Assignment 8 Vol 3

Assignment 8 History of design (III)

Renaissance & Mannerism

Fig . 1 Leonardo Da Vinci, (2019), Man of Vitruvius, 1490 [Painting].

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highlights of design IIi Renaissance & Mannerism

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We call Renaissance a period of human history lived in Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.” Italy, cradle of Renaissance art, witnesses the dawn of this new era a century earlier: in the 14th century, while other countries were still awakening to a change of mentality, in the period known as "Ars Nova”.” (Renacimiento, Wikipedia Contributors, 2019) The term "Renaissance" refers to the verb “reborn". Renacimiento, Wikipedia Contributors, 2019) What is rebirth? After almost ten centuries of closed-mindedness, taking refuge in God as a "remedy" for the evils that plagued the world (illness, hunger, death), humanity surviving the Black Death turned its gaze to the ideals of classical culture (Greece and Rome) looking for new references to rebuild its spirit on. Greece, cradle of democracy and philosophy, was the best teacher. A theocentric world vision, characteristic of the Middle Ages, will be transformed into an anthropocentric vision (man -the person- as a measure of all things).

Fig . 2 Michelangelo, (2019), Creation, Capella Sixtina [Painting].

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elements of renaissance style Fig . 3 Palazzo Medici Riccardi, (2019), Tondo, Cortile di Michelozzo, Palazzo Medici Riccardi [relief].

Fig . 4 Nathan Turoff, (2019), Rustication,Palazzo Pitti [Photograph].

Fig . 5 Musei Bargello- Palazzo Davanzati, (2009), Staircase, Palazzo Davanzatti [Photograph].

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When we talk about the renaissance, we frequently read that we tried to restore classical antiquity again. True, that was the place of inspiration, but not only; The Romanesque and Gothic buildings of Tuscany are also used, and elements of classical antiquity are reinterpreted in a novel way.

According to Wikipedia Contributors article “. Arquitectura del Renacimiento” (2019). Renaissance style places emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry and the regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in the architecture of classical antiquity and in particular ancient Roman architecture, of which many examples remained.

Inspired by Roman buildings, orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters and lintels, as well as the use of semicircular arches hemispherical domes, niches and aedicules replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings.

Square plans. Symmetrical appearance. Proportions are usually based on a module.

Fig . 9 Muse Firenze, (2016), Palazzo Medici Riccardi [Photograph].

Symmetrical façades around their vertical axis, domestic buildings are often surmounted by a cornice. External walls are generally of high end ashlar masonry. Corners highlighted by rusticated quoins, basements and ground floors were often rusticated .

Roman orders of columns are used: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite.

Arches, vaults and domes.

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Fig . 6 Vincenzo Scamozzi (1615) The 5 classical orders of architecture [illustration]

Fig . 8 John Adams (2013) vaulted ceilings [photograph]

Fig . 7 Andrea Palladio, (2019), Villa Rotonda plan [Plan].

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Ceilings are beamed or coffered, frequently painted or decorated.

Doors usually have square lintels, set within an arch or surmounted by a triangular or segmental pediment, in the Mannerist period the “Palladian” arch was employed Decorative details are finely carved.” The study and mastery of techniques and the retailer inspired by classical art was one of the pillars of Renaissance theory, moldings protrude around doors and windows instead of being embedded, as in Gothic architecture, sculpted figures can be placed in niches or skirting boards. “ (Nieto Alcaide, V. et al. , 2000)

Fig . 10 sir banister fletcher (1896) Genova renaissance ornament [illustration]

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Fig . 12 Sir Bannister Fletcher, 1896,Roman Renaissance Examples I Sir Bannister Fletcher, 1896, Venetian Renaissance Ornaments II [illustration]

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Fig . 13 Sir Bannister Fletcher, 1896,Roman Renaissance Examples II Sir Bannister Fletcher, 1896, Venetian Renaissance Ornaments II [illustration] 7

Fig . 14 Sir Bannister Fletcher, 1896,Roman Renaissance Examples I, II & III [illustration]

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Along with the Renaissance a cultural movement called Humanism is developed, in which the aim is to train the person in the study of letters, sciences and arts. In this sense, knowing Music was considered a sign of good education (do not forget that in Greece, Music and Physical Education were the most important subjects in the education of young people). This was reflected by Baltasar Castiglione in his book Il Cortigiano (The Courtesan).

Three facts deeply marked this era: •

Travel: the idea of traveling is an encounter with knowledge, with new knowledge. Historically, the Renaissance is contemporary with the era of the Discoveries and the overseas conquests. This «era» marks the beginning of the worldwide expansion of European culture, with Portuguese travel and the discovery of America by the Spaniards. Many composers of the time traveled to other countries, so they were in contact with Europe.

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Portrait of Martin Luther

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•

The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutemberg. Thanks to the printing press, the dissemination of culture through books allowed the latter to reach a greater number of people. The introduction of the printing press between 1460 and 1480 and the consequent diffusion of culture was one of the engines of change.

The dismemberment of Christianity with the emergence of the Protestant Reformation was a crisis that left a deep mark on art.

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Fig . 15 Lucas Cranach,1533, Martin Luther [Painting] Fig . 16 Justus Sustermans 1636,Galileo Galilei [Painting].

Fig . 17 “Torun Portrait” 1580, Nicholas Copernicus [Painting].

Fig . 18 Hans Holbein, 1540, (2019),King Henry VIII [Painting].

Fig . 19 Mela Corral ,2018, Statua of Johannes Gutemberg, Strasbourg, Photo by Mela Corral

“The Renaissance, in short, will be the result of the dissemination of the ideas of Humanism, which determined a new conception of man and the world.

In this cultural climate of renovation, which paradoxically sought its models in Classical Antiquity, an artistic revival in Italy emerged at the beginning of the fifteenth century, of extraordinary momentum, which would immediately spread to other European countries.” (Renacimiento, Wikipedia Contributors, 2019) Maria del Carmen Corral Lodeiro 72546664

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The artist became aware of individual with his own value and personality, was attracted by knowledge and began to study the models of classical antiquity while researching new techniques (chiaroscuro in painting, for example). The ways of representing perspective and the natural world with fidelity are greatly developed; They are especially interested in human anatomy and architectural construction techniques. The paradigm of this new attitude is Leonardo da Vinci, an eminently Renaissance personality, who dominated different branches of knowledge; In the same way, Miguel Ángel Buonarroti, Rafael Sanzio, Sandro Botticelli and Bramante were artists moved by the image of antiquity and concerned about developing new sculptural, pictorial and architectural techniques, as well as music, poetry and the new humanistic sensibility.

“While the art of the Quattrocento or the first Italian Renaissance arose in Florence, so called to develop during the 1400s (15th century), thanks to the search for beauty canons of antiquity and the scientific basis of art, there was a similar and simultaneous phenomenon in Flanders (especially in painting), based mainly on the observation of life and nature. The Quattrocento is one of the most important periods of the European artistic scene. The figure of the artist-creator appears to the detriment of anonymity. The workshop of the teacher emerges, who receives the orders of the clients. This fact could be considered as the birth of the category of author. Man is the most perfect work of God. The human figure is painted regardless of what it represents.”(Quattrocento, Wikipedia contributors, 2019) In this art, painting techniques evolve and perspective is achieved; in sculpture, it returns to the imitation of classical Greek and Roman, and with respect to architecture there is a return to the lines of Greek and Roman art. In general, this art has purer lines than its European predecessor, Gothic, being smaller and simpler.

Its main representatives are Brunelleschi in architecture, Donatello and Ghiberti in sculpture and Botticelli and Fra Angelico, Masaccio and Piero della Francesca

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Fig . 20 Leonardo Da Vinci/ Geo magazine, (2019), Studie für eine flugelgliederung [Illustration].

Fig . 21 Jann Van Eyck, 1434, (2019), The Arnolfini portrait [Painting]

Fig . 22 Rafael Sanzio, 1512, (2019), Putti detail (Cherubs), Madonna Sixtina

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[Painting].

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XV Century - Quattrocento As mentioned by García García (2002) In this century the main artistic changes with respect to the Gothic one are introduced when recovering classic models. The Renaissance architect will be inspired by the basic geometric shapes already present in classical buildings. The circle and the square, the cube and the sphere, the cylinder, are the appropriate forms for their perfect regularity and rationality. The linear and ascending dynamic of Gothic is displaced by the logical clarity of classicism.

The dome was an element present in most buildings. In a Neoplatonic environment in search of ideal beauty, this geometric form was the perfect symbol of God. But the new architectural elements, and especially the dome, pose fundamental problems that affect the overall layout of the building. A temple is looked for that the use of the classic elements and the needs derived from the cult and the Christian liturgy.

The most indicated architectural typologies were: - The church could present two types of plants, and whenever possible with a dome: . of Latin cross, memory of the Paleo-Christian basilica, and in turn, of the Roman basilica; . centralized plant, where the proportion and harmony of the parts stands out.

- The palace, around a central courtyard, usually square in shape.

During the fifteenth century Florence will be the most prosperous city in Italy. The Medici, great bankers and owners of the city, are also the patrons of the artists of the moment.

A new urban concept emerges. An ideal city is sought following the indications given by Vitrubio, the great Roman theorist of the 1st century BC; but its principles only took shape in some cities.

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capella di san lorenzo Filippo FilippoBrunelleschi,1422 Brunelleschi,1422

Fig . 24 Peter Murray, (1963) Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence, viewed straight down the middle of the nave. [Illustration].

basilica di San Lorenzo

Fig . 23 TripAdvisor, (2019), Basilica di San Lorenzo [Photograph].

Fig . 25 Pinterest, (2014), Basilica of San Lorenzo, [Photograph].

While the entire Europe was adorning their design projects with the brand new flamboyant Gothic mouldings, Tuscan artists relied on local style: Roman Empire art. In fact, classicism had never been fully forgotten in Italy and the Gothic figuration itself, though stylized, was inviting to naturalistic performance. In the early 14th century Giotto had recaptured classical art plasticism, but this review attempt agonized decades after the Black Death calamity. It was not until around 1416 that Brunelleschi recovered the Paleo-Christian ecclesial interior design, that is, the basilica in its original pure form and invented perspective, as mentioned in Wikipedia (Wikimedia Contributors, Brunelleschi, 2019) .

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In civil architecture, a new type of palace appears in Florence, desired by the rich Florentine families. Urban palaces of unprecedented dimensions are built as strongholds of the power of the powerful lineages (the Medici, the Gonzaga, the Farnese) and will continue to grow in the Baroque under the influence of Versailles. The palace is organized around a courtyard and the façade is divided into three floors separated by cornices and topped by a large cornice. It is used mainly the ashlar padding and a large number of windows are opened. Luxury and good taste are exhibited through artistic collections of furniture, sumptuary arts and plastic arts.

“The palace was built between 1444 and 1460. Florentine sculptor and architect Michelozzo Michelozzi (1396 - 1472) designed the project. At that time, Michelozzo was the trustworthy architect of Cosimo I the Elder and other Medici family members. During his youth, Michelozzo had been a disciple of Brunelleschi and Ghiberti and later became Donatello's assistant. Cosimo I entrusted the project to Michelozzo after having rejected Brunelleschi's project as he thought the external characteristics of the building were too ostentatious. “ (Monica ,2016)

Fig . 28 Ho visto Nina Volare (tumblr user), (2011), Cortile di Michelozzo [Photograph].

palazzo medici riccardi B. Michelozzo, 1444-1464, Firenze (IT)

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Fig . 26 Muse Firenze, (2016), Palazzo Medici Riccardi [Photograph].

Fig . 27 Ho visto Nina Volare (2011), Palazzo Medici Riccardi [Photograph]. coffered ceiling

Fig . 29 FlorenceWeb (2019 Palazzo Medici-Riccardi,[Plan].

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XVI Century (Cinquecento) “The heart of politics and art is now in Rome,� W(ikipedia. Contributors 2019. ).the city which owes its splendour and wealth to the Popes. July II, Leo X and Sixtus V are the main supporters of the artists. As Venice, which maintained its political and economic power, played an important role in the art world, especially in painting, Florence has already lost its primacy.

Two moments can be identified in the arts scene in this century.

For the first two decades classicism produced the best works following classical principles. In architecture, monumentalism and ornamental frugality were sought.

In the third decade, Luther's Protestant Reformation and the Sacco di Roma (1527) caused real tensions on the part of humanists. And after the Council of Trent (1545) and the Counter-Reformation, the Artists no longer wished to merge Christianism and Classical World, rather to glorify the religious world at the expense of the Pagan world.

In Florence, Venice, and especially in Rome, Mannerism developed, characterized by using classical elements without a classical language. Freedom to use classicism also contributed to this.

The most notable architectural typologies of the Cinquecento were : - The church presented the two types of plant that had already arisen in the Quattrocento: . centralized with dome, symbol of the union of square (plan) and circle (dome); . a Latin cross, symbol of the cross of Christ, enhanced during the Counter-Reformation.

- the urban palace, which maintained the structure of the previous century.

- the villa, with precedents in the Roman villa, is the country residence of a stately character that is generalised among the wealthy classes of this period. It completely departs from the traditional model of a fortified villa and is used as country houses for rest.

Fig . 30 Pinterest, (2014), Interior of St Peter Ě s basilica, Bramante.

[Photograph].

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Fig . 33 Donato Bramante.1492-97., (2009), Sheet with Bramante Ě s first plans for St. Peter Ě s Basilica [Plan].

Fig . 32 Donato Bramante. Santa Maria delle Grazie. Cupola e decorazione interna.

1492-97. Milano [Photograph].

donato bramante

Fig . 31 Biblioteca Hertziana, (2009), Cross-section of the Tempietto San Pietro in Montorio by Bramante [Photograph]

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Fig . 34 Donato Bramante.1476., (2009), San Satiro, Milano. [Photograph].

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palazzo palazzo farnese farnese Antonio AntoniodadaSangallo Sangallothe theYounger, Younger,1517 1517

Fig . 38 Z. Colantoni, (2014), Palazzo Farnese a Caprarola, coffered ceiling [Photograph].

"The most imposing Italian palace of the 16th century�

Sir Banister Fletcher

Fig . 39 Angelo Bonetta, (2014), Palazzo Farnese a Caprarola, Scala Regia [Photograph].

Fig . 37 Unknown(n.d) Palazzo Farnese a Caprarola, Fig . 36 Unknown(n.d) Palazzo Farnese a Caprarola, piano nobile. [Plan].

room. [Photograph].

Fig . 35 Unknown 1663, Palazzo Farnese a Caprarola. [Photograph].

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At the end of the High Renaissance, the young artists experienced a crisis: it seemed that “everything that could be achieved had already been achieved.” (Garcia Garcia , 2002) No more difficulties, technical or otherwise, remained to be resolved. The detailed knowledge of anatomy, light, physiognomy and the way in which humans record emotion in expression and gesture, the innovative use of the human form in figurative composition, the use of subtle gradation of tone, all have reached almost perfection. The young artists needed to find a new objective and looked for new approaches and the mannerism began to emerge. The new style was developed between 1510 and 1520, either in Florence, or in Rome, or in both cities simultaneously. When the main elements of the Renaissance began to enter into crisis, the mannerism meant a progressive abandonment of the proportion of the figures, the spatial perspective, the use of clear and defined lines and the measured and sweet expressions of the Renaissance characters. The concept of maniera meant “a way to make”( Manierismo, Wikipedia Contributors, 2019), and he also tried too hard to do it. A sophistication, so to speak, is an exclusive art of the court.

This artistic movement spread across the European continent in a heterogeneous way, with a diversity of local styles, due to the emigration of artists who left Italy because the political conditions were not favorable, culminating in the looting of Rome and the spread of the plague. While in Italy it covers a limited period of time, we see that outside its borders it had a greater penetration and survival over time, coexisting and merging with the Baroque.

mannerism mannerism

Mannerism introduced several forms of rupturist expression with the Classicism of the Renaissance. Altered proportions, descontextualizaron the typical elements of classicism: the serenity became stressed, the severity tolerance creative giving rise to an expression more dramatic in which predominated the elements of surprise, forms helical, the elongated figures, the sensationalism luminance as a manifestation of the crisis reigning and elegant and refined art that required the aristocracy.

The mannerism worried by troubleshoot intricate art, as depicted in poses naked complicated. The figures in Mannerist works frequently have graceful limbs but rarely elongated, small heads and stylized appearance, while their positions seem difficult or artificial, “alla maniera”.

Fig . 40 Ganymede, (2013), La galerie François I at Fontainebleau Palace, France [Photograph].

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“Andrea Palladio (Padua, November 30, 1508-Vicenza, 1580) was neither a sculptor, like Brunelleschi or Michelangelo, nor a painter, like Rafael or Vasari. He devoted all his energy to building. His works, which rivaled those of the ancients, have also pointed to paths for contemporaries. Adjusted in boasts and economy, its buildings are of a modern sobriety. And, nevertheless, they constitute a living encyclopedia of classical antiquity. The key is that he managed to build with sublime pragmatism. Its villas, churches and bridges represent the control that an architect can have. In Palladio's drawings everything was so measured that an error on the part of the workers was almost impossible”. (Zabalbeascoa, 2008) While in the great architectural forums the scope of what is or not architecture is debated, Palladio showed that design is not a brain creation alien to technical problems. And he did his best not to solve them, he also wanted to attend to the ways in which they had been solved before. In the last years of his life, when he obtained the title of architect of the Serenissima Republic of Venice, he published his famous Four books of architecture.

“It has seemed worthy of man, that he should not be born only for himself, but also for the benefit of others, to give light to the drawings of those buildings that in so much time and with so many dangers of mine I have collected, and put briefly what in them I have considered more worthy of interest and, in addition, the rules that I have observed and observed when building “ (Palladio, A. 1570)

Villa Rotonda located in the Italian Cinquecento, when the ecclesiastical power decides to take control of the arts, with the change of capital of this discipline from Florence to Rome, place of concentration of the highest earthly religious authority, as the most significant fact .

The house itself is a “suburban residence that served as a meeting point for the aristocracy of the Vicenza area and for the celebration of literary leisure activities corresponding to that class.” (Villa Capra, Wikimedia Contributors, 2019)

This explains his objective in the first of these volumes in which he then deals with the construction techniques, the designs of houses, public architecture or the Roman temples of the Republic and the Empire.

Normally this type of buildings used to have a function not only residential but agricultural. In spite of this, Villa Rotonda lacked this last function, although with the acquisition of this by the Capra family, Vicenzo Scamozzi was entrusted with the plan of immediate inclusion of new dependencies to facilitate this need.

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Fig . 41 Andrea Palladio,1567-1570, (2019), Villa Rotonda Vicenza [Photograph].

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pediment detail (Fig. 45)

Undoubtedly, the Villa Rotonda or Villa Capra can be considered as the most outstanding work of the artistic career of the architect Andrea Palladio. This represents the typical construction model of the Renaissance mannerism aristocracy: greek cross plant four identical facades no distinction of cardinal points Precisely the residential and agricultural utility of the mansion has still maintained a good state of conservation, although restored by its current owner, the Valmarana family.

Fig . 46 Pinterest, (2017), Villa Rotonda interior [Photograph].

Fig . 42 AndreaPalladio, (2019), Villa Rotonda plan [Plan].

Fig . 44 @joshvandalism in Instagram, (2019), Villa Rotonda columns [Photograph].

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Fig . 45 Pinterest, (2017), Villa Rotonda pediment [Photograph].

Figdome . 43 Andrea Palladio, (2019), Villa Rotonda dome [Photograph].

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interiors OF RENAISSANCE The interpretation of the Renaissance decoration depends as much on the geographical location as on the period of time, since the Italian Renaissance style of the 15th century differs from the English Renaissance of the 17th century.

Beyond these divergences, some of the characteristics of the Renaissance style of decoration include the use of wooden furniture with important carvings, ancient works of art, soft furniture with rich and vibrant fabrics and the design with influences of ancient Rome.

One of the factors behind the exquisite furnishings of the Renaissance, was the development of a class of highly skilled craftsmen. The works of art of the Renaissance are venerated throughout the world for their detail and magnificence.

The decorative themes were Greek and Roman mythology, biblical stories and portraits.

Paintings with carved wooden frames, marble sculptures and pastel-colored frescoes are popular examples of Renaissance painting that can be incorporated into modern interpretations. One of the characteristics of Renaissance works of art is a clear focus on realism.

Fig . 47 Owen Jones, (1856), Renaissance 3, The grammar of ornament [Illustration].

The abstract and surrealist forms are almost completely non-existent in the classical decoration of the Renaissance. Advances in the textile industry during the Renaissance also led to the development of lush, vibrant fabrics of clothing and furniture. Curtains, cushions and fabrics, tapestries often show a palette of vivid colors and the use of materials rich in traditional Renaissance decoration. Gold, royal purple, crimson and peacock blue are frequently used in the reactivation of the modern Renaissance, but were reserved for nobility and royalty during the Renaissance period.

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interiors OF RENAISSANCE

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Floor and wall finishings

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Fig . 48 Elia Thaumier, (2010), Bathroom, Palazzo Davanzatti [Photograph].

Fig . 49 Musei Bargello- Palazzo Davanzati, (2009), Fresco, Palazzo Davanzatti [Painting].

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Fig . 50 Door Intarsia, Attributed to Sandro Botticelli, about 1474 , Door Intarsia,[woodwork]

Fig . 51 Wildon Home, (2018), Wooden floor [Photograph].

Fig . 52 Enricco Palmucci, (2018), pavimento antico restauro, caption 50

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[Photograph].

Fig . 53 Dave Tonkin, (2012), Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne, flooring mosaic [Photograph].

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Fig . 54 Fig . 55 Fig . 56 Fig . 57 Fig . 58 Fig . 59

Levantina (2015), Green india marble [Photograph].

Levantina (2017), Travertino floor [Photograph].

Levantina (2017), Bianco Statuario [Photograph].

Levantina(2016), Nero marquina [Photograph]. A

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Lervantina, (2017), Mediterranean pearl [Photograph].

Levantina, (2017), Rojo Levantina [Photograph].

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interiors OF RENAISSANCE D

Soft Softfurnishings furnishingsand anddecorations decorations

Silk, velvet, linen and wool are used for bedding, upholstery and drapery, as well as for wall hangings. Drapery is ceiling to floor in length and oeen in a damask or brocade. Tapestries play an important role in interiors not only as visually pleasing works of art, but as a means of telling stories, such as hunts, political events and religious parables. The heavy tapestries may also have served as an insulating element in the large, airy rooms of the wealthy.

Le Le Camp Camp du du Drap Drap d’Or, d’Or, the the meeting meeting ofof Kings Kings Henry Henry VIII VIII and and François François Ier Ier circa circa 1520, 1520, Maria del Carmen Corral Lodeiro 72546664

Fig . 60 Sotheby ́s, (2016) A rare and important French Renaissance

tapestry of Le Camp du22 Drap d’Or, the meeting of Kings Henry VIII and François Ier circa 1520, probably Tournai

Fig . 61 Met Museum, (2019), Length of velvet, late 15th century, Venice. Silk, metal thread. [Photograph].

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Fig . 62 Met Museum, (2019) Workshop of Giovanni Maria Vasaro Bowl with the Arms of Pope Julius II and the Manzoli of Bologna [photograph]

Fig . 63 Met Museum, (2019), Relief mounted as a mirror frame, length of velvet Wenzel Jamnitzer 1568 [Photograph].

Fig . 64 Met Museum, (2019), Goblet,ca. 1500–1525 Italian (Venice) [Photograph].

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interiors OF RENAISSANCE

Furniture

IAccording to PatiĂąo (2010) in the Mediterranean countries, as in the rest of Europe, the furniture tended in each country to its own style, the so-called national styles. In the case of Spain, the furniture reached a refinement that had not only the influences typical of the time (Gothic and Renaissance), but also of the Mudejar tradition, so that the evolution taken in the furniture will differ in a certain sense from the rest until well into the sixteenth century.

To this must be added the economic difficulties that the Spanish Monarchy went through and that affected the entire society, so that a bourgeoisie capable of dynamizing the economy and society hardly developed.

Fig . 65 John Webb, (2019), Renaissance cassone, paint and guided wood, Florence 15th century. V&A Museum [Photograph].

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“On the other hand, in the northern regions it became fashionable, between 1500 and 1600, a new type of furniture, the assembly, based on small panels assembled in frames and uprights. This type of furniture was adapted to the northern climatic conditions, more humid and, therefore, with more aggressive effects of the dilatation of the wood that were solved in a certain way with the assembly. This technique was surpassed by that introduced by artisans fleeing Catholic intolerance, consisting of the construction based on boards assembled in a dovetail. The assembly was thus reduced to the rural area, to the traditional furniture English, German, Dutch, etc., while the construction based on solid boards characterized the furniture of the urban environment.

In addition, in the north, it will also be common for the walls of houses to be plastered, the chimney being sometimes the most striking piece of furniture with the largest number of sizes.

The change in social customs also led to changes in the furniture. For example, the tables became wider as the custom of having the hosts sit at the end of the table became widespread, or the chairs with backs and arms proliferated, etc.”(Patiño, 2010, pages 2-3) Because childbirth and marriage were richly celebrated, a number of objects were made in honor of these rituals. according to Voorhies,(2002) Originating on the island of Majorca, these brilliantly colored wares were decorated with narratives related to birth, while wooden trays eventually portrayed more heraldic and mythological scenes. These rich ceramics were also produced as dinnerware and containers, exemplified by the Metropolitan’s Medici porcelain ewer

Fig . 66 Mela Corral, 2019, Cassone,drawing

The cassone, or marriage coffer (hope chest), was a form on which the craftsman’s skill was lavished. In addition to elaborate relief work and gilding, these coffers often were painted on the front and sides and occasionally inside the lid as well, with appropriate biblical or mythological scenes. Motifs popular with the Italian carver included cupids, grotesque masks, scrolled foliage, and strapwork. The fixed writing desk is the forerunner of the writing bureau, which became an indispensable article of furniture as writing became more general. (Patiño, 2010, page 4) Fig . 67 Met Museum, (2019), Metropolitan´s Medici porcelain ewer [Photograph].

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Relief ornament using carving was the most common way to embellish the furniture during the 16th century. Pastiglia and certosina also became very popular in this period. Aeer the 15th century, turning became very popular and had a highly decorative value in the Italian Renaissance furniture. Finials, bedposts and some furniture legs were often turned. 
 We can see, according to Lassen , Wornley & Butler (2017) that during Renaissance, the chair, once a symbol of status and power underwent a process of democratization, and now became accessible to anyone. 


Fig . 71 Pinterest, (2018), Cassapanca [Photograph].

Fig . 72 1stdibs, (2018), Italian Renaissance Walnut King Bed [Photograph].

Fig . 69 Met Museum (2018) [Photograph].

Fig . 70 Met Museum, (2019), ex "Kurtz" Violin Maker: Andrea Amati [Photograph]

Fig . 68 Pinterest, (2018), Renaissance antique Dante chair [Photograph] 26

Philip II's Tabletop Before 1587.

1587. Agate, Agate, Jasper, Jasper, Lapis Lapis lazuli, lazuli, African African marble, marble, White White marble marble Before

Fig . 73 Museo del Prado (2019), Phillip II´s Tabletop [Photograph]

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pietra pietra dura dura 27

casa vasari

Fig . 74 Pinterest, (2013), Casa Vasari [Photograph].

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biblioteca marciana

Fig . 75 Pinterest, (2013), Bibliotecas marciana, Venice, Jacopo Sansovino.

[Photograph].

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Studio di Federico di Montefeltro, Palazzo Ducale, Urbino

Fig . 76 Adrian Deville-Bellechasse, (2010), Studio di Federico di

Montefeltro, Palazzo Ducale, Urbino, Italy [Photograph].

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Fabric details

Fig . 77 Agnolo Bronzino, (2010), Drapery details on Agnolo Bronzino Ě s paintings [Photograph].

porta dello scalone

Fig . 78 Museo Scuola Grande San Giovanni, (2016), Porta dello Scalone, Scuola Grande San Giovanni, Venice [Photograph].

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Fig . 79 Sir Banister Fletcher, (1863), English renaissance examples V [Illustration]

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Fig . 80 Sir Banister Fletcher, (1863), English Renaissance examples III [Illustration]

Fig . 81 Sir Banister Fletcher, (1863), English Renaissance examples VII [Illustration]

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Fig . 84 Pinterest, (1819), Jacobean style bed [Photograph].

Fig . 83 1stdibs, (2016) Carved Throne [Photograph].

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Fig . 82 Pinterest, (2016), Jacobean furniture [Illustration].

Fig . 85 Fabric Bistro, (2019), Jacobean style fabric [Photograph].

Fig . 86 Sir Banister Fletcher, (1863),English Renaissance examples [illustration]

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Staircase Chateau d´Anet

Fig . 88 Charles Benjamin, (2015), Staircase at Chateau d Ě Anet [Photograph].

Maria del Carmen Corral Lodeiro 72546664

Fig . 87 Sir Banister Fletcher, (1863),French Renaissance Ornaments I [illustration]

Fig . 89 Pinterest, (2019), Spanish Renaissance Furniture Designs Large by PaperPopinjay [Illustration].

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casa casa de de pilatos, pilatos, seville seville

royal hospital, santiago de compostela

Fig . 90 Pantxoa, (2011), Casa de Pilatos, Sevilla

Fig . 93 Diego Delso, (2015), Hospital Real de Santiago de

[Photograph].

Library Library of of San San lorenzo lorenzo del del escorial escorial

Compostela [Photograph].

Fig . 92 PromoMadrid, (2012), Library of San Lorenzo del Escorial Fig . 94 Sir Bannister Fletcher, (1863),spanish Renaissance ornaments [illustration]

Maria del Carmen Corral Lodeiro 72546664

Fig . 91 Ayuntamiento de

Cรณrdoba, (2008),Madinat Al Zahra [Photograph].

Fig . 89 Pinterest, (2019), Spanish Renaissance Furniture Designs

[Photograph].

Illustration].

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rosenborg rosenborgcastle castle

Fig . 95 Sir Bannister Fletcher, (1863),Belgian and Dutch Renaissance examples [illustration]

Maria del Carmen Corral Lodeiro 72546664

Fig . 96 Sir Bannister Fletcher, (1863),Belgian and Dutch Renaissance examples [illustration]

Fig . 97 Josep SolĂŠ, (2018), Christian IV Ě s bedroom, Rosenborg Castle, Copenhagen [Photograph].

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