the myths of permanence in the built environment, which are still prevalent in contemporary culture. It intends to explore the cause and consequence of holding on to the myth of immortality, which eventually leads towards a linear approach to design, thus, clashing with the ideas of sustainability.
2.2 What are permanent structures? Permanence can be defined as a condition or a state which continues to exist without any change. (Touw,2006) Hence permanent structures in the realm of architecture are designed with an aim of achieving immortal existence without any change in the structural or spatial configuration of the building throughout its life span. These structures are developed as final products with a strong integration of their material, technical and spatial systems. A small change in one of these components impacts the whole building system. (Durmisevic, E. and Brouwer, J, 2002)
Figure 2: integration of material, structure and space within a permanent structure. (source-Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer)
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2.3 Why are permanent structures still prevalent? Even though permanent construction has huge impacts on the environment, there is a common prejudice against impermanent structures for being of low quality and the permanent ones for being more durable. This leads to a lagging prevalence of permanence in contemporary architecture. Thus, it becomes imperative to understand these common myths regarding permanent structures.
2.3.1 Intersection of permanence with durability ‘A faultless wall may be built to last forever’- Vitruvius (cited in Touw, 2006) The idea of durability is considered as a corollary to the ideas of permanence in architecture. This limits one’s understanding of it as an ‘absolute’ concept. (Touw,2006) Absolutism in architecture raises the building to a stance of immortality, defying to look at it as a utility object (such as an automobile), where obsolescence and routine maintenance are an expected phenomenon. (Ford,1997) Intersection of durability with permanence is derived from the historic buildings and monuments. Monuments are considered as epitomes of durability, whereas in reality, the structures that we see today are simply the reconstructed or modified versions of the original buildings. But, these modern replacements and reconstruction activities are overlooked by treating them as originals. Hence, the collective amnesia towards the reality of transience in buildings, underlines the influence of an absolutist version of permanence which still lingers on in contemporary society. (Ford,1997)
2.1.2 Intersection of permanence with aesthetics The modernist approach towards the built environment is majorly of ‘magazine architecture’ (Brand,1995, p.123). Most buildings today fall under this category. ‘Magazine architecture’ endorses buildings with radical and impressive looking forms reducing these to works of art. (Brand, 1995) Crumpling art with architecture, induces a need to design buildings as iconic
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sculptures intended to make a statement in their physical surroundings. This leads to a desire of retaining these works of art for eternity, and misleads an architect's perception of a building as a static rather than a dynamic affair. As a result, the end of life stage of the building is overlooked, orienting the act of design to a path of linearity. (Brand, 1995)
2.4‘Cradle to grave’- The design approach for permanent structures The linearity in building design, which rises out of the notions of permanence leads to the ‘cradle to grave’(Crowther, 1999c) approach. A ‘cradle to grave’ approach looks at the building components to live a single life, making the flow of building resources predominantly a one way process, which ends with the building being demolished to waste. (Crowther, 1999c).
Figure 3: ‘cradle to grave’ flow of resources in buildings (source: Design for disassembly. Crowther P,)
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Figure above, shows the important steps which take place through the lifespan of a building starting from the extraction of raw materials, culminating into demolition due to the inconvenience of disassembly, thus, leading to massive amounts of waste generation. In this approach, the designer often tends to ignore the stages that take place after the assembly of the building components is complete. (Crowther, 1999c)
Therefore, when obsolescence hits a building, there is no option left, but to demolish it as a result of this linear approach to design. Obsolescence refers to the state where a building becomes outdated as a result of physical deterioration or cultural evolution and as a result is no longer in use.(Crowther, 1999c) There are five major types of obsolescence which occur commonly throughout the lifespan of the buildings. (Crowther, 1999a) These are as follows● Locational Obsolescence: Where the building function is not required in its current location anymore. ● Functional Obsolescence : Where the specific functions offered in the building are not required anymore due to a change in the user- space dynamic. ● Physical Obsolescence :Where the whole building or parts of it become outdated and below the safety standards for its users. ● Technical Obsolescence :Where the building is not able to attain the performance standards expected out of it. ● Fashionable Obsolescence: Where the building becomes outdated in terms of morphology or trend. The disposable nature of the fast paced modern world, thus, makes buildings obsolete in terms of their functional, locational and fashionable values, much before technical and physical deterioration can act up on it. This hints towards the need for a more flexible form of architecture which can be adapted according to its user needs from time to time.
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2.5 Summary It can be concluded that obsolescence in permanent structures leaves no option but ends up in demolitions, and so to tackle it, a need arises to abandon the conventional methods of design and to pick up a more time dependent design approach which accepts the phenomena of decaying and death in buildings.
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Chapter 3--Shift towards ephemerality
3.1 Introduction This chapter sets in the need of deployable structures so as to tackle the inevitable phenomena of obsolescence in buildings. The understanding of deployability is then extended towards ephemeral architecture, so as to introduce the concept of design for disassembly. The working of the dfd model is then elaborated upon, which gives an insight into the production of these structures.
3.2. Transformation to tackle Obsolescence To tackle the harmful environmental impacts due to inevitable obsolescence and frequent demolitions, there is a need to take into consideration the decaying of a building and extending it to its components, which will induce the need to maintain or replace these components, once these have reached the end of their lives. This demands for an ease of defragmenting the building into separate layers so as to facilitate repairs and maintenance, which is difficult to achieve in conventional permanent structures. (Crowther, 1999a) Therefore, a transformation is required of inflexible building structures into more flexible variants.
3.3. Ephemeral architecture Even though all man-made structures are transient in nature, ephemeral structures are designed with a predetermined idea of a transient existence, intended to be destroyed or cease in existence after the fulfillment of their functions. Therefore, ephemerality facilitates deployability in structures. (Petrova, 2017) Ephemeral architecture being in existence for a short period of time, requires careful planning in terms of the full life cycle of the building. It becomes necessary to ensure minimum wastage of
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resources during construction and demolition, hinting towards an efficient planning for the structure’s dismantlement., i.e. designing for its disassembly.(Petrova, 2017)
3.4.Designing for disassembly Designing for disassembly, refers to a design strategy which takes into consideration the various possible future scenarios for a building and hence, plans for its eventual dismantlement in order to recover its assemblies, components and materials, once the building reaches the stage of obsolescence. (Guy & Ciarimboli, 2008)
3.4.1 Disassembly characteristics of a structure: The disassembly characteristics determine the level to which a structure is able to fulfill the criteria of independence and exchangeability. Four major types of disassembly characteristics have been explained below, which decide the degree of deployability of a structure.
Figure 4. showing the aspect of functional decomposition (Source-Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer)
Functional Decomposition: This divides a building in four major functions: structure, building shell or enclosure, services and partitions. Integrating two or more functions together does not work in favour of its dismantlement, as one function hinders the separation of the other function. Therefore, functional decomposition leads to layering of a building, so that the removal of one component doesn’t interfere with other components. (Durmisevic, E. and Brouwer, J, 2002)
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Figure 5. showing the aspect of clustering/systemisation (Source- Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer)
Clustering/ systemisation: Unlike fixed structures, which have clustering of building components in a dependent way, a dfd model breaks the building assembly into independent sub assemblies or subsystems. A subsystem is a cluster of building components which act as independent sections for ease of assembly and disassembly. (Durmisevic, E. and Brouwer, J, 2002)
Figure 6. showing the aspect of open v/s closed hierarchy (Source- Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer)
Open v/s closed hierarchy: The connections between the subsystems introduces the importance of hierarchy. Hierarchy defines the order in which the load is transferred throughout the building. Open hierarchy is preferable due to the creation of independent relations between the subassemblies with one base element, which indirectly connects all the subsystems. (Durmisevic, E. and Brouwer, J, 2002)
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Figure 7. showing the aspect of assembly sequences (Source- Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer)
Assembly sequences: The sequence of the assembly depicts the order and convenience of disassembly. Parallel assemblies are faster to disassemble than sequential assemblies.
Assembly Hierarchy
Description Parallel assembly has base elements within each subassembly. Disassembly is convenient here due to independent and open connections to each other.
Figure 8. Parallel assembly sequence (Source- Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer)
This type of assembly leads to the creation of a linear dependency because each element is fixed by adjacent elements. Thus, makes separation inconvenient. Figure 9. Sequential assembly sequence (Source- Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer)
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3.5 Disassembly and building transformation: Building transformation refers to the ability or the flexibility of the building, by the virtue of which it can adapt to the future needs and changes of the user. Three dimensions of transformation which characterise deployable structures are as follows (Durmisevic, E. and Brouwer, J, 2002): Structural transformation ensures continuous utility of a building’s structure through reuse and replacement of its building components. Spatial transformation ensures continuous usage of space by inducing flexibility through spatial adaptability. Material transformation ensures a continuous utility of a building through recycling or reusing of its building materials.
Figure 10: disassembly - the key for building transformation, (Source: Design aspects of decomposable building structures, E Durmisevic, J Brouwer)
Disassembly being the key to achieve a three dimensional building transformation (as shown in the figure above), it becomes imperative to design the structure for future dismantlement. The extent to which spatial adaptability, replaceability and reuse of materials can be accomplished largely depends upon the ease with which the building and its components can be separated from each other. (Durmisevic, E. and Brouwer, J, 2002) The ability of a dfd approach to bring about building transformation under the three dimensions of material, structure and space is decided by its feasibility from the perspective of the labor as well as the user. Therefore, designing for disassembly is dependent upon the social factors as well to achieve a smooth building transformation. (Durmisevic, E. and Brouwer, J, 2002) Page 27 | 91
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3.6 Summary Therefore,apart from the three dimensional space, now a fourth dimension of time becomes a design generator. The ability to be transformable with time, makes these structures reusable, demountable, relocatable and its building components removable or capable of reconfiguration. This is largely dependent upon the ease with which the structure can be easily dismantled by the labor and the user in the post construction phase.
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Chapter 4- The sustainable ephemeral
4.1 Introduction: After understanding the basic guidelines and principles of a dfd approach, this chapter establishes the connection of the ephemeral built environment with the sustainability principles of reduce, reuse and recycle; energy consumption and future preservation of building materials and components. This understanding is then taken forward to identify the gaps and develop a methodology for the research.
4.2 Dfd and the 3R system: The 3R waste hierarchy of reduce, reuse and recycle provides a system to deal with waste generation (Petzet & Heilmeyer, 2012). Therefore, dfd being the medium through which deployable structures operate, it is required to be in conjunction with the 3R system, for it to be a sustainable alternative. Planning for eventual deconstruction intends to close the loop of materials, by turning waste into ‘feed’(Rios, Chong & Grau, p.3, 2015). This implies that the waste generated from a building is turned into nutrients (i.e. new materials or uses) for new buildings through reuse and relocation of materials, components and building assemblies. The other alternative is to recycle these disassembled components into new components. Utilisation of waste as ‘feed’ reduces the requirement of new building resources for every new construction that happens, and also eases up the extra load on the existing large amounts of C & D waste generation. Hence, by utilising the options of reduce, reuse and recycle, a dfd model eliminates the need for composting, burning and disposing of waste, as depicted in figure 3.(Rios, Chong & Grau, 2015)
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Figure 11. Significance of the dfd model in waste management hierarchy (Source: Design for disassembly and deconstruction-challenges and opportunities, Rios, Chong & Grau, p.)
As for the inclusion of a plan for future reuse or recycling, the building needs to be divided up into its individual components, as each component has a different decay rate. Hence, the ease with which the components can be dismantled without disturbing the rest of the building, defines the degree to which its components can be reused or recycled. (Veerakamolmal & Gupta, 2000) ( Therefore, dfd acts as the medium through which reduce, reuse and recycle intend to slow down the rate at which the waste is generated and dumped into the landfill sites. (Harjula, et al. ,1996)
4.3 Dfd as a means for energy reduction
The total energy life of a building can be broken down into its operational and embodied energy. Operational energy is the energy consumed to maintain the required environment inside a building through lighting, heating and cooling systems, and so on. Embodied energy, on the other hand, is the total energy that goes into the making and maintaining of the building, including the direct energy from construction, routine refurbishments and assembly process, and indirect energy from extraction, transportation and manufacturing of building components. (Crowther,1999b)
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As of now, there is a constant ignorance towards the measures for reduction of embodied energy in buildings. This rises out of the general consensus of considering the contribution of embodied energy to be of a very small percentage when compared to the building’s operational energy. Whereas, the value of embodied energy stored in a building is much more in reality. (Bennetts cited in Crowther,1999b) To identify the major contributor to these high energy values, the embodied energy of a building can be broken up into different layers. The energy required for assembly on site can be accounted for 5-13% of the total embodied energy. 20-50% of this remaining energy goes into the structure and 50-70% goes in the building envelope, finishes, fitout and services. (Crowther,1999b) This means that the largest chunk out of the total embodied energy goes into the production and assembly of the various building components. These have relatively shorter life spans when compared to the other parts of the building such as the building structure, and hence, are more likely to be replaced, repaired or renovated at frequent time intervals. Therefore, this presses the need for the incorporation of a dfd approach so as to optimise the embodied energy consumption by reducing, reusing and recycling the embodied energy of the building components and their assemblies through reincarnation of the built environment.
4.4 Dfd as a means for future preservation:
The aspect of circular flow of building resources blurs the distinction between the starting point and the final outcome in a dfd model, which means that the building itself is not considered as the final outcome of architecture anymore, unlike in the cradle to grave approach. This change in the perspective of treating the building as one of the stages of the design process, rather than the final outcome of it gives rise to an evolutionary form of design. (Brand, 1995)
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An evolutionary perspective to design, takes into account the several lives that a building can live before it is finally retired to waste, thus generating a need to plan for its various future scenarios. (Crowther,1999c) This can be done through scenario planning. The inclusion of ‘scenario planning’ (Brand,1995, p.379) in the realm of architecture can be considered as a means for ‘future preservation’. This is analogous to the practice that is carried out today, known as historical preservation. But, future preservation doesn’t limit a building in terms of its permanence or immortality like in the case of historical preservation, rather it includes the concept of adaptability in the built environment so as to give its users the freedom to adjust or change the space according to their needs. (Brand, 1995) The degree to which a building can be dismantled, thus decides the extent of flexibility which can be achieved for future uses.
4.5 Conclusion: Even though the notions of permanence orient contemporary architecture towards unsustainable practices, architecture is still not associated with temporariness. Therefore, it becomes imperative for architects to increase their awareness regarding the working of a dfd model and translate it into daily use functions. This will significantly reduce the burden of resource wastage put by the construction industry on the environment
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Chapter 5- Detailed Methodology
5.1 Introduction This chapter explains the methodology opted to study the gaps identified from the literature review. It elaborates upon the justification for the chosen methodology. These methods then develop a research framework for the study. This is then followed by explaining the research procedures for each objective and identifying the case studies on the basis of the parameters extracted from the literature review.
5.2 Justification for the methodology The justification for each research instrument is given below: ● A detailed review of the existing literature helps to understand the relationship between ephemerality and sustainable architecture. ● Case study analysis helps to understand the applicability and execution of a dfd approach in ephemeral structures serving functions of daily use, so as to develop a set of design strategies which can be applied in order to achieve successful low impact temporary architecture. ● Assessment of the environmental certification systems help to understand the extent to which dfd is adopted by architects to design for low impact buildings presently. ● Lastly, expert interview helps to understand the feasibility of designing for disassembly.
5.3 Research Framework The aim of the study has been broken down into four major objectives. The first objective correlates ephemerality with the sustainability principles by reviewing the existing literature. The second objective then aims to understand the guidelines for a deployable structure through literature review, which are then applied to the case study analysis in order to derive a set of key design criteria for a dfd model. The design criteria as derived from the 2nd objective is then Page 33 | 91
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utilised as the parameters for the assessment of LEED and Griha to check for the inclusion and perception of the dfd model in the present scenario. This is further corroborated by an expert interview along with understanding the barriers faced while implementing this model. All the findings from the first three objectives, then combine to arrive at the 4th objective by suggesting the possible ways through which dfd can be applied as a sustainable alternative by the architects in the near future. This is then followed by the overall conclusion and finally, the way forward.
Detailed research framework (Source: author)
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5.4 Research Procedures 5.4.1 Case study Identification: The evaluation parameters have been divided under 4 broad themes, where the first theme explores the design aspects of the building which are contributing to its deployability to understand the disassembly characteristics for different scales, functions and types of ephemeral structures. The next three themes assess the environmental, economic and social implications of these disassembly characteristics as decoded under the first theme of the analysis. The environmental implications assess the disassembly characteristic on their ability to facilitate building transformation under the three dimensions of space, material and structure, for future adaptability. The economic implications assess the disassembly characteristics on the basis of their impact on the time and cost of assembly, while the social implications judge the disassembly characteristics of the building from the perspective of the user and the labor. These have been explained in the table below. Legend for the parameters under the following themes Design characteristics for disassembly, Environmental implications Economic implications Social implications
Identification criteria
Daily use function ( residential, school,
Evaluation parameters
Basis of exploration
Method of analysis
Material selection
Building function
Observations from secondary sources
Functional separation:
Structure
The separation of the complete
Enclosure
Observations from photographs, construction details,
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mixed use),
building systems into four main functions, listed in the adjacent column
Partitions
Clustering systems
Subassemblies
The grouping of the building system into smaller clusters, which then define the building’s assembly/ disassembly sequence.
Base element
Connections and joints
Type of joints
The type of connections made among the various building components.
Surface interface geometry
Spatial transformability
Material selection
sections and secondary information
Services
Scale (small. Large, medium), Type of temporary construction ( frame+component system, component system)
Building transformability through spatial adaptability Structural transformability Building transformability through reuse and replacement of its building components.
Clustering sequence
Functional separation Clustering systems Connections and joints
Observations from photographs, construction details, sections and secondary information
Observations from photographs, construction details, sections and secondary information Extracting out design parameters from the observations made above, which contributed to the fulfillment or failure of these evaluation parameters.
Material transformability Building transformability through recycling or reusing of its building materials. Cost implications Time of assembly/ disassembly Labor- construction phase User phase- post construction Table 1: Parameters for case study evaluation (Source- author)
The analysis for the above parameters has been rated as follows:
✔️✔️- The design aspects which are highly suitable for environmental, economic and social feasibility of the construction
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✔️-The design aspects which are moderately suitable for environmental, economic and social feasibility of the construction. ❌-The design aspects which are not suitable for environmental, economic and social feasibility of the construction.
5.4.2 Selected Case studies The case studies have been selected according to the parameters finalised for evaluation. The selected buildings are a mix of different types of daily use functions, scale and type of temporary construction, to attain a deeper understanding of the various design strategies to achieve a dfd model for all types of buildings. The finalised case studies are as follows:
Building
COVID-Responsive Pop-Up School
Function
Nature of function
School
Daily use function
Scale
(small scale) single storey
Type of temporary construction Pop up (foldable construction) Component system
Pop up House,
Residential
Daily use function
France
(small scale) single storey
DIY (Lego construction) Component system
Cellophane House,
Residential
Daily use function
New York
Puma City, London
(medium scale) Five storeys
Event Space, Retail,
Daily use function
(large scale)
Office, Leisure/Bar
Prefabricated construction Frame + component system
Cargotecture (stacking)
(Mixed-use) Component system
Table 2: Selected case studies (Source- author)
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5.4.3 Expert Interview The interviewee is an architect having experience in design for disassembly in the past years. The questions for the interview has been formulated on two broad categories; ● Design phase of temporary structures ● Construction phase These categories broadly cover the total execution of temporary structures from their conception and planning stage to the construction phase.
5.5 Ethical considerations The following ethical considerations have been considered for the research: ● The interview questions do not harm the dignity of the research participants in any way. ● The data collection for the case studies and other methods is not exaggerated in any manner. ● The research findings are not biased and do not mislead the research in any way.
5.6 Summary The chapter outlines the detailed methodology to guide the course of research along with explaining the appropriate tools required to fulfill each objective and estimated outputs to be achieved through those tools.
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Chapter 6- Case Study Analysis
6.1 Introduction This chapter includes all the vital information for the case studies as well as their evaluation according to the identified parameters. The information is presented in the form of photographs, diagrams and written data under the relevant subheads. The key design criteria derived from the evaluation of the case studies is then used to further analyse the applications of the dfd model in the present scenario to arrive at possible ways through which dfd can be utilised as a tool for sustainable design.
6.2 Case study 1- Cellophane House, New York
Figure 13: Cellophane house exterior view (source: inhabitat.com)
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Cellophane House is a five storey prefabricated residential structure. It was built as a prototype to experiment with prefabricated housing. It consists of two bedrooms, two bathrooms, a living and dining space, a terrace, and a carport.
Design aspects for disassembly ● Material selection in terms of: Building purpose: The house serves as a temporary alternative to the conventional glass clad homes, -Glass cladding has been replaced with a light weight smartwrap membrane which is a few millimeters thick -Off the shelf aluminium frame has been used for the structure and structural plastic for internal walls.
Figure 14: showing the smartwrap facade, (source:.flickr.com)
● Functional separation: The building has been separated into four different functional layers (in accordance with section 3.4.1, chapter 3). These layers are as follows:
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1. Structure- aluminium frame. 2. Enclosure- smartwrap membrane stretched out on the aluminium frame. 3. Partitions -Partitions, interior floors and ceilings made of structural plastic and kept separate from the main aluminium structure. 4. Services- service blocks of staircase, toilet and kitchen installed as prefabricated chunks. (see figure 16)
Figure 15 : showing the separation of the structure, facade, and internal partitions, (source:kierantimberlake.com)
● Clustering systems: The clustering reflects a frame + component system,( fig. 15) where the components have been grouped on the basis of the varying functional roles as well as their decay rates. The shorter lasting components such as the panels and services are kept separate from the longer lasting structural unit of the building. The clustering is as follows: 1. Subassemblies: The house has been clustered into 3 major subassemblies: ❖ Framing members- This includes the prefabricated aluminium frame structure. (fig. 17) ❖ Panels include the interior panels (floor, ceiling, internal walls) and exterior panels which (the smartwrap membrane). ❖ Service blocks (called chunks) include bathroom and kitchen pods along with prefab staircases. (fig. 18)
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Figure 16: showing the clustering systems in cellophane house (Source:.wordpress.com)
Figure 17: showing prefabricated industrially procured aluminium frames (source:.researchgate.net)
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Figure 18: showing a pre assembled bathroom pod (source:.researchgate.net)
Figure 19: Diagram showing the breakup of subassemblies in cellophane house (Source: author)
2. Base element All subassemblies share a dependent relation with one element only which is the aluminium frame here. Therefore, this acts as the base element here. (fig.20) 3. Clustering sequence Page 43 | 91
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The subassemblies of panels and chunks are not connected to each other directly, and thus, form a parallel assembly sequence,(in accordance with section 3.4.1, chapter 3) where connection of one component is independent of its adjacent components. This is shown in the diagram below:
Figure 20: Diagram showing single dependence of all the building components to the base element. (Source: author)
● Connections and joints 1. Type of joints- All the building components have been connected to each other through T-bolt screws. 2. Interface geometry- The connections are through screws, therefore, there is no requirement to customise the interface of the components for interlocking or any other type of joinery.
Feasibility of the design aspects for disassembly Environmental
Design Aspects for disassembly
implications Material selection
Functional layering
Clustering systems
Connections and joints
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Structural transformability
Spatial transformability
✔️✔️ ✔️✔️ ✔️✔️detachable ✔️✔️ lightweight Visually and Screw materials physically accessible clusters of interior assembly. ✔️✔️ Mass design connections. and exterior panels customisable frame from frame members ❌Wear and tear for wider options of screws and holes due to ✔️ ✔️lightweight ✔️✔️ ✔️✔️ All loads are Clustering of structural plastic for carried by services into separate repetitive assembly internal partitions
chunks frees up the internal space for flexible arrangements
✔️✔️ Easy identification of
✔️✔️ Clustering into a frame +
components on the basis of their functional and structural capacities.
component typology for easy attachment and removal of the components
Material selection
Functional layering
Clustering systems
✔️✔️ standard shaped and sized
✔️✔️ ✔️Big clusters Visually and physically accessible require special
✔️✔️ No expensive tools or labor
materials.
connections for routine maintenance
skills due to easy screw connections.
✔️✔️ Exclusion of secondary material finishes for quick disassembly Material transformability
Economic
✔️✔️ recyclable materials
implications Cost implications
✔️✔️ off the shelf structural frame time of assembly/ disassembly
Social Implications Laborconstruction phase
User phase- post construction
and disassembly.
aluminium frames, so it becomes easy to move internal partitions.
✔️✔️ lightweight materials
✔️✔️ Easy identification of
machines to be lifted.
✔️ Clusters of different sizes require
Connections and joints
different means of handling
✔️✔️ ✔️ Less number Too many holes of components to be to drill for screw
components due to functional separation saves time of assembly.
assembled on site due to bigger clusters
assembly.
Material selection
Functional layering
Clustering systems
✔️✔️ lightweight materials
✔️✔️ Easy identification of
Connections and joints
❌ Clusters are out of ✔️Too many holes human scale, to drill for screw
components due to functional separation makes construction simple
difficult to handle manually.
assembly.
✔️✔️ ✔️✔️ Easy Mass customisable frame maintenance and
✔️✔️ Prefab industrially made
❌ Visible screw connections
for wider options
routine repairs due to
clusters are easy to
compromise on
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functional separation..
✔️
replace and order for. To remove a partition wall or bathroom/kitchen block, the ceiling panels have to be removed first from that spot because everything is attached to the frame only.
building aesthetics
Table 3: Analysis- Cellophane house (Source- author)
6.3 Case study 2- Pop up House, France
Figure 21: Pop up house (source: archdaily.com)
About the project Pop up house is a single storey construction, consisting of two bathrooms, three bedrooms, an office space and an open living space. The house is a prototype of low cost passive construction with a Lego like arrangement of its various components. It can be built on different types of foundations such as piles or pads anchored in the ground or footings.
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walls, so as to minimise overall material consumption. EPS insulation blocks have been used, because of their availability, recyclability, low cost and easy handleability due to light weight.
● Functional separation The building does not mark a clear segregation between all the four building functions (partially in accordance with section 3.4.1, chapter 3). The layering has been explained as follows: 1. Structure The insulation blocks sandwiched between the wooden frames act as the load bearing walls and form the main structural units of the house . (fig 23) 2. Enclosure This function is carried out in two layers. The first layer consists of the EPS blocks which act as the infill panels in between the wooden frames to form load bearing walls. The second layer is the wooden rainscreen on the external facade which is screwed on to these load bearing walls. (fig 22)
Figure 22:showing separation of rainscreen facade with the structure (left) (source: philippespagnoli.com) Figure 23:showing the EPS blocks and wooden frames as the load bearing walls of the house (source: archdaily.com)
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The interior partitions in this case have been intermixed with the layer of ‘structure’, thus acting as the load bearing walls by supporting the roof. 4. Services The electrical and plumbing services are placed in the gaps between the interior finishes and the EPS blocks. Also, grooves are made in the blocks to create free passages for the wirings to pass. (fig 24)
Figure 24: showing the sequential arrangement of different layers in the building (source: popup-house.com)
● Clustering systems: The broad basis of clusterization in this case is the generation of repetitive modules which can be then assembled like lego blocks. The cluster division has been explained below: 1. Subassemblies: ❖ Lego modules of EPS blocks sandwiched between 2 wooden frames (fig 25) ❖ The exterior and interior material finishes ❖ The floor assembly (fig 26)
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Figure 25: showing one lego module of EPS block and structural timber (source: popup-house.com)
Figure 26: showing the floor assembly (source: archdaily.com)
Figure 27: showing the connection of floor assembly to the ground (source: popup-house.com)
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There is no defined single base element here. Although, material finishes and floor assembly are directly joined to all the lego blocks individually. 3. Clustering sequence The arrangement of the lego blocks is done in a sequential manner to form walls, and the floor assembly.( section 3.4.1, assembly sequence, chapter 3) (see fig. 29) The sequential arrangement is followed in the fixing of the wall, floor and the ceiling finishes as well. This creates a linear dependency because each module shares dependent connections with all the adjacent modules.
Figure 28:showing the sequential layering of material finishes as well as the lego blocks (source: philippespagnoli.com)
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Figure 29: Diagram showing the sequential clustering of lego blocks (source: author)
● Connections and joints 1. Type of joints The lego modules are connected through long wood screws. The panels for finishes have also been screwed to the modules.
Figure 30; showing the screw connections for floor assembly (source: designboom.com)
2. Interface geometry The connections are through screws, therefore, there is no requirement to customise the interface of the components for any other type of joinery.
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Feasibility of the design aspects for disassembly Environmental
Design Aspects for disassembly
implications Material selection
Structural transformability
Functional layering
Clustering systems
✔️✔️ ✔️ Detachable layers ✔️ To repair one ✔️✔️ lightweight Screw materials of finishes and Lego block, all the assembly. services from the adjacent lego blocks ✔️ Less visual structure. need to be removed. ❌Wear and tear access to connections due to secondary of screws and holes materials finishes.
Spatial transformability
✔️✔️ ❌ ✔️Services are lightweight Internal materials partitions act as load spread out and run ✔️ Inclusion of bearing walls so these through the walls secondary material cannot be moved for finishes delay disassembly
Material transformability
Economic implications Cost implications
✔️✔️ recyclable materials. Material selection
due to repetitive assembly and disassembly.
structural stability.
__________
Functional layering
✔️✔️ Repetitive clusters reduce different types of materials to be handled for recycling. Clustering systems
Connections and joints
✔️✔️ Timber and ✔️ Services are EPS blocks are low merged with
✔️✔️ ✔️✔️ Similar sized No expensive lego modules tools or labor skills
cost materials
eliminate the need of different types of equipment and tools for handling on site
✔️✔️ standard shaped and sized
enclosure and structures, so replacing or repairing becomes more costly.
materials.
time of assembly/ disassembly
Connections and joints
✔️✔️ ✔️ lightweight Intermixing of materials for easy functional layers handleability and quick assembly
increases time in routine repairs.
due to easy screw connections.
✔️ Sequential assembly of clusters increases the labor time, adding to the construction and maintenance cost.
✔️ Sequential ✔️ Too many holes assembly of clusters to drill for screw increases assembly time.
assembly.
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Social Implications Laborconstruction phase
Material selection
Functional layering
Clustering systems
Connections and joints
✔️✔️ ❌ intermixing of ✔️ ✔️Too many holes lightweight Human scaled, materials structure with other and lightweight lego to drill for screw functions impacts modules are assembly. ✔️✔️ Use of safety of labor convenient to handle majorly two types during for labor. ✔️✔️ Repetitive of materials reduce deconstruction. the complexity of clusters and lego like separation.
User phasepost construction
__________
assembly sequence simplify construction.
❌ Rigid in terms of ✔️ Independent adaptive reuse of connections of
✔️✔️ material finishes conceal the
internal spaces
connections and joints Doesn’t compromise on the aesthetics.
external and internal finishes enable customization.
✔️✔️ Easy to reconfigure lego
clusters for future possibilities. Table 4: Analysis- Pop up house (Source- author)
6.4 Case study 4-Puma City
Figure 31: Puma City (source:lot-ek.com)
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About the project The building is made by retrofitting 24 standard sized, 40 ft long shipping containers extending upto 3 floors, with four containers spanning along the width of the structure. It is a portable building, intended to be assembled and disassembled multiple times at various locations across the globe. The ground floor houses the retail area, the second floor houses the office, press and storage area, while the third floor houses a lounge bar and an event space on the terrace.
Design aspects for disassembly ● Material selection Building purpose- The major drive to opt for containers as building material was to ensure a feasible transportation facility for the building components once the structure is dismantled to be relocated. Therefore, shipping containers of standard sizes were chosen, which already have a well developed transportation system worked out all across the globe.
● Functional separation The building does not mark a clear segregation between all the four building functions ( section 3.4.1, chapter 3). This layering has been explained as follows: 1. Structure and Enclosure Shipping containers carry the structural load of the building. Along with this, the walls of the containers act as the building enclosure. 2. Partitions The container walls facing the interior space act as the partition walls. The interior faces can be removed without disturbing the structural loads, as the main load is carried out by the corner posts in shipping containers.
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Figure 32: showing the interior space of puma city (source:lot-ek.com)
3. Services Plug-in electrical and HVAC systems are installed in the structure, so that they can be easily removed and installed during repeated assembly and disassembly. Also, plumbing services have been confined to prefabricated toilet blocks.
Figure 33 showing plug in electrical and HVAC systems (source: retaildesignblog.net)
● Clustering systems
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The broad basis of clusterization in this case is the creation of blocks of similar geometries, shapes and sizes for easy horizontal and vertical stacking . The subassemblies have been explained below:
Figure 34: showing clusters of shipping containers stacked to form the building (source:lot-ek.com)
1. Subassemblies Three subassemblies have been created● The prefabricated shipping container modules. ● The plug in service blocks for electrical and plumbing services. ● The prefabricated staircase modules 2. Base element There is no defined base element here. 3. Clustering sequence The containers are stacked vertically and horizontally in a sequential manner, where they can be disassembled in one direction only. Page 56 | 91
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● Connections and joints 1. Type of joints The containers are connected to each other through standard container connectors and the wooden floor panels are screwed on to the surface of the containers as well as the rafters wherever the container is not there. 2. Interface geometry The interface geometry of the containers has slots in them to be attached to each other through the container connectors.
Feasibility of the design aspects for disassembly Environmental
Design Aspects for disassembly
implications Material selection Structural transformability
Spatial transformability
Material transformability
Economic implications Cost implications
Functional layering
Clustering systems
Connections and joints
✔️✔️️ shipping ✔️✔️ Removal/ ❌ ✔️✔️ Sequential easily containers require very repair of services clustering makes removable little maintenance. not disrupt the replacement and connections of the ❌Heavy materials does structural unit. removal inconvenient. container connectors. ✔️ Spatial transformation can
✔️ The partition ✔️✔️ Modules of walls have to be cut containers can be
happen only in terms of horizontal or vertical stacking.
out from the containers using special machinery.
reduce the complexity of separation.
__________
✔️ Use of majorly two types of materials Material selection
Functional layering
easily stacked to reduce or add space inside
__________ Clustering systems
✔️ Off the shelf ✔️✔️ Intermixing of ✔️Out of human containers, but require enclosure and scale and refurbishment.
✔️✔️ standard container sizes take
structure saves the additional cost that goes in making walls for such a
heavyweight clusters require special machines on site.
Connections and joints
✔️✔️ Inbuilt slots in containers for connections, eliminate the extra cost that goes into drilling holes.
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care of transportation costs.
time of assembly/ disassembly
❌Heavyweight
large scale building.
✔️✔️ plug in services can be easily
✔️ This also increases transportation costs
repaired/replaced.
✔️✔️ Simple ✔️✔️ ✔️✔️ No need to Less number assembly because of of components to be drill holes for the reduced number of functions to deal on site.
assembled on site due to larger clusters.
connections.
✔️✔️ Containers make simple forms, suitable for quick assembly.
Social Implications Laborconstruction phase
User phasepost construction
Material selection
Functional layering
Clustering systems
❌ ✔️✔️ Simple ✔️✔️ Repurposing the Clustering containers- providing assembly because of into repetitive thermal and noise insulation makes it labor intensive.
the reduced number of functions to deal on site.
modules eliminates the need for different types of tools for handling on site, Out of human scale and heavyweight clusters
Connections and joints
✔️✔️ No special labor skills required to make connections.
❌
✔️ Metal containers do ✔️ easy to maintain ✔️✔️Large clusters not provide good heat services, but difficult of less number help insulation unlike the other conventional materials for construction.
to replace or remove internal partitions for future possibilities.
the users to easily reconfigure the layout of the building.
Table 5: Analysis- Puma city (Source- author)
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6.5 Case study 3-COVID-Responsive Pop-Up School
Figure 35: COVID responsive pop up school (source:archdaily.com)
About the project This school consists of a set of modular pop up classrooms, where each classroom can accommodate 25 students and is made of foldable flat packed panels, which can be joined easily for a quick assembly. Several classroom units can be joined by their side faces so as to form a bigger cluster of classrooms.(fig 36) It was designed to address the issues of social distancing amidst the COVID pandemic.
Figure 36: showing additive nature of the classroom modules to form bigger clusters
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Design aspects for disassembly ● Material selection Building purposeThe school centres around the concept of pop up architecture, according to which, flat panels of FRP (fibre reinforced panels) were chosen, which can be effectively folded into three dimensional structures. FRP panels are low in cost, lightweight and possess easy to clean and sanitize properties to address the covid responsive needs of the school.
● Functional separation The building does not mark a clear segregation between all the four building functions (partially in accordance with section 3.4.1, chapter 3). This layering has been explained as follows: 1. Structure and enclosure The main structural unit of the building is the aluminium frame. The aluminium frames have infill panels of FRP for the inside, while the flat aluminium panels enclose the entire structure from the outside. 2. Partitions There are no partition walls dividing up the space 3. Services Electrical service lines and the lights are hung from the ceiling and power sockets are placed under the raised floor of the classroom.
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Figure 37: showing the interior space of one classroom (source: archdaily.com)
● Clustering systems: The clusters have been formed by reducing the building into systems of floor and walls which is the most basic way to break up a building for easy identification of its components during assembly and disassembly. The subassembly division is explained as follows: 1. Subassemblies Each classroom has been broken up into three major subassemblies, which are as follows: ❖ The foldable panels which form the pitched roof and side walls for the classroom ❖ The raised floor assembly pre-installed with power sockets. ❖ The front and the rear walls
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Figure 38: showing the three subassemblies and the clustering sequence (source: archdaily.com)
2. Base element There is no defined base element between the subsystems as all the three subsystems are connected to each other. 3. Clustering sequence All the three subassemblies form a closed system by having dependent relations with each other. (section 3.4.1, open/closed hierarchy, chapter 3) (see figure 39)
Figure 39: showing dependent relations between the three subassemblies
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● Connections and joints 1. Type of joints The panels have been fixed to each other through bolted connections. 2. Interface geometry The connections are through bolts, therefore, there is no requirement to customise the interface of the components for any other type of joinery.
Feasibility of the design aspects for disassembly Environmental
Design Aspects for disassembly
implications
Structural transformability
Material selection
Functional separation
✔️✔️ lightweight materials
❌ Structural load is ✔️To repair one carried out by both the module, all the FRP panels and the aluminium frame. Removal of FRP interferes with structural stability.
Spatial transformability
__________
Material transformability
✔️✔️ recyclable materials. ✔️✔️ Use of majorly two types of
Clustering systems
adjacent modules need to be removed.
✔️ Services are integrated in the
✔️✔️ The modules can be joined or
raised floor system with ducts at regular intervals, thus a new partition wall cannot be added anywhere in the space plan freely.
removed to expand or reduce the internal space.
__________
Connections and joints
✔️✔️ Easy to snap out any panels due to the nut-bolt assembly.
✔️✔️ Bolted connections are strong enough to withstand repetitive assembly/ disassembly.
✔️✔️ Repetitive clusters reduce different types of materials to be handled for recycling.
materials reduce the complexity of separation. Economic implications Cost implications
Material selection
Functional separation
✔️✔️ Low cost materials
❌ Due to intermixing ✔️✔️ Clustering of functions, the into repetitive maintenance costs
Clustering systems
modules eliminates
Connections and joints
✔️✔️ No expensive tools or labor skills required for bolted
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✔️✔️ Flat aluminum panels have been used instead of aluminium frames, acting as the structure as well as the building skin
and labor intensity to dismantle services and the interior FRP panels increase.
the need of different types of equipment and tools for handling on site.
connections.
✔️✔️ The modules are foldable, cutting
down on transportation costs. time of assembly/ disassembly Social Implications Laborconstruction phase
✔️✔️ ✔️✔️ Simple bolt Less number of components to be connections reduce
__________ Material selection
__________
Functional separation
assembled on site.
time of assembly.
Clustering systems
Connections and joints
✔️✔️ Simple assembly ✔️✔️foldable panels ✔️✔️Bolted because of the add a human scale to connections do not reduced number of functions to deal on site.
the big clusters.
✔️✔️ Easy identification of components due to clusterization in terms of floors and walls.
User phasepost construction
require any new labor skills.
✔️✔️ FRP panels ❌ Customisation of ✔️✔️ Easy to and aluminium are the interior finishes is understand and
✔️ Connection interface of the
low maintenance.
panels need to be carefully sealed to avoid any leakages inside
not very convenient due to intermixing of enclosure and structure.
reconfigure the clusters and assembly sequence.
Table 6: Analysis- Covid responsive school (source: author)
6.6 Case studies : Comparative matrix The comparative matrix below, mentions all the design aspects of the case examples which have had positive or negative implications in economic, social and environmental domains. Through this matrix, all the design factors have been grouped under a set of 5 broad design criterias and have been colour coded accordingly .
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Design aspects derived from the case studies, which work in favour of disassembly Cellophane house
Structural transformability
Spatial transformability
Material transformability
Cost
Pop up house
✔️✔️ Detachable ❌More secondary finishes from structure finishes ✔️✔️ Screw assembly ✔️✔️Detachable ✔️✔️ Independent finishes from structure ✔️ connections Disassembly ✔️✔️ component + possibility in one frame typology direction only ✔️✔️Screw assembly ✔️✔️ ✔️✔️ Lightweight Lightweight materials materials ✔️✔️ Minimisation of ❌Intermixing of material finishes partitions with ✔️✔️ Segregation of structure ✔️✔️ Repetitive partitions, structure and services clusters provide cues ✔️✔️ Parallel for stacking ❌Intermixing of assembly ✔️✔️ Consolidation of services with walls ✔️✔️Screw assembly services ✔️✔️ Screw assembly ✔️✔️ ✔️✔️ Recyclable Recyclable materials materials ✔️✔️ ✔️✔️ Reduction of Functional separation for easy different types of identification materials ✔️✔️ Frame+ ✔️Screw assembly component typology ✔️✔️ Independent connections ✔️Screw assembly ✔️✔️ Off the shelf ✔️✔️ Low cost materials materials ✔️✔️ Standard sized ✔️✔️ Simplified materials connections ✔️✔️ ✔️✔️ Repetitive Functional separation to reduce clusters eliminate the maintenance costs need for different ✔️ Less Size and handling equipment. ✔️✔️ Human scaled weight of clusters ✔️✔️ Independent components connections ✔️Screw assembly ✔️Screw assembly
Puma City
SOM school
✔️ ❌ Durable materials intermixing of ✔️ Segregation of enclosure and structure services from structure ✔️Disassembly ✔️✔️ Inbuilt possibility in one connection slots direction only ✔️ ✔️✔️ nut and bolt Disassembly possibility in one assembly direction only
❌ Heavy materials ✔️✔️ Repetitive clusters provide cues for stacking ✔️ Consolidation of services ✔️ Disassembly possibility in one direction only ✔️✔️ interlocking connections
✔️✔️ Lightweight materials ✔️ services mixed with floor cluster ✔️✔️ Repetitive clusters provide cues for stacking ✔️✔️ nut and bolt assembly
✔️✔️ Reduction of different types of materials ✔️✔️ interlocking connections
✔️✔️ Recyclable materials ❌ Separation of components according to different life spans ✔️✔️ Reduction of different types of materials ✔️ nut and bolt assembly ✔️✔️ Low cost materials ✔️ Use of panels alone instead of frames + panels ✔️✔️ Repetitive clusters eliminate the
✔️ Off the shelf material ❌ Heavy materials ✔️✔️ Standard sized materials ✔️✔️ Durable joints and connectors ✔️✔️ Simplified connections
need for different handling equipment. Simplified connections Foldable modules for less
✔️✔️ ✔️✔️
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Time of assembly/ disassembly
✔️✔️ Lightweight materials ✔️✔️ Functional separation for easy identification ✔️ Screw assembly ✔️✔️ parallel
✔️✔️ Lightweight materials ❌ Sequential assembly ❌ Intermixing of functional layers ✔️Screw assembly
✔️✔️ Lightweight materials ❌ Out of human scale clusters ✔️✔️ Functional separation for easy identification ✔️✔️ Simplified connections ✔️ Screw assembly-labor
✔️✔️ Lightweight ❌ ✔️✔️ Lightweight repurposing of materials containers before used materials ✔️✔️ Human scaled ✔️✔️ Clustering in in construction ✔️✔️ Repetitive components terms of construction ❌ unsafe clusters eliminate the sequence for easy deconstruction due to need for different execution. ✔️✔️ Simplified intermixing of handling equipment. ✔️✔️ Simplified structure with other connections functions. connections ✔️✔️ Simplified connections ✔️ Screw assembly-labor
assembly Labor-construct ion phase
intensive
User phase-post construction
✔️✔️ readily available materials ✔️✔️ Frame+ component for mass customisation ✔️✔️ Safe routine repairs due to functional separation ✔️✔️ Prefabricated components are quick to replace ❌ Visible connectionsaesthetically not pleasing
❌ Heavy materials ✔️✔️ Modular formquick assembly ✔️✔️ Reduced number of components on site ✔️✔️ Inbuilt connection slots
transportation cost.
✔️✔️ Simple assembly ✔️✔️ Lightweight materials ✔️✔️ Reduced number of components on site. ✔️Bolt assembly
intensive
✔️✔️ readily available ❌materials are ✔️✔️ low materials refurbished first maintenance materials ✔️✔️ Easy to ✔️✔️ low ✔️✔️ Easy to reconfigure lego maintenance materials understand and ✔️✔️ easy to maintain reconfigure the clusters for future possibilities. services clusters due to ✔️ Concealed ✔️✔️ Reduced number repetition connections of components on site- ✔️Customisation not -aesthetically pleasing easy to visualise possible due to ❌ Rigid space due to reconfiguration of intermixing of intermixing of clusters. structure and building functions. skin. ✔️✔️ Independent connections of external and internal finishes enable customization..
Table 7- Comparative matrix: case studies (source: author)
The following 5 key design criterias as derived from the matrix, decide the feasibility of disassembly in social, economic and environmental terms. These are as follows:
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Design Principles1. Elimination of wet connections All the case examples avoided the use of any adhesives or chemicals for connections.Therefore, dry connections should be adopted, for these can be mechanically removed without requiring any special machinery or tools. Also, dry connections ensure that the removal doesn't end up affecting the reusability of that material by damaging it. 2.Accessible connections Providing dry connections is not enough, the connections also need to be accessible to the labor for easy disassembly. ❖ Visually accessible connections Cellophane house had visually accessible connections, which were not concealed by material finishes unlike in Pop up house. This is a preferable scenario, especially for the components which are more prone to replacement and repairs, so that their points of disassembly can be easily located and understood by the labor for future disassembly and routine repairs. ❖ Physically accessible connections: All the three buildings, except for Cellophane house followed a sequential assembly, which limited the possibility of their disassembly in one direction only, where to remove one component, the adjacent components had to be removed first. Therefore, a parallel assembly should be adopted so as to make the connections accessible from more than one direction. (This liess in conjunction with section 3.4.1: assembly sequences, chapter 3) 3.Clustering on a functional basis: All the case examples included clustering of subassemblies on the basis of the functions performed by each of the components, such as: ❖ Consolidation of MEP services into separate clusters (Cellophane house, Puma city) ❖ Separation of the interior and exterior building enclosure because of their different service lives and also to provide the option of customisation to the user. (Cellophane
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house, pop up house) ❖ Exclusion of the internal partitions from carrying any structural loads to facilitate flexible rearrangements for the space inside. (Cellophane house) ( refer to section 3.5, chapter 3) 4. Repetitive clustering: Breaking a building into modules such as lego blocks, containers, foldable panels, etc adds an element of repetition into the design, creating simpler plan arrangements and building details. Repetitive modules and their repetitive arrangement makes it easier to understand the construction sequence for the labor during assembly and future disassembly. 5.Material selection on the basis of their future use It is important to select building materials by first assessing their future implications on feasibility of disassembly. According to the case studies analysed, ❖ lightweight materials with human scaled proportions are more handleable. ( eg- Pop up house, Cellophane house, Covid responsive school) ❖ It is preferable to minimise the different types and sizes of materials, to eliminate the need for different tools and handling equipment on site.( eg- Pop up house, Puma city, Covid responsive school) ❖ Low cost and readily available materials keep the option of future disassembly always open as well as attractive to the user. (happened in all 4 case studies) ❖ It is a good idea to use materials of standard dimensions and weight as well to eliminate the additional energy, cost and labor that goes into their customisation. (happened in all 4 case studies) Therefore, the design evolves out of the standard dimensions of the materials rather than forcing the design on to these materials.
6.7. Assessment of LEED and Griha: The five key principles as derived above have been looked up in the documents to check for the inclusion of dfd as a criteria for sustainability in LEED and Griha to design for low impact buildings. Page 68 | 91
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(Sections referred: Building planning and construction in Griha and Materials and resources section in LEED)
Key principles for disassembly Elimination of wet connections
Griha
LEED
✖️
✖️
✖️ ✖️ ✖️ ✔️
✖️ ✖️ ✖️ ✔️
Criteria 15 encourages the use of chemical binders and wet connections with mortar. Accessible connections Clustering on a functional basis Repetitive clustering Material selection on the basis of
Promotes the use of less energy intensive materials for interiors as well as exteriors, to minimise the embodied energy (Criteria 15,16 and 17)
their future use
✔️
Mentions about the usage of readily available materials, but does not clearly stress upon standardisation or non customisation of these materials.
Encourages life cycle assessment (LCA) of materials by enhancing the material databases, so that architects can make informed decisions about the environmental and economical aspects of resources being used in the design.
✔️
Mentions about reduction of resource wastage through designing for standardised dimension of materials, to avoid any material wastage during customisations.
Table 8-Inclusion of design criteria for dfd in:LEED and Griha (source: author)
6.8. Expert interview From the expert interview, the following observations were made: ● The architect opted for ephemerality to achieve portability and an economic construction. Sustainability considerations of ephemerality were not a criteria.
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● The main challenge was to decide on the materials for the construction and to keep the assembly dry jointed and eliminate any wet connections. ● The design development didn't require the use of any special skills on the part of the architect or the labor. ● The design required the architect to simultaneously resolve the spaces and incorporate an efficient plan for its dismantlement. ● The material selection was majorly done on the basis of availability, cost and durability, with very less emphasis on its recyclability. ● A box type (modular) construction was chosen for economical reasons. ● Not much attention was paid to the building’s future applications other than disassembling it for relocation purposes. ● The sustainability aspect of the end product was majorly related to improved ventilation and enough sunlight, with no realisation of the circular aspects of the construction.
6.9. Summary: Therefore, the analysis section comprises of three parts: The comparative matrix derived from the individual case study analysis helps to draw the key design criteria for disassembly, which is then applied to LEED and Griha, to check for the degree to which dfd is included as a criteria for sustainability in the present scenario. In addition to this the expert interview explores the aspect of feasibility while practising dfd.
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Chapter 7- Findings
The following section presents the key findings derived from the data analysis and the literature review:
Connection between ephemerality and sustainability: ● Ephemeral architecture through the medium of dfd converts the building waste into ‘feed’ for new constructions through reuse and recycling of building materials and components and slows down the rate at which the waste is generated and dumped. ● It cuts down on the energy consumed in the manufacturing and maintenance of the building components, thus optimising the overall embodied energy of the building. ● It incorporates future preservation by making the building flexible and adaptable to the changing needs of its users through replacement, removal and relocation of the building components. ● Future preservation through dfd hints towards the importance of the user phase in making use of the building’s ability to deploy.
Identification of the key design principles which form the basis for a dfd model: To make use of the environment friendly aspects of the dfd model, the following guidelines which define its working were explored in the literature review. These are as follows: 1. Segregating the building in terms of its functions 2. Formation of clusters or subassemblies 3. Maintaining an open hierarchy by creation of independent relations between the subassemblies 4. Order of assembly for convenience of disassembly
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These guidelines were narrowed down into 5 key design aspects which contribute to the feasibility of disassembly in economic, environmental and social domains through case study analysis of different ephemeral constructions. These are as follows: 1. Elimination of wet connections 2. Accessible connections 3. Clustering on a functional basis 4.
Repetitive clustering
5. Material selection on the basis of their future use
Barriers to the implementation of a dfd model: From the case study analysis and as corroborated with the expert, the following aspects were identified regarding the feasibility of the dfd model: ● As corroborated with the expert, designing for disassembly does not require any drastically new areas of expertise or computer aided skills for the architect, rather it just involves a back and forth process between planning for the building’s construction as well as deconstruction, through sheer common sense. ● A common challenge faced is to decide on the right materials for such a type of construction. Even though LCA is supposed to solve this, it is not generally adopted by architects. ● In all the case examples, major considerations were taken so as to make the future disassembly feasible for the end user as well as the labor by simplifying the assembly systems, connections and handleability of the components as much as possible. This eliminated the requirement for any special equipment, machinery or skills on the part of the labor to assemble/ disassemble. Therefore, a dfd model apart from being environmentally feasible, is economically and socially feasible as well.
Inclusion of Dfd in environmental certification systems: The five design principles as derived from the case study analysis, were checked for their inclusion in LEED and Griha. The following findings were obtained:
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● The first four design principles ( see table 8) which pertain to ‘building assembly’ are clearly not included in the checklists and the focus is limited to reduce embodied energy through materiality alone. ● Griha entails a waste management section but its focus is limited only to the segregation and handling of the construction waste, after demolition has already taken place. It misses out on the salvation process of the building which is actually responsible for converting the building into waste. ● LEED mentions making LCA for material selection more feasible by increasing the material database, but ignores any design solutions through which it can be simplified or made more practical. Therefore, presently the certification systems haven't realised the implications of building assembly and feasibility of disassembly in achieving sustainability.
Application of dfd as a sustainable alternative in the present scenario: Although a dfd model comes off as feasible, it is still largely limited in its application. The case study analysis and the expert interview suggest that the main motivation to adopt for ephemeral projects is to come up with cost effective design solutions rather than sustainable solutions. Except for the cellophane house, this was pretty much evident in all the case examples,, where the architects tried to overlap the four building functions of structure, enclosure, services and partitions so as to cut down on the overall material consumption and reduce the components to handle on site. This makes routine repair works and spatial transformability in the future less feasible.
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Chapter 8-Conclusions
8.1 Introduction This chapter discusses the conclusions drawn from the data analysis.It further discusses the possible areas of research which were not undertaken due to constraints and limitations.
8.2 Conclusions As understood from the findings, even after being a feasible mode of design and construction, dfd is not taken up by the architects for its sustainability advantages. Also, as studied from the literature review, ephemerality is not preferred by the users for it being associated with low quality of aesthetics and durability. A dfd model introduces the concept of future preservation, but the extent to which future preservation of the building happens depends on the user’s willingness to disassemble as well. The user plays an important role in deciding whether disassembly takes place or not, therefore, along with encouraging the use of dfd among architects as a sustainable alternative, there is an additional need to encourage users to opt for deployable structures as well. A) Therefore, the following factors have been generated from the study which should be considered to enhance the applicability of the key design principles for disassembly, so as to push the architects as well as the users to adapt to a more deployable form of architecture:
Principle 1:Elimination of wet connections Frequency of disassembly: Structures which are intended to be disassembled repetitively should pay attention to the factor of wear and tear in the connectors as well as the connecting surfaces, so that the material’s reusability or recyclability is not affected at the later stages due to any damage. For instance, Puma city is intended to be relocated globally from time to time and therefore, it includes inbuilt connector slots rather than a usual screw assembly, (table 5, section 6.4, chapter 6) because screws are more prone to wear and tear. Page 74 | 91
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Principle 2:Accessible connections Aesthetics of the temporary structure: To simplify the disassembly, aesthetics of the building cannot be compromised because one of the major reasons for not adopting temporary structures by the users is the prevailing myth of these structures being low in aesthetic value. ( section 2.1.2, chapter 2) In the case examples studied above, all the three buildings had visible screw and bolt connections, except for the pop up house, in which the connections got concealed due to the material finishes. But, as this compromises on the visibility of the connections which would make it difficult for the labor to spot them in order to make future repairs or replacements, therefore, interlocking connections can be opted for.
Principle 3: Repetitive clustering Adopting for a modular approach: In order to facilitate repetitive clustering, a modular approach can be applied while designing for disassembly. As analysed in the case examples above, the use of repetitive modules of lego blocks, shipping containers and foldable panels resulted in simpler layouts for the building. ● Therefore, to make the option of disassembly more attractive to the end user, which is a significant area of concern for a dfd model to be implemented successfully, it is beneficial to come up with modular design solutions which can be easily expanded, reduced or modified by a layman, without the repeated involvement of the designer, thus, adding an intuitive sense of design in the end user. ● A modular design can also be used as an opportunity to provide mass customisation to its users through the incorporation of a frame + component typology such as in the Cellophane house. ● In addition to this, various modular arrangements for a structure can be compiled in the form of a catalogue, which can act as a guide book for the users to replace or rearrange the building components according to their changing needs. Adopting a modular approach in a dfd model, thus, changes the concept of designing for the user to designing with the user and takes care of the ‘future preservation’ of buildings. ( chapter 4, section 4.4, Dfd as a means for future preservation) Page 75 | 91
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Principle 4:Clustering on a functional basis Intersection of modularity with a time layered perspective: Opting for a modular design alone does not ensure a sustainable construction. As analysed from the expert interview and the case studies, modularity opted out of economic reasons leads to the merging of different building functions, limiting a building’s dismantlement for relocation purposes only, and making it non feasible for routine repairs and replacements. Therefore, to direct modularity towards sustainability, the building functions need to be separable at the component as well as the assembly level where the components having different service lives should be grouped under different modules.
Principle 5: Material selection on the basis of their future use Simplification of LCA of materials through modularity: As corroborated with the expert, the major challenge is to decide upon the materials for the construction. Even though LCA can be used for this purpose, it is not adopted by the architects presently. Therefore, incorporation of modularity can help to increase the effectiveness of this tool because modular structures are formed out of the repetition of a single module, automatically reducing the requirement for different types of materials in the construction (as done in the Pop up house and Puma city). This reduces the different types of materials for which LCA needs to be calculated. Building scale: While deciding on the materials, the scale of the building acts as a major deciding factor. As the building scale increases, the cluster size increases in order to reduce the total number of building components to handle on site. As the cluster size increases, its handleability on site decreases making its dismantlement for routine repairs less feasible. Therefore, to tackle this, material choices should be made so as to reduce the number of replacements and repairs in its service life. For instance, for a large scale building such as Puma city, shipping containers were opted because these are designed to withstand rough waters and hence, can last for much longer years without any regular maintenance. (section 6.4, material selection, chapter 6) Page 76 | 91
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B) Incorporating dfd as a sustainability criteria: The environment certification systems can be utilised to include all these design principles for disassembly as the sustainability criterias with independent credits allotted to each principle, so that the designers are pushed to specifically consider the feasibility of deployment in their projects to earn those credits. These steps would enhance the application of dfd from a sustainability perspective, thus, changing the general mindset of treating sustainable design as an auxiliary afterthought to treating it as an important design generator in architecture.
8.3 Further Research Further research can look into the impacts of designing for disassembly onto the morphology of a city, so as to explore the potential of a dfd model at a macro level, which deals with infrastructure of multiple scales, purpose and materials, so as to analyse the possibility of fleeting cities.
8.4 Summary This chapter discusses the current status of dfd as a tool for sustainable construction as well as the possible ways through which it can be applied to architecture as a potentially sustainable alternative .It mentions the further areas of research by looking at the potential of dfd at the city level and its impact on its morphology.
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References Brand, S. 1994, How buildings learn : what happens after they’re built. New York, NY: Viking. Crowther, P., 1999a. Design for disassembly: an architectural strategy (pp. 27-33). Queensland University of Technology. Crowther, P., 1999b. Design for disassembly to recover embodied energy. Sustaining the Future: Energy Ecology Architecture PLEA'99, pp.95-100. Crowther, P., 1999c. Design for disassembly. BDP environment design guide. de Solà-Morales, I. (ed.) (1997) ‘Place’, in Differences: Topographies of Contemporary Architecture. The MIT Press, p. 0. doi: 10.7551/mitpress/2413.003.0008. Durmisevic, E. and Brouwer, J., 2002. Design aspects of decomposable building structures. Delft University of Technology. Department of Building Technology. Proceedings of the CIB Task Group. Ferreira Silva, M., Jayasinghe, L.B., Waldmann, D. and Hertweck, F., 2020. Recyclable Architecture: Prefabricated and Recyclable Typologies. Sustainability, 12(4), p.1342. Ford, E., 1997. The theory and practice of impermanence. Harvard Design Magazine,(3). GIZ and DA.,2015. Resource Efficiency in the Indian Construction Sector: Market Evaluation of the Use of Secondary Raw Materials from Construction and Demolition Waste. New Delhi, GIZ Guy, B. and Ciarimboli, N., 2008. DfD: Design for disassembly in the built environment: a guide to closed-loop design and building. Hamer Center. Harjula, T., Rapoza, B., Knight, W.A. and Boothroyd, G., 1996. Design for disassembly and the environment. CIRP annals, 45(1), pp.109-114.
Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, 2018, Strategy for promoting processing of construction and demolition (C&D) waste and utilisation of recycled products, viewed 5 November 2018, <https://niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2019-03/CDW_Strategy_Draft%20Final_011118.pdf> Petrova, M., 2017. Design for Ephemerality–Idiosyncrasy and Challenges. New Trends and Issues Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(11), pp.259-272. Petzet, M. and Heilmeyer, F., 2012. Reduce, reuse, recycle. Architecture as resource. Rios, F.C., Chong, W.K. and Grau, D., 2015. Design for disassembly and deconstruction-challenges and opportunities. Procedia engineering, 118, pp.1296-1304. Shrivastava, S. and Chini, A., 2009. Construction materials and C&D waste in India. Lifecycle design of buildings, systems and materials, 72. Touw, K., 2006. Firmitas re-visited: Permanence in Contemporary Architecture (Master's thesis, University of Waterloo). Veerakamolmal, P. and Gupta, S., 2000. Design for disassembly, reuse, and recycling. In Green Electronics/Green Bottom Line (pp. 69-82). Butterworth-Heinemann.
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Armada, J., 2012. Sustainable Ephemeral: Temporary Spaces with Lasting Impact. Asefi, M. and Foruzandeh, A., 2011. Nature and kinetic architecture: The development of a new type of transformable structure for temporary applications. Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture, 5(6). Beadle, K., Gibb, A., Austin, S., Fuster, A. and Madden, P., 2008, September. Adaptable futures: sustainable aspects of adaptable buildings. In ARCOM (Association of Researchers in Construction Management) Twenty-Fourth Annual Conference (pp. 1-3). Bognar, B., 1997. What goes up, must come down. Harvard Design Magazine,(3). Brand, S. 1994, How buildings learn : what happens after they’re built. New York, NY: Viking. Cabral, C.P.C., 2003. Plug-in City: em algum lugar do passado, era uma vez um futuro. Arqtexto. Porto Alegre. N. 3/4 (2003), p. 52-65. Crowther, P., 1999a. Design for disassembly: an architectural strategy (pp. 27-33). Queensland University of Technology. Crowther, P., 1999b. Design for disassembly to recover embodied energy. Sustaining the Future: Energy Ecology Architecture PLEA'99, pp.95-100. Crowther, P., 1999c. Design for disassembly. BDP environment design guide. Crowther, P., 1999d. Design for disassembly to extend service life and increase sustainability. Crowther, P., 2016a. Morphological analysis of the city for achieving design for disassembly. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 204, pp.15-26. Crowther, P., 2016b. Temporary public spaces: A technological paradigm. The Journal of Public Space, 1(1), pp.63-74. De Girolamo, F., 2013. Time and regeneration: Temporary reuse in lost spaces. Planum. The Journal of Urbanism, 2(27), pp.68-101. de Solà-Morales, I. (ed.) (1997) ‘Place’, in Differences: Topographies of Contemporary Architecture. The MIT Press, p. 0. doi: 10.7551/mitpress/2413.003.0008. De Temmerman, N. and Mira, L.A., 2011. Development of a sustainable construction system for temporary structures. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 150, pp.285-296. Durmisevic, E. and Brouwer, J., 2002. Design aspects of decomposable building structures. Delft University of Technology. Department of Building Technology. Proceedings of the CIB Task Group. Ferreira Silva, M., Jayasinghe, L.B., Waldmann, D. and Hertweck, F., 2020. Recyclable Architecture: Prefabricated and Recyclable Typologies. Sustainability, 12(4), p.1342. Ford, E., 1997. The theory and practice of impermanence. Harvard Design Magazine,(3). Page 79 | 91
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Galal El-Deen Mohamed, E., 2017. RECYCLED SHIPPING CONTAINERS AS A TOOL TO PRACTICE MODULARITY IN ARCHITECTURE STUDIO. JES. Journal of Engineering Sciences, 45(6), pp.791-803. GIZ and DA.,2015. Resource Efficiency in the Indian Construction Sector: Market Evaluation of the Use of Secondary Raw Materials from Construction and Demolition Waste. New Delhi, GIZ Guy, B. and Ciarimboli, N., 2008. DfD: Design for disassembly in the built environment: a guide to closed-loop design and building. Hamer Center. Harjula, T., Rapoza, B., Knight, W.A. and Boothroyd, G., 1996. Design for disassembly and the environment. CIRP annals, 45(1), pp.109-114. Janković, S. and Stanković, D., 2020. EPHEMERAL ARCHITECTURE-A PROPOSAL FOR INTERVENTIONS IN PUBLIC SPACE. Facta Universitatis, Series: Visual Arts and Music, pp.163-172. Kanters, J., 2020. Circular Building Design: An Analysis of Barriers and Drivers for a Circular Building Sector. Buildings, 10(4), p.77. Kieran, S., Timberlake, J. and Faircloth, B., 2011. Cellophane House: KieranTimberlake. KieranTimberlake. Kwak, M.J., Hong, Y.S. and Cho, N.W., 2011. An eco-architecture based approach for supporting design for disassembly. In 19th International Conference on Production Research. Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, 2018, Strategy for promoting processing of construction and demolition (C&D) waste and utilisation of recycled products, viewed 5 November 2018, <https://niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2019-03/CDW_Strategy_Draft%20Final_011118.pdf> Ong, K.C.G., 2010, August. Sustainability in Singapore's urban infrastructure. In Proceedings 35th International Conference of Our World of Concrete and Structures, Singapore (pp. 1-9). Pesce, B.J. and Bagaini, A., Urban and Architectural Adaptive Strategies for Inclusive Cities: A Review of International Innovation Experiments. Petrova, M., 2017. Design for Ephemerality–Idiosyncrasy and Challenges. New Trends and Issues Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(11), pp.259-272. Petzet, M. and Heilmeyer, F., 2012. Reduce, reuse, recycle. Architecture as resource. Pomponi, F. and Moncaster, A., 2017. Circular economy for the built environment: A research framework. Journal of cleaner production, 143, pp.710-718. Rios, F.C., Chong, W.K. and Grau, D., 2015. Design for disassembly and deconstruction-challenges and opportunities. Procedia engineering, 118, pp.1296-1304. Shrivastava, S. and Chini, A., 2009. Construction materials and C&D waste in India. Lifecycle design of buildings, systems and materials, 72. Sonego, M., Echeveste, M.E.S. and Debarba, H.G., 2018. The role of modularity in sustainable design: A systematic review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 176, pp.196-209. Touw, K., 2006. Firmitas re-visited: Permanence in Contemporary Architecture (Master's thesis, University of Waterloo). Veerakamolmal, P. and Gupta, S., 2000. Design for disassembly, reuse, and recycling. In Green Electronics/Green Bottom Line (pp. 69-82). Butterworth-Heinemann.
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Appendix A: Interview Questionnaire Q1. As per your website, you have incorporated a ‘design for disassembly’ approach through designing for ephemeral structures. What prompted you to opt for such an approach for a project ? A. Sustainability considerations B. Limited budget C. Time constraint D. Adaptive reuse E. Any other, please specify Q2. How was the process that you followed, to achieve a ‘design for disassembly’ model, different from a conventional design project? What were the challenges faced by you?
Q3. Do the priorities of design change while designing for disassembly? If yes, then how?
Q4. What were the important criteria for selection of materials? List in the order of importance (highest to lowest). A. Availability B. Cost C. Reusability/ recyclability D. Life cycle assessment of the materials (LCA) E. Durability F. Any other, please specify Q5. Did the construction and assembly of the temporary structure require any specialised labor skills, or knowledge of any new software as compared to a conventional design project? Q6.What factors are important to keep in mind while deciding on the future applications of the temporary construction after it’s dismantlement? Q7. At the completion of the project, did you find the building to be environmentally sustainable? Why so?
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Q8. At the completion of the project, did you find it to be cost effective as compared to a conventional design project? Why so? Q9.Do you think there is a scope of using dfd as a tool to design for daily use functions as well, in the future? Why do you think so?
Appendix B: Transcript mansanjam kaur Good morning, sir. This is mansanjam. We talked about the interview for my research, I guess. So should I be feuerbach? My topic? Expert Yeah, you can just do. You can describe visitation. mansanjam kaur So it's a dissertation research. So it's, it's design based. Okay. Yes, sir. So my topic is ephemeral architecture designing for disassembly, and where I am exploring the aspect of designing buildings for the future dismantlement to achieve circular design, to ephemeral architecture. And basically, my study aims to analyze the potential of temporariness as an environmentally sustainable alternative to the practice of architecture. So, as a part of my research, I'm required to understand the barriers and the challenges that are faced while designing buildings or disassembly. So, yeah, so this is the brief thing, and I have a set of nine questions, which I'll just speak out to you. And you can maybe answer those questions. Expert Okay. Yeah. mansanjam kaur
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So I can't, so as per your website, so you've, you've designed for some temporary structures, like I saw the light box, the light Pavilion. So I wanted to know, like, what prompted you to opt for such an approach in the first place? So was it due to some sustainability considerations, or a limited budget or a time constraint, or any other specific reason? Expert If you look at the overall picture of how our cities function after independence, before independence, the British had a very clear and a comprehensive plan of how things should happen. public buildings in the public garden should happen. The garden should come after independence, growing, we don't have a comprehensive plan, unfortunately. Because every time the government in this every government comes up with a different plan, and then things lightbox in real life The idea was to create infrastructure, if the parties want they can move that particular structure to another location that was a good idea to us and we did that that was pretty robust an altered materials construction does not have to wait for concrete and longer. Yes, that was one reason. Okay. mansanjam kaur So for the next question, how is the process that you follow to design for these kinds of structure is different from our conventional design projects? Like Were there any challenges faced by you Expert that how can we break away from the typical type of energy? Because if you see a publican typically, you will normally call it when other projects that we're doing housing or single house or administration moving around the house have like a very typical in psychology and power array function. If you look at the deeper structure of it, that's not an ideal situation. Okay. So, questioning the basics. Somebody started, you know, what is the content of the question? The documents, but that was a far more bigger challenge than convincing the authorities to build it. Okay, so the challenge was within our studio once we had a proposal like this, and I think fortunately, we had a good Commissioner that time, who was also slightly eccentric in his talk process. And he allowed us to do these sorts of
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mansanjam kaur things there. Were there any challenges at face value by like, a while planning for it? So, you know, it's like, how will it be constructed, because you said that you wanted your structures to be portable, so that they could be relocated to for that they had to be disassembled, and then they could be relocated, I was expecting, so. So like, how did you plan for that, like, were there any, were there any new areas of expertise, or any new software's or skills that were required by you to achieve? Expert I think he was producing that, they would have to build up to the plan, he will do it and it presented a solid example of a non profit as far as businesses which have to rebuild the semi automatically, in that case, that was pretty clear that we have to do that, okay. And then whatever we install on the top has to be a temporary structure. So I think it was the best material. Okay, like metal, metal was the best material, because, like metal, you can melt him and cast it into different shapes, and arrays kind of sustainable energy. Okay. That's that was one, and it's all dry construction. So, welding or bolting on joining at any point of time you feel like it can be disassembled. So there were software's or any computer aided design that we use, but it goes just by sheer common sense. Through like, how this will lead over years, or what will happen after two years or four years, when the city wants to move. For example, if you look at the architecture, very nice. You can also talks about it. And there's an entire city that is set up for so many people at a time. mansanjam kaur Okay, so, also, so like while designing for this, or did you first start with the like in the reverse order, like first planning for how will it be dismantled? And then, you know, that sort of became a lead for your design? Expert
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Not exactly, because he has to work remotely. I mean, what we're talking about that also was there in the mind and an idea or conception that was also going on to how do we find the intention that became the key by designing a book. mansanjam kaur Yes, so, is this this is the next question Nick, what were the important criteria for for selecting the materials that you chose first, so was it on the basis of availability or maybe cost or are there reusability and recyclability or durability or anything or any other Expert points that you mentioned? When was availability also durability and then the cost because a box construction is that economical? So that was one reason and we thought of using this and the perforated metal was used to kind of express this idea of an iPod Bringing sunlight and creating ventilated spaces rather than narrow considerations of how this space is going to be maintained, we're interested in even come up and wash some of the materials that we have mansanjam kaur okay. So, Nick oils, so, like you've used mostly metal in these structures, so, how did you take care of the insulation and everything because metal usually gets heated up. So, Expert they are insulated with glass. So, the Walter it should be Amen. So, we have like one definitive standard and another setting needs to be balanced in between that we are autoglass cooling solution to keep temperature different from and similarly, we can do in the room, but, the one we built we did not do it because there was already a tree present on the side we use the shade of the tree to kind of have the roof just polycarbonate officials have done that too, living too late. mansanjam kaur
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So, reusability was a criteria for for the selection of your materials right? Like if so, like the materials can be reused at later stage. Okay, and so, what were the factors like what are the factors that are important to keep in mind while you decide on to the future applications of the temporary construction after it is dismantled? So, do you plan for that as well? Expert Now, we did not plan it too great, to be honest, okay. Now, you're the idea of structures to be dismantled and moved to another location from another location or to build the same structure cannot modify it to become something like looking at the back corner furniture designer bags can look look at the modular structure the diamond elements are replicated which can help you to kind of use the same setting and allocation for different axes mansanjam kaur and also make Were there any considerations to take or you know, any standard size materials or off the shelf material so that so that the more you reuse, like once they dismantled the bigger the components or were they customized to your structure like to to fit into your design Expert much better available in the market. Okay. Between the physical we've never really customized because customization would have been added to the cost mansanjam kaur of Yeah, so. Yeah. So also Nick, after the project completed, did you find the building to be you know, environmentally more sustainable than the conventional projects that you have designed for? Expert The big find it sustainable, because one thing was the center space was so open. good amount of sunlight when a lot of descaling and when we'll see that that's okay. Because none of that you
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don't need the business and great amount of ventilation. So it was a really believing atmosphere within that unit, Metro today. I think that was a success of it and that it was more sustainable. mansanjam kaur Also, so did you find it to be more cost effective? The project Expert we did by registering below the ground, which accounted for like around 65 to 70% of the cost. That is the most minut spending of the money. But the kingdom is built on the top, it's not too costly to get the cost to cut the cost, and that's where it became a very cost effective solution. So in case you don't have very comfortable processors, or partition demanding for a biodigesters mansanjam kaur Okay, and so the last question like do you do feel that there is, there is a possibility that, you know, daily use functions like housing and offices and other sort of functions can be designed using this approach for like, in the Expert example because a couple of months back when we were discussing within our studio, that our this idea of the lightbox, and not only remain as a restroom, but can't get into many other buildings? Could it be like a housing for the poor girl looking for an affordable housing? Or could it be an office? Or could it be a house for a single family? So there are multiple possibilities to this idea. But we are still to explore that. One of the affordable housing projects, we are doing that given the construction right now. So this idea of the lightbox translates into an affordable housing project. Ben comes from translate your pride in that and you're here to guide the psychology of how we can translate mansanjam kaur in your projects like all these temporary construction, so you've mostly use modular form the construction sick, do you have anything to say on that? So, do you feel that they can be any other
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approach that can be used for for making such kind of temporary constructions? Or do you think that modularity is the is the best option to go for Expert modularity is the best option because structure then become a very standard think about the size of your condom the consequences should be how you will assemble it quickly, because as you can see, the condom in the handles, bamboo posts the word because of the horizontal and vertical ascent or even getting festivals ready belong happened in the finance, column quantum and the block sizes are very standard. Standardization and modularity is something that will help you enhance your construction. Because see, I mean, are you Muslim, circular? circular? Yes. All those elements are of the same size to the reader arrange it from a door. You can rearrange medical forms something for modern medical records, very important. structure. mansanjam kaur So also, like you'd mentioned that it is a bit difficult to get permission to do actually builds these kind of projects. So why why do you think that that happens? Expert Well, it's hard to predict permission to build subscribers because the pressure on me permission prominent projects is only Congress. mansanjam kaur Okay, so in that way, it's actually more convenient to go for such projects. Expert government projects within their own land. Okay,
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so mansanjam kaur the last question, are there any, like, when you design for these projects or so you designed a temporary sort of a project for this? Because Because were there any client requirements attached to it as well? Or? If not, then how did you convince the client because because they might not be used to that kind of an approach for architecture Expert are all self initiated project doesn't give us an occupation that leads us to give them a vision or do something that is required for the city and really require or can we, you know, do without the requirement that we want it all at home? Yes, is the requirement that comes from them, but it's our job to create a freaking idea. This whole exercise become far more interactive, and far more richer. Yes. Okay, so mansanjam kaur that's it. Thank you so much for your time. Okay. So I'm from School of Planning and architecture, it's in Delhi. Yes, I'm in my fifth year. Expert of preparation and mansanjam kaur yes, I will say you my paper. Expert Thank you, sir.
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