assignment 8 History of design (IV)
Baroque and Rococo
Fig. 1 LibĂŠral Bruant, (2019)Jules Hardouin-Mansart,1671, HĂ´tel des Invalides Photograph].
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In the 17th century, the political power of the monarchs was reinforced, giving rise to absolute monarchies: iron leadership, abundant means of sustaining and resignation of society in return for order and advancement. Absolutism became widespread in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries, except in England and Holland, and was reinforced by despotism at the beginning of the 18th century. This utter authority had its theoretical basis: the theologians regarded the King to be "by the grace of God" and the jurists, who had distinguished themselves in the tradition of Roman law, to be the King of the "Living Law" and the Lord of the Lords. Hobbes and Bossuet are the theoretical supporters of absolutism.
Politically, domestic interests in the 17th century were exacerbated and countries attempted by force to impose their hegemony on Europe. At the financial scene, the dominant form theory will be mercantilism, an substantial economic nationalism that underlines political nationalism to the extent of creating absolute monarchies feasible. France is a good example at the time of Louis XIV. Community has a class divide. The nobility, the clergy and the people will have their own positions, a special legal status and, subsequently, a certain mentality: noble and protected church with reserved positions, tax exemptions and organizations that ensure their impact through territorial authority; The third state comprising the remainder of the population coincides in its condition of exclusion from political participation; its deplorable socioeconomic circumstances produced uprisings, subsistence crises or excessive fiscal burdens. However, in the quest for the bourgeoisie, social mobility was developed and reinforced by business and economic companies, by promoting weddings or purchasing titles. As for the dominant social groups, the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, the holders of wealth, are the artists ' clientele. (Sebastian, 1981) Fig. 2 Eugene Delacroix, (1819), La Libertad guiando al pueblo [painting]
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The term "baroque" comes from a word of Portuguese origin (Barrôco), whose feminine called the pearls that had some deformity (as in castilian spanish the word "barruecas"). It was originally a derogatory word that designated a capricious, grandiloquent, excessively ornate type of art.1 Thus it appeared for the first time in the Dictionnaire de Trévoux (1771), which defines «in painting, a painting or a figure of baroque taste, where the rules and proportions are not respected and everything is represented according to the whim of the artist ». Another theory derives it from the noun baroco, a syllogism of Aristotelian origin coming from the medieval scholastic philosophy, that indicates an ambiguity that, based on a weak logical content, makes to confuse the true with the false. Thus, this figure indicates a type of pedantic and artificial reasoning, generally in a sarcastic tone and not without controversy. In that sense, Francesco Milizia applied it in his Dizionario delle belle arti del disegno (1797), where he expresses that "baroque is the superlative of bizarre, the excess of ridicule" . The term "baroque" was used from the eighteenth century with a derogatory sense, to emphasize the excess of emphasis and abundance of ornamentation, unlike the more clear and sober rationality of the Enlightenment. At that time, baroque was synonymous with other adjectives such as "absurd" or "grotesque." Enlightened thinkers saw in the artistic achievements of the previous century a manipulation of the classicist precepts, so close to their rationalist concept of reality, by what his critiques of sixteenth-century art turned the term "baroque" into a pejorative concept: in his Dictionnaire d'Architecture (1792), Antoine Chrysostome Quatremère de Quincy defines the baroque as "a nuance of the extravagant. It is, if you like, its refinement or if you could say, its abuse. What the severity is to the wisdom of taste, the baroque is to the strange, that is to say, that is its superlative. The idea of baroque involves “the ridiculous led to excess”. (Barroco, Wikipedia Contributors, 2019)
Fig. 3 Andrea Pozzo, 1685, Triumph of St. Ignatius of Loyola [fresco].
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The Baroque conserves Renaissance typologies, but moves away from balance and Renaissance proportions to create an overwhelming and highly sensory scenery. To understand this stylistic shift, it is essential to relate it to the culture and religious environment of his time. In this context, the 17th century landscape is not difficult to recognize.
Due to the emergence of Protestantism, European Christianity had responded to a deep crisis. The Catholic Church was slow to react, it did so with the Council of Trent (1545-1563). It is in this context that an art proper to non-secular renewal emerges, particularly apt to transmit to individuals the content of dogmas and to promote the development of the worship of the saints and also of the Virgin. The 'triumphalist' Baroque era was also that of the good saints and mystics. One of the most important places is papal Rome, the centre of counter-reformist art. (Sebastian, 1981) Dogmatically linked to Rome is the Spanish court of Austria, with centres such as Seville, Toledo and Madrid on the Iberian Peninsula, and Naples, Lombardy and Florence. But Baroque was not just secular art, it had a really needy profane side. The 16th and 17th centuries were a time of consolidation for European monarchies, and in wherever the foundations of the modern, official and centralised state were laid, the Baroque was regarded as the most suitable style for the demands of luxury and pomp, and its spread was well matched to the tastes of the ruling classes and the aspirations for the enhancement of the power of the monarchies and the Catholic Church. (Barroco, Wikipedia Contributors, 2019)
Fig. 4 Pedro Sรกnchez,1624, Church of San Antonio de los Alemanes, Madrid [Photograph]
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With the exhaustion of the expressive forms of classicism and the emergence of the new visual language in the hands of the Italian artists of the end of the 16th century, architecture became the vector of all artistic expression, making Italy once again the cradle of a new form of plastic expression. From now on it will be architecture that directs the plastic expression, so that sculpture and painting adhere to it, arriving at a true symbiosis of the arts, which will unite to form a magnificent whole in which the capacity of the human eye is not able to distinguish where one begins and where the other ends. (Bazin, 1987)
Fig. 5 Pinterest, (2017), Interiors and architectural details of Church of the Gesu [Photograph].
Fig. 6 Francesco Borromini, 1634-43, (2019), San Carlo alle Quatre Fontane [Photograph].
As mentioned before, the Baroque is a formal heir to the Renaissance, but it radically modified its dimensions and included them in architectural sets with a totally different and original personality. Architecture becomes an ideal framework that encompasses pictorial and sculptural art and integrates it into a unitary whole. Architectural space becomes a sacred theatre where painting and sculpture are representational elements. One of the most characteristic features of Baroque architecture is the taste for the curvilinear; forms become undulating, walls and entablatures rotate and invigorate, pediments are divided and resolved in curves and against curves until the total disappearance of the classical norms and proportions. This dynamism contributes to a new concept of space, which is also one of the characteristic features of the Baroque: interrelation of the elements of the building in a cohesive ensemble, endowed with an internal and external unity. (Barroco, Wikipedia Contributors, 2019) Maria del Carmen Corral Lodeiro 72546664
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Fig. 6 Francesco Borromini, 1634-43, (2019), San Carlo alle Quatre Fontane [Photograph].
Fig. 7 Francesco Borromini, 1634-43, (2019), San Carlo alle Quatre Fontane, dome [Photograph].
Light is a key aspect in Baroque architecture, improving the mobility of constructions and multiplying the angles of perspective and the dynamism of forms; Baroque architects carefully study its effects on facades and interiors, and if they find it appropriate, create illusionist optical results based mainly on indirect lights that are projected into interiors through hidden skylights. The decoration is extensive and complicated. It is inspired by classical elements, taken from the Renaissance, but used with more repetition and pomposity. The most used are those that reproduce elements of nature. The so-called enormous order that is stimulated in some buildings of the Late Roman Empire and that was already used with Mannerist architects is generalised; it is characterised by the use of large columns and pilasters that frame the elements. of the faรงades. It tends to make clean surfaces disappear, which are masked with niches or profuse decorative elements. New architectural elements, unheard of in the past, such as spiral or salomonic columns, are also used. (Wittkover, 2007) Maria del Carmen Corral Lodeiro 72546664
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THE SCULPTURE In general, it has a naturalistic character, like the Renaissance. But it is a totally different naturalism since it aspires to reflect reality as it is, and not through its idealized interpretation. Baroque sculpture represents models inspired by everyday life and varied moods, reflected in all their vibrant transience. She likes the changing aspects of life and represents individual traits and those attitudes that reflect overflowing and moving psychological states.As for religious sculpture, which is one of the fundamental facets of Baroque sculpture, the sculptors focus their attention preferably on the manifestations of the soul and the religious experience in all its breadth. The sculptures, during the Baroque, acquire a mobility and a dynamism projected towards the outside, the members of the figures and the clothes move towards the outside. The figures are often agitated and their members twist into extreme or dislocated attitudes that surprise the viewer. (Bottineau, 1990) Light actively participates in the expression of this mobility. The clothes with wide folds, show very strong contrasts of light and shadow, have a more pictorial character as they try to represent more the appearance than the reality of the form itself. All these characteristics are especially applicable to 17th-century imagery (the art of carving religious images), which is undoubtedly one of the most original and vigorous chapters in the history of Baroque art.
Fig. 8 Met Museum/ Domenico Guidi, 1694, (2017), Andrรณmeda and the marine monster [Photograph].
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Fig. 9 Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1622, (2017), The rape of Proserpina [Sculpture] .
Fig. 10 Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1622, (2017), Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi [Sculpture]
Fig. 11 Mary Harrsch, (2009), Cherub in St Peter's Basilica Vatican City [Photograph]. 7
THE PAINTING In the field of painting, the Baroque brought innovations of first magnitude in all aspects. It profoundly modifies not only the subject and the psychological attitude of the painter towards his models, but also the way of conceiving light, colour and spatial distribution. Many of these transformations were already in the germ in the painting of the previous period, specifically in the mannerist stage of the Renaissance, but it is now when they develop coherently. Like sculpture, Baroque painting is profoundly naturalistic. It is in the field of painting where the taste for representations of reality in all its facets culminates. The painters of this period were constantly inspired by reality. The whole range of human types to reach the most vulgar, ugly or deformed, attract their attention. They do not hesitate to represent in all their crudity ragged or lamentable characters, or even counterfactual. The hagiographic theme (the lives of the saints) acquires an extraordinary development as does the portrait, which also acquires a singular importance and is enriched with a thousand nuances: the artist expresses the psychological background of his characters in all their variety and richness without idealizing them, although, of course, covering them in many cases with superb elegance. The portrait of the whole body is generalised and the group portrait is definitively created. But where the innovative spirit of Baroque painting finds its most precise expression is in the field of light and colour. Baroque painting elaborates a new concept of perspective, different from the linear of the Renaissance. The socalled aerial perspective culminates now, which tries to represent the atmosphere and the ambient diffuse light that surrounds the objects, in order to produce a very real impression of distance. The Baroque seeks a sensation of homogeneous depth. In Baroque painting, the light of the objects represented is relative, and evolves according to the whole, creating a sense of unity in compositions that did not exist before. The Baroque also brought important innovations in the field of composition and spatial distribution that implied a totally different conception of painting. The Baroque artist no longer conceives space according to the painting or distributes the figures in geometric patterns adapted to the canvas, but conceives space as unlimited, that is, without being distributed according to the limits of the canvas. Heinrich WĂślfflin has defined this innovation with the concept of open or tectonic form, as opposed to the closed form characteristic of the Renaissance. (Pintura del Barroco, Wikipedia Contributors, 2019) Judith and Holofernes
Fig. 12 Caravaggio, 1598, (2019), Judith and Holofernes [Painting].
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Fig. 13 BartolomĂŠ Esteban Murillo,1655-60, (2012), Two women at a Window [Painting].
Fig. 14 Caravaggio,1605-10, (2013), Still Life with Fruit on a Stone Ledge [Photograph]. A
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baroque style A taste for elegance, extravagance and ostentation. Appreciation of detail. Excess ornament Search for inner spirituality, feelings and passions. Dualism and contradiction. Contrast between light and shadow. Sense of movement Darkness, complexity and sensuality. Fig. 15 Edward Collier (ca.1680), (2019), Vanitas [Painting].
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italian baroque: bernini Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) stood out, not only in his role as architect, but also in that of sculptor, painter, poet and set designer. He is one of the greatest artists of the Baroque. In 1629 he was appointed architect of San Pedro Vaticano. Among his most important works is the baldachin of San Pedro, which is composed of four bronze Solomonic columns decorated with vine leaves, symbol of the Eucharist, and bees alluding to the Barberini family (from which many of the popes came) . He was later commissioned by the faรงade and staircase of the Barberini Palace, the Cornaro Chapel in the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria and Sant'Andrea al Quirinale, whose portico is inspired by that of the Pantheon in Rome, although with a freer use of the architectural elements. From 1656 we found him working in the Colonnade of San Pedro, without doubt, his masterpiece. The urban layout of the time allowed the passer-by to encounter this work in an absolutely sudden way, so the much-desired surprise effect was achieved. This disappeared completely with the subsequent opening of the Via della Conciliazione, which clears the views and allows the building to be seen long before it is reached. (Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Wikipedia Contributors, 2019) Maria del Carmen Corral Lodeiro 72546664
Fig. 16 Gian Lorenzo Bernini, (1623-1634), colonnades in san Pietro (left) and Baldaquino (right) [Photograph].
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italian italian baroque: baroque: bernini bernini Fig. 17 Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1630, (2019), Square staircase.Palazzo Barberini [Photograph].
Fig. 18 Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1622, (2017), Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi [Photograph].
Fig. 19 Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1621-22, (2019), The Rape of Proserpina Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1621-1622 Marble - Rome, Galleria Borghese [Photograph].
Fig. 20
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Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1630, Medusa detail, Galleria Borghese [Photograph].
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french french baroque: baroque: hall hall of of mirrors mirrors
Louis LouisLe LeVau, Vau,Jules JulesHardoiun-Mansart, Hardoiun-Mansart,1679 1679
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Louis Le Vau, Jules Hardouin-Mansart, (2019), Galerie des Glaces, 1679 [Photograph].
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french french baroque: baroque: versailles versailles Fig. 22
Pinterest, (2018), Chambre de la Reine, Palais de Versailles, France [Photograph].
Fig. 26
Pinterest, (2018), Details. Salon de Apollon, Palais de Versailles, France [Photograph].
Fig. 23 Pinterest, (2018), Details. Chambre de la Reine, Palais de Versailles, France [Photograph].
Fig. 24 Pinterest, (2018), Details. Salon de L Ě Abondance, Palais de Versailles, France [Photograph].
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Fig. 25 Pinterest, (2018), Details. Salon de Mars, Palais de Versailles, France [Photograph].
Fig. 27
Pinterest, (2018), La bibliothèque de Louis XVI, Palais de Versailles, France [Photograph]. 13
spanish baroque: royal hospice of san fernando
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Fig. 28 Leo, (2016), Museo de Historia de Madrid 16th century, Spain [Photograph].
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spanish baroque Fig. 29 Raul Hernández González, (2012), Detalles de estilo plateresco en la fachada de la Universidad de Salamanca [Photograph].
Fig. 32 Pedro Jimenez, (2008), Cathedral of Granada, Choir with High Altair, Grenade Cathedral, Diego de Siloé [Photograph].
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Fig. 30 Ricardo Bevilaqua, (2010), Iglesia Convento de San Esteban Door Salamanca, 16th century, Spain [Photograph].
Fig. 31
Pinterest, (2008), Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Façace. [Photograph]. 15
Northern europe baroque Fig. 33
Fig. 34
Peter Thoeny, (2017), Library of the monastery of St. Gallen, Switzerland. 1748-70 [Photograph].
John Maloney, (2016), Schottenkirche, Wien [Photograph].
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John Maloney, (2014), Neues Schloss, Meersburg am Bodensee [Photograph]. 16
The Rococo is defined as an individualistic, antiformalist and courtier art, by the artist Ronald Rizzo. Its main characteristic is the taste for bright, soft and clear colors. Predominant forms inspired by nature, mythology, the representation of naked bodies, oriental art and above all gallant and loving themes. It is a basically mundane art, without religious influences, that deals with themes of daily life and human relations, a style that seeks to reflect what is pleasant, refined, exotic and sensual. According to Étienne-Jean Delécluze, the term "rococo" was invented around 1797 as a joke by Pierre-Maurice Quays, a student of Jacques-Louis David. It was supposed to be an association of the French words "rocaille" and "baroque", the first of which designates an ornamentation imitating natural stones and certain curved forms of shells of molluscs. The term rococo was born with deprecating connotations and was thus used, before being accepted in the mid-19th century as a definition of style within the History of Art. The style is developed mainly in painting, decoration, furniture, fashion and in the design and production of objects. Its presence in architecture and sculpture is less, since its fundamental scope is interiors and, to a lesser extent, monumental compositions.
rococo rococo
Fig. 36
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Ananbô, (2017), Les rives de l'Irrawaddy, Ananbô papier peint [Photograph]. 17
baroque interiors
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The interior design of the Baroque responds to the artistic programs of its ideologists and responds to the idea of Total Art, seeking integration between all elements. Thus, we find a great variety of versatile artists, as in the case of Bernini, Le Brun or Velázquez, who were responsible for the management of various works of palace interior design. Appearance is everything. Theatricality, ostentation, grandiosity, luxury and ostentation are symbols associated with political and ecclesiastical power. Gold, ornaments, marbles, brocades, tapestries and stuccos mask the poorest materials. At this time the Royal Factories were born, to supply porcelains, crystals, pieces of goldsmithery and tapestry to the nobility and the clergy and the trade with the East introduces new stylistic elements in the decorative arts.
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Chimneypiece by Jean Le Pautre
Fig. 37 Jean Le Pautre, 1670, (2017), Chimneypiece [illustration]. Fig. 38 Pinterest 1710, (2017), Armchair (fauteuil à la reine) [Photograph]. Fig. 39 Philippe de Lasalle (French, 1723–1804), (2017), "Les Perdrix" (The Partridges) [Photograph].
Fig. 40 Sèvres Manufactory (French, 1740–present), (2017), Plate [Photograph].
Fig. 41 Met Museum, (2017), cabinet Attributed to André Charles Boulle (French, Paris 1642–1732 Paris) [Photograph]
Fig. 42 Edme-Pierre Balzac, 1757–59, (2017), Tureen with cover [Photograph].
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Fig. 43 Lassco.co.uk, (2017), Antique French Oak parquet de Versailles panels [Photograph].
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The decorative motifs are very varied. Plant motifs abound, such as flowers and acanthus, trophies, putti, gruttescos and rocaille. European ceramics and furniture look to China and are inspired by its blue colours and lacquered finishes or imported luxury woods such as ebony. The furniture takes on great prominence, the star furniture is the console and the mirror acquires a decorative importance never seen before, as well as lighting. (Lassen et al. 2017) 18
Louis XIV Furniture Characteristics 1. types: furnishing types, numbers, and design reflect the formality of life. Cabinets, tables, and storage pieces are most common. 2. features: symmetrical, rectangular, often accented with large curves, massive proportions, carving, veneer patterns, legs are in the form of a scroll, rounded, or square. 3. placed against the wall to show rectilinear shape 4. materials: beech, oak, walnut, and ebony and some metalwork 5. seating: upholstered chairs and sofas are SUPER FASHIONABLE 6. tables: have activities they are used for: gaming, conversation, and entertainment. The most common are console tables which are attached to the wall. 7. storage: no closets -sad day- so clothes are put in armoires and a brand new piece of furniture called a commode (low chest with drawers or doors). 8. beds: monumental, rectilinear, and completely surrounded by fabric. (Lassen et al. 2017)
Fig. 45
Sotheby ́s, (2019), A Louis XIV Commode,[photograph]
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Fig. 47 Sotheby ́s, (2019), A Louis XIV Savonnerie moquette four-leaf folding screen, [Photograph].
Sotheby ́s, (2019), A Louis XIV carved giltwood tabouret, circa 1690 [Photograph].
Fig. 44
Sotheby´s, (2019)Marquetry panels ,[ Photograph].
Fig. 48 Sotheby ́s, (2019),Carved guiltwood fauteuils [Photograph]. 19
Louis XV and Louis XVI filled Versailles with baroque and rococo. Opulence, carved wood and noble materials coexist in two styles that maintain many differences. Keys to the Louis XV style The furniture in this period acquires a more flamboyant character than functional or utilitarian. The baroque gives way to the well-known rococo style, much more ornate. Curves dominate the legs and arms of armchairs, commodes and consoles. The asymmetry of shapes while the designs cover all the furniture, this asymmetry is virtually imperceptible to the naked eye. The styles for which they went mad between 1715 and 1760 are shells, rocks, birds, bouquets or even love scenes. And they also had a predilection for Chinese themes (chinoiseries): mandarins, landscapes, statues, cascading flowers, fishermen…. (Pile , 2013) One of the great successes of the time is the gilded wood. With marquetry ornaments made of Motherof-Pearl, shells, ivory, copper or tin. Don't miss anything, golden bronzes, engravings or chisels. Anything goes. Favorite woods, pear and ebony. Combined with the colors green, blue, pink, beige and gold in muted tones.
Fig. 51 French Finds, (2014), Beautiful rococo armoire crest [Photograph].
Fig. 54 pinterest, (2019), Louis XV
Fig. 52 Robert Brook, (1889), Elements of style in furniture and woodwork [Illustration]
rococo examples [illustration].
Fig. 53 Sotheby´s (2019) Bureau Mazarin [photograph]
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Fig. 50 Alexis Peyrotte, 1740, (2016), Print, shell, cartouches and acanthus motif design. [Photograph].
Fig. 56 Sotheby ́s, (2019), glass girandoles, Louis XV [Photograph].
Fig. 57 Sotheby ́s, (2019) Bronze clock [Photograph].
Fig. 53 Sotheby´s (2019) Bureau Mazarin [photograph]
Fig. 49 Revista AD, (2017), Louis XV Rococo guilder fauteuil [photograph] 20
The neoclassical style we call Louis XVI today begins in France before that king reigned. In fact, art history marks Louis XVI's first work in a pleasure palace called Petit Trianon; designed in 1767 by A. J. Gabriel for Louis XV's most famous lover, the Marquise de Pompadour, who died shortly afterwards and did not enjoy it, uses white for all her exterior and interior surfaces and all silhouettes are geometrically drawn. Today the rooms that are visited are called "Marie Antoinette's", because indeed the wife of the next French king, Louis XVI, enjoyed it. (Lassen et al., 2017) “The Louis XVI style contrasts with the Louis XV style for its simplicity and moderation; it returns to the rigor of the geometric and rectilinear forms taken from classical architecture: the rectangle, the square, the circle and the oval, mainly. In contrast to the heaviness and excess of previous styles, the Louis XVI style is characterised by the lightness of its forms and the harmonious proportion of its dimensions. Solemnity is replaced by the grace and delicacy of social life, intimacy and comfort. “(Estilo Luis XVI, Wikipedia Contributors, 2019)
Fig. 58 Sean Panthasema/ Birmingham Museum of Art, (2019),Louis XVI chairs, [Photograph]. Fig. 61 Sotheby ́s, (2019), A LOUIS XVI GILT BRONZE-MOUNTED MAHOGANY BIBLIOTHEQUE, CIRCA 1785 [Photograph].
Fig. 59
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Sotheby ́s, (2019), A Louis XVI mahogany roll-top desk [Photograph].
Fig. 62
Fig. 60 Sotheby ́s, (2019), stool by Georges Jacob, circa 1780 [Photograph].
Sotheby ́s, (2019), A LOUIS XVI BLUE-PAINTED DAYBED, CIRCA 1780 [Photograph]. 21
HOW TO SPOT LOUIS XIV, LOUIS XV AND LOUIS XVI CHAIRS (and not running away down the hill screaming) Fig. 63 Sotheby ́s, (2019),
XIV
Antique French Louis XIV Walnut Fauteuil [Photograph].
XV
Approximate Dates: 1660-1720 • • • • • •
Seat backs are rigid, rectangular and upright Seat backs are also frequently upholstered The seat itself is rectangular Armrests extend to the edge of the seat Chair legs are straight, and not connected at an angle Stretchers connect the legs beneath the seat
Carved Chair with Armrests Louis Xv [Photograph].
XVI
Approximate Dates: 1700-1750 • • • • • • •
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Fig. 65 Unknown, (2017),
Fig. 64 1stdibs.com, (2017),
Seat backs are framed with moulded and/or curved wood Seat backs are often cartouche-shaped (read: rounded ovals) An emphasis on comfort means that seat backs are often gently angled The crest rail (or top curve of the seat back frame ) features carvings, or even a central medallion Armrests are shorter (Trivia: they shrunk to accommodate increasingly full skirts) Chair legs are placed at an angle Cabriole, or S-curved, leg shapes are popular
Carved Chair with Armrests Louis XVI [Photograph].
Approximate Dates: 1750-1800 • • • • • •
Seat backs are oval or shield-shaped Chair frames are geometric, neat and angular Carvings are more restrained, and reflect regular, classical motifs, like the Vitruvian scroll Arm rests meet the front of the seat, often in scroll arm terminals Chair legs are typically straight Chair legs also often reflect references to columns, like fluted or ribbon-twist carvings 22
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