DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico. by Mariana.Camacho

PUBLIC SPACES:

Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

Mariana Camacho Gonzalez MMU:19010978 | UoM: 10610482

MA Architecture and Urbanism

PUBLIC SPACES:

Copyright ©2021 Manchester, England United Kingdom ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Manchester School of Architecture Manchester Metropolitan University [Student ID: 19010978] University of Manchester [Student ID: in 10610482] Self-production of Public Space Leon, Mexico. Copyright reserved by Mariana Camacho Gonzalez Mariana Camacho Gonzalez MAMMU:19010978 Architecture and Urbanism | UoM: 10610482

MA Architecture and Urbanism

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

August 2021. Mariana Camacho Gonzalez MA Architecture and Urbanism Manchester School of Architecture

FIG 1. Shaded Public Space in the City Centre in Leon (author’s own, 2013).

Abstract. Socio-economic disparities in Leon, Mexico can be perceived in the public spaces (PS) in different areas of the city. Appropriation is a concept that comprehends the interaction between users and a formal PS, however, it is not entirely clear when referring to an informal one. This research is divided into two parts to prove that the lack of formal PS in marginalised areas of this city leads to compensate the situation with the production of space through the appropriation of non-formal PS. The first part consists of the quantitative morphological analysis of PS within two polygons, which are defined areas in the city; and the analysis of three typologies, or kinds, of PS found in each of them. The second includes an interview with one inhabitant in one of the polygons and a photograph of one of the PS within her neighbourhood. This to perceive it from their perspective, that leads to the quantitative study. The findings show that appropriation does happen as a response to the absence of formal PS. It is made evident that appropriation is not only reflected in the morphological dimension of the spaces but in the social interactions as well. For this reason, some physical signs of appropriation do not express the entire situation, as some of them are initiated by social situations within the community.

Contents.

Introduction.

Demarcation of criteria: Literature Review.

Mismatched Leon.

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

Understanding the Status Quo.

Conclusions.

Bibliography.

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

LIST OF FIGURES

List of Figures. 1

Shaded Public Space in the City Centre in Leon

Triumphal Arch of the City of Leon

Main Square in Leon

Population living in urban settlements in Latin America

Location of the Case Study

Adapted from Poverty polygons in Leon.

Altar to the Virgin of Guadalupe Built by Workers Outside a Factory

Methodology

De las Vigas Square in Leon

Figure showing how wage inequality in Latin American countries is larger than in any other region

Main concepts grouped into three cathegories

Residents of San Francisco neighbourhood

Five Dimensions of Public Space with information from Mehta, 2014

Reviewing literature to establish parameters and analyse case studies

Relationship and exchange between PS and users

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

LIST OF FIGURES

Blvd. Adolfo Lopez Mateos in Leon

View from Obrera Neighbourhood in Leon

Map of the 24 original blocks in Leon in the 16th century

Timeline on the History of Leon

Poverty in Urban Areas in Leon

Research methodology

Research polygons in Leon

Neighbourhoods in Jardines del Moral

PS in Jardines del Moral

Connectivity in Jardines del Moral

Landmarks in Jardines del Moral

Population density in Jardines del Moral

Land Use in Jardines del Moral

Marginalization in Jardines del Moral

Neighbourhoods in San Francisco

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

LIST OF FIGURES

PS in San Francisco

Connectivity in San Francisco

Landmarks in San Francisco

Population density in San Francisco

Land Use in San Francisco

Marginalization in San Francisco

Template of chart used to analyse morphological parameters

Typologies in Jardines del Moral

Typologies in San Francisco

Square in Jardines del Moral

Square in San Francisco

Park in Jardines del Moral

Park in San Francisco

Brownfield in Jardines del Moral

Brownfield in San Francisco

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

LIST OF FIGURES

PS and consolidation in Leon

Street vendor in El Coecillo Quarter in Leon

Path followed by Carmen

San Francisco and its PS

Notes for photography analysis

Users in public square in Leon city centre

Appropriation of roads in San Francisco polygon

The process of self-production of PS

Tamales street vendor in El Coecillo Quarter in Leon

List of Abbreviations. PS POPS

Public Space(s) Privately Owned Public Spaces Instituto Municipal de Planeación (Municipal Institute of

IMPLAN Planning)

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

“(A public space) is a space where time is not linear, because it allows different narratives, atmpospheres and spatial interpretations...” -Rozana Montiel

Acknowledgements. This dissertation would not have been possible without the support from an incredible group of people. In the first place, I would like to thank my tutor Tamara Salinas Cohn for her guidance and always encouraging me to do my best. To the highly qualified teaching staff of this MA Architecture and Urbanism. To my classmates from my Studio group, for their support and friendship on this epic journey of ours. To EDUCAFIN for believing in me and making this academic experience possible. Finally, to my friends for being there for me even from the distance. To my family for their unconditional love and support, for believing in me and for always feeding my curiosity -Mariana Camacho Gonzalez

FIG 2. Triumphal Arch of the City of Leon (author’s own, 2015).

→→ →→ →→ →→ →→

Problem Definition Hypothesis Objectives Case Study Methodology

01 Introduction.

CHAPTER 01 | INTRODUCTION

Chapter one: Introduction.

FIG 3. Main Square in Leon (author’s own, 2013).

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 01 | INTRODUCTION

Problem Definition.

It can always be identified that public spaces are never the same, they change alongside their environment and society. They represent a snapshot of a particular place and time. While observing the users interact with the spaces, it is possible to learn from their spatial nature and socio-cultural context of its users. Public spaces (also addressed in this dissertation as PS) are funded with public money by the government, said money proceeds from the taxes that citizens pay; therefore, those spaces belong to the citizens, but why doesn’t everybody have the same access to them? To what extent is the spatial segregation responsibility of the local authorities, society, and designers? How can appropriation be a way of expressing, protesting, and denoting the inequality within different social groups? Leon is a city in central Mexico with a land area slightly above 1,200 km2 (Municipio de León, 2021), and with about 2 million inhabitants in the metropolitan area (INEGI, 2015). According to the Municipal Institute of Planning (IMPLAN 2020), in the city there are 300 ha of PS; however, the characteristics and the quality of them may not be uniform throughout different zones in Leon. The issue does not seem to be exclusively found in this city. The presence of a connection between income, accessibility, and features of the PS, has been suggested by authors such as Jordi Borja and Zaida Muxí. (2003). Unmeasured urban sprawl, amongst other factors, affects mainly those who are less privileged. The areas where they live lack basic services and infrastructure, consequently these areas experience a rise in urban violence that in the long term affects the rest of the city. In theory, all citizens should have the same opportunities to cover their basic human needs; in reality, growing cities often ignore their most vulnerable inhabitants. By understanding how cities have been developed and how people interact with them, urban planners, designers and architects can identify the needs that the society is trying to cover in PS and the elements that attach, or not, citizens to them. To conduct this research, the first part is about the analysis of how different typologies of PS are distributed in certain polygons of the city. By typologies, it will be understood as the different types of PS that share common characteristics; and by polygons, it will be referred to as delimited areas with similar morphological and social conditions. The second part is about how these spaces are appropriated and perceived by its users.

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 01 | INTRODUCTION

Hypothesis.

The lack of formal public spaces in marginalised areas in Leon leads to the production of space through the appropriation of non-formal spaces to compensate for the situation.

Key concepts. •Inequality •Appropriation •Public space •Sense of belonging •Informality

Research Questions. What and how are the manifestations of appropriation of public spaces that can be found in Leon, Mexico? And why do they happen? What are the PS typologies that can be found in a segregated city such as Leon, Mexico? How does the distribution of PS vary throughout the city? What typologies are most found throughout Leon? What patterns can we find about the production of space? How is the income related to access to one or another type of PS?

Objectives. • To understand the causes and consequences of the different typologies of PS. • To measure how the social dimension of public spaces can affect the physical dimension and vice versa. •To recognize opportunities for improvement and regeneration. •To measure the impact of the distribution and typologies of PS during the pandemic.

Case Study. Contemporary cities are home to more than half of the population worldwide, and it is expected that by 2050 the figure would be 66% (UN Habitat, 2018). By the same year, 88% of the population in Latin America and the Caribbean will live in an urban settlement (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2018). Latin America, which was once a largely rural region, has experienced an important urban growth due to increasing population and rural to urban migration. The second most populous country in the region is Mexico with 127 million inhabitants in 2020 (Statista, s.f.). The city of Leon is located 400 km northwest of Mexico City, it is the economic capital of the state of Guanajuato. Leon Metropolitan Area is the 7th largest in the country. Its intense economic growth is the result of the high concentration of industrial activities. Due to its geopolitical conditions, the population in the city is

urban rural

2021

2050

FIG 4. Population living in urban settlements in Latin America (author’s own, 2021).

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 01 | INTRODUCTION

projected to grow above the national average by 2030, reaching a population of 1.7 million inhabitants (IMPLAN, 2014). A bigger city needs more services, jobs, housing and therefore... more public spaces. This city, like many others in the region, has grown without a structured pattern in the periphery and closer to industrial parks. The city has an average density of slightly above 11 inhabitants/ha, the areas far from the city centre are the less dense, having mainly single-family homes. In total there are 250,000 single family social housing and self-built homes (70% of the total in Leon), and 1,000,000 inhabitants (66% of the total population in Leon) (IMPLAN, 2014). Middle and high-income neighbourhoods tend to be gated communities and they include their own private parks and green areas. Whereas, low-income neighbourhoods are not always planned. In many cases, they are irregular settlements, 144 throughout the outskirts of the city and deploying the seven poverty polygons. Hence why they haven’t been provided by PS and green areas (IMPLAN, 2014). What is seen in the low-income areas are leftover spaces, that can be dangerous and an unhealthy surrounding for residential areas. The most vulnerable

400 km

Leon

Guanajuato

Mexico City Metropolitan Area of Leon

FIG 5. Location of the Case Study (author’s own, 2021).

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 01 | INTRODUCTION

groups are affected by this include children, seniors, and women. People, in general, need open areas to exercise, socialize, buy and sell products and services and engage in activities with their community; these spaces cannot solve all of the problems of a marginalised population, but they can become a platform for improving their quality of life, especially during the current world situation, the pandemic. The COVID-19 pandemic has taught many people, from citizens to designers, the great importance of PS. They have become one of the most sought-after pieces of urban equipment in modern cities, just after hospitals, for obvious reasons. They have proved once again that they can become an extension to our homes, allowing us to perform a wide range of activities. Different types of PS are important because they provide different settings in the city and can have distinct benefits for the population. In the case of PS with green areas, various researches have shown that they can improve the mental health of the people who live close to them. When people live in precarious conditions, cities must provide them with what they lack to improve their quality of life. Green areas, for instance, are one the types of PS required in Leon due to the semi-arid weather and high air pollution levels. Both factors make it difficult for people to be comfortable in open spaces without shade for a long period. The distribution of PS and green areas in Leon is not uniform. The present research focuses in specific typologies of PS and analyse their correlation to their spatial context, their attributes and how they impact on their immediate built context.

Castillos

Medina Las Joyas San Francisco Piletas

Jacinto López 10 de Mayo

FIG 6. Adapted from Poverty polygons in Leon. (Guzmán Ramírez & Frausto Vargas, 2012).

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 01 | INTRODUCTION

FIG 7. Altar to the Virgin of Guadalupe Built by Workers Outside a Factory (author’s own, 2020).

Methodology. Studying different types of PS and their relationship with the built environment and their distribution across cities is a broad subject, that is why this research is centred in Leon as a case study, with a focus in three of the most commonly found typologies of PS in two polygons in the city related to morphological, social and economic characteristics. The information used in the analysis of the PS has been be gathered from digital sources available such as satellite maps, three-dimensional views, and literature

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 01 | INTRODUCTION

available such as reports from municipal institutions; also, from information obtained by users of those PS, such as photographs and testimonials. This data is both quantitative, because it describes the spaces exactly as they are through what can be observed in them; and qualitative, since it involves the point of view from users to their local PS. Gathering the information needed depended on the resources accessible for consultation such as, reports from the municipality, statistics and maps obtained from government offices; these will comprise the secondary sources. On the other hand, diagrams have been elaborated by the author and pictures provided by a community member participating in this research, previously contacted by the author. As it has been previously mentioned, this research focuses on certain typologies of PS and certain polygons in Leon. The reason for this is that due to time and mobility constraints, not all the city can be analysed. It was decided that for a more in-depth analysis of these spaces it would be necessary to focus in particular areas in Leon and understand the dynamics happening in the PS and in their contexts. The disadvantage of conducting a very broad analysis is that by seeing so much of the city it would be impossible to perceive the details that make each PS unique. On the other hand, zooming in a specific area, an oligopticon, will help understand better the relationships between different elements and networks that conform the city (Latour, 2005). Oligopticon is a concept defined by Latour (2005) as parts of the city that would enable its study. From those places it is possible to view the city as a whole by recognising the networks and dynamics that interact within them, rather than seeing the city as one single object. To undertake this dissertation, the methodology developed has been mapping two different polygons in the city and identifying three typologies found in them Of all the polygons existent, two will be selected using the ideal type methodology in which two or more elements from a group are compared emphasizing their differences, to make their variations even more noticeable (Gerhardt, 1994). Each typology will be analysed using morphological parameters that will help understand each of them in depth by getting to know their layout, features, and activities. This research about PS will be comprised by two parts: the first one will be about morphological qualities of the PS with the use of quantitative data, and the second one will be about the appropriation happening in one of these PS through qualitative information provided by a user. To study the first part, it has been needed to zoom in in two areas of the city, oligopticons, that are highly contrasting, as the ideal type methodology suggests. Each of these areas is known in this research as polygons. This analysis is on an urban scale, through the comparison of maps of the polygons. Likewise, it is necessary to focus in different kinds of PS found in each of the polygons, the PS chosen will be known as typologies as they share similar characteristics so it will be possible to compare them. The second part comprehends the relationship of the users with one of these PS analysing a photography provided by community a member; as well as, their own appreciation about them, the images obtained allow us, outsiders, to get to know these PS through the eyes of the people who use them in their daily life. All of this is necessary to understand appreciation, as it is not possible to be perceived through the morphological analysis. This methodology has been structured in a way that makes it possible to get to know: the physical characteristics of PS, their relationship with their context and the way they are appropriated by the community. Having understood these

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 01 | INTRODUCTION

spaces, it will be possible to prove how the social and economic context causes users to self-produce their own PS when they are not provided. All the PS studied are entirely public, this means that anyone can have access to them without the need of paying a fee, even when some of them have access restrictions regarding opening hours, privately owned public spaces (POPS) are excluded from this research. The tools used in this research have been designed to enable the analysis on an urban scale and on a PS scale. The graphic resources allow the visualization of morphological characteristics and the comparison between the different PS typologies. These graphic tools facilitate the understanding of each of the PS researched. Firstly, from a larger scale and then zooming in into a smaller one to perceive the details in each of them.

Leon

[case study]

urban scale

define boundaries for polygons in the city

oligopticon ideal type

define PS typologies within the city

PS scale

analyse chosen PS typologies in selected polygons

1st. part

author’s own elaboration

appropriation

morphology

[qualitative]

[quantitative]

testimonials and photographs

analysis chart

2nd. part

provided by community member

conclusions FIG 8. Methodology (author’s own, 2021).

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

→→ →→ →→ →→

Introduction Intangible Qualities of the PS Marginalization and the PS The Architectural Qualities of the PS: Establishment of Criteria to Outline Analysis Parameters →→ Conclusions

Demarcation of criteria: Literature Review.

CHAPTER 02 | DEMARCATION OF CRITERIA: LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter two: Demarcation of criteria.

FIG 9. De las Vigas Square in Leon (author’s own, 2020).

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 02 | DEMARCATION OF CRITERIA: LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction.

PS have been widely studied since they have been present in human settlement for thousands of years. The more it is known about them, the more complex they can be perceived; nevertheless, these complexities are not always evident at first sight. Human interactions take place in these spaces and they can modify the physical aspects of them. The key concepts needed to understand the chosen topic will be reckoned in the present literature review. The first group of concepts reviewed is formed by some intangible qualities, as appropriation, the role of PS in contemporary life and the sense of belonging in PS. In the second group of concepts analyses the relationship between marginalization and the PS, through urban intricacies such as informality and socio-spatial inequality. These concepts are relevant especially in a context located in the ‘global south’ such as the chosen case study, Leon. It is important because the region of Latin America has the highest income inequality in the world (UNDP, 2019). In Leon, as in many other Latin American cities, it can be observed in the urban landscape.

FIG 10. Figure showing how wage inequality in Latin American countries is larger than in any other region (Messina & Silva, 2018).

“The Gini coefficient measures the equality of income distribution, ranging from zero (perfect equality) to 100 (maximal inequality)” (Messina & Silva, 2018).

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 02 | DEMARCATION OF CRITERIA: LITERATURE REVIEW

Finally, the third group is focused in investigating architectural characteristics of PS that can be measured and used to analyse these spaces. Since there is not an existing set of parameters to analyse these spaces, a set of them had to be determined through the reviewing process of existing literature about PS. These qualities have been mentioned by its authors as those that should ideally be present in the PS to make them have a more positive impact in the physical and social context.

Intangible Qualities of the PS - appropriation - role of the PS - sense of belonging

Marginalization and the PS - urban informality - socio-spatial inequality

The Architectural Qualities ofthe PS: Establishment of Criteria to Outline Analysis Parameters

•Appropriation •Public space •Sense of belonging •Informality •Surface •Shape •Materiality •Sitting facilities

•Shade provided by vegetation •Artificial lighting in and outside •Connectivity •Existence of landmarks •Morphology of facades •Orientation •Void and solid •Activities around the edges

literature review FIG 11. Main concepts grouped into three cathegories (author’s own, 2021).

inclusiveness

Intangible Qualities of the PS.

100 90 80 70

According to Lefevre (1991) a PS cannot exist by itself it needs to be produced, 60 this phenomenon can happen in three different ways: by the material process 50 (spatial practice), by knowledge (representation of space) and by a meaning given by the community (representational spaces).40Being produced means that 30 it is the result of a process spacepleasurability is not something that spontaneously appears, that involves acts and gestures and is performed by20an external entity, a person, or a social group. 10

Appropriation as a response meaningful activities

When a space is modified by someone in order for it to serve their needs, the process happening there is appropriation (Lefevre, 1991). This means that the one who conducts these changes does not necessarily need to be the owner of the space. It can be outlined that for the purposes of this research, the process

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 02 | DEMARCATION OF CRITERIA: LITERATURE REVIEW

of appropriation is held by users towards a PS and it can be temporary or permanent, since it is their response to customize it according to what they perceive it’s lacking for it to be more comfortable. Therefore, the production of every space would be different and would respond to specific needs. As varied as the origin of these spaces can be, as varied as the different activities that can happen there. Some activities are expected to happen since the design process of these spaces, but many others happen spontaneously, and they happen because these spaces provide the right conditions for them, this type of uses tend to be temporary, and in the best cases transform into permanent.

The Role of PS in Contemporary Life

Throughout history, public spaces have evolved and have become even more complex, still their main purpose is to serve as space to carry out social life in human settlements. They have resisted the pass of time because they have been able to adapt to the new ways of living (Bravo & Guaralda, 2016). Another role of PS in our societies is to demonstrate the level of democracy in the cities because they are inclusive, they represent the citizens and they invite their users to appropriate them (Borja, 2013). Infinite possibilities of things to happen in the PS are feasible due to the emptiness of these spaces, many different activities of many different natures can take place simultaneously (Wilkinson, 2017).

Sense of Belonging in the PS

Social life in cities takes place in PS, for this to happen, there must be people performing activities and interacting with the space (Bravo & Guaralda, 2016). The appropriation of PS happens in every culture, but it is expressed and understood in different ways. It is closely linked to the sense of belonging that the users may experiment in that place (Lara-Hernandez, Coulter, & Melis, 2020). Development of emotional connections to a place and the feeling of being part of a community, makes up the latter, which may lead to higher participation and commitment to activities within the community (Francis, Giles-Corti, Wood, & Knuiman, 2012). How can appropriation be measured? What makes some PS such as streets so lively? What kind of activities take place in the selected typologies of PS in Leon? Why do people choose to perform those activities there? What makes a PS democratic? What can architects learn to ensure more opportunities for representation and democracy in urban spaces? What impact can PS have in neglected population groups? PS are distributed throughout cities, and ideally in a uniform way. In many cities this is not the case, and the lack of these spaces accentuates the inequalities of the population. These places cannot solve all the problems within a city, but they can improve the quality of life in it. They have direct impact on the physical and mental health of its inhabitants, provide areas where vulnerable population such as children and seniors can be safe, and become an extension to their homes because they allow them to undertake activities that cannot happen inside their own houses.

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 02 | DEMARCATION OF CRITERIA: LITERATURE REVIEW

Marginalization and the PS. As Lara-Hernandez et al. (2020) note, there is no general agreement on the definition of informality in urbanism. The differences are mainly depending on the geographical region where the author is referring to, in the ‘Global North’ it is widely understood as something unofficial or out of the law, whereas in the ‘Global South’ it is usually defined as something dynamic that does not necessarily happen in an informal settlement, and rarely addressing that it can be the temporary appropriation of spaces throughout the formal city. Unfortunately, it is common for contemporary cities to have informal settlements in the outskirts of the city. Lefevre (1991) refers to this informality in Latin America as the appropriation of a space, but in a larger scale that modifies the urban structure, and he identifies there that social life is much more intense than in the ‘formal city’.

Urban Informality

The emergence of informal settlements is a response to the lack of opportunities to secure a place to live, socialize or work, due to the lack of fair conditions for the entire population based on their economic status, ethnic background or gender. When someone is not able to obtain equal opportunities, status or even rights as the rest of the population, it is inequality (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2015). PS are meant to be inclusive and democratic, still some social groups encounter barriers that deprive them from getting access to these spaces (Bravo, 2018). For this reasearch, the concept of inequality will refer to the lack of egalitarian opportunities to access to PS by different social groups in Leon.

Socio-spatial inequality

The uses that take place in PS constitute the social dimension of them, and as a consequence they form the urban landscape, which shows the capacity for transformation that urban environments have and can lead us to identify opportunities of improvement on the quality of public spaces.

FIG 12. Residents of San Francisco neighbourhood (Milenio, 2016).

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 02 | DEMARCATION OF CRITERIA: LITERATURE REVIEW

The Architectural Qualities of the PS: Establishment of Criteria to Outline Analysis Parameters. To start analysing the spaces it will be necessary to build parameters that allow to measure characteristics of each of the typologies based on what contemporary urban theory states. Firstly, to have an overview of the space and understand how it is overall with general data, the surface measured in m2, the geometric shape, and the materiality with which it has been built. Architectural Qualities In Intangible the search of providing better The PS around the world, many experts have reQualities of the PS ofthe PS: Establishment of Criteria to searched different methods to measure the quality of these spaces, one of them Outline Analysis Parameters -isappropriation the Public Space Index (PSI) (Mehta, 2014). It comprises 45 variables that -gauge role of the PS important aspects present in every PS, grouped withinbythe five dimen•Appropriation •Shade provided vegetation - sense of belonging space activities, •Artificial lighting in and outside sions of PS, inclusiveness,•Public meaningful comfort, safety and pleasur•Sense of belonging •Connectivity ability. The index is calculated by giving a numeric score to each of the variables •Informality landmarks depending on the parameters given by the author,•Existence some areofcounted by observa•Surface •Morphology of facades tion and others by the subjective appreciation of the users. For the development Marginalization •Shape •Orientation ofand the present dimensions and variables to develop pa•Void considered and solid the PS research the •Materiality •Sitting facilities •Activities around the edges of the rameters will be the ones that allow a quantification by the observation - urban informality space or by official figures. The aspect of comfort refers to the convenience for - socio-spatial inequality the user to spend time in the PS, which will be measured by the presence of siting facilities, not necessarily as formal street furniture; and by the presence of literature review shade provided by vegetation. When it comes to safety, an aspect that can be counted is the presence and distribution of artificial lighting in and outside the PS. One of the variables of inclusiveness is the presence of people of diverse classes, and in order to measure it in this work it will be analysed by the connectivity, meaning the presence of important roads that link the PS to other areas of the city and the possible means of transport in which users could arrive in it. inclusiveness 100 90 80 70 60 50 40

pleasurability

meaningful activities

30 20 10

FIG 13. Five Dimensions of Public Space with information from Mehta, 2014 (author’s own, 2021).

safety

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

comfort

CHAPTER 02 | DEMARCATION OF CRITERIA: LITERATURE REVIEW

Cities have been the habitat of humankind for centuries, and some parts of them are undoubtedly more memorable, they are easier to remember and to navigate in them. This has been described by Lynch (1960) as imageability, the more memorable a space is, the more pleasure it would provoke in the users. In the case of PS this legibility of the immediate context can be translated into their visual and physical context, which can be described by analysing visual aspects surrounding the PS such as the existence of landmarks and morphology of facades. Other aspects that have been stated to make PS more legible are the orientation in relation to the sun, ideally facing the south; the relation between void and solid that could avoid the PS to be perceived as leftover space if it has clear boundaries formed by the surrounding buildings; and the presence of activities around the edges of the PS, because they will facilitate the presence of people walking through it and occupying the space while connecting between the difs present, whether they may be economic, userbe ferent range of activities that could cultural, religious or of any other kind (Alexander, et al., 1977). Therefore, taking into consideration the concepts previously mentioned, the parameters used to analyse each of the typologies in the case study will be:

•Surface •Shape •Materiality •Sitting facilities •Shade provided by vegetation •Artificial lighting in and outside

•Connectivity •Existence of landmarks •Morphology of facades •Orientation •Void and solid •Activities around the edges

[theory] concepts

[reality] case study

typologies

establish parameters

polygons

FIG 14. Reviewing literature to establish parameters and analyse case studies (author’s own, 2021).

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 02 | DEMARCATION OF CRITERIA: LITERATURE REVIEW

Conclusions. According to the concepts revised above, it can be concluded that PS have an effect in two directions. One of them refers to the fact that they have an influence in their immediate spatial and social context, and the other direction means that their context also influences them by adapting it to their current needs. This duality is due to their possibility to either perform as an active element by impacting their environment and modifying the behaviour of the users and because, through a process of appropriation, the users can modify its spatial configuration to serve by being a passive element. Design elements and morphological features of the PS can have an influence in the way the space is perceived and used, and through similar characteristics they can be grouped into different typologies. All PS have both the physical and morphological dimension and the social one. Both are important in the way PS are appropriated by its users. As it has been mentioned above, some characteristics will be more inviting for users and that will allow them to stay for longer in the PS. Also, some characteristics in the context will have impact in the way PS are perceived. It is important to view both perspectives to have an understanding of the PS closer to reality. Considering their duality with the help of urban theories and methodologies, as well as the input from the users, who may not have technical knowledge but have the empirical one. This research seeks to make use of both to have a clearer understanding by having a wider perspective. In the next chapter the city of Leon and the zones studied will be presented to understand the current reality of PS and the policies of municipality towards them, and in the following chapter, the analysis taking place will be comparing the physical features found on the PS and the appropriation executed by its users, according to what they perceive in them.

users

PS FIG 15. Relationship and exchange between PS and users (author’s own, 2021).

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 02 | DEMARCATION OF CRITERIA: LITERATURE REVIEW

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 02 | DEMARCATION OF CRITERIA: LITERATURE REVIEW

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

FIG 16. Blvd. Adolfo Lopez Mateos in Leon (author’s own, 2016).

→→ →→ →→ →→ →→ →→ →→

Brief History of Leon Governance and Urban Policies Polygons Jardines del Moral San Francisco Typologies Conclusions

03 Mismatched Leon.

CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

Chapter three: Mismatched Leon.

FIG 17. View from Obrera Neighbourhood in Leon (author’s own, 2016).

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

Brief History of Leon. The city of Leon was founded in 1576 by Spanish conquerors for its strategic location in the central region of the country. It was designed with a traditional and almost orthogonal grid similar to those of Spanish cities, with 24 blocks arranged surrounding the main square and which still remains almost intact and conforms what today is the Historic City Centre. FIG. 18 shows a map of the layout.

FIG 18. Map of the 24 original blocks in Leon in the 16th century. (LeonGTO, 2013).

After the independence of the country in 1821, the city experienced a significant demographic growth and the consolidation of its industrial economic activities, underscoring the tannery and shoe-making industries. Similarly, this meant the expansion of Leon towards smaller towns, which became neighbourhoods in the growing city. Later on, between the late 1950s and early 1960s the landscape of Leon changed drastically with the development of new districts and larger roads, such as the case of the construction of Blvd. Lopez Mateos. These changes steered the development of the city into a modern one and prepared the ground for the future industrial boom (Mata Lucio, 2009). In the middle of the decade of 1990 the first automotive plant established in the Metropolitan Area of Leon. Since then, many more of these industrial plants have settled. One of the main reasons is the convenient proximity to other large Mexican cities and the existence of an efficient highway network. Consequently,

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CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

the population growth has led the city to expand its boundaries even further. The higher demand of affordable housing and the small supply of it has caused the sprawl of irregular settlements (Reyes, 2018).

1576

1821

1920s

1950s 1960s

1995

2021

FIG 19. Timeline on the History of Leon (author’s own, 2021).

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Governance and Urban Policies. In the last decade, research on poverty and territorial distribution in Leon was conducted. As a result, there was the identification of regions in the periphery of the city where the index of poverty was higher than the average throughout the rest of the city. These areas had in common the lack of basic urban infrastructure, seven of these poverty polygons were identified, (Guzmán Ramírez & Frausto Vargas, 2012) and government agencies presented work plans and masterplans proposals for those areas. In 2012 IMPLAN presented a masterplan to develop 52 linear parks along neglected streams located in poverty polygons in the city, which were also found to be the ones with less PS in relation to the inhabitants, and which would encourage pedestrian and cycling activity. Six of these potential linear parks are located within the polygon of San Francisco (IMPLAN, 2012). And in 2018 the same institution published their portfolio of projects to be executed from 2018 to 2021 where it is included a master plan to develop more PS in deprived areas including San Francisco, one of the areas investigated in this research. Nevertheless, no more information has been published about this project (IMPLAN, 2018).

FIG 20. Poverty in Urban Areas in Leon (IMPLAN, 2020).

In 2018 the city council developed the Manual of Preservation and Refurbishment of Public Spaces (Dirección General de Obra Pública, 2018) for the period of 2018-2021 as an action plan to address some of the Sustainable Development Goals established by the UN, more specifically the 11th goal: ‘Sustainable Cities and Communities’. The document has the purpose of communicating pragmatic strategies that the municipality will implement to improve the physical state of the existing PS, prioritizing those in poverty polygons as a way of tackling social disparities and ensuring a better environment to these communities. DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

As it has been mentioned before, this research consists of two parts: the first one, which takes place in the current chapter, analyses morphological parameters found in different areas of the city with contrasting poverty levels and in their PS; the second part analyses appropriation in one of the previously mentioned PS. Fig. 21 explains the structure of the subsequent investigation.

analysis of

[in Leon]

urban scale

PS scale

Jardines del Moral

square

analyse three common typologies within the polygons

identify two contrasting polygons San Francisco

park

brownfield

maps

charts

[quantitative]

• Public Spaces • Connectivity • Landmarks • Density • Land Use • Marginalization

understand the PS from the perspective of a community member

• Surface • Shape • Materiality • Sitting facilities • Shade provided by vegetation • Artificial lighting

morphology 1st. part

interview and photograph [qualitative]

• Artificial lighting • Connectivity • Landmarks • Morphology of facades • Orientation • Void and solid

appropriation 2nd. part

FIG 21. Research methodology (author’s own, 2021).

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CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

Polygons.

Jardines del Moral

San Francisco

FIG 22. Research polygons in Leon (author’s own, 2021).

To analyse in depth the PS in the city of Leon it is not ideal to study the city as a whole. What is required is to divide the city into smaller sections. Focusing in one of these sections one by one, enables to have a clearer understanding of the PS found in them. These sections are what Latour (2005) called oligopticons, because they permit to view the city from there and identify the connections and networks happening there that exist elsewhere in the city. These oligopticons have been designated as polygons in the present dissertation. Polygons have been delimitated by grouping adjacent neighbourhoods with similar socioeconomic level. By using the ideal type methodology two areas of the city with contrasting socioeconomic level where delimitated to form these two polygons. The more evident the differences between them, the easier it will be to understand how income is related with their PS. The two polygons have been named: Jardines del Moral and San Francisco; taking their names from neighbourhoods found in them, which were the first ones to be settled in those areas. The first one is a consolidated area in the city, which means it is a formal area; and the second one is a non-consolidated one because it was originated as an informal settlement. Fig. 22. presents both polygons to be analysed. •Consolidated (formal): ■Jardines ■ del Moral DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

•Non- consolidated (informal): ■San ■ Francisco

CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

Jardines del Moral. For this research the polygon named as Jardines del Moral is formed by 7 neighbourhoods. The first one established within this polygon and from which it has taken its name is Jardines del Moral. In 1955 it was developed under the concept of being the first suburban residential neighbourhood in Leon. However, it was designed with significant differences from North American suburbs. For instance, its blocks are divided into land plots with narrow fronts and short length. Due to this, the houses built were mainly terraced ones. Nowadays, it has became a predominantly middle-high class neighbourhood within a traditional area in contemporary Leon (De la Torre Vazquez, 2009). Once an area in the outskirts of the city conceived as a retreat from the bustle of the city, is now a zone well located with good connectivity. After 66 years of its initial development it has become a highly consolidated area. Currently this polygon is mainly a residential area. Over the years, there has been a rise in retail and hospitality activities mostly along main roads. Such roads link it to newer high-class neighbourhoods and commercial developments, making it appealing not only to its current residents but also to adjacent communities.

Privada del Moral Villa del Juncal

Villa del Campestre Villas del Moral

Futurama Monterrey

Panorama

Jardines del Moral

FIG 23. Neighbourhoods in Jardines del Moral (author’s own, 2021).

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CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

square, plaza or atrium park or urban garden brownfield FIG 24. PS in Jardines del Moral (author’s own, 2021). N

motorway primary road local road

FIG 25. Connectivity in Jardines del Moral (author’s own, 2021).

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church FIG 26. Landmarks in Jardines del Moral (author’s own, 2021).

0 - 5K >5K - 10K

FIG 27. Population density in Jardines del Moral (author’s own, 2021).

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medium intensity retail high intensity retail medium intensity services high intensity services parks and urban gardens

urban equipment medium intensity housing medium density housing and mixed uses FIG 28. Land Use in Jardines del Moral (author’s own, 2021). N

very high high medium low very low

FIG 29. Marginalization in Jardines del Moral (author’s own, 2021).

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San Francisco. The polygon outlined as San Francisco is in the southeast part of Leon and is conformed by 8 neighbourhoods. It is situated next to one of the two urban growth reserve zones, which have not been assigned a land use yet but will have it depending on the future urban needs (IMPLAN, 2020 B). The neighbourhood of San Francisco emerged as an irregular settlement due to the lack of affordable housing in this area of the city, due to its informal origin it is hard to identify the exact date of its establishment, however the municipality had identified this settlement in reports dating from 2003. The neighbourhood association has sent pledges to the municipality demanding for basic infrastructure and basic services. Therefore, local authorities are aware of the strong need for PS in San Francisco as there are not enough spaces and the ones existing are not decent enough. They have confirmed that they will work towards delivering architectural and urban projects that contribute to reduce the social gap in poor areas of the city. However, masterplans and reports do not change the reality of the people living in this marginalised neighbourhood. What needs to be done is that those projects are executed. Once they are materialized, they need to connect with the community to provide a safer and more prosperous neighbourhood. From the information above mentioned it becomes clearer that inequality in this area does not exist just in the social realm, but in the built environment as well. In the latter case the inequality is evident because the area does not meet the minimum standards found in other parts of the city and as a consequence of a neglected environment it is harder for the residents to have their basic human rights covered. The following series of maps demonstrate the characteristics present in San Francisco and the way they influence the PS in this polygon.

Brisas del Carmen

Brisas de San Nicolás

Brisas del Pedregal

Fracciones de Sangre de Cristo Sangre de Cristo

Ampliación de San Francisco

San Francisco San Juan

FIG 30. Neighbourhoods in San Francisco (author’s own, 2021).

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square, plaza or atrium park or urban garden brownfield FIG 31. PS in San Francisco (author’s own, 2021).

motorway motorway (proposed) primary road primary road (proposed) local road local road (proposed)

FIG 32. Connectivity in San Francisco (author’s own, 2021).

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CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

main entrance FIG 33. Landmarks in San Francisco (author’s own, 2021).

0 - 5K >5K - 10K >10K - 15K >15K - 20K

FIG 34. Population density in San Francisco (author’s own, 2021).

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medium intensity services high intensity services urban consolidation urban equipment high density housing high density housing and mixed uses FIG 35. Land Use in San Francisco (author’s own, 2021). N

very high high medium low very low

FIG 36. Marginalization in San Francisco (author’s own, 2021).

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Typologies. In architecture, typology can be understood as a series of characteristics that can be physical or not, present in a class of architectural objects.This makes them similar and comparable amongst them and allows them to be classified within the same category. In this dissertation, typology will be referred to as a group of PS that have similar morphological traits. These typologies will be studied by describing and analysing a series of parameters found in all of them. The list of parameters is outlined in the literature review. The tool designed to study these PS is a chart that includes the twelve parameters. They will be explained using graphic resources. One chart analyses each typology. In Leon there are various typologies found. Three of the most common have been selected: •Consolidated or formal PS: ■Public ■ square or plaza ■Green ■ space: commonly found in the shape of public gardens or parks, such as: • Neighbourhood park • Pocket park • Metropolitan park • Local park • Linear park

•Non- consolidated (informal): ■Brownfield ■

materiality landmarks sitting facilities and Selection of artificial lighting Map of adjapolygon Geometric materials used cent reference Diagram representing urban shape and en- in the paving furniture used for seating and surface trances, if any. design of this points existing lighting fixtures in the PS and Area in m2. around the PS. PS. around it. shade and orientation connectivity and land use void and solid

typology

shape

Diagram of the shade provided by vegetation, if any, and the orientation according to the path of the sun.

Overlapping maps displaying: the presence of important roads within the polygon and the land use to identify the type of activities taking place around the PS.

Map indicating the void and solid within the immediate context of the PS. To understand the relationship of built and unbuilt environment.

transect Section showing the dwellings and roads surrounding the PS to understand the relationship between this PS and its built environment.

FIG 37. Template of chart used to analyse morphological parameters (author’s own, 2021).

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Within each of the two polygons previously studied, one example of each of the three typologies previously mentioned. Such typologies will be analysed using the parameters established earlier in the literature review, arranged in a chart using graphic resources such as plans and sections. FIG. 37 is the template of the charts previously mentioned. FIG. 38 and FIG. 39. show the location of the PS within the polygons of Jardines del Moral and San Francisco. The purpose of designing this tool is to study morphological traits found in this space to get to know each of them. This analysis will enable to compare similar PS found in contrasting contexts and understand how similar of different they are. The morphological characteristics analysed are the same parameters discussed in the literature review and have been arranged into a chart.

FIG 38. Typologies in Jardines del Moral (author’s own, 2021).

04 02

FIG 39. Typologies in San Francisco (author’s own, 2021).

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shape

typology square polygon jardines del moral

materiality

main entrance a’

limestone pavers

surface

1466.0m2

*the square is entirely open, main entrance is shown

shade and orientation

connectivity and land u

transect

road

church

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CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

landmarks

sitting facilities and artificial lighting

church

lighting N

use

*no sitting fixtures found N

void and solid

motorway primary road local road medium intensity retail medium intensity services high intensity services parks and urban gardens urban equipment medium intensity housing medium density housing and mixed uses

square

road

a-a’ FIG 40. Square in Jardines del Moral (author’s own, 2021).

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

typology square

shape

materiality

entrances

polygon san francisco

concrete a

a’

surface cobblestone

1075.0m2 N

shade and orientation

connectivity and land u

transect

school

square

road

church

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CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

landmarks

use

sitting facilities and artificial lighting

church

sitting lighting N

void and solid

primary road (proposed) local road urban equipment high density housing and mixed uses

park

road

a-a’

FIG 41. Square in San Francisco (author’s own, 2021). DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

shape

typology park

materiality

main entrances

polygon jardines del moral a

a’

surface

24360.0m2 shade and orientation

*the park is entirely open, main entrances are shown

concrete

stone masonry planters

clinker brick pavers

connectivity and land u

transect

road

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CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

landmarks

sitting facilities and artificial lighting

restaurants and shops

sitting N

use

lighting N

void and solid

park

road

a-a’ FIG 42. Park in Jardines del Moral (author’s own, 2021). DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

typology park

shape

materiality

entrance

polygon san francisco

concrete a

a’

surface

2203.0m2

clinker brick pavers

fence

shade and orientation

connectivity and land u

transect

school

square

road

church

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CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

landmarks

use

sitting facilities and artificial lighting

church

sitting N

lighting N

void and solid

primary road (proposed) local road urban equipment high density housing and mixed uses

park

road

a-a’

FIG 43. Park in San Francisco (author’s own, 2021). DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

shape

typology brownfield

entrance

polygon jardines del moral

a’

ground and grass

surface

15701.0m2

materiality

fence

*the site is entirely open

shade and orientation

connectivity and land u

transect

road

restaurant

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landmarks

sitting facilities and artificial lighting

university sitting lighting N

use

*none of these fixtures found N

void and solid

brownfield

road

university

a-a’ FIG 44. Brownfield in Jardines del Moral (author’s own, 2021). DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

shape

typology brownfield polygon san francisco

surface

21972.0m2

no delimited entrances a

ground and grass a’

no boundaries

shade and orientation

materiality

connectivity and land u

transect

brownfie

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landmarks

use

sitting facilities and artificial lighting

church

sitting lighting N

*none of these fixtures found N

void and solid

primary road (proposed) local road urban equipment high density housing and mixed uses

eld

road

a-a’

FIG 45. Brownfield in San Francisco (author’s own, 2021). DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

CHAPTER 03 | MISMATCHED LEON

Conclusions. The most notorious difference between the spaces found on both polygons is the presence of urban furniture and the overall quality of the space. In the first polygon, Jardines del Moral, the first two typologies: the square, and the park, have good quality urban furniture and decent paving materials. They also have more vegetation that provides more shade, making them more comfortable for spending longer time. Overall, these PS have specific purposes. Users would attend any of them depending on what activity they will perform and are only used for that sole purpose. Both the square and the park are landmarks for the city in general, they are well known and serve as reference points. People from other parts of the city go to this PS for social, recreational, and religious purposes. The esteem of the city in general for them, could be caused by them being in areas highly consolidated. This means that this polygon has existed for decades, have good infrastructure and an overall good image that reflects the high income of most of its inhabitants. Whereas the brownfield is not used at all, it is a leftover space and is fenced. The only reason for it existing is property speculation due to it being located close to main roads, commercial areas and high-income residential developments. San Francisco is a relatively newer polygon, and due to its informal origin, it is in the process of being consolidated. All their PS are used solely by their local communities. It can be deduced that it happens for two reasons. The first one is that the overall image of that neighbourhood is less appealing to the rest of the city, due to the high levels of marginalisation in the area. The second one is because around these spaces the main land use residential, whereas in Jardines del Moral there is a mix of uses. The square and the park in San Francisco are used similarly as the ones in the other polygon; however, they host more people. In addition to social, recreational, and religious activities they also host self-management ones where neighbours gather to discuss about what happens in their community. The square is the main gathering point in this polygon, as it will be detailed in the following chapter. Despite its importance, there is no urban furniture per se, but there are concrete elements with no apparent purpose which are used by visitors as sitting elements. Mostly, there is also much less vegetation in the PS in this polygon than in the other one. In this case the orientation does not play a significant role because the area where they are is not densely built. The brownfield in this place has been modified by neighbours to provide themselves with a space that they need. Having no owner or municipal authority looking after this space, the neighbours assimilate this space into their own context and intervene with their own resources. From the six PS analysed it can be concluded that PS in a consolidated polygon have well defined morphological characteristics; however, in non-consolidated areas many of the analysed characteristics are not present or are deficient. Secondly, the variety of land uses around the PS will attract more diverse users other than just neighbourhood residents. The level of consolidation in the context is closely related to the possible activities that take happen in the PS, people in this

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area have more variety of places to visit. Different activities can be performed in different places since they are available within the same neighbourhood. In low-income areas, the variety of PS is smaller, to compensate the ones available play multiple roles. Therefore, the density of use there is larger. Finally, the main conclusion is that the deprivation of formal and suitable PS leads to the community to intervene them and produce solutions by themselves

[in Leon]

single activities heterogeneous land use

consolidated

FIG 46. PS and consolidation in Leon (author’s own, 2021).

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

nonconsolidated

multiple activities homogeneous land use

self-production

→→ User Experience →→ User Perspective →→ Conclusions

04 Understanding the Status Quo.

CHAPTER 04 | UNDERSTANDING THE STATUS QUO

Chapter four: Understanding the Status Quo.

FIG 47. Street vendor in El Coecillo Quarter in Leon (author’s own, 2017).

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CHAPTER 04| UNDERSTANDING THE SATUS QUO

User Experience. As analysed in the previous chapter, morphological traits can help to understand PS at first, specially architecturally trained professionals who understand the type of technical and quantitative data such as that provided in the previous chapter. There is still a very important aspect of PS that cannot be measured through quantitative means, appropriation. Given its qualitative nature, it is necessary to measure it with different tools. For this part of the research, the analysis will be conducted with information provided by regular users. The community member who takes part in this research was contacted by the author. She agreed to participate in a short interview about their experience in the PS that she regularly uses in her neighbourhood, the way she perceives them and how she uses them. After the talk, she was asked to provide the author with photographs of what she thinks better represents her PS. The participant in this research is a middle-aged woman that lives in San Francisco, one of the neighbourhoods that form the San Francisco polygon and who will hereby be referred to as ‘Carmen’. She is an active member of her community as a member of the neighbourhood association. Amongst the neighbourhood association projects, Carmen told me about their latest. The city council has hired 15 members of the community including her, who work as a team to sweep the roads and the neighbourhood square. This opportunity for temporary work is one of the many activities that these community members become involved with to make themselves a better neighbourhood. Carmen has said that this is not the first grant they obtain to improve their streets, and she likes it because the municipal government provides them with resources, and they give something back in the shape of community work. The sole existence of the neighbourhood association means that all the representatives must work as a team, even though some of them do not live in Leon. Another benefit of this kind of activity is that being a marginalised neighbourhood, the effects of the pandemic have hit very hard. The economic grants that they may get will help them get through these difficult times, while they do something for their community. Carmen said the following: “From my own point of view, it has affected us a lot, many people lost their jobs. I worked at a school at the school shop, I lost my job and it has been very hard to get used to it (the pandemic), it still continues.” When asked about the PS in her neighbourhood, Carmen identified three: an outdoor sports facility, a square, and a brownfield site. The first two fall under the category of ‘consolidated’ as it has been explained in the previous chapter, and the third one is a ‘non-consolidated’ one. As will be explained further on, each of these spaces play a different role, has different dynamics, and are appropriated in very different ways.

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the outdoor sports facilities

the church

her house

the square

the brownfield

boundary of the San Francisco polygon FIG 48. Path followed by Carmen (author’s own, 2021).

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The Outdoor Sports Facility

The first one is the outdoor sports facility. This space is similar to many others of this kind found in Leon; they are a much smaller version of public sports complexes found throughout the city. Specifically, this one was built some years ago by the city council in an empty plot next to the neighbourhood’s parish church. It initially only consisted of a basketball court. Three years ago, it was rehabilitated completely by the municipality, changing it into the way it is now. The basketball course remains; a small playground, a set of outdoor gym equipment, urban furniture, vegetation, and perimeter fencing have been added. Maintenance to the area is given by the neighbourhood’s association. Carmen has expressed: “We are thankful because three years ago, they (the municipality) modified it completely, and now the children have their playground, the families of the children can sit on the benches, enjoy the shade, and it is completely fenced, but it was because of the municipality.” To Carmen, the physical state of this PS is just as important as the behaviour of her neighbours in it. Both aspects influence the way she can enjoy her time there. Even with the presence of the neighbourhood association, the collective coexistence still needs the leadership from an authority within them. She elaborated: “…It is a very nice place. Well, with all due respect I would like that there were more (public) order, in every place we must obey the rules. The sports facilities is… well, was before they closed it, there was a bit of chaos, but it is a very nice place too, I like it…” Due to the pandemic, the Social Development Secretariat (SEDESOL) has told the community to keep it closed to prevent people from crowding. The neighbours demand it be reopened as they need it much, nevertheless the neighbourhood association respects the government guidelines. While they wait for new advice from the municipality, this situation has caused tension between community members.

The Square

The second space is the neighbourhood square, located next to the church. It initially was a green area provided by the developers and has become the main public space for the community. As previously expressed by Carmen, this is one of the areas where she and her fellow team members have been cleaning. This is shown further on in the photograph provided by Carmen. Residents of the neighbourhood gather in this place, throughout all day. It is the only PS of its kind in the area. Morphologically speaking, it has no urban furniture but has some architectural elements that can be adopted for seating. It has vegetation, an element rarely found throughout the rest of San Francisco. About it, Carmen stated: “…we usually get together here; all the community gathers in this small square.” This PS serves as the meeting place for community members and their friends or family, as well as the place where the inhabitants of San Francisco get together for their neighbourhood’s assemblies. Given these circumstances, the presence

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of this space has importance in many different levels of the social life of this community. This PS serves social purposes of two kinds: social coexistence and community management. In morphological terms, this space is the smallest of the three mentioned by Carmen and is likewise different in layout. It is relevant for neighbourhoods to have such spaces that provide possibilities for community involvement and discussion, since they provide a platform for them to express their concerns and strengthen their social fabric.

The third PS described by Carmen is a large brownfield located between the previous two spaces and the stone wall surrounding the golf club. In the past, neighbours have been told that it would be the continuation of the Atotonilco Boulevard. After more than 30 years of this space being underdeveloped, the community believes it is very unlikely to happen because it would need to the pass across the golf club, an upper-class neighbourhood.

The Brownfield

The site serves as a place where people gather throughout all the week. During the weekdays, some people go for morning walks, just like Carmen expressed: “…my granddaughter is the one that goes there with me. We go for a walk, and I like it because in the morning the place is gorgeous, I enjoy it” Other neighbours get together there in the evening, around 6 p.m., after their working shifts. Parents take their children to play because there is plenty of space. On the weekends, the activities change. It is used for playing football. There can be fitted two street football pitches, both of them have lines marked with lime powder and a pair of goals, each. Matches take place on the weekends. As Carmen states: “They don’t have toilets; they don’t have anything. So, they use it Saturday and Sunday all day long, so I don’t like it because they make bad use of it. And because of that we have problems because some people take advantage of those spaces and make a profit.” The lack of infrastructure and the irresponsible actions of some users cause tensions between the users and the rest of the community. Throughout the rest of the week, the organizer of the matches sweeps the area and keeps it clean. He is a member of the community and charges a fee for those who want to play in it. Carmen explained: “I have made a petition a while ago that if it is nobody’s property then the government should take over it. For example, the man that organizes the football games by just sweeping and cleaning it, he thinks he owns the place and he is the one who decides about it… I would like the municipality to take over that space.” As declared by Carmen, the lack of a clear ownership has made it evident that appropriation is more complex than is seems. Human relations in a community

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can be affected, positively or negatively, by the PS and the dynamics around them. Sometimes, the presence of the authorities serves as a moderator between local conflicts.

PS in Leon

Carmen has also been asked about her perception of PS found throughout the rest of the city. To her, the quality of these spaces is similar. She does not think there are major variations in different parts of the city in quality, and expressed: “... I have seen that in many neighbourhoods, they (the municipality) have given care to this kind of places, not just in some. The way the municipality has done it in parts so that everybody has decent spaces to play sports, everything well. I fell it has been done very well. I would give them a good grade.” The municipality has rehabilitated PS throughout different areas of the city. As highlighted by Carmen, these projects are carried out progressively, starting in some neighbourhoods and moving on to others as soon as they have finished. She is aware that the residents of those communities in need of renewed PS can be impatient to have reformations happen in a near future. From her own perspective, it is an effective way for the authorities to carry out these projects. This is because the benefits of incorporating newer and more dignified outdoor facilities will have larger impact in the communities.

User Perspective. As part of this research, Carmen was asked to also share a photograph taken by her that represented the PS in her neighbourhood. The image could be from any place, it just needed to be a characteristic space that reflected the essence of PS in her community. FIG. 49 is the image provided by Carmen. The scene portrayed by Carmen was described by her as one of the many efforts that her community has been making for years to build a better place for themselves. In the image, we can see the team that was commissioned by the municipality to clean the roads and public spaces in San Francisco. These activities are meaningful for Carmen since she enjoys teamwork, especially when it leads to improving the image of a place that she is so fond of. In the image 9 people can be identified: 5 adult men, 3 adult women and 1 girl. The 8 adults form part of the 15 people group that the municipal government hired for temporary jobs. As was explained before, the residents of San Francisco have been economically struck by the COVID-19 pandemic. Carmen mentioned that many of her neighbours have lost their jobs over the past months. Additional

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CHAPTER 04 | UNDERSTANDING THE STATUS QUO

to the evident aesthetic benefit that this program has, it provides income opportunities for those with economic needs. The presence of a child in the scene next to her mother and a broom communicates that it is a family-friendly environment. Different tools that they are using can also be distinguished. Most of them use brooms to sweep the paving in the square. One man has a shovel while standing next to the bushes; the man next to him has a handsaw for cutting off some branches from a tree; the woman that can be seen between them is holding a rake up against another tree, possibly to remove something from it.

FIG 49. San Francisco and its PS (Carmen,research participant, 2021).

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CHAPTER 04| UNDERSTANDING THE SATUS QUO

The PS shown is the neighbourhood’s square. From the angle where the image was taken some solid elements can be perceived, such as the one where the girl is leaning. The purpose of this elements is unknown because they are too high to be seating elements. However, they may work as ischiatic support benches, just like the girl in the image is using it for. Another element of urban furniture found is the lamp post, in this image it can only be identified one. Because of the closeness of the treetops, the light may be obstructed by them. It would be important to design the layout of lighting fixtures harmonious to the distribution of the vegetation. As it was explained before, the greenery found in this square is a feature not widely found in the rest of the neighbourhood. Four varieties of plants can be observed. In the foreground, a tall tree with one thick log and a leafy treetop, providing a large shade. Next to it, there are some medium-sized bushes that have grown in the perimeter of the green area. Behind them, other variety of bushes is seen, with shorter hight and smaller leaves; these do not fill the area uniformly, some patches of soil can be seen throughout. In between them, there is another species of tree, this one with several thinner logs, the treetop is less dense, and its leaves are smaller; these trees are found in the around the pavement in the centre of the space. In the background, on the right side, the brownfield can be seen, as there are the two white football goals. Behind them, there is the stone wall that delimits the golf club. On the back of the left side there is the church, as its yellow wall is visible. Carmen took this photograph on the 16 de Julio street facing towards Inocencio III street. FIG. 50 shows a diagram of this.

Conclusions. As it was explained in previous chapters, PS cannot be measured wholly through morphological characteristics and quantitative tools, as they represent only the spatial dimension. Appropriation is the social component of these PS, it is a qualitative aspect, and for it to be as accurate as possible it requires from the insight of its users. For these reasons, the present research was carried in two part, the first consists of the analysis of quantitative data gathered from secondary sources and the second one is quantitative data provided by a regular user from one PS in one of the areas analysed in the first part. After interviewing Carmen, the user, it became evident that appropriation is much more complex than I had initially thought. It became clearer that appropriation is not just a person sitting in a bench at a park, many aspects play a role in it. In this case, the politics in different levels. It comprises the community getting together and making decisions about their own neighbourhood and PS; also involves residents to exercise power over a piece of land that does not belong to them but do not let anyone else decide about it. As well as the municipal government of Leon the impact it has that they intervene a PS in a neglected area, and that they implement social programs that involve the local community to work.

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obstructed artificial lighting

different species of trees

football goals

church

6 1

possible seating features

different species of bushes

shade FIG 50. Notes for photography analysis (author’s ownt, 2021).

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It can be realised that if a space, such as this brownfield, has no officially designated use then appropriation can be permanent in such a way that this leftover space plays a role in its community. In this case the appropriation is permanent because even though football matches happen only in the weekends, the space has been modified to conduct these activities. A neighbour is the self-proclaimed caretaker of the field, he is the one who decides what happens in that place. This situation makes the access to this space even more unequal, since the use is subject to the sports activities that take place in it. Community members wo do not want to take part on these activities are excluded from making use of it during at least a couple of days a week. There are no alternatives for the use of this space that considers all age groups and genders, as on what activities can happen and when. If permanent appropriation is not the result of agreements amongst the community, tensions can occur. Therefore, the importance of having community consensus that establish agreements to include all community members in the use of their PS. It is also clear that coexistence between neighbours can create complex social dynamics, such as the case of San Francisco, where a certain type of appropriation can have a negative impact in the relationship between neighbours. In this case study, the appropriation of one of the PS is the one causing disputes. Consequently, the impact of the appropriation in one PS will be closely related to the relationship that the community has. Social connections are manifested in the PS. When appropriation is manifested in the self-production of a space, the community needs to be involved and aware of what takes place in their neighbourhood. They all have a sense of belonging for that place and would like their opinions to be heard, so that they can all enjoy this PS according to their needs. It is important to take into consideration the diversity of residents in their area to provide spaces that represent all of them. As seen in the photograph provided by Carmen, community involvement activities can promote the participation of residents from different age groups in PS. For this same reason, designers should consider all users when planning PS. Lastly, appropriation can be understood as a process. It is the result of various morphological traits and social interactions. Sometimes all these factors are not within the PS per se but happen in its social and physical context and they are later expressed in it. By being considered a process, it can be understood that it changes over time and does and that it involves multiple subjects, such as: community members, government programmes, morphological characteristics.

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

→→ Conclusions

05 Conclusions.

CHAPTER 05 | CONCLUSIONS

Chapter five: Conclusions.

FIG 51. Users in public square in Leon city centre (author’s own, 2015).

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CHAPTER 05 | CONCLUSIONS

The present dissertation has proven that the lack of formal PS in neglected areas in Leon leads to the production of space through appropriation of non-formal PS to make up the scarcity of them. In this research, appropriation has been regarded as the modification of a space with the purpose of making it suitable for its users. To demonstrate this, the research was divided in two parts: the first analysed the morphology of polygons and PS and, the second measured the studied the appropriation of the PS from the perspective of the users. From this study it can be concluded that appropriation is in fact a tool in the process of the production of space that leads to the formalisation of informal PS. As researched in the first section of this dissertation, the typologies of PS present in different polygons in Leon are related to the income level in the area. Higher income areas are less dense and have more PS than low income ones. Therefore, each resident of high-income areas has access to more PS. On the other hand, low income areas, the spaces available have different characteristics that exclude its potential users: the gates, the lack of seating fixtures, bad quality artificial lighting, amongst other things. The biggest difference is in the way that each space allows visitors to use them, the facilities, and activities they provide. The disparity is not just about the physical appearance of this PS, it is about the possibility for people to spend more time there, comfortably enjoying these spaces within their own neighbourhood. To blur the disparity, the community identifies their opportunity to modify the PS according to their needs through the process of appropriation. This leads to conclude that the way they are appropriated is related to the morphological characteristics the PS has. In the second part of the research as seen in the fourth chapter there is a clear example of appropriation, the case of the brownfield in the San Francisco polygon. A wasteland that has been derelict for years is a topic for discussions between neighbours who want different uses for it. It belongs virtually to nobody, yet nobody agrees on what use it should have. There have been simple physical transformations to this space to transform it into a football field. This proves that morphological transformation does not need to be drastic to self-produce a PS that responds to the communities’ needs and that they will do it if these kinds of spaces are not provided to them. It can be concluded that the morphological analysis made evident the large differences between polygons depending on their socioeconomical composition and that it is reflected in the physical features of the PS, the amount, and the state of it. The appropriation analysis proved that appropriation of non-formal PS is a response from the community to produce PS on their own. However, it is also notable that appropriation is a complex process that involves not only the user and the PS, but also social relationships between the community, such as power struggles within, and the involvement of local authorities. One of the most notable outcomes of this research is the understanding of appropriation. It is not a phenomenon that happens just once and it cannot be measured quantitively, as well as the importance of the point of view from a

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CHAPTER 05 | CONCLUSIONS

user. This is important because for design professionals, appropriation may be understood in a certain way, and observations could be biased based on the theoretical knowledge and could lead to make mistaken assumptions. Nevertheless, it is fundamental to listen to the communities’ perspective of their PS for us to understand the dynamics within the community. In the literature review it was discussed that informality is a dynamic phenomenon that happens outside the realm of the formal city. As it can be noticed, informality can have its own degree of “formality”. If there are rules and guidelines established by the community, it becomes formal, at least to them. Without the presence of municipal authorities, they must self-regulate their own self-production of PS. Under these circumstances it can be concluded that informality is the starting point for the process of self-production of the PS, and formality is the unexpected ultimate result. Appropriation is the performance of the users trying to attain that objective with their own means. For this reason, appropriation is empiric and dynamic, and the result can be hardly predicted.

FIG 52. Appropriation of roads in San Francisco polygon (author’s own, 2021).

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CHAPTER 05 | CONCLUSIONS

informality

pro

tio

a pri

morphological

social

formality FIG 53. The process of self-production of PS (author’s own, 2021).

the process of self-production of the PS

Appropriation pf a PS is a social process that later manifests in spatial changes. They make it noticeable that something is happening in that PS. As architects we tend to focus in those changes because as professionals our raw material is space. Though, we cannot ignore that the social dimension plays a role as important as the morphological one. Both dimensions are closely linked and to study one, the other cannot be ignored. As an interdisciplinary field of study, urbanism needs to focus on the physical and quantitative information, as well as developing tools to approach the community and measure quantitatively the social spectrum of the PS. To later measure those changes expressed in spatial variations. Manifestations of appropriation are diverse and reflect how the PS interacts with the community and vice versa. PS are an expression of their community, and the community is an expression of their PS. DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

→→ Bibliography

06 Bibliography.

CHAPTER 06 | BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chapter six: Bibliography.

FIG 54. Tamales street vendor in El Coecillo Quarter in Leon (author’s own, 2017).

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Bibliography. • Alexander, C., Ishikawa, S., Silverstein, M., Jacobson, M., Fiksdahl-King, I., & Angel, S. (1977). A pattern language : towns, buildings, construction (Vol. 2). Oxford University Press. • Augé, M. (1995). Non-places: introduction to an anthropology of supermodernity. London: Verso. • Borja, J. (2013, May 24). Espacio público y resistencia social: Jordi Borja. Retrieved February 6, 2021, from Jordi Borja: https://www.jordiborja.cat/espacio-publico-y-resistencia-social/ • Borja, J., & Muxí, Z. (2003). El espacio público, ciudad y ciudadanía. Barcelona: Electa. • Bravo, L. (2018). We the public space. Strategies to deal with inequalities in order to achieve inclusive and sustainable urban environments. The Journal of Public Space. Retrieved February 6, 2021, from https://www.journalpublicspace.org/index.php/jps/article/view/326/313 • Bravo, L., & Guaralda, M. (2016). An open access forum for the discussion and advancement of research about public space. The Journal of Public Space, 1(1). Retrieved February 6, 2021, from https://www.journalpublicspace.org/index.php/jps/article/view/221/220 • De la Torre Vazquez, M. I. (2009). Espacio público y capital social. Un estudio de caso. Nova Scientia, 98-116. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate. net/publication/47734400_Espacio_publico_y_capital_social_Un_estudio_de_ caso • Dirección General de Obra Pública. (2018). Manual de Conservación y Rehabilitación de Espacio Públicos. Leon. Retrieved February 22, 2021, from https:// www.leon.gob.mx/obrapublica/index.php?option=com_docman&task=cat_ view&gid=57&Itemid=90 • Fonseca Rodriguez, J. M. (2015). Revista de Tecnología y Sociedad, 1-11. • Francis, J., Giles-Corti, B., Wood, L., & Knuiman, M. (2012, July 24). Creating Sense of Community: The role of public space. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 32. Retrieved February 6, 2021, from https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/266620692_Creating_Sense_of_Community_The_role_of_public_ space • García Canclini, N. (2018). A culture of informality. Retrieved December 4, 2020, from SAGE Journals: https://journals-sagepub-com.mmu.idm.oclc.org/ doi/full/10.1177/0042098018782635?utm_source=summon&utm_medium=discovery-provider& • Gerhardt, U. (1994). The Use of Weberian Ideal-Type Methodology in Qualitative Data Interpretation: an Outline for Ideal-Type Analysis. Bulletin of Sociological Methodology/Bulletin de Méthodologie Sociologique. Retrieved March 17, 2021, from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/075910639404500105 • Guzmán Ramírez, A., & Acosta Pérez, J. d. (2012). Pobreza, arquitectura y ciudad. Caracterización de la pobreza en la ciudad de León, Guanajuato. Leon: Universidad de la Salle Bajío. • Guzmán Ramírez, A., & Frausto Vargas, J. M. (2012). La Determinación de Polígonos de Pobreza: Análisis metodológico. Nova scientia, 4(7). Retrieved January 29, 2021, from http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2007-07052012000100005&lng=es&tlng=es

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• IMPLAN. (2012). Plan Maestro de Parques Lineales. Masterplan, Leon. Retrieved February 22, 2021, from https://www.implan.gob.mx/pdf/thumb/planmaestro-de-parques-lineales-2010.pdf • IMPLAN. (2014). Plan Municipal de Desarrollo León hacia el futuro. Instituto Municipal de Planeación, IMPLAN. Retrieved January 18, 2021, from https:// portalsocial.guanajuato.gob.mx/sites/default/files/documentos/2014_LEON_ Plan_de_desarrollo_2040.pdf • IMPLAN. (2018). Cartera de Programas y Proyectos 2018-2021. Planes Maestros. Leon. Retrieved February 22, 2021, from https://www.implan.gob.mx/ pdf/planeacion/Planes_Maestros_2018-2021.pdf • IMPLAN. (2020 A). Manual para la gestión de la infraestructura verde en la ciudad de León, Guanajuato. Manual, León. Retrieved from https://www.implan. gob.mx/pdf/estudios/cambios/manual-de-infraestructura-verde.pdf • IMPLAN. (2020 B). Plano de Zonificación de Usos y Destinos del Municipio de León. Leon. Retrieved February 22, 2021, from https://www.implan.gob.mx/ planeacion-estrategica.php# • INEGI. (2015). Cuéntame: INEGI. Retrieved February 4, 2021, from INEGI: http://cuentame.inegi.org.mx/monografias/informacion/gto/poblacion/ • INEGI. (n.d.). Espacio y datos de México: INEGI. Retrieved February 22, 2021, from Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía: https://www.inegi.org.mx/ app/mapa/espacioydatos/default.aspx • Lara-Hernandez, J. A., Coulter, C., & Melis, A. (2020). Temporary appropriation and urban informality: Exploring the subtle distinction. Cities, 99(102626). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102626 • Latour, B. (2005). Reassembling the Social. An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. Retrieved from https://www. ufrgs.br/ppgas/portal/arquivos/orientacoes/LATOUR_Bruno._2012.pdf • Lefevre, H. (1991). The production of space. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. • León Gobierno Municipal. (2018). Programa de Gobierno Municipal de León, Guanajuato 2018-2021. León. Retrieved February 22, 2021, from https://leon. gob.mx/leon/publicaciones/programa-gobierno-18-21.pdf • Lynch, K. (1960). The Image of the City. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. • Mata Lucio, S. (2009). Planeación, irregularidad y expansión urbanas en León, Gto. en los últimos 30 años. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana. Retrieved February 20, 2021, from http://zaloamati.azc.uam.mx/handle/11191/5482 • Mehta, V. (2014). Evaluating Public Space. Journal of Urban Design, 19(1). Retrieved February 5, 2021, from https://www-tandfonline-com.mmu.idm.oclc. org/doi/full/10.1080/13574809.2013.854698 • Municipio de León. (2021, February 4). Datos Generales: León. Retrieved from León Presidencia Municipal: https://www.leon.gob.mx/leon/datos-generales.php • Papastergiou, C. (2020). The Leftover City: Leftover Sites as Disruptors of Urban Narratives in the Work of J.G. Ballard, Jim Jarmusch, and Wim Wenders. Retrieved November 29, 2020, from ResearchGate: https://www.researchgate. net/publication/344947859_The_Leftover_City_Leftover_Sites_as_Disruptors_ of_Urban_Narratives_in_the_Work_of_JG_Ballard_Jim_Jarmusch_and_Wim_ Wenders • Perez, P. (2019, October 30). Arranca construcción del Centro Comunitario Fundación León. Milenio. Retrieved February 22, 2021, from https://www. milenio.com/politica/comunidad/arranca-construccion-centro-comunitario-fundacion-leon • Reyes, O. (2018, January 22). El boom de la industria automotriz cambió para siempre a Guanajuato. El Sol de México. Retrieved February 22, 2021,

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from https://www.elsoldemexico.com.mx/mexico/sociedad/el-boom-de-la-industria-automotriz-cambio-para-siempre-a-guanajuato-686196.html • Saito, H. (2011). (2011). An Actor-Network Theory of Cosmopolitanism. , https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9558.2011.01390.x. Sociological Theory, 29(2), 124–149. Retrieved January 29, 2021, from https://journals-sagepub-com.mmu.idm.oclc.org/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9558.2011.01390.x • Statista. (n.d.). Statista. Retrieved January 18, 2021, from Población total de México 2014-2024: https://es.statista.com/estadisticas/635250/poblacion-total-de-mexico-en-2020/ • UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2015, October 21). Concepts of Inequality: UN. Retrieved February 6, 2021, from UN: https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wess/wess_dev_issues/dsp_policy_01.pdf • UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2018). World Urbanization Prospects. The 2018 Revision. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved January 18, 2021, from https://population.un.org/wup/Publications/ Files/WUP2018-Report.pdf • UN Habitat. (2017). UN Habitat III. New Urban Agenda. . Retrieved December 4, 2020, from Habitat 3: https://habitat3.org/wp-content/uploads/NUA-English. pdf • UN Habitat. (2018). UN Habitat Brief on Migration and Cities. Retrieved January 18, 2021, from https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/documents/2019-05/ migration_brochure_10122018.pdf • UNDP. (2019). Human Development Report 2019. Retrieved February 23, 2021, from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf • Wilkinson, T. (2017, March 2). Typology: Public Square. Retrieved February 6, 2021, from Architectural Review: https://www.architectural-review.com/essays/ typology-public-square

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self- production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

Mariana Camacho Gonzalez MA Architecture and Urbanism Manchester School of Architecture Manchester Metropolitan University University of Manchester 2020-2021

DIY PUBLIC SPACES: Self-production of Public Space in Leon, Mexico.

Articles inside

Park in Jardines del Moral

Square in San Francisco

Park in San Francisco

Typologies in San Francisco

3 Main Square in Leon

8 Methodology

14 Reviewing literature to establish parameters and analyse case studies

21 Research methodology

37 Template of chart used to analyse morphological parameters

15 Relationship and exchange between PS and users

7 Altar to the Virgin of Guadalupe Built by Workers Outside a Factory

11 Main concepts grouped into three cathegories