Figure

Further, in 1982, France created the Plan de Déplacements Urbains (PDU), its legal tool for organizing the transport system (Certu, 2012). Afterward, other countries followed the French example and established their transport plans, such as England and Italy, among others (López-Lambas & Leániz, 2010). However, in the beginning, these plans had a conservative character, focused exclusively on traffic and transport issues related to their infrastructure and automobile supremacy, which resulted in the physical segregation between people and traffic (Keblowski & Bassens, 2015; López-Lambas & Leániz, 2010).

Concurrently with the development of those policies, governments worldwide started agreements and protocols for climate and sustainability have been addressed (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). Some aspects raised in the report were: the reduction of energy consumption in transport; offering efficient means of transportation at a reasonable cost and accessible to all social strata; to ensuring that future generations will be able to use those benefits (Holden et al., 2013).

Hence, from the 1990s onwards, urban mobility becomes an essential element for reducing emissions and other externalities arising from transport systems. Thus, the mobility paradigm has started to change from a car-centric approach to a sustainable perspective where non-motorized means and public transport are protagonists. Additionally, Keblowski & Bassens (2015) have shown different urban mobility paradigms: orthodox, sustainable, and critical (Table 1). The third paradigm contrasts with the previous ones to highlight the need for urban transport structural changes. Moreover, this critical perspective raises questions about what kind of interests are being fulfilled by transport policies and practices. Notably, in TTP, the differences between the high mobility standards of the wealthier class and the low mobility of the poorest ones have not been addressed, nor the social inequality that contributes to environmental impacts or even the socio-spatial differences and the lack of political will in changing mobility (Keblowski & Bassens, 2015).