ProAgri BNZ 05 by ProAgri

ProAgri B otswa n a / N am i b ia/ ia / Zim b ab w e

No 05

Free

Understand the biology of aquaponics

Botswana p 24

Namibia p 30

Zimbabwe p 40

for Deep Water Abstraction Solutions www.agri4all.com

www.proagri.co.za

Letter from the Editor

Cover Carl Hamm is a leader in borehole technology, especially when you have to go really deep down to reach your water level. Read more on page three about the variety of services and products they offer on everything well and borehole related.

ProAgri

Photo: Cosal, Wikimedia Commons.

frica’s people need infrastructure as much as they need oxygen. Even today, with our modern technology, many people are literally dying because food, medicine and essential lifesustaining products cannot reach them in time. The reason for this is that roads and railroad tracks are either not there yet, dilapidated or inadequate for what they need to do. Botswana and Zambia are blessed with a brand new, very strategical bridge between the two countries. The 923 m construction at Kazungula is almost completed and will cost a nifty US$ 260 million. Besides the two-way road, the bridge also has a pedestrian walkway and a railroad track. The project is a joint venture between the African Development Bank, Japan International Agency, governments, and co-funded with an EU-ITF grant. The bridge was scheduled to be completed in 2018, but work was delayed when the Zambian government was unable to make some payments. The bridge will now be opened to the public on 30 December 2020 and

B ot s wa n a/ a / N a m i b i a/ a/Zimbabwe

it will offer much relieve to commuters and transporters who currently have to rely on a ferry to move them across the river. Presently, it can take up to eight days to cross the spot where the Zambezi and Chobe rivers meet. The benefits of this bridge are huge. It will connect the port of Durban in South Africa with the copper mines in Zambia and the DRC with its huge wealth of resources like gold, diamonds, copper, cobalt, coltan, zinc, tin, tungsten, crude oil, wood products, and coffee. Botswana’s export and import farmers will also benefit from this bridge, since more, faster and more reliable transport options will become available. This month we look at Carl Hamm’s borehole technology and we also offer many articles of interest to of small, medium and large-scale farmers. Farm smartly! Du Preez de Villiers dupreez@proagri.co.za

Content 3. Carl Hamm provides solutions to reach deep water 4. How to handle your beef cattle Part 4: 8. How to get started with aquaponics. Part 5 12. Soil, the farmer’s most important asset. Part 4 16. Water wise farmers build earth dams. Part 3 22. Spray to protect your crops. Part 5 25. Less is more when you use drip irrigation technology 31. Dassiesfontein: Overcoming illiteracy one farm worker at a time 34. Saving Namibia’s livestock industry (Part 1) 40. Zimbabwe: Where are our evicted farmers today?

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

577 Rossouw Street Die Wilgers, Pretoria, South Africa +27 (0)79-515-8708 www.proagri.co.za Copyright © 2019. All rights r eserved. No m aterial, text or p hotographs may be r eproduced, copied or in any other way t ransmitted without the written consent of the publisher. O pinions expressed are not n ecessarily those of the publisher or of the e ditor. We recognise all trademarks and logos as the sole property of their r espective o wners. ProAgri shall not be liable for any errors or for any actions in reliance thereon.

ProAgri Editor Du Preez de Villiers > +27 82-598-7329 dupreez@proagri.co.za Reporters Jaco Cilliers > +27 71-893-6477 jaco@proagri.co.za Benine Ackermann > +27 73-105-6938 benine@proagri.co.za Marketing Manager Diane Grobler > +27 82-555-6866 diane@proagri.co.za Marketing Xander Pieterse > +27 79-524-0934 xander@proagri.co.za Tiny Smith > +27 82-698-3353 tiny@proagri.co.za Anelda Strauss > +27 74-424-0055 anelda@proagri.co.za Johan Swartz > +27 71-599-9417 johan@proagri.co.za Gerhard Potgieter > +27 74-694-4422 gerhard@proagri.co.za Creative Manager Christiaan Joubert > +27 72-419-3990 christiaan@proagri.co.za Design Esta van Niekerk Enquiries Engela Botha > +27 12-803-0782 engela@proagri.co.za Izel Zeelie > +27 12-803-0782 izel@proagri.co.za Accounts Ronel Schluter > +27 12-803-0782 accounts@proagri.co.za Distribution Janita du Plessis > +27 12-803-0782 janita@proagri.co.za Managing Editor Annemarie Bremner > +27 82-320-3642 annemarie@proagri.co.za Business Manager George Grobler > +27 83 460 0402

Carl Hamm provides Deep Water Abstraction Solutions W

hen you know there is water deep down under the soil and it can take your farm to new heights of production, then you need to speak to the experts. Most borehole drilling and irrigation companies on the agricultural scene reach their limit of predictable service at 120 to 150 metres deep. In Israel, water from ancient natural aquaducts more than 1,5 km under the surface changed the Hula Valley into a farming oasis in the middle of a desert. Some of the challenges of working that deep include the capability to drill deeper, the testing of the water and the soil stability, and the pure weight of the equipment being suspended in the borehole. Chris Munnick, CEO of Carl Hamm SA, says: “The equipment needed to service a hole that deep is expensive. You don’t want to lose it down there.” The specialised pipes and connections developed by Carl Hamm have been tested thoroughly in the mining sector where working at those depths are not so unusual. Chris says that if you are abstracting 100 to 300 cubic meters of water from over 350 m and you are suspending a 380 kW pump and motors, you have a suspended weight in excess of 20 tonnes. You need couplings that can carry weight and handle pressure. As example we can suspend a 1 mW pump at 1 300 m with a suspended weight of 131 tonnes handling in excess of 150 bar. Sleeves and pipes need to be thick, strong and as smooth as possible, and pumps need to be reliable.

The specialised, pull-proof, tightsleeved Carl Hamm ZSM connector can replace the space-wasting traditional flanges. It can be used as a vertical riser pipe in open pit and underground mines as well as in deep wells. The patent-protected tight sleeve system is a unique alternative to other conventional connection systems due to its quick and easy assembly/disassembly and space-saving design. All of this ensures considerable cost savings through the whole life-cycle. No tools are needed to connect the pipes. O-ring to protect the chain Shearing elements to Spigot end grooves against impurities create the axial non(male part) Chain entry positive connection O-rings to seal against the internal pressure Sleeve (female part)

Intricate technology is involved in the unique ZSM connector.

Here are some of the solutions offered by Carl Hamm: High pressure ZSM connector

Geotechnics solutions The high-quality geotechnics Carl Hamm test systems are acclaimed and used worldwide. They conduct soil sampling and provide research equipment for site investigation and old neglected deposits. Soil sampling up to the depth of 15 m can be done. For nearly 20 years Carl Hamm has successfully manufactured and sold geological probing and control systems. Due to their persistent research and development, appropriate production processes and market-oriented sales structures, they rank among Germany’s leading providers. Their high-quality products are used all over the world by engineering geologists, the construction sector, agricultural institutions, and institutes of higher education. The following services are provided: • Well support material • Water sampling • Water, air and gas analytics • Sample receptacles • Soil analysis • Concrete, cement and asphalt analysis • Laboratory equipment • Surveying technologies

Flange versus

ZSM connector

Drilling and pipeline solutions Carl Hamm designs, installs and manages pipeline solutions for above and below ground mining, water and waste-water treatment, and industrial sectors. Their solutions include probing technologies and machinery, as well as drilling equipment. For nearly 90 years, Carl Hamm has been recognised as a provider of superbly engineered products and topnotch technical expertise to the mining sector. Developed and made in Germany, their high-pressure (HP) connections and piping products prove their worth day in and day out in applications worldwide. They also offer a versatile range of quick couplings and other components which can be included as required to create the optimum solution for the specific requirements at hand. Without exception, all of their HP piping and products must pass rigorous cold-water pressurisation and other quality control testing before leaving the plant.

Being smooth means fewer snags and more space for wiring and cables.

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

To find out how Carl Hamm in South Africa can help you, contact Chris Munnick at +27 (0)72256-0926, +27 (0)10-900-2005, chris@carl-hamm.co.za, or visit www.carl-hamm.co.za. 3

ProAgri BNZ 05

How to handle your beef cattle Part: 4 Mobile crushes, work areas and handling equipment Convenience and safety for animals and stockmen are of utmost importance during cattle handling. This is the fourth part in our beef cattle handling series. One-way gate Chain adjustable over crossbeam

Hinge

Crush

n this fourth delivery of the beef cattle handling series we are taking a look at mobile crushes, adequate work areas and body and neck clamps.

Mobile crushes Mobile crushes are generally used for fieldwork where there are no permanent handling facilities close to cattle pens. A mobile crush can also be used to treat sick animals in a camp. Mobile crushes can basically be used anywhere in the field next to a fence. Such a crush will obviously have to be easily assembled and transported.

It can therefore not be longer than three to four metres. This should be Direction of movement long enough for two animals. Figure 17 shows Figure 15: One-way swing gate a typical assembly of a mobile crush. Measurements for a coarse to prevent animals from slipmobile crush are basically the same as ping. those for a conventional crush. When Floors with an imprinted diamond the mobile crush has to be used for pattern give very good results. After calves, it can be assembled in such a casting the floor, a straight edge is way that the crush forms a curve. By used to imprint the diamond pattern of doing this, the effective width of the approximately 200 mm wide and crush decreases for easier handling of 20 mm deep into the concrete. This the calves. An inner measurement of diamond pattern is also easy to clean. 450 to 500 mm is suitable for calves. Figure 18 shows the adjusted construction of a mobile crush for calves with the Mobile crush decreased inner measurement. Figure 19 shows the construction of a typical mobile crush. The crush consists of separate units which are driven into the ground with spikes. Fence The working area The working area is at the end of the crush. This is the area where the animals are handled and it can contain the following items: • Neck clamp • Body clamp • Scale

Figure 16: One-way swing gate

The working area of a permanent crush must preferably be provided with a roof and a concrete floor. The floor must be

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

Holding area

Figure 17: Erection of a mobile crush 5

WESTERN CAPE

EASTERN CAPE

GARDEN ROUTE

GRAAFWATER

FREE STATE

NORTHERN CAPE

NAMIBIA

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Nutmech Riaan Coetzee 079 036 3240 riaan@nutmech.co.za

Upington Trekkers Ivan Heyns 082 773 3308 ivan@upttrekkers.co.za

Otjiwarongo Motors & Trekkers Thorsten Kopp +264 67 302 782 massey@afol.com.na

ProAgri BNZ 05

able work area must be provided in front of the animal. It is convenient to control all the equipment in feedlots hydraulically. It simplifies the process and saves a lot of time. The hydraulics must, however, be designed in such a way that the animals are not injured. Pressure control valves must be used to prevent injuries. Figure 21 shows a hydraulically controlled unit. Neck clamp A neck clamp is one of the most essential items in the working area. It is used to hold the animal in position while work is done on it. Quite a few neck clamps are available on the market, with different opening mecha-

Figure 18: Adjusted crush construction for calves If an earth floor is used, it must be thoroughly compacted so that it can drain easily and not be trampled into slush. Figure 20 shows a typical work area. The mentioned work area com-ponents must be arranged in such a way that the openings and gates are combined to make access to the cattle possible. A gate that swings open from the side in the direction of the crush in order to block off the crush for other animals, but gives access to the rump of the animal, is convenient. A comfort-

Figure 22: Typical neck clamp

Figure 20: Typical work area

Body clamp A body clamp is used for holding the animal firmly in position while working on it. The sides of the clamp swing inwards to clamp the body of the animal. Some body clamps are provided with removable side plates for easier access to the animal. Figure 23 shows a typical body clamp.

Anchor pin

Plan elevation Connector piece between two side walls

nisms and differently shaped neck openings. Guard against delicate neck clamps made from inferior materials. The shape of the neck clamp plays a major role in decreasing the vertical movement of the head. The locking mechanism of the neck clamp must also have a fine setting. It is advisable to obtain the opinion of other farmers or owners about a certain product on a certain breed, before a neck clamp is purchased. Figure 22 shows a typical neck clamp.

700-750

Side walls 1 500

Figure 21: Hydraulically controlled unit

Next month we shall have a look at the importance of weight record keeping and scales.

1 100

Steel pipes

800 500 250

Front view

Support Anchor pin

Figure 19: Mobile crush

Figure 23: Typical body clamp

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

Aquaponics Part 5: From biology to hardware

ast month we focussed on the bacteria system as the crucial element in aquaponics to form a complete ecosystem with the fish and plants. It is very important for an aquaponics system to remain in balance to create optimal conditions for health and growth. The system is in balance when the ammonia released by the fish is changed into nitrites and nitrates by bacteria, and when there are enough plants to absorb and use up the nitrates before the water goes back to the fish. This happens when the number of fish and plants are in balance and the bacteria had enough time to do their work. This process is called: Cycling up. When starting a new system, this process can take weeks, depending on the size of the system. In the chart below this balance or “sweet spot” is reached where the blue and green lines cross:

Figure 1: pdfs.semanticscholar.org 8

The question most new aquaponic growers struggle with is: How many fish do I need for how many plants and how big must my fish tank and grow area be? Unfortunately, there is no easy formula – because fish and plants both grow. Bigger fish release more ammonia and give more nitrates. Smaller plants need less nitrates. You can’t only use the number of fish or plants as a basis; it is more accurate to use the quantity of fish food needed as the starting point of your calculations. Inevitably you give less food to smaller fish. Tilapia eat about 1% of their body weight per day. In other words, a 100 g fish eats 1 g fish food and a 1 kg fish eats 10 g fish food daily. You can determine the amount of fish food needed by weighing 10 fish and calculating the average weight. The formula determining the balance between fish and plants was worked out by Dr James Rakocy of the University of the Virgin Islands, who developed the well-known UVI aquaponic system. It is the first commercial system based on scientific studies. The formula was later refined by a colleague of him, Dr Will Lennard. The formula we use is: 20 g/m2/day. That means you need to feed 20 g of fish food per day to enable 1 m2 of growth in a raft system.

The guidelines are: • Decide how many plants you want to grow – for example 30 heads of lettuce (1 m²). • If you want to plant 30 lettuce plants, you need 20 g of fish food – that means you need 2 kg of fish. 20 g fish food

2 kg fish

1 m2 plants

ProAgri BNZ 05

With all of the theory and biology in your head, it is time to start building your system. For a basic design you will need the following: A fish pond, something to remove the solids, a bacteria system, the plants and a sump for the water to flow in. The Kleinskuur system also includes a process to mineralise the solids for added nutrition. At the top is the basic system and at the bottom the Kleinskuur variation with mineralisation included in the water flow. From the fish dam the water should flow with gravitation through the rest of the system until it ends up in the sump from where it gets pumped up to the fish dam again.

Figure 3: The UVI aquaponic system. It is not that simple and you need to do your homework and sign up for a proper course, especially if you want to make living out of it. How big you go depends on the purpose of the system. If you just want to feed your own family you will need a growth area of about 6 m x 6 m. If you want to grow for a community, think in terms of a standard 30 m x 10 m tunnel. If you want to farm commercially and make money from the produce you are selling, you need to compete with other commercial farmers who plant in soil. These are the questions you need to ask yourself before you start building: •

• Figure 2: Introduction to Aquaponics, Kleinskuur Aquaponics Training Manual, 2017.

Goal: What do you want to accomplish? Do you only want to supply yourself and your family with healthy produce, is it a school project, do you want to uplift a village, or do you want to compete on the open market and earn money? Choose what you want to do, because the design of your system will depend on your needs. Choose between: Home system, semicommercial or commercial.

The components you need for a basic system: • Fish dam/tank • Conical tank with stand for swirl filter • Filtering tank with media for bacterial growth • Gravel bed(s) • Deep water culture bed(s) • Pipes and fittings • Water pump • Air pump The UVI system (figure 3) only uses deep water culture (no gravel beds), but that means you have to clean out filters daily. Murray Hallam is an Australian expert who expanded on the basic UVI design by adding gravel beds as seen in Figure 4. His system is known as FloMediaTM and he sells his plans online.

Figure 4: Murray Hallam's FloMediaTM aquaponic system design. Many people try to do their own thing, thinking if you put some fish and plants together and pump the water through the system, you have an aquaponic system.

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

•

Space: How much space do you have? For a home system feeding 4 people 36 m2 should be enough; to earn money you need at least an area of 80 x 60 m. 9

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•

Location: Does the area get enough natural sunlight, on which side of the mountain are you, are there tall buildings or woods around you, is hail (or snow) a problem, do you need to tame the desert or clear the bushveld before you can start? Water: Do you have access to clean water? It should rather not be city water or run-off from the local mine. Although you use a lot less water than in a conventional system, you still need to fill the system. Make sure you have enough water. Budget: Plan your development in such a way that you do not run out of money before you start getting an income. Don’t think that you will be getting BIG money without first putting in some BIG money. It can also be a lot cheaper to build a home system than you think, if you are handy and creative in finding your own solutions. Prepare yourself for a cost of around R20 000 for a home system and easily up to R5 million for an economical size commercial system. Market: Who is going to buy from you? How far are you from your market? Do you need to transport your goods? Can you supply supermarkets? FIRST DO YOUR RESEARCH IN THIS REGARD BEFORE YOU START ANYTHING! The future: Where do you want to be in ten years? Perhaps you want to start small and build up to a huge system or multiple systems. Plan and build in such a way that your foundation is there if you want to expand. Business plan: Compile a proper business plan. After your capital expenditure for building the system, you will face other expenses such as rent, electricity, water, wages, office expenses, internet and telephone, transport and vehicle costs, insurance, bookkeeping, packaging, refrigeration, fingerlings, seed and especially fish food.

A well designed aquaponic system will reward you with exceptional growth.

A poorly designed system can easily make you poor! Look at the spindly legs of these plants trying to reach some light.

The beauty of aquaponics is that once you start producing in a proper system your yields will be significantly higher than in any other system without having to resort to chemical fertilisers and pesticides, and you will never have to weed! REFERENCES: www.slideshare.net/travissharma/ ten-guidelinesforaquaponics www.ecofilms.com.au/dr-wilsonlennard-on-commercial-aquaponics Hallam M., Practical Aquaponics, Master Class Training Manual, 2015 Bremner C.D. & Bremner A., Introduction to Aquaponics, Training Manual, Kleinskuur Aquaponics, 2017 ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

Soil: The farmerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most important asset Part 4: The clay minerals Martiens du Plessis, Soil Scientist, NWK Limited & Prof Cornie van Huyssteen, Lecturer: Soil Science, University of the Free State in South Africa.

ProAgri BNZ 05

oil is the most fundamental resource for the farmer, without which food and natural fibre cannot be produced. This article forms part of a series to highlight this resource. In this article, we discuss the most important clay minerals occurring in the soil. Primary minerals weather chemically to form the basic elements for the formation of secondary minerals. Because oxygen (O; 46,6%), silicon (Si; 27,7%), and aluminium (Al; 8,1%) are the most prolific elements, in the earth’s crust, one may conclude that these three elements will also be the most prolific in the secondary minerals. CLAY SHEETS The silicon cation is surrounded by four oxygen anions to form a four sided tetrahedron. The tetrahedral clay sheet forms when the tetrahedra arrange themselves to form a layer. The aluminium cation is surrounded by six hydroxide (OH) anions to form an eight-sided octahedron. These octahedra also arrange themselves into a sheet, which is then referred to as the octahedral layer. It is combinations of these tetrahedral and octahedral layers that form the basic building blocks of the clay minerals. Because these secondary minerals occur mainly in the clay fraction and, as a result of the layered nature thereof, the terms secondary, clay or phyllosilicates (layered) minerals are used interchangeably, but they all refer to the same thing.

negative charge of between 10 and 15 cmolc kg-1 of clay. [One mole is equal to 6,023 x 1023 (Avogadro’s number) particles. One centimole is therefore one hundredth, or 6,023 x 1021 of this. Therefore, kaolinite has 10 x 6,023 x 1021, or 6,023 x 1022 (60 230 000 000 000 000 000 000) negative charges per kg of clay.] This charge has to be balanced by cations and gives clay the ability to bind cations – the so-called cation exchange capacity (CEC). [Kaolinite’s charge is mainly pH dependent – more about this in a later issue.] Hydrogen bonding takes place between the Al-OH octahedral layer and the adjacent Si-O tetrahedral layer, of the two respective clay minerals. This bond is relatively weak, but is strong enough to prevent water moving in between the layers. As a result, kaolinite minerals do not expand and shrink during wetting and drying. It therefore has stable physical properties. Kaolinite clay crystals are relatively large and occur in the coarse clay fraction. The clays are therefore non-sticky and are “nonplastic”. The kaolinite minerals occur towards the end of the weathering cy-

cle, are rather resistant to weathering, and weather further to form aluminium oxides. As a result of the low CEC, it does not retain many cations and is therefore a poor provider of basic cations (potassium, calcium, magnesium and sodium). Halloysite is also a 1:1 clay mineral, but of lesser importance in soil. THE 2:1 CLAY MINERALS The 2:1 clay minerals form when one Al octahedral layer occurs between two Si tetrahedral layers. The most important 2:1 clay minerals are the fine micas (Figure 1b), vermiculite (Figure 1c) and montmorillonite (Figure 1d). The fine micas The fine micas and vermiculite have undergone isomorphic substitution in the octahedral (Mg2+ replacing Al3+) and tetrahedral (Al3+ replacing Si4+) layers. In the case of the fine micas, the negative charge is balanced to a great extent by potassium (K+), which fits snugly between respective clay layers. As a result, the fine micas cannot expand and shrink during wetting and

KAOLINITE CLAY MINERAL Kaolinite is the most common clay mineral in poorly structured soils, which include the vast majority of the arable land in Southern Africa. Kaolinite is formed when one Al octahedral layer and one Si tetrahedral layer combine to form a 1:1 clay mineral (Figure 1a and Figure 2). Limited isomorphic substitution (replaced by the same shape) of Al3+ which replaces Si4+ in the tetrahedral layer, leads to the formation of a ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

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Figure 2. Scanning electron microscopic image of kaolinite crystals, which indicates the hexagonal (sixsided) piles of crystals and interlayer spaces. Photo: rdg.ac.uk/ cfam/imageofthemonth/2008/February2008. drying. The fine micas are an important source of K+ in the soil when it weathers. The nett CEC of fine mica is 40 cmolc kg-1 of clay. Vermiculite Vermiculite forms when the fine mica minerals lose the K+ cations in the inter-layer spaces due to weathering. Vermiculite clay, therefore, has a high CEC of 140 cmolc kg-1 of clay. Water and cations can move into the inter-layer spaces but, because the clay strongly binds the cations, the clay has a limited expansion and shrinkage ability during wetting and drying. The most important property of vermiculite is that it can fix K+ in the interlayer spaces, making it inaccessible to plants. It is therefore a significant fixer of sink of potassium fertilizer in the soil, although this K+ can be released in the long-term through weathering.

Montmorillonite Montmorillonite (Figure 1d and Figure 3) is also a 2:1 clay mineral, but has isomorphic substitution of Mg2+ which replaces Al3+ solely in the Al octahedral layer. The charge is therefore lower than in the case of vermiculite and is also concentrated in the middle of the clay mineral. The cations are therefore not attached as strongly as in the case of vermiculite, and water, together with cations, can move easily in and out of the inter-layer spaces. This results in montmorillonite expanding and shrinking considerably (almost doubling in size) during wetting and drying. These clay minerals are small and have a high CEC of 100 cmolc kg-1 of clay. The charges of 2:1 clay minerals are mainly permanent and are not influenced by pH. Montmorillonite clay minerals are very small and are therefore extremely sticky and â&#x20AC;&#x153;plasticâ&#x20AC;? and have a high affinity for water and cations. These clays are therefore good providers of plant nutrients but, as such, can retain water so strongly that it is inaccessible to plants. As the soil shrinks, it results in major cracks. Water infiltration will thus be rapid when the soil is dry, but very slow when wet. The sticky nature of the clay results in it being difficult to till when wet. When dry it is usually too hard to till. Soil comprising mainly montmorillonite is problematic to till and to irrigate, although it is very fertile. This soil is known colloquially as turf or black cotton clay. Chlorite Chlorite (Figure 1e) is a special 2:1 clay mineral, where an Mg octahedral layer is found in the inter-layer spaces, which neutralises most of the negative charge. Chlorite is therefore in essence a 2:1:1 clay mineral. Isomorphic substitution, (Mg2+ replaces Al3+) in the Al octahedral layer, provides chlorite with a CEC of

40 cmolc kg-1 of clay. The properties of chlorite are very similar to those of the fine micas. They have a limited CEC and moderate hydration, expansion, and plasticity. The exception is that it is a good source of Mg2+ during weathering. SUMMARY Clay minerals may be seen as the engine room of the soils, as it is the clay that retains water and cation plant nutrients. Although the various clay species comprise the same Al octahedral and Si tetrahedral layers, they have widely divergent properties, as a result of the varying degrees of isomorphic substitution in these layers. Knowledge of the type of clay mineral in the soil can therefore enable the land user to better manage their soils.

REFERENCES The following references were used extensively during the compilation of this series of articles: 1. Van Huyssteen, CW. 2009. Soil ecology. Unpublished class notes for GKD214. University of the Free State, Bloemfontein. 2. Brady, NC. and Weil RR. 2002. The Nature and Properties of Soils. 13th ed. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. ProAgri BNZ acknowledges Grain SA for the use of this series which originally appeared in Afrikaans in SA Graan/Grain.

Figure 3. Scanning electron microscope image of montmorillonite. The fineness and amorphous character of the mineral is clearly visible. Photo: minersoc.org/pages/gallery/claypix/smectite/a-rose. ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

For further information, please contact: Martiens du Plessis at martiens@nwk.co.za or Cornie van Huyssteen at vanhuysteencw@ufs.ac.za.

Photo: Tracy Angus-Hammond, Pixabay.

by Jan van Heerden, M.Eng Tec

Water wise farmers build earth dams Part 3: Design essentials 16

ProAgri BNZ 05

he dam design in this series is limited to dams of which the maximum water depth does not exceed eight metres. Dam outlets The spilling of the dam must be designed and constructed in such a way that no flood damage is caused. All floodwater must be safely fed back to the original course of the river. The flood frequency for which the spillway (wet board) of irrigation dams on farms makes provision is 1 in 20 years. This implicates that there is a 5% probability that the maximum flood would be exceeded at a specific point in any year.

Nature of spillway surface

Sand to sandy loam

Sandy loam to loam

Loam to loamy clay

Loamy clay to clay

Pot clay to stone gravel

Permissible velocity (v) (m/s)

0,3

0,6

0,8

1,0

1,3

1,4

1,7

1,9

Flow depth (h) (m)

0,15

0,30

0,45

0,60

0,75

0,90

1,20

1,50

Discharge rate (m3/s/m width)

0,045

0,18

0,36

0,60

0,975

1,26

2,04

2,85

Slope in spillway (S) (%)

0,25

0,33

0,50

Rock soft to hard

Table 1: Flow over earth dam side spillway.

A small, but well-constructed dam outlet. Photo: Pixabay. The spillway (total board) should be able to handle floods with a 1 in 100 years frequency with little damage. The possibility offered by the terrain to establish a suitable and economic spillway, greatly determines whether it is practical to build the dam or not. If suitable spillway conditions are not present, it may make the construction of a dam on a specific site not economically feasible because of expensive structures. Spillway width, flow depth and total board Full supply level (FSL) This is the contour line that runs through the lowest point of the spillway, that is, it is the line that forms the brim of the water level when the water is at the point of flowing out at the spillway.

Determining of outlet width (L) and the flow depth (h) The deeper the water flows through a side spillway, the greater the flow speed will be. A critical speed exists for each type of soil, which will cause flooding if it is exceeded. The flow depth of the water through the outlet must therefore be selected so that the maximum permissible speed that is safe against erosion, is not exceeded. The permissible velocity (v), flow depth (h) and discharge rate (m³/s) per metre width for level side spillways with different erosion hazard properties is given in Table 1.

h0 = 0,014 √K metre where K is the length of the water in metres and h0 is the maximum wave height of trough to crown in metres. The total freeboard (h + h1) The dry freeboard plus the wet freeboard is called the total freeboard, that is the height difference between the FSL and the crest height of the wall after compaction.

The dry freeboard (H1) The dry freeboard is the vertical difference in height between the high-water level and the crown of the wall. The dry freeboard makes provision for three items. First, it must ensure that waves do not break over the wall at HWL. Second, an allowance of 0,15 m is made for an unreliable layer to provide for trampling by animals, unevenness and the result of frost. Third, provision is made for an additional safety factor of at least 0,3 m.

Dam waves have a very detrimental effect on dam walls over time.

High water level (HWL) This is the contour line at a height equal to the maximum calculated flow depth above the FSL. This is the line that forms the water level when the water flows through the spillway at the maximum design flood height. The wet freeboard or maximum flow depth (h) This is the depth (in metres) at which water streams through the spillway when the maximum flood height for the chosen return period is experienced – it is the vertical height difference between the FSL and HWL.

Wave height: The maximum wave height of dams of average size can be calculated with the following empirical formula:

Example: Wet freeboard (h): Maximum flow depth: 0,60 m Dry freeboard (h1): Wave height at HWL: 0,30 m Plus unreliable part of wall: 0,15 m Plus additional safety factor: 0,30 m Therefore: Total freeboard: 1,35 m

Dam waves look harmless, but pose a danger. Photo: Pixabay.

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

Shallow outlets are unreliable due to the possibility of blockage by debris, hail, et cetera. Rather choose a larger total freeboard than indicated in the calculations to overcome these conditions. 17

Figure 1: Spillway of a dam. The following are rules for determining the minimum dry freeboard (h1) and the minimum total freeboard (h + h1): • For catchment areas less than 2,5 km², the maximum dry freeboard must be 0,5 m and the minimum total freeboard 1,0 m. • For catchment areas of more than 2,5 km², the minimum dry freeboard must be 0,6 m to 0,8 m and the minimum total freeboard 1,2 m. • For dams with controlled inlets, the minimum total freeboard must be 0,6 m.

of better quality. For spillways in soils of poorer quality, the drop must not exceed 1 in 200 to 1 in 400. The spillway must be pegged out in such a way that the outlet width downstream of the line 1B to AC gradually becomes wider, so that the width from the point of the wing wall is at least 1½ to 2 or even more times the minimum spillway width to the end of the spillway excavation AD. It gives the spillway the shape of an inverted funnel that has the effect to distribute the water better

Discharged water can cause severe erosion if it is not channelled into the original stream. Photo: fastgrowingtrees.us.

Dam basin

The drop of the slope of the spillway in soil must be very gradual. Photo: Pixabay. to at least within the full water level. The best functioning is obtained by also giving this part of the outlet a slope stream upwards.

Main wall

Wi ng wa ll

1,5 to 2L

Figure 2: Plan of spillway level in the width Shape of excavated outlets and function of wing wall In general, an outlet excavation can be considered as a half circle with its centre against the end of the wall. Such an outlet will, however, leave the water against the rear of the wall and damage it from behind, because of the concentration of water and the forming of ditches. The wing wall must have a length of at least the maximum downstream base width of the wall. The slope of the wing wall must be the same as that of the spillway. Circumstances, such as very erodible soil directly below the dam, may demand that the wing wall be lengthened to a suitable place where the water can be safely dispersed. The discharged water must be taken up into the original stream without the danger of erosion. Downstream from the line 1B to AC (figure 2), the outlet must have a drop of 1 in 100 for loamy clay to clay or soils 18

downstream from the spillway. The area ACD is excavated and levelled. The upward stream portion of the spillway excavation must gradually become wider from the line 1B to line 1E. This part of the excavation must stretch

Natural spillways A spillway is natural if it is slightly inclined or level, perpendicular to the direction of the wing wall. Where the natural water surface of the proposed spillway is level or has only a slight incline, it will not always be necessary to excavate the spillway. The spillway is left in its original state. The benefit is that the natural ground surface and vegetation are not disturbed, and the spillway therefore has more resistance to flooding. Trees, shrubs and bushes in such a spillway must, however, be removed, since debris can get lodged against them and reduce the capacity. The delivery of a natural spillway is calculated as shown in Figure 3: 2 100 Q = --- q ----- h cumecs (m3/s) 5 s and 5Q L = ---2g

A well-constructed wing wall. Image: Madalina Gogoasa from Pixabay.

ProAgri BNZ 05

Figure 3: Natural spillway Where: q = number of cumecs (mÂł/s) per metre width for maximum flow depth (h) in metres (see Table 1) s = % steepest slope L = length in metres Protection of wing walls and side slopes of spillway excavation The spillway slopes must be paved, and the paving must be flushed with cement mortar at flow depths of more than 0,6 m. If the flow depth is more than 1 m, the wing wall must be replaced with a concrete shoulder wall.

with the side spillway. An expensive structure may be necessary to get the water into the donga. The construction of a dam at this particular site may be undesirable because of the cost. To prevent undesirable concentrations of water in and downstream of the spillway, the construction of small subsurface spread walls, small barricades or the establishment of suitable vegetation may be considered. Avoid continuous wetting of vegetation in the outlet by placing an open pipe of sufficient diameter, namely 0,15 m to 0,3 m, below the FWL through the wall,

If the excavation is in hard soil, gravel or rock where breaking and blasting is necessary, the cost of the excavation may constitute a significant portion of the cost of the dam. The material removed from the spillway can be useful as a gravel layer for the wall or as paving for the wall. Where circumstances make it possible, savings can be achieved on spillway excavations by making outlets on both sides of the wall. The combined capacity of the two spillways must be equal to the maximum flood for which the dam was designed. At spillways on sloping rock, savings can be made on the excavation by allowing a greater flow depth. This, however, requires a greater freeboard that in turn can increase the cost of the wall. The cost of the wall and the excavation must be compared, and the most economic flow depth should be determined. Savings can also be made on rock outlets by having the spillway partially over a spillway and partially by means of an excavation. In case of very hard rock, the appropriate design is usually a weir without an excavation.

An effective outlet pipe in the dam wall will prevent vegetation from being washed away in the outlet. Photo: damfailures.org.

Secure your spillway properly against erosion. Photo: Commons. wikipedia.org.

to let out a constant stream. This will keep the outlet dry, prevent the vegetation from becoming waterlogged, and ensure that the outlet floor will not wash away.

Precautions against erosion after the water has left the outlet In the design of spillways, provision must be made to prevent water from eroding the spillway. Also, ensure that erosion does not occur downstream after the water has left the spillway. It is preferred that the water is returned to the original source as soon as possible after it has left the spillway. If there is a danger of erosion, the water must be led further away to where it can be safely dispersed. This can be done by means of a canal, which is an extension of the wing wall that forms the spillway. If a donga is already present in the depression, great care must be taken

Economic deliberations at earth dam level spillways At level excavated spillways, it has been found that the volume of excavated earth increases rapidly as the required width of the spillway increases. At spillways in soil, the limiting factor is the permissible flow depth that may not be exceeded. To obtain the necessary spillway capacity, the spillway width must be increased. If the soil excavated at the spillway is suitable for the wall, and can be removed by means of the ordinary dam construction machinery, the size of the excavation will not make much of a difference to the cost of the dam.

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

A spillway over rocks. Photo: eg.modot.org. Next month we shall look at foundations and the dam basin. Published with the acknowledgement to the ARC Agricultural Engineering for the use of their manuals. Visit www.arc.agric.za for more information.

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ProAgri ProAgri Z a m b i a

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ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

Spray to protect your crops Part 5: Taking the knapsack sprayer apart

Compiled by J Fuls (Pr Eng)

t is always beneficial for a farmer to fully understand how all the tools and devices used on the farm work. First, better understanding means better operation and second, in the event of a breakdown the farmer often has to improvise to fix his equipment, especially when no spare parts are available. This month we shall take the knapsack sprayer apart to look in detail to the inner workings. We thank the ARC Institute for Agricultural Engineering in South Africa, who made this article available to the readers of ProAgri BNZ.

Proceed as follows: 1. Pull out the pin that keeps the rod in place onto the pump and remove the rod.

Knapsack sprayers do not all look the same inside, but we shall look at the one already discussed:

2. Unscrew the hose connector and pull out the plastic tube from the pump.

Much the same procedures can be followed with other sprayers.

3. Unscrew the lid and remove the filling screen.

First get hold of the manual (ownerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s handbook) of your sprayer and study it carefully. The manual will have more detail than this article. Always keep the manual ready when working on your sprayer. Always work on a clean surface like a newspaper or a clean table or floor. The parts must be kept clean. Some parts are small and may easily be misplaced, so keep them together in a container. Arrange the parts in the order they are removed from the sprayer, to prevent confusion on re-assembly. 22

4. Put your hand into the spray tank and remove the stirring spoon from the pump

ProAgri BNZ 05

5. Unscrew the pump nut and pull out the pump cylinder.

After cleaning the parts properly with soap and water, and replacing damaged parts, the knapsack sprayer can be assembled again. Putting the knapsack sprayer together Assembling the sprayer is the opposite of taking it apart. Also consult the manual to make sure it is done correctly.

6. Put one hand inside the knapsack to hold the push rod. Use a special spanner and unscrew the nut at the bottom to remove the push rod.

Apply some grease around the pump cylinder. Next month we shall look at how to use the knapsack sprayer in the correct manner. Published with acknowledgement to the ARC Institute for Agricultural Engineering for the use of their manuals. Visit www.arc.agric.za for more information. Faults and repairs

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

Botswana 24

ProAgri BNZ 05

Less is more

when you use drip irrigation technology by Jaco Cilliers

they use to tame their desert, and especially vegetable farmers should take note. What is drip irrigation? Drip irrigation is the most efficient water and nutrient delivery system for growing crops. It delivers water and nutrients directly to the plant’s root zone, in the right quantities, at the right time, so each plant gets exactly what it needs, when it needs it, to grow optimally. Thanks to drip irrigation, farmers can produce higher yields while saving on water as well as fertiliser, energy and even crop protection products. How does it work? Water and nutrients are delivered across the field in pipes called dripper lines equipped with drippers. Each dripper emits drops containing water and fertilisers, resulting in the uniform application of water and nutrients directly to each plant's root zone across an entire field. Why do farmers prefer drip irrigation? The reason is simple. Drip irrigation not only delivers a greater return on investment (ROI) compared to other irrigation methods, it also gives farmers an efficient and simple way to operate their farms to achieve the following results: • Higher yields of consistent quality • Huge water savings: no evaporation, no run-off, no waste • 100% land utilisation – drip irrigates uniformly on any topography and soil type • Energy savings: drip irrigation works on low pressure • Efficient use of fertiliser and crop protection, with no leaching • Less dependency on weather, greater stability and lower risks

outhern Africa is classified as an arid region with an annual average rainfall of 464 mm compared to the global average of 860 mm. There are some areas with significantly higher rainfall than others, but in general farmers in this region face challenges of a very dry climate. Still, people have to eat, and farmers have to find ways to use the available water as wisely as possible. At the recent Farmers Day at the Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BUAN), visitors

were surprised by the lush growth of the vegetables and maize on the demonstration plot during a severe drought. The secret lies in the black pipes running along the ground at the stems of all the plants, even the maize. In conjunction with an Israeli organisation, drip irrigation was installed to irrigate all the crops. Instead of using pivots and other methods of spraying water over crops, the Israelis specialise in making every drop count by using drip irrigation. This is the method

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

The dripper lines are connected to a reservoir that maintains a stable water supply. Liquid fertiliser can be mixed to the correct ratio in the reservoir. The dripper lines run down the planted rows and a dripper is installed at every plant to feed the plant. 25

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ProAgri BNZ 05

Nobody wants to eat a month's food in one day, and the same goes for plants. Drip irrigation applies water and nutrients frequently and in small doses, ensuring optimal growing conditions that help produce the highest yields possible.

A small quantity of water is administered to each plant at a constant rate. Only the area reached by the plant roots is irrigated, thereby eliminating water wastage. The tempo at which the plant is irrigated matches the plant’s ability to draw moisture from the soil, thereby eliminating run-off and evaporation. Why do plants prefer drip irrigation? Just like people, plants like to get their water and nutrients in a balanced way.

Here’s why plants are more productive with drip irrigation: • High availability of water and nutrients • Doses of water and nutrients tailored to plant’s development needs • No saturation and good soil aeration • Avoids high salinity caused by excessive fertiliser application • No wetting of foliage that can result in fungal diseases

With dripper lines you can irrigate different types of crops in the same field, and it is possible to regulate the water flow according to the plants’ needs and the moisture level of the soil.

Apart from the fact that drip irrigation is cost-effective and eco-friendly, it is also extremely versatile and can be used on any size or shape of field and for any plant species. It is also easy to install, and by following the manufacturers’ guide to maintenance, the pipes should last many seasons. Every season it can be removed to cultivate the land and installed again after planting.

Note the easy installation with a wire keeping the line straight and the pipe simply folded over the wire and kept in place with a plastic band. You don’t need special tools to install dripper lines. The technology is built into the line and drippers themselves.

It is worthwhile to learn from the Israelis about irrigation techniques. They produce enough vegetables in a desert to feed their own country and to export.

For more information on drip irrigation, visit www.netafim.co.za/ drip-irrigation/. If you need materials or equipment for your own drip irrigation system, visit Agri4All for the best products and prices. Simply follow this link to the website www.agri4all.com/ ad_category/water-management-and-irrigation/. ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

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ProAgri BNZ 05

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ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

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ProAgri BNZ 05

Dassiesfontein: Overcoming illiteracy one farm worker at a time

by Jaco Cilliers

performance output, yet they have had little or no formal training. Jacobus Swartbooi struggled with these issues on his own farm with his farm workers. He thought of a solution, and his thoughts will become a reality this year. People in rural areas are often illiterate due to the fact that they live in remote areas that receive few to no government services such as education and health care. Those who cannot afford to send their children to boarding schools often end up learning skills on the farm instead of proper education. This used to be adequate, but due to the advancing technology in farming equipment and techniques, farm workers need to understand basic maths and be able to read operation manuals. The first Dassies Farm Workers Training Camp will start on 2 April 2020. This is after four years of planning and preparation. Jacobus Swartbooi and his administrative executive, Cyntia Biwa, have prepared a comprehensive programme for these students.

Jacobus Swartbooi (Founder) and Cyntia Biwa (Administrative Executive) of Dassiesfontein Farm Workers’ Training Camp near Mariental in the Hardap region of Namibia.

iterate workers are an asset to any farm. They often work with very expensive and complex machinery. Why is it then that there is no tertiary programme that a student can follow to become a farm worker? Why is it that

many farm workers did not finish school before coming to earn minimum wages as labourers? One of the problems is that farm workers are often expected to work exceptionally well and have a high-

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

Workers attending the training will learn valuable skills including: • Importance of a farm worker Without farm workers there will be no labour force to complete the labourintensive tasks of farming • Communication Effective communication can eliminate problems and lead to saving both time and money. • Farm worker hygiene Bad hygiene leads to bad health that can cause a lot of down time due to illness and disease. • Livestock vaccinations Vaccinations can be a very complex and scientific part of farm work. The vaccination programmes are usually compiled by professionals, but administering the vaccination correctly makes the difference between saving and losing money. Vaccines are very expensive, and farmers cannot afford to have it wasted. • Livestock count and record keeping This can greatly influence the profitability of a farm. Keeping records of the herd enables management to make informed decisions and can save labour, money and resources. • Animal hygiene Animal hygiene does not only impact on the health of the animals, but also 31

It all begins with a visit to a place where people still count Kaap Agri Nambia is an agricultural services group that distributes good and services mainly to the agricultural sector, but also to the general public. These goods and services include: • Direct agricultural production inputs such as fertiliser, seeds and pesticides. • Animal feeds, animal health and pet-related products. • Fuels, oils, lubrication and tyres. • Industrial and domestic gas. • Gardening and agricultural irrigation equipment. • Related products, such as wire and poles. • Building materials, such as cement, timber, paint, corrugated iron and plastic. • Horticultural supplies like tools, fertiliser and chemicals. • DIY items like tools, ladders, screws and accessories. • Camping equipment and related accessories for the outdoor enthusiast. • Food, cleaning agents and clothing, which includes protective clothing. • Financing of these products and services. • Delivery services.

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improves biosecurity which is of great importance when it comes to combatting animal diseases such as footand-mouth disease. • Farm maintenance Ensuring that equipment, fences, buildings and vehicles are in good working order and properly maintained will save both time and money. • Gender-based violence; drug and alcohol abuse These two issues often go hand in hand. The social well-being of the farm workers is just as important as their health.

• Crop farming Access to basic information and training about the various crops that are produced will enable the farm worker to have a better understanding of the duties required from him. This will lead to fewer errors and more conscientious farm workers. • Sheep shearing Instead of hiring contractors to shear sheep at high costs it will be more cost-effective to send farm workers on a training course to acquire this important skill.

Farm workers make up an integral part of the agricultural economy, yet they are often under-educated. Photo: www.abc.net.au. ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

These topics not only aim to train farm workers to perform better at work, but also provide the farm worker with an opportunity to learn important social skills as well as health-care and general well-being. According to Jacobus, the aim is to empower farm workers to such an extent that they can manage their own farming enterprises. To this end, farm workers are taught the importance of taking ownership of their efforts on the farm. The training camp will last for 8 weeks during which the farm workers will receive meals and accommodation. The long-term goal is to become a permanent training facility and labour recruitment agency in the farming industry of Namibia. No farm can fully function with farm workers being away for two months. Jacobus and Cyntia realised this and therefore decided to present these sessions twice a year. The first training camp of this year will start in April and the second one is scheduled to start in September. This will enable the farmers to send workers in smaller groups. The workers who have completed the course will also be able to share what they have learned with their colleagues and help to spread the knowledge. That is why communication is built into the training programme.

Those interested in attending the training camp can contact Cyntia Biwa at 081-294-2113, or send an e-mail to dassiestraining@gmail.com.

Namibia

Saving Namibiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s livestock (Part 1)

Background of Namibian Rangelands and the livestock industry

The Namibian livestock industry is in decline. There is a large-scale loss of palatable perennial grasses, widely spread bush encroachment, and Namibia is regarded as a country that will be severely affected by climate change. To counter this trend, the Department of Agriculture, Water and Forestry (MAWF), together with industry partners such as the Namibian Farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Unions, initiated and developed an innovative rangeland policy that can annually add N$4 billion to the GDP if fully implemented. ProAgri BNZ will publish extracts from the policy document to make sure that all farmers understand this plan that can help them to survive the next drought.

oor rangeland management has resulted in the loss of highly palatable perennial grasses over most of Namibiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 60 million hectares of rangeland where livestock is kept. 45 million hectares of this total rangeland accessed by livestock has been encroached by bush. Compared with the 1950s, many farms now require three times the area in order to sustain the same number of animals 34

due to this loss of perennial grass and increased bush. Bare ground is an important indicator of ecosystem health and productivity. A high bare ground percentage increases the risk of water run-off, water erosion, and high evaporation rates. This means that less water penetrates the soil, which jeopardises the growth of plants and the recharging of underground water

supplies. Bare ground is measured in September every year, when it is expected to be most pronounced. Map A shows that over the last 18 years bare ground has increased within Namibia. From 2015 to 2018, communal areas had, on average, the highest percentage of bare ground. Communal area bare ground was 14% higher than emerging farmer study units. In the same time frame,

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ground than study units where game farming was the primary land use. In the semi-arid zone, farms where small stock was the primary land use had on average 25% more bare ground than cattle farms, and 17% more bare ground than on game farms. In addition to changes in bare ground over time, it is also important to consider changes in grass cover and other plant material on the soil surface. Good herbaceous (grasses and forbs) cover is crucial for preventing erosion and for recharging underground water supplies, as it increases water infiltration and deep percolation. Current status of the Namibian livestock industry Farmers throughout Namibia have reported a decline in sustainable stocking rates, decreased profits, and increased risks and impacts of drought. In addition to declining sustainable stocking rates, input costs have increased quicker than income and land prices have increased dramatically. Over time, farming livestock has become riskier and less profitable. Cattle farmers have to be 7% more efficient each year and sheep farmers 2% more efficient each year in order to maintain the same level of profitability. Farmers need to review their practices and make careful adjustments to ensure that they remain profitable into the future. Profits have been further reduced through the introduction of higher input cost animals that do not perform well on a declining resource base. In addition to this, farmers are increasingly using salaried income to subsidise farming activities, which is a new and worrying trend in the farming industry. The consequence of this is that farmers keep their animals on the

bare ground in the communal areas was most pronounced in the semiarid zone compared with title deed and emerging study sites. For title deed land, differences in soil cover between 2015 and 2018 were also apparent. The arid zone farms, with cattle as the primary land use, had on average 17% less bare ground than the tourism land use, 15% less than small-stock, and 11% less bare

rangelands instead of selling them, which results in a further decline of the rangeland resource base and decreases sustainable stocking rates. Since forage growth is dictated by sufficient rainfall, Namibia will always experience either an excess of forage or a shortage of forage. Considering all of these damaging practices and environmental circumstances that stand against productive livestock farming, it is important to be aware of the loss that the country and its people, particularly farmers, experience as a result. Impact of climate change on rangelands and the livestock industry In particular, the variability in rainfall and rising air temperatures can cause shifts in vegetation dynamics and influence the adaptability of livestock. It is evident that land degradation is caused by poor rangeland management, and accelerated by climate change. Low rainfall, high temperatures and increased carbon dioxide levels favour woody plant growth. Woody plants are in most cases already established, but herbaceous plants are under continuous pressure from being grazed, which has resulted in their declining state. Productivity of rangelands and recovery periods after grazing will vary in the different parts of Namibia. It is anticipated that climate change will have a prominent impact in the south and west, and less impact in the north and east. Therefore, the northern and eastern areas must be targeted for increased production and profitability per hectare through the most appropriate land use means available. The variability in rainfall and projected mean annual rainfall throughout Namibia illustrates that

Map A: Change in bare ground (2000 to 2018)

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Namibia 36

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Photo: Anne Berger.

the bigger portion of Namibia’s land surface area is becoming drier (see Map B, p38). The maps also indicate that the impact of climate change decreases in a north-easterly direction. In order to build resilience against the variability of rainfall, plant cover will have to be improved, particularly through the application of sound rangeland management practices and adjustable stocking rates.

be grazed, and therefore stimulated, in the growing season (rainy season) in a way that allows enough time for the energy in their root reserves to recover before being grazed again. The intensity of utilisation of plants by animals determines the amount of time required by the plants to at least recover their root reserves before being grazed once more in the growing season.

Soil health, soil carbon and biodiversity for increased livestock production The decreased productivity, and therefore profitability, of Namibia’s rangelands is a direct result of poor rangeland management, the loss of biodiversity, and the loss of carbon from the soil. As a result, bush thickening has occurred and the number of undesirable woody species has increased. This increase leads to direct competition for moisture with desirable forage species and detrimentally influences the health of the soil. Livestock profitability is about increasing soil health and soil carbon. Soil cover and plant diversity are good indicators of soil health. The greater the diversity of plants, the greater the diversity of microbes will be.

2.Perennial grasses must be grazed each year in the non-growing season (dry season). This ensures that growth points are exposed to the sun in the next growing season, and that soil cover increases over time in order to improve the water cycle for the next growing season and to feed the microbes in the soil.

The non-negotiable needs of forage plants for increased livestock production

Key drivers of livestock production and profitability Given that the price obtained per kilogram for meat products is fairly consistent, there are two key drivers that livestock farmers need to take seriously. The first is to reduce the cost of production (COP) per animal. This involves cutting costs wherever possible, but it also involves synchronising the farm’s natural production conditions with the animals’ nutritional needs through the seasons, and with other environmental and market forces.

Perennial grasses and palatable shrubs have two non-negotiable needs: 1. Perennial grasses and shrubs must

Livestock profitability is determined by the following four key factors: 1. Sustainable stocking rate is 8 times

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

more important than the animal frame size chosen. 2. Animal fertility is 4 times more important than the animal frame size chosen. 3. Growth rate/animal performance is twice as important as the animal frame size chosen. 4. Animal frame size and efficiency of the animal you farm with determines the profitability of the business (the animal you select to farm with is a key decision that will determine your animal input costs; functionally efficient and well adapted animals can produce more kilograms per hectare and more profit per hectare). Increasing stocking rate sustainably over time is the single most important factor to drive livestock profitability upwards. As Namibia’s rangelands are in decline, the sustainable stocking rate throughout Namibia is also in decline. In order to achieve this, each farmer must: 1. Change his rangeland management in order to grow more grass to convert more sunlight into meat over time; 2. Improve the mineral and water cycle over time, in such a way that more palatable grass is grown per unit area and biodiversity is increased; 3. Develop a grazing plan (which includes recovery periods, animal impact, et cetera); and 4. Optimise livestock fertility and production.

Namibia Map B: Projected mean annual rainfall throughout Namibia Aligning your production system with natural conditions When deciding on your production system, it must be done with an understanding of seasonal fluctuations. The key is to carry optimum numbers of livestock during high forage quality and quantity times, without incurring high costs during forage bottlenecks. For all farmers, there are a number of key questions that require additional decisions to be made: • Is it more beneficial to fatten a weaner or to maintain a cow? • Should you sell calves as weaners when quality and quantity of grass is available? • Should you keep steers after maturity, as they eat grass for little gain and have a reduced commercial value? • At what age should animals be sold? • Do you supplement or sell late calves/heifers? • Can you round off your livestock on naturally good pastures when nutritional needs are high? All of these key questions need to be carefully considered by all farmers.

Ensuring animal fertility: conception, calving and weaning rates The first steps towards increasing fertility and production include growing more high-quality grass at a low cost and syncing the livestock enterprise with natural events. In order to ensure an efficient herd, the following factors need to be considered: 1. An adequate bull to cow ratio. 2. The implementation of a culling policy, focusing on keeping the animals that can raise an unassisted calf every year. 3. The reduction of stock losses through pro-active vaccination, pro-active nutrition, and actions that reduce stock losses to theft and predation. Other key management factors Running a livestock farm is not only about growing more grass and increasing animal performance and fertility with a functionally efficient animal. It is important to cut unnecessary costs.

However, there are a number of other factors that also contribute towards making a farmer successful: 1. Successful farmers have a clear vision of why they are doing what they are doing, what they want to achieve, and what the farm should be like in order to achieve this. They have a shared vision of the farm (with partners, staff and family), and this vision is operationalised into annual plans. 2. Successful farmers plan their farms' infrastructure, as this can be a costly undertaking. It is critical to prioritise the infrastructure that is required in order to apply the rangeland management practices that enable sustainable stocking rates to climb over time. 3. It is important to monitor key aspects of your farming operation. It is very important to take stock of your vision, finances and infrastructure plan on a regular basis. It is also extremely important to check animal performance on a very regular basis, as this is where the money from the enterprise is generated. Making sure that forage intake is optimal and that the animals’ rumens are healthy is an important part of animal performance. Estimating forage production in May every year is critical and there are easy methods that allow this to be done. The most important indicator of livestock production success is the production and profit per ha of the farm: Production per ha (live weight): = Total kg live weight produced in a year/ha. Income per ha: = Production per ha (live weight) x price/kg received (live weight). Profit per ha: = Income per ha – Expenses per ha 4. It is important to focus on meat quality (marbling) and proper ageing of the meat in order to ensure that niche markets can be realised.

Different rangeland approaches or case studies will be discussed in our next edition. *The National Rangeland Management Policy (NRMP) was approved in 2012. In 2014, the NRMPS Project was commissioned in support of this policy, under the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry (MAWF), to address the declining natural resource base in Namibia. Extract from Reviving Namibia’s Livestock Industry, Regenerative Livestock Production Trends, Key Profit Drivers, Case Studies and Recommendations, NRMP Best Practice Strategy Document (Revised edition from 2012 NRMPS), Based on Namibia Rangeland Management Policy (NRMP): A

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Where are our evicted farmers today? by Benine Ackermann

The story of Deon Theron I

tâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s been twenty years since Zimbabwe farmers have been thrown off of their farms, and still many of them have received no compensation. Sweat, tears, fending off attacks, being robbed, fleeing, fear, building something up and then just losing it over and over again. These are the circumstances under which farmers lived in Zimbabwe â&#x20AC;Ś and eventually they lost their farms in the year 2000. Most of them went to live in other countries and struggled to stay alive. There are still court cases going on for these farmers. AfriForum, a South African non-governmental organisation with the aim of protecting the rights of minorities, is fighting for these farmers to get compensation. A few farmers received 30% of the value of their farms, but most of them received no compensation at all. Deon Theron was born in Harare, Zimbabwe, farmed there and still lives there. He was President of the Commercial Farmers Union of Zimbabwe, Chairman of National Association of Dairy Farmers (NADF) and President of the Business Council of Zimbabwe. He was one of the unlucky ones to be evicted from all three his farms. He says he has the biggest respect for AfriForum for trying to help him and the other farmers. 40

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my cattle to Zanka Farm. It put a lot of pressure on me because there were too many cattle for the available pasture. I had to buy a lot of feed,” he added. He left the Eden Farm for his safety. “We left our fully furnished four-bedroom home, farming equipment, fertiliser and chemicals there. I only had my cattle and firearms left.” Deon recalls one case where he feared for his life. “One day a bakkie full of people stopped in front of my house. They tried to assault me with an axe. I managed to flee with my bakkie, but they came after me. My neighbours helped me to safety. The police did nothing. “After that I hired ten bodyguards for my safety. The war veterans, named war vets (Zimbabwe’s former ‘liberation fighters’) came and attacked my bodyguards.” In 2004 Deon was evicted from Lushof Farm. He did not live on Lushof Farm himself, but had people who looked after the place. But the war vets eventually also took over there. “It did not help to phone the police; they wanted to arrest me for still being on the farm. The war vets intimidated my farm workers and stole my livestock. Then I decided to move my cattle and sheep to Zanka Farm,” says Deon. And in 2008 he was evicted from his

last farm, Zanka. “One day a person, Elias Musakwa from the Reserve Bank, showed up at my farm and asked me when I intended on leaving my farm, because the government gave my farm to him. I told him I would not move from my farm. After that, he intimidated us in various ways, like putting up a tent on my lawn two metres from my daughter’s bedroom window,” Deon says. “I received a summons ordering me to go to court because I refused to leave my farm, and stating that I was illegally staying on my own farm. After a court battle of six weeks I was found guilty and sentenced six months’ jail time, suspended for five years provided we move from my farm within 30 days.” He finally moved from his last farm after 30 years of farming. In 2008 he temporarily moved onto Friedenthal Farm, Beatrice, and in 2010 he was also evicted from Friedenthal Farm. Deon now runs a B & B with his wife. “In spite of all the things I went through I am not bitter, but thankful that my family is alive.” Deon, like many other farmers, is still involved in court cases with the support of Afriforum to see whether they can get some compensation.

Deon has not yet received any payment for his farms. He is still fighting for his rights on receiving compensation. “I had to use eight different lawyers and they refused that I call witnesses in court.” More about Deon’s story: Deon said when people realised in 1979 that Mugabe would be President, most of them fled out of Zimbabwe. “I decided to stay in my country of birth. I never regretted my decision because my whole family, my children and grandchildren were in Zimbabwe,” Deon said. He bought Durham Farm in Gweru, Zimbabwe (dairy and crop farming) in 1981. At the time there was no thought of the fact that he could lose his farm. Then he sold Durham Farm and bought Zanka Farm in Beatrice (dairy farming and crocodiles). Afterwards, he bought his second farm, Lushof, in Featherstone to keep 300 Brahman cattle and 450 Dorper sheep. In 1998 he bought his third farm, Eden in Beatrice, to grow maize and grazing for young dairy stock. In 2000, the “land reform” started. He was evicted from his Eden Farm. “When I lost Eden Farm, I realised there were big problems and that I could lose my other farms as well. I moved

Farmers were very sad to lose their farm after hard work and sweat.

ProAgri Botswana / Namibia / Zimbabwe 05

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Articles inside

Zimbabwe: Where are our evicted farmers today?

Dassiesfontein: Overcoming illiteracy one farm worker at a time

Less is more when you use drip irrigation technology

Water wise farmers build earth dams. Part 3

How to get started with aquaponics. Part 5

Saving Namibia’s livestock industry (Part 1

Soil, the farmer’s most important asset. Part 4

Spray to protect your crops. Part 5

Carl Hamm provides solutions to reach deep water