African Women's Decade 2010-2020 Report: Key Findings (English)

African Women’s Decade

2010-2020

African Women’s Decade 2010-2020 Report: Key Findings Produced and Published by:

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FOREWORD The year 2020 marks the end of the African Women’s Decade 2010–2020, adopted on 15 October 2010 in Nairobi, Kenya, under the theme “Grassroots Approach to Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment.” The launch of the Decade represented a testimony to the African Union’s commitment to the advancement of the gender equality agenda and women’s rights across the continent. Its end has coincided with the celebration of the 20th anniversary of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 and the 25th anniversary of the Beijing Declaration and Platform of Action.

Despite the health crisis that is currently occurring around the world as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has been sweeping through countries since early 2020, it remains very important that we take stock of various developments during the 10-year period under the African Women’s Decade.

Since the launch of the Decade in 2010, Make Every Woman Count has been the only organisation monitoring, analysing and documenting the progress or lack thereof being made on women’s rights during African Women’s Decade 2010–2020, identifying best practices as well as challenges and gaps that need to be addressed. Over the years, through our yearly publication of reporting and monitoring, we have tried in particular to highlight evidence of good practices and progress during the ten years of the Decade.

Women’s groups and activists alike have been at the forefront in advancing gender equality across the continent. Their advocacy work has resulted in some laudable outcomes that have had positive impacts on the lives of millions of girls and women across the continent.

While both government and non-governmental actors carried out a great deal of work and contributed to significant progress in terms of the adoption of laws and policies at the national, regional and continental level on women’s rights

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over the Decade, there remain weaknesses in the area of data collection, monitoring, accountability and documentation. In addition, lack of resources has had adverse impacts on the work of women’s rights advocates. Furthermore, the current global pandemic, COVID-19, is disproportionally affecting women and girls throughout the continent. The growing pressures of responding to the pandemic risk worsening existing inequalities and threatening to reverse the gains made on women’s rights and gender equality since Beijing 1995.

Make Every Woman Count has committed to addressing these issues through collective action to scale up promises and commitments made by our governments to accelerate women’s rights and gender equality. It is also time for our leaders to remove all barriers that hinder women’s full enjoyment of their rights and to ensure that men and women are offered equal opportunities in all areas of life.

Make Every Woman Count has committed to addressing these issues through collective action to scale up promises and commitments made by our governments to accelerate women’s rights and gender equality.

In 2010, Make Every Woman Count set itself the daunting task of monitoring all the 55 African countries so as to be able to generate a full audit of progress and setbacks during the Decade. It is hoped that we will be able to use this as a way to hold our governments accountable to promises they made during 2010–2020.

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who have contributed in various ways with great effort to the realisation of this report.

Rainatou Sow

Executive Director Make Every Woman Count

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Acknowledgements Make Every Woman Count wishes to thank all those who have continued in the development of this mammoth work.

We are very grateful to all our supporters, volunteers and interns and the MEWC team for the great contributions they have made to its publication. These yearly reports would have never been possible without the availability and support of all the volunteers and interns who have contributed to this ambitious project since 2011 despite the limited resources. This report was made possible thanks to the support of Rainatou Sow, Vivian Nilsson - van Iperen, Giovanna de Miranda, Nicole Pikram, Becky Zelikson, Tandi Pilani, Laura Nyirinkindi, Chelsie Loveder, Johanna Riha Veronika J. Fuhrmann, Abbas Taleb, Haleemah Shajira, Hanna Lemma, Marlies Visser, Esaba Hoque, Evelyn Zake, Chloé Bertrand, Esther Kimani and Neïla Mangin.

Our deepest appreciation goes to Barbara Steward for her attention to details, availability, advice and support in the development of the reports over the years. We would like to express our gratitude to Roo Griffith for her meticulous editing of the report and for her availability, flexibility and understanding during the whole process.

We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to our peer reviewers: Flavia Mwangovya, Priscilla Yagu Ciesay and Dinah Musindarwezo for their thorough review of the report and for their availability to support this process in a very tight deadline. Many thanks to Toast Design for supporting the design of this report and to James Chunguli and team from Crimson Communications LTD for supporting the design of the Key findings.

We also wish to thank Rob Klijn, for his great assistance and the the continued support. We would also like to thank Anouka van Eerdewijk for her support and advice. Many thanks to the MEWC board for their advice and continued support.

FINANCIAL SUPPORT We wish to the following donors for their support in the realisation of this report.

PARTNERS We wish to thank all our partners and supporters, specially Solidarity for African Women’s Rights, OXFAM and Equality Now Africa Office.

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Contents FOREWORD ............................................................................................................................. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................... 5 Financial Support......................................................................................................................5 Partners.....................................................................................................................................5 PART I: INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................. 9 1. Executive Summary..................................................................................................................9 2. Reporting Objectives and Scope..........................................................................................10 3. Report Outline........................................................................................................................10 4. Methodogy..............................................................................................................................12 5. Background.............................................................................................................................14 6. Analysis of the Impact of Covid-19 on Women and Girls in Africa...................................16 6.1 Women Economic Empowerment..............................................................................16 6.2. Education........................................................................................................................17 6.3. Women’s Health............................................................................................................17 6.4. Violence Against Women (VAW) and Harmful Practices...........................................17 6.5. Political Participation....................................................................................................18 6.6. Endangering Women in Crisis Zones..........................................................................18 6.7. Best Practices.................................................................................................................18 6.8. Continental Responses.................................................................................................18 6.9. Regional Responses......................................................................................................19 6.10. African Women’s Leadership in the Fight Against Covid-19....................................19 6.11. National Responses......................................................................................................19 6.12. Recommendations........................................................................................................20 PART II: THE AFRICAN UNION AND GENDER INFRASTRUCTURE........................................... 21 1. Women’s Rights Mechanisms...............................................................................................21 1.1. The Maputo Protocol....................................................................................................21 1.2. Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa (SDGEA)......................................23 2. AU Initiatives/Campaigns 2010 – 2020................................................................................23 2.1. African Women’s Decade 2010–2020.........................................................................23 2.2. Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment (GEWE) Strategy 2018–2028........24 2.3. AU Campaign to End Child Marriage 2015–2023......................................................24 2.4. AU Campaign on Ending Female Genital Mutilation.................................................25 2.5. Campaign for Accelerated Reduction of Maternal Mortality in Africa 2009–2019..... 25 2.6. Silencing the Guns in Africa by 2020...........................................................................26 6

2.7. AU Agenda 2063 and the SDGs...................................................................................26 2.8. Network of African Women in Conflict Prevention and Mediation (FemWise)......26 PART III: UNITED NATIONS INITIATIVES ON GENDER EQUALITY.......................................... 27 1. UN Women.........................................................................................................................27 2. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGS).........................................................................27 3. Flagship Programme Initiative Making Every Woman and Girl Count..................28 4. Generation Equality Forum..............................................................................................28 5. Spotlight Initiative..............................................................................................................28 PART IV: AU REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITIES............................................................... 29 1. Women’s Rights Mechanisms...........................................................................................29 2. Strengths, Challenges and Gaps at The Continental Level......................................30 3. Recommendations...........................................................................................................30 PART V: ANALYSIS AND REGIONAL REVIEW OF THE AFRICAN WOMEN’S DECADE THEMES..... 32 1. Fighting Poverty and Promoting Economic Empowerment of Women and Entrepreneurship, Finance and Gender Budgeting...........................................................32 1.1. Key Legal, Policy and Institutional Reform.................................................................32 1.2. Key Challenges and Gaps.............................................................................................35 1.3. Recommendations........................................................................................................35 2. Governance, Legal Protection and Women in Decision-Making......................................36 2.1. Key Legal, Policy and Institutional Reform.................................................................36 2.2. Key Challenges and Gaps.............................................................................................39 2.3. Recommendations........................................................................................................39 3. Sexual and Reproductive Health Rights, Maternal Health and HIV/AIDS........................40 3.1. Key Legal, Policy and Institutional Reform.................................................................40 3.2. Key Challenges and Gaps.............................................................................................43 3.3. Recommendations........................................................................................................43 4. Violence Against Women (VAW) and Harmful Practices....................................................44 4.1. Key Legal, Policy and Institutional Reform.................................................................46 4.2. Key Challenges and Gaps.............................................................................................48 4.3. Recommendations........................................................................................................48 5. Women, Peace and Security.................................................................................................48 5.1. Key Legal, Policy and Institutional Reform.................................................................49 5.2. Key Challenges and Gaps.............................................................................................52 5.3. Recommendations........................................................................................................52 6. Agriculture and Food Security..............................................................................................52 6.1. Key Legal, Policy and Institutional Reform.................................................................53 6.2. Key Challenges and Gaps.............................................................................................54 6.3. Recommendations........................................................................................................54 7. Environment and Climate Change.......................................................................................55 7.1. Key Legal, Policy and Institutional Reform.................................................................56 7.2. Key Challenges and Gaps.............................................................................................59

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7.3. Recommendations........................................................................................................59 8. Education, Science and Technology.....................................................................................60 8.1. Key Legal, Policy and Institutional Reform.................................................................60 8.2. Key Challenges and Gaps.............................................................................................61 8.3. Recommendations........................................................................................................62 9. Young Women’s Movement..................................................................................................62 9.1. Building the Young Women’s Movment in Africa and the use of Technology.......63 9.2. Key Challenges and Opportunities..............................................................................64 9.3. Recommendations........................................................................................................64 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 65

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Part I INTRODUCTION 1.

Executive Summary

The year 2020 marked the end of the first African Women’s Decade (AWD), under the theme “Grassroots Approach to Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment,” which had been launched on 15 October 2010 in Nairobi, Kenya. The AWD celebrations coincided with two more important milestones for women’s rights: the 20th anniversary celebrations of United Nations Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1325 and the 25th anniversary of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action.

During the AWD 2010–2020, the African continent demonstrated its commitment to promoting gender equality and the empowerment of women. It is remarkable that most African countries made significant progress regarding gender equality through the introduction of legal and constitutional tools and institutional gender mechanisms, as well as the development of appropriate conditions for women to evolve. At the same time, it is important to acknowledge that a number of barriers remain and have hindered the implementation of AWD’s goals, including resource-related and socioeconomic constraints; cultural obstacles; electoral violence; genderbased violence (GBV); harmful practices; and restrictions on

property

ownership.

Moreover,

the

COVID-19

It is important to acknowledge that a number of barriers remain and have hindered the implementation of AWD’s goals, including resource-related and socioeconomic constraints; cultural obstacles; electoral violence; genderbased violence (GBV); harmful practices; and restrictions on property ownership.

outbreak has disproportionately affected women, leading to further injustice.

With this report, Make Every Woman Count’s main goal is to ensure the continuation and evolution of Africa’s discourse on women’s rights beyond the AWD 2010–2020. In this aim, the report provides an analysis of the progress made on the African continent in terms of securing, realising and extending the rights of African women and girls during the AWD 2010–2020.

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2. Reporting Objectives and Scope The African Union (AU) launched the AWD 2010–2020 to accelerate and reinvigorate its commitments to gender equality and women’s empowerment. The theme of the Decade, “Grassroots Approach to Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment,” encouraged women and advocates to take ownership of it and seize it as an opportunity for sharing effective strategies.

Since its creation, MEWC has been working to ensure systematic assessment of efforts towards the AWD goals. To this end, it has been monitoring the progress of the 55 African countries over the past 10 years. To date, MEWC has published six reports. These include annual reviews in 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014; a mid-term review in 2016; and a thematic report analysing women’s participation in decision-making and leadership in 2018. The main objective of these reports was to provide an overview and analysis of the women’s rights situation across the continent, while creating a tool for the effective promotion of gender equality.

Africa is now entering a new AWD, under the theme of “Financial and Economic Inclusion of African Women.” In this context, it is essential that AU Member States consolidate the gains realised during the AWD 2010–2020 and renew their commitments to advancing the welfare of women and girls on the continent. To help in this effort, this closing report represents a valuable and comprehensive data source that is accessible to all engaged in the promotion of women’s rights in Africa, including governments, institutions, authorities, organisations, activists, scholars and academics.

3. Report Outline This report is broken down into five parts. This Part I sets the context and background, including the COVID-19 context. COVID-19 could represent a setback to global progress realised on women and girls’ rights. MEWC highlights regional and national responses, including support to women. It also highlights African women leaders in the fight against COVID-19, demonstrating their resilience. Part II introduces the AU’s valuable efforts in terms of setting up implementing mechanisms to advance and protect women’s rights. This includes the overarching gender infrastructure of the AU as well as multiple AU initiatives and campaigns that have been initiated throughout 2010–2020. Part III details UN initiatives that have played a significant role in the advancement of women and girls on the continent. Part IV recognises that the Regional Economic Communities (RECs) represent an integral part of the AU’s work and analyses each of the eight such bodies and their commitments to women’s rights and gender equality. Part V provides a comprehensive analysis of the progress made by each of the 55 AU Member States during the AWD 2010–2020, by looking in depth at the Decade’s 10 themes. These themes are interrelated and critical to the advancement of women and girls’ rights in Africa and are thus combined where necessary to make it easier to analyse the progress made across multiple rights areas across the entire African continent.

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The 10 AWD themes are as follows: 1.

Fighting Poverty and Promoting Economic Empowerment of Women and Entrepreneurship

2.

Agriculture and Food Security

3.

Health, Maternal Mortality and HIV and AIDS

4.

Education, Science and Technology

5.

Environment, Climate Change and Sustainable Development

6.

Peace and Security and Violence Against Women and Girls

7.

Governance and Legal Protection

8.

Finance and Gender Budgeting

9.

Women and Decision-Making

10. Mentoring Youth (Men and Women) to be Champions of Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment We have merged: Fighting poverty/finance and gender budgeting and Governance and legal protection/decision-making We have split: Peace/security and violence against women We have added: Harmful practices and Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) within women’s health Part V thus addresses (1) Fighting Poverty and Promoting Economic Empowerment of Women and Entrepreneurship and Finance and Gender Budgeting; (2) Governance, Legal Protection and Women in Decision-Making; (3) Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights, Maternal Health and HIV and AIDS; (4) Violence Against Women and Harmful Practices; and (5) Women, Peace and Security. These five rights areas are identified as the “focus themes” of the report.

Each area contains an analysis of the theme issue and an overview of progress made by region, along with a comparative data analysis. The five African regions covered are Central Africa, East Africa, North Africa, Southern Africa and West Africa. Progress is measured by analysing the environment related to the enactment of constitutional provisions and legal, policy and institutional reforms. Each section also identifies areas of best practice, challenges and gaps.

Through the use of case studies, MEWC highlights grassroots initiatives run throughout the Decade that have helped advance the rights of African women.

Part V then goes on to address (6) Agriculture and Food Security; (7) Environment and Climate Change; (8) Education, Science and Technology; and (9) Young Women’s Movements. The analysis of each of these areas provides an overview for the continent of the issue and progress made as well as gaps, challenges and recommendations. Again, the analysis of each area is divided into five parts, one for each geographic region.

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4. Methodogy Desk reviews were undertaken to gather data concerning legal, policy and institutional reforms.

Information was gathered from credible sources including country constitutions, laws, national reports and government websites, databases of international governmental organisations (such as the different UN agencies and the AU) and non-governmental organisation (NGOs) websites and reports. To ensure the reliability of sources, all data was verified, and counterchecked as much as possible. For the most part, it was the authors of the report who carried out translation work. The main challenge lay in the collection of gender-disaggregated data for each of the 55 African countries. This problem applies not just on the African continent but rather exists on a global scale. Meanwhile, the statistical data used to inform the regional comparative data analysis was collected using the same indicator to the extent possible. Sources included the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), the World Bank World Development Indicators (WDI), UN databases (United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), UN Women, etc.).

To elevate African women’s voices and make it possible to learn from the experts, MEWC reached out to grassroots NGOs to inform the case study elements of this report.

The search for case studies was guided by a need to cover different theme issues and represent different regions.

Case studies were identified through desk review/ research. They hoped to capture actions, strategies and lessons learnt that could serve as best practice methods and inform others. Data was gathered on each actor’s website as well as through interviews (via email/Zoom, phone) with the actor to collect more data and insights.

The focus was on a combination of different initiatives of both non-state actors and state actors. Non-state actors included civil society organisations (CSOs), the media, the private sector and political, social, religious and traditional actors that have held states accountable

To elevate African women’s voices and make it possible to learn from the experts, MEWC reached out to grassroots NGOs to inform the case study elements of this report. The search for case studies was guided by a need to cover different theme issues and represent different regions.

for their commitments, advocated at national level for the adoption of policies/laws or mobilised others to advocate for women’s rights. State actors included policy-makers, politicians and professional bodies, to illustrate their efforts to domesticate and implement commitments at different stages and with different outcomes (e.g. signing and ratifying existing instruments, law and policy change, constitutional amendment). Lack of funding and barriers to technology for local women’s groups posed a serious challenge in efforts to recognise their vital work here.

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Table 1: Outline of the Case Studies Covered in the AWD 2010-2020 Report AWD Themes

Case Studies

Fighting Poverty and Promoting Economic Empowerment of Women and Entrepreneurship, Finance and Gender Budgeting

1. Gender-Responsive Budgeting in Uganda: The Certificate for Gender and Equity

Governance, Legal Protection and Women in Decision-Making

3. Senegal’s Campaign for Parity and Successful Adoption of the Law on Parity 2010

2. Promotion of Women Living with Disabilities’ Right to Work in Madagascar

4. The Women’s Situation Room Sexual and Reproductive Health Rights, Maternal Mortality and HIV/ AIDS

5. Landmark Petition Gives Maternal Health Rights Their Place in the Ugandan Constitution

Violence Against Women and Harmful Practices

7. The Criminalisation of Female Genital Mutilation in Sudan

6. The Power of Grandmothers to Treat Depression and Anxiety: The Friendship Benches

8. The African Union Campaign to End Child Marriage Women, Peace and Security

9. Uniting in Diversity: The Women Initiative for Sustainable Community Development in Plateau State, Nigeria 10. Advancing Women’s Peace and Security in the Great Lakes Region: Case Study of Burundi Crisis of 2015

Agriculture and Food Security

11. Mama Ardhi Alliance: Securing Land Rights for Women in Tanzania 12. Equal Land Rights for Women in Botswana

Environment and Climate Change

13. Young Women’s Movement: Fridays for Future, Uganda Chapter 14. Kwataniza Women Farmers Group Fighting Climate Change

Education, Science and Technology

15. Equal Education Rights for Pregnant Girls and Women in Sierra Leone 16. Miss Geek Africa – Promoting Girls in Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths

Young Women’s Movement

17. Women Lead the #EndSARS Movement in Nigeria 18. The My Dress, My Choice Campaign, Kenya

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5. Background The year 2020 held many important milestones for women’s rights and gender equality. It marked the 10th and final year of AWD 2020–2020, on “Grassroots Approach to Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment,” as well as the 20th anniversary of UNSCR 1325 and the 25th anniversary of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. Furthermore, 17 years ago, the AU Member States adopted the progressive Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (known as the Maputo Protocol) on women’s rights and gender equality and set 2020 as the deadline for ratification. As of November 2020, 42 countries out of 55 had ratified the Protocol (10 have not ratified and 3 have neither signed nor ratified). 2020 was also the fifth anniversary of the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which aim to, among other things, ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages (SDG 3) and achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls (SDG 5).

With the adoption of the AWD, AU Member States showed a renewed commitment to advancing women’s rights and gender equality through the accelerated implementation of gender frameworks. Member States have sought to achieve the AWD objectives through a top-down and bottom-up approach that has placed a specific emphasis on grassroots participation. Over the Decade, African governments progressed and made laudable achievements on the 10 AWD themes. More women are members of parliament and hold ministerial positions, and some countries have achieved parity. Notably, four African countries (Namibia, Rwanda, Senegal and South Africa) rank among the top 10 countries with the highest representation of women in national parliaments globally. Several countries have achieved parity in secondary and tertiary education. The overall education rate of girls and young women has increased, and more women have received a degree in science and technology. African governments have adopted constitutional provisions on gender equality and non-discrimination and implemented laws, policies and strategies that aim to strengthen women’s rights and empowerment and open up opportunities for women and girls. At the national, regional and continental levels, African governments have implemented campaigns that highlight gender commitments, for example reduction of maternal mortality, and sought to accelerate action to address them.

Women’s rights activists, organisations and grassroots movements played an essential role in advancing women’s rights and empowerment throughout the Decade. Their dedication and commitment have contributed to the adoption of laws, policies and strategies on women’s rights and gender equality. CSO shadow reports have helped hold governments accountable.

During the Decade, there was also a noticeable increase in the incidence of youth movements joining and contributing to advancing women’s rights and gender equality, advancing the perspective of the younger generation by voicing their needs and opinions. There has also been a strong movement to include marginalised groups.

Despite the progress made on advancing the AWD objectives over the Decade, challenges and barriers remain that prevent African women and girls from fully enjoying their rights.

Implementation and domestication of women’s rights frameworks vary. Conflicting legal

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systems prevent the effective and full implementation of gender equality and women’s rights laws, allowing discriminatory and harmful practices to continue.

African women have unequal access to resources such as land and capital, despite making up a majority of employees in the agriculture sector. Women working in the informal sector lack social protection and rely on uncertain incomes. Moreover, women hold the primary responsibility for unpaid care work. Although women make up half of the population, in more than half of African countries many are unable to participate in the decisions that directly affect them. Women have been excluded from or given limited or token representation in peace-building and conflict prevention mechanisms, resulting in outcomes that have weak or non-existent commitments to women’s rights and gender equality.

Women also are excluded from fully participating in governance. More women live in poverty; more girls than boys drop out of school; and women are more likely to face uncertain employment and lack access to financial resources. They also face social and cultural constraints and experience violence and discrimination.

Meanwhile, improvements on women’s rights exist in an unstable environment that threatens to halt or reverse progress made at the national, regional, continental and international levels. Unrest, conflict and wars aggravate

Women have been excluded from or given limited or token representation in peace-building and conflict prevention mechanisms, resulting in outcomes that have weak or non-existent commitments to women’s rights and gender equality.

the situation for women and girls and reduce the resources and space available for women’s rights activists and organisations, which often face restrictions, threats, violence and intimidation. While the Decade saw spaces open for women and girls’ participation, the reverse is also true, with a rise of conservative, sometimes ultraconservative, and fundamentalist views.

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, many governments have imposed restrictions, shifted their priorities and reallocated resources. The pandemic is augmenting the challenges that remain and deepening existing gender inequalities as women are disproportionately affected. Violations of women’s human rights are increasing. Incidence of domestic, sexual and gender-based violence and child marriage is on the rise. Women working in the informal sector are without income and protection. Women who experience violence have no system to provide them with support and protection. As governments impose lockdowns and curfews, girls and young women are prevented from going to school, and in some cases face increasing child marriage. Meanwhile,

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the changing context is significantly reducing the funding available for CSOs as well as the space within which women’s rights groups can operate. The current environment risks reversing much of the progress made in advancing women and girls’ rights in Africa.

Achieving women’s rights and gender equality is fundamental to fulfilling human rights for all.

Implementing women’s empowerment and rights is critical for women and girls to achieve their full potential. The end of the AWD 2010–2020 also signals the beginning of the next Decade, 2020–2030, under the theme of “Financial and Economic Inclusion of African Women.” This is an opportune moment to review the progress made in Africa and the challenges and barriers remaining. Such a review allows for the AU and its Member States to build on the gains made, address the challenges and take action to implement women’s rights commitments fully and achieve the goals set forth.

6. Analysis of the impact of Covid-19 on Women and Girls in Africa In 2020, the first COVID-19 case was recorded in Africa. Since then, all African countries have recorded cases. By October 2020, the most affected region of the continent was Southern Africa, followed by North Africa, East Africa, West Africa and Central Africa.

Several general factors have complicated the combat against COVID-19 in Africa. These include fragile national health infrastructures owing to limited funding and resources, limited access to water and high out-of-pocket expenses remain high in many countries, as financing for the health sector is relatively low.1 Following the outbreak of the COVID-19, many countries issued emergency declarations, imposed lockdowns, or prohibited public gatherings. At least 39 out of 55 Member States of theAU have installed full or partial lockdowns of various lengths.2 Five countries adopted laws related to COVID-19, three of which dealt with the expansion of powers of the head of government (Egypt, Ghana and Tunisia) and one declared a state of emergency (Gabon).

Other countries adopted regulations on COVID-19 or related topics such as preventing the spread of disinformation. Lockdowns and curfews radically enforced by police forces, lead to multiple casualties in many countries.

Lockdowns, restrictions and school closures have several negative impacts on the lives of women and girls.

6.1. Women’s Economic Empowerment As many women are employed low-paying jobs with fewer protections, they are at a greater risk of both exposure to COVID-19 and the financial risk of losing their job.3 The economic policies and relief packages of governments that aim to reduce negative consequences of COVID-19 do not generally address its gendered impact.4 Women are also affected heavily

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by the border closures and lockdowns.5 For example, according to estimates, COVID-19 restrictions have led to a decline of 50–60% in cross-border trade, which is conducted primarily by female traders in the East African Community.6

6.2. Education Unequal access to education during the pandemic could lead to a setback to the AU’s aim to close the gender gap in education laid out in Aspiration 6 of its Agenda 2063.7 Girls in sub-Saharan Africa are at a higher risk than boys of permanently dropping out of education across all levels.8 As schools close and education moves online, on TV or the radio, students from poorer families lacking the necessary technology are marginalised or excluded from learning opportunities.

6.3. Women’s Health As a result of lockdowns, women and girls’ access to sexual health care, such as access to contraceptives, is diminished. The limited access to such services is expected to result in, among others, a significant increase in unintended pregnancies. In 2020, several countries reported a spike in teenage pregnancies. Often, pregnant girls are forced to leave school by their parents or because the State bans them from attending school (as in Tanzania and Equatorial Guinea). Strict curfews and the resulting limited transportation options in several African countries have led to pregnant women not being able to get to the hospital in time or at all, some having died owing to complications.9 Furthermore, the unmet need for contraceptives also puts women at risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases. People living with HIV/AIDS, most of whom are women, cannot access vital medication.

6.4. Violence Against Women (VAW) and Harmful Practices As a result of lockdowns and school closures, instances of VAW and girls and sexual abuse have increased. Growing financial constraints and confinement in small living spaces, may account for this escalation.10 Lockdowns and closures also perpetuate harmful practices.

Both female genital mutilation (FGM) and child marriage are expected to have risen.

It is estimated that progress in reaching the 2030 goal of eradicating GBV11 and ending FGM by 2030 have both been reduced by a third.12 Not only did the lockdown result in higher rates of VAW, child marriage and FGM, but also it impeded the frameworks to address these harmful practices.

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6.5. Political Participation Lockdowns also negatively influence women’s participation in public and political life as countries impose restrictions on large social gatherings. Covid-19 poses gendered challenges in about 20 countries’ elections scheduled for 2020, of which 13 are still outstanding.13

6.6. Endangering Women in Crisis Zones The lives of internally displaced women and female refugees are especially precarious as their host countries respond to the pandemic. As a result of COVID-19 restrictions, the rights of girls and women refugees are affected in movement, personal security, health, economic sustenance and social protection, and they are more vulnerable to SGBV in such circumstances.

Observers have noted that because of service delivery disruptions due to COVID-19, women’s access to essential SHRH products and services decreased.

The UN Secretary-General and the AUC called for a ceasefire during the pandemic and the AU Special Envoy on Women, Peace and Security demanded that states uphold the commitments made under UNSCR 1325 to protect women against violence.14 Forty-seven countries of the AU were among the 170 signatories of the UN global ceasefire appeal and nine countries (Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, DR Congo, Libya, Niger, Senegal, Sudan, South Sudan) joined the call for a ceasefire, but not all governments brokered a peace agreement and, in the case of Libya, an increase in violence was observed.15 While Covid-19 poses many challenges and increases women and girls’ risk of violence and harmful practices, there are also positive responses to the pandemic. These include:

6.7. Best Practices The best practices include establishing ad hoc institutional or legal mechanisms to deal with the pandemic, such as strategic monitoring committees, crisis committees or coordination mechanisms (Morocco, Nigeria, Togo and Tunisia), and developing preparedness and response plans (Chad, Lesotho, Sudan and Uganda).16

6.8. Continental Responses The AU has led the way in the fight against the pandemic in several ways. The Africa Centres for Disease Control (Africa CDC) established the Africa Task Force for Novel Coronavirus (AFCOR) before the continent had a single confirmed case. It also helped establish 44 African laboratories with COVID-19 testing capability by mid-April.17 In March 2021, the AU launched the COVID-19 Response Fund. Finally, the AU’s guidelines on gender-responsive

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responses to COVID-19 prioritise gender equality and women’sempowerment and demand gender mainstreaming and integration in the COVID-19 responses of Member States.18

6.9. Regional Responses ECOWAS was the first REC in Africa to start developing a preparedness assessment and response to the pandemic in February 2020.19 It has developed a joint post-pandemic recovery economic response plan.20 IGAD adopted a Regional Response Strategy to pandemic diseases and established an Emergency Fund for the control of pandemic diseases and the strengthening of health systems in the region.21 EAC established a plan for the fight against Covid-19 and deployed nine mobile laboratories and distributed COVID-19 test kits to all Partner States, as part of its Mobile Laboratory Project.22 SADC adopted Guidelines on Harmonisation and Facilitation of Cross Border Transport Operations across the Region During the COVID-19 Pandemic and put in place a Regional COVID 19 Trade and Transport Facilitation Cell.23

6.10. African Women’s Leadership in the Fight Against Covid-19 Women from various fields such as medicine, finance, and politics have played an essential role in the fight against Covid-19. Female political leaders have provided support for national responses to Covid-19 (Namibia), sensitised women to the importance of hygiene and mobilised them to spread the message (Ghana) and used social media to raise awareness of the virus (Ethiopia.) Women’s leadership finance has also led to policies being formulated to address the gendered impact of the pandemic, such as the Corporate Social Responsibility Department of the Central Bank of Egypt’s supply funding for monthly cash transfers for irregular workers.24 The Tunisian Ministry of Women, the Family, Children and Seniors and the Tunisian Solidarity Bank have teamed up to offer domestic workers loans repayable at a preferential rate.25

6.11. National Responses Many African countries have implemented particular responses in support of women since the pandemic began. Several countries have assisted MSMEs by providing tax exemptions or financial assistance, such as solidarity funds (Burkina Faso and Senegal). To help survivors of domestic violence, the Ministry of Women, the Family, Children and Seniors in Tunisia opened a new halfway centre in which the survivors of domestic violence could self-quarantine before accessing the actual shelter.26 Seven other countries (Angola, Egypt, Mozambique, Rwanda, South Africa and South Sudan) have launched or extended GBV helplines to operate 24/7.27 Lesotho’s Ministry of Health, UNICEF and Help Lesotho are providing SHRH counselling remotely and individually by WhatsApp message and phone call.28 Lessons learnt from both the HIV/AIDS and especially the Ebola epidemics in West and

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East Africa during the past two decades are one of the main reasons for the continent’s preparedness. Many African countries have adopted practices to fight those epidemics that have now been adapted to the new pandemic.29

6.12. Recommendations  Strengthen women’s resilience in COVID-19 prevention and support women’s economic activities during the pandemic.  Ensure women’s equal participation in the development, management and implementation of responses to COVID-19, both short and long term. Particular attention should be paid to including the voices and perspectives of women with disabilities, women in rural and remote areas, female members of minority groups, older women and widows.  Establish mechanisms to monitor, report on and analyse the use of COVID-19 funds, and to address gaps and remaining challenges.  Allocate financial resources to ensure extra support to groups and institutions providing assistance and protection to survivors of SGBV as the numbers have increased as a result of lockdowns and curfews. It is also vital that measures be put in place to assist survivors and facilitate their access to services and support, such as through helplines and technology-based solutions.  Invest resources in collecting gender-disaggregated data to assess the impact of the pandemic on women, such as VAW, and ensure that such data collection does not put women and girls at increased risk of violence and abuse.

The pandemic is augmenting the challenges that remain and deepening existing gender inequalities as women are disproportionately affected. Violations of women’s human rights are increasing. Incidence of domestic, sexual and gender-based violence and child marriage is on the rise. Women working in the informal sector are without income and protection.

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Part II THE AFRICAN UNION AND GENDER INFRASTRUCTURE

1. Women’s Rights Mechanisms 1.1. The Maputo Protocol The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa was adopted in 2003. Often referred to as “the Maputo Protocol,” it owes its name to the capital city of Mozambique where it was adopted. Its adoption was a landmark decision of the AU and its Member States as it provides a binding comprehensive legal framework on women and girls’ civil and political as well as economic, social and cultural rights.

The Maputo Protocol came into force on 25 November 2005 following ratification by 15 countries, the required number for AU treaties to enter into force. Over the years, many other countries have signed and/or acceded to the Protocol. As of November 2020, of the 55 AU Member States, 42 have ratified the Maputo Protocol, while 10 have only signed it. Once countries have ratified/acceded to the Protocol they are referred to as “States Parties.” Three countries – Botswana, Egypt and Morocco – have neither signed nor acceded to the Protocol.

The African Women’s Decade 2010–2020 committed AU Member States to universal ratification, domestication and implementation of the Maputo Protocol by 2020. As of December 2020, 13 countries have yet to accede to the Protocol, in keeping with the continental commitment.

Six Member States have ratified/acceded to the Protocol with reservations or have made declarations on specific articles. These countries are Cameroon, Kenya, Namibia, Mauritius, South Africa, and Uganda. Most of the reservations relate to the right concerning marriage and access to safe abortion, Articles 6 and 14 in particular.

Gambia ratified the Protocol with four reservations (Articles 5, 6. 7 and 14) but lifted these in 2006. Likewise. Rwanda ratified the Protocol with a reservation on Article 14(2)(c) on access to safe abortion and lifted it in 2012.

States Parties to the African Charter and the Maputo Protocol are required to submit their periodic reports in two parts. Few States Parties have fulfilled their reporting obligation. The countries that have reported include Angola, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, DR Congo, Gambia, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritania, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, Togo and Zimbabwe.

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1.2. Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa (SDGEA) The Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa (SDGEA) is a non-binding agreement adopted by the Heads of State and Government of Member States of the AU during the Third Ordinary Session of the Assembly in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in July 2004. In adopting the SDGEA, the Heads of State and Government reaffirmed their commitment to mainstreaming the principles of gender equality at the continental level, identifying as priority areas HIV/AIDS, women’s rights to participation in peace processes, the recruitment of child soldiers and girl children as sex slaves and trafficking in women and girls, among other concerns.

The SDGEA is widely regarded as “the most strategic reporting instrument deployed by the AU in the promotion of Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Africa,”197 and is a powerful tool for increasing accountability and “ownership of the gender equality agenda”198 at the national and regional level The SDGEA is divided into six thematic areas: Health; Peace and Security; Governance; Human Rights; Education; and Women’s Economic Empowerment.

As of December 2017, a total of 51 Member States (94%) had submitted their initial reports to the AUC Chairperson for consideration.

Since the adoption of the SDGEA in 2004, the AU and its organs have been instrumental in developing frameworks, strategic documents and implementation strategies to ensure gender is mainstreamed at the regional level, including the following.

2. AU Initiatives/Campaigns 2010 – 2020 In response to its mandate to promoted gender equality and women’s empowerment, the AU implemented several gender-specific campaigns and initiatives during the decade 2010 – 2020.

These include:

2.1. African Women’s Decade 2010–2020 The AU launched the AWD 2010 - 2020 to reinvigorate commitments contained in various AU decisions and to accelerate the implementation of these and other regional and international commitments relating to gender equality and women empowerment.30 The accompanying Road Map for the AWD emphasized the need for a bottom-up and top-down approach in implementation that would integrate grassroots women.

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Ten core themes were identified for the Decade as priority areas to be implemented at national, regional and continental level: 1. Fighting Poverty and Promoting Economic Empowerment of Women and Entrepreneurship 2. Agriculture and Food Security 3. Health, Maternal Mortality and HIV and AIDS 4. Education, Science and Technology 5. Environment, Climate Change and Sustainable Development 6. Peace and Security and Violence Against Women and Girls 7. Governance and Legal Protection 8. Finance and Gender Budgeting 9. Women and Decision-Making 10. Mentoring Youth (Men and Women) to be Champions of Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment

2.2. Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment (GEWE) Strategy 2018–2028 The GEWE Strategy 2018–2028, launched in 2019, seeks to realise the Maputo Protocol and Agenda 2063 by eliminating or at least mitigating “the major constraints hindering gender equality and women’s empowerment”. It will also amplify the voices of women and girls and provide them with full and equal opportunities to participate in all aspects of life.

The Strategy is built around four pillars, each of which includes outcomes and proposed activities relevant to its implementation.31 Pillar 1 (Maximising opportunities, outcomes and e-tech dividends) recognises the importance of quality education and control over productive resources to empower women economically.32 Pillar 2 (Dignity, security and resilience) recognises that VAW and harmful traditional practices, such as early child marriage and FGM, violate women and girls’ right to dignity, security and bodily and psychological integrity. Despite the legal, policy, and institutional reforms across Africa, Pillar 3 (Effective laws, policies, and institutions) notes the gap in implementing and enforcing these women’s rights. Under Pillar 4 (Leadership, voice and visibility), the Strategy focuses on raising women’s voices and allowing them to participate with impact.

2.3. AU Campaign to End Child Marriage 2015–2023 In 2014, the AUC launched the Campaign to End Child Marriage in Africa to combat the violations of children’s rights posed by the phenomenon of child marriage.

The AUC has convened two continental African Girls Summits, in 2015 and 2018, to promote advocacy and the sharing of best practices on ending child, early and forced marriage and to

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review progress by the Member States on commitments. In 2014, the AU appointed a Special Rapporteur on Child Marriage and a Goodwill Ambassador for Ending Child Marriage in Africa.

The African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child jointly issued a General Comment in 2017 to underscore African continental and regional commitments on the plight of children in child marriages, children at risk of child marriage and women who were married before the age of 18.33 By 2018, 30% of the 24 AU Member States that had launched the campaign had enacted laws to advance its implementation;34 41% had developed national strategic plans to address child marriage, with 55% also establishing a national inter-sectoral coordination mechanism.35 The campaign was initially scheduled to run for two years but was extended twice. First to 2017 and then to a second phase (2019–2023).36

2.4. AU Campaign on Ending Female Genital Mutilation In 2010, the AUC launched the AU Initiative on Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) to accelerate the end of the harmful practice. The following year, the AU formally called upon the UN General Assembly to adopt a resolution banning FGM globally.37 In 2012, the UN General Assembly unanimously passed a resolution banning FGM, whose ground-breaking text was also partially sponsored by the Group of African States.38 In response to the high prevalence rate of FGM in some countries, the AU adopted the Saleema Initiative: the AUC will mobilise Saleema Youth Victorious Ambassadors. They will work with the AU Youth Envoy to advocate the end of FGM. The campaign, which aims to end FGM by 2030, is designed as an advocacy and communication vehicle to engage communities, youth, and women in dialogue on the harmful practice from a multi-dimensional perspective.

2.5. Campaign for Accelerated Reduction of Maternal Mortality in Africa 2009–2019 Launched in 2009, the Campaign for the Accelerated Reduction of Maternal Mortality in Africa (CARMMA) aimed to support the Member States to meet the targets of the Millennium Development Goals 4 and 5. It also aimed to address the problem of high neonatal and maternal mortality rates across Africa and complement AU Member States’ efforts in responding to these challenges.

Through the CARMMA scorecard, countries are monitored on eight health indicators of child and maternal mortality. In response to CARMMA, countries have developed national strategic plans and strategies to implement CARMMA objectives.

The AU has produced three status reports on various related themes for 2014, 2017 and 2019 to further the CARMMA advocacy objectives.39

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2.6. Silencing the Guns in Africa by 2020 The AU implemented the Silencing the Guns in Africa by 2020 campaign to end human rights violations and humanitarian disasters and promote the prevention, management and resolution of conflicts in Africa. The campaign intends to integrate a gender focus, coming on the heels of the 20th anniversary of UNSCR 1325.40

2.7. AU Agenda 2063 and the SDGs Agenda 2063 “The Africa We Want,” adopted in 2015, contains seven aspirations, 20 goals and 39 priority areas and incorporates the 17 SDGs. It serves as the foundation for Africa’s socioeconomic and inclusive development. The First Ten-Year Implementation Plan of Agenda 2063 (2013–2023) was designed to guide Member States, RECs and AU organs as they prepare medium-term development plans.41 The AU Development Agency (AUDA–NEPAD), established in 2019, implements Agenda 2063 on behalf of the AU.

2.8. Network of African Women in Conflict Prevention and Mediation (FemWise) The Network of African Women in Conflict Prevention and Mediation (FemWise), an AU initiative, promotes women, peace and security agenda in Africa. It is significant in the AU’s efforts to meet Agenda 2063’s target on Silencing the Guns. FemWise seeks to consolidate African women’s roles in conflict prevention and mediation efforts within the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA). FemWise’s focus is on mentoring, building capacity and deploying women to support conflict management measures on the continent.42

By 2018, 30% of the 24 AU Member States that had launched the campaign had enacted laws to advance its implementation, 41% had developed national strategic plans to address child marriage, with 55% also establishing a national inter-sectoral coordination mechanism.

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Part III UNITED NATIONS INITIATIVES ON GENDER EQUALITY The United Nations has introduced important initiatives on gender during the decade 2010 – 2020; they include:

1. UN Women Created in July 2010, UN Women leads, coordinates and monitors the work on gender equality done within the UN system. UN Women works to set standards for gender equality and together with governments and civil society in the domestication and implementation of these standards through laws, policies, programmes and services. It also works to achieve the SDGs. In Africa, UN Women focuses on providing technical and policy advice, generating knowledge, and developing tools and capacity to support country-level programming. They have focused on issues of importance to women and girls, such as leadership and political participation, women’s economic empowerment, ending violence against women, and peace and security.

2. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGS) Adopted in 2015, the 2030 Agenda, consisting of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), represents a universal call to action and provide a framework for addressing poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace and justice. The aim is to achieve the SDGs by 2030.

SDG 5 focuses explicitly on achieving gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls. Its targets include; ending all forms of discrimination against all women and girls; ending all forms of violence against women and girls; eliminating harmful practices; valuing unpaid care and domestic work; ensuring full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership and decision-making; and ensuring universal access to sexual and reproductive rights.43 Achievement of SDG 5 is integral to the realisation of all SDGs. Despite the progress made towards achieving the SDGs, global issues, such as the climate crisis, conflict, inequality and GBV, are slowing down its progress. Therefore, in 2019, the UN called the Decade of Action (2020-2030) to accelerate sustainable solutions to the development challenges outlined in the 2030 Agenda.44

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3. Flagship Programme Initiative Making Every Woman and Girl Count The Flagship Programme Initiative Making Every Woman and Girl Count was launched in 2016 to run till 2020. It aimed to effect a radical shift in the production, availability, accessibility and use of quality data and statistics on key aspects of gender equality and women’s empowerment.45 The programme sought to achieve this goal through publicprivate initiatives at the national, regional and international level. These initiatives provide an opportunity to monitor the implementation of the gender equality commitments made in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

4. Generation Equality Forum Generation Equality Forum is a civil society-centred, multi-stakeholder forum for gender equality convened by UN Women and co-chaired by the governments of France and Mexico.

It aims to globally achieve immediate and irreversible progress towards gender equality and women and girls’ empowerment through a set of concrete, ambitious and transformative actions.46 Due to Covid-19, the meeting was rescheduled from May and July 2020 to the first half of 2021.

To scale up action and achieve tangible results, the Forum Created partnerships called “Action Coalitions.” Among the Action Coalitions’ themes are gender-based violence, bodily autonomy and sexual and reproductive health and rights, feminist action for climate justice, and technology and innovation for gender equality.

5. Spotlight Initiative Launched in 2017 by the UN and the European Union, the Spotlight Initiative places the elimination of violence against women and girls at the centre of efforts to achieve gender equality and women’s empowerment as per SDG 5. On the African continent, the Initiative aims to eliminate SGBV, including harmful practices, and to support existing initiatives to end FGM and early/child marriage.47

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Part IV AU REGIONAL ECONOMIC COMMUNITIES The AU recognises eight Regional Economic Communities (RECs): the Arab Maghreb Union (AMU), the Community of Sahel– Saharan States (CEN–SAD), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), the East African Community (EAC), the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). The RECs differ in the mandates and structures.

The RECs are considered essential players in promoting, implementing, assessing, and monitoring gender equality and women’s rights. They vary in roles, commitments and progress in realising women and girls’ rights in Africa.  Of the eight RECs, five (ECOWAS, COMESA, EAC, IGAD, SADC) maintain a gender department. These vary in mandate and capacity.  All RECs, except for AMU and CEN-SAD, have gender budgets.  There is limited information about the activities of AMU and CEN-SAD. In particular, there is a lack of information on any reforms related to gender equality and women’s empowerment mechanisms. However, there are signs that the AMU Secretariat is becoming more active. At the time of writing, it is unclear if plans exist to adopt a women’s rights agenda and include a gender perspective in future policies and strategies.

1. Women’s Rights Mechanisms Most RECs have established gender equality and women’s rights mechanisms such as treaties, laws, policies and campaigns. These focus on different areas, such as women’s economic empowerment, political participation, education, agriculture, food security, VAW, SRHR and peace and security. Some of the key mechanisms include:  The establishing treaty (founding treaty) of COMESA, EAC, ECOWAS, IGAD, and SADC provides for gender equality and women’s empowerment commitments.  Four RECs have adopted binding commitments on gender. They are COMESA (Revised Gender Policy of 2016), EAC (Gender Equality Bill), ECOWAS (Supplementary Act of 2015),

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and SADC (Protocol on Gender and Development). These frameworks align with Agenda 2063, the SDGs, and other continental and international commitments and frameworks.  Most RECS have introduced gender policies as well as strategies addressing specific areas such as HIV/AIDS and VAW. Three RECs adopted plans and strategies on women, peace and security: ECOWAS (Dakar Declaration on the Implementation of UNSCR 1325 along with its Regional Action Plan), IGAD (Regional Action Plan for Implementation of UNSCRs 1325 and 1820), and SADC (Regional Strategy on Women, Peace and Security 2018–2022).  The courts of COMESA, EAC, ECOWAS and SADC take gender cases. Notably, the ECOWAS Court of Justice allows an individual to bring a claim directly to the Court. Thus, the Court contributes to the promotion of women’s rights and gender equality.

2. Strengths, Challenges and Gaps at The Continental Level  There is an opportunity to develop frameworks and commitments on gender equality and women’s empowerment in others.  A review of the RECs indicates that opportunities for civil society organisations to participate and engage varies. Civil Society Organisations may be accredited to EAC, ECOWAS, IGAD and SADC. EAC has a formal framework dedicated to CSO and private sector engagement: The Consultative Dialogue Framework (CDF). The SADC Secretariat signed a memorandum of understanding with the SADC Council for NGOs to promote engagement with CSOs. From the sources consulted, CSO engagement appears to be limited in AMU, CEN-SAD, COMESA and ECCAS.  Four of the RECs (EAC, ECOWAS, IGAD and SADC) have formulated monitoring mechanisms to track progress on gender commitments.  Overlapping membership, weak political will and limited resources and capacities hinder the work on gender equality and women’s empowerment in many RECs.

3. Recommendations  Develop and adopt women’s rights and gender equality frameworks and/or strengthen the implementation of existing such frameworks. These should be in line with continental and international gender commitments.  Strengthen institutional capacities and resources in the implementation of gender commitments. RECs should establish or strengthen regional courts to advance women’s rights and gender equality.

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 Adopt gender-responsive budgets and implement mechanisms to ensure consistent contributions of Member States.  Develop mechanisms to monitor accountability and implementation of women’s rights and gender equality frameworks and commitments.  Implement or strengthen opportunities and consultative frameworks to enable CSOs, particularly women’s rights organisations and advocates, to engage and participate in developing gender policies, programmes and projects and monitoring State compliance.

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Part 5 ANALYSIS AND REGIONAL REVIEW OF THE AFRICAN WOMEN’S DECADE THEMES 1. Fighting Poverty and Promoting Economic Empowerment of Women and Entrepreneurship, Finance and Gender Budgeting Goal 1 of the AWD aims to promote women’s economic empowerment and entrepreneurship, fight poverty, and increase access for women to financial resources. The objectives include attaining equal opportunity in employment, promoting parity at the workplace, and creating employment and services by supporting women entrepreneurs, particularly in the informal sector.

The Maputo Protocol guarantees women equal opportunities in work, career advancement and other economic opportunities (Article 13). It calls on States Parties to promote the right to equal pay for work of equal value and combat sexual harassment in the workplace.

To reduce poverty among women, States Parties shall promote women’s access to credit, training, skills development and extension services for all women (Article 19.d.).

The AU has adopted various mechanisms to advance women’s economic empowerment and entrepreneurship and reduce poverty at the continental level. The AU declared 2015 the Year of Women’s Economic Empowerment. Agenda 2063 includes objectives to full parity, with women holding 50% of managerial positions in the private sector and enhancing access to financial resources. The AU Strategy for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment 2018–2028 promotes economic empowerment and financial inclusion. The goals of the AWD 2020–2030 on Women’s Financial and Economic Inclusion include making financial services available, accessible and affordable, especially for women in rural areas, and improving and increasing access to infrastructure, technology and capacity-building.

1.1. Key Legal, Policy and Institutional Reform African countries have introduced legal, policy and institutional reforms throughout the AWD to promote women’s economic empowerment and to fight poverty. Several countries adopted constitutional provisions on women’s economic empowerment. These include the right to work and the right to equal remuneration for equal work, equal right to benefits and property and

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eliminate discrimination in employment based on gender The 2013 Constitution of Zimbabwe stands out as it also provides for three months of fully paid maternity leave.

Across the continent, countries also introduced laws that, at least in one way or another, sought to improve women’s economic empowerment. Among those reforms is legislation that:  Prohibit discrimination in employment and impose criminal penalties on persons committing such acts, such as in Algeria, Tanzania and Uganda. Other laws require employers to put in place a sexual harassment policy.  Guarantee the right to equal remuneration for work of equal value and/or protect women in the workplace.  Provide for paid maternity leave and protect expectant mothers in the workplace. Some countries also introduced paid paternity leave.  Provide for the equal right to property and inheritance.

Other reforms include removing barriers for women seeking to start businesses (DR Congo), discrimination in access to credit based on gender (Guinea) and inheritance (Egypt). Many countries also took steps to institutionalise gender-responsive budgeting.

Most African States have undertaken policy reforms to fight poverty and promote women’s economic empowerment and entrepreneurship. Countries have often included advancing women’s economic empowerment, opportunities and entrepreneurship as strategic objectives in their national gender plans or national development strategies. Several countries have introduced plans, such as national employment strategies, to advance and strengthen women’s employment and training. Other policy reforms gender responsive-budgeting (GRB).

Several countries also have implemented strategies seeking to reduce poverty and increase opportunities and income-generating activities for women. Others have included objectives on poverty reduction in their national policies on gender and development.

During the African Women’s Decade, countries have also introduced institutional reforms that improved women’s economic empowerment, increased access to financial resources and employment opportunities and promoted female entrepreneurship. Some countries introduced opportunities that increase women’s access to financial resources, such as providing interestfree loans, creating funds or establishing micro-credit schemes. Important court rulings advanced women’s right to property (Eswatini, Ghana) and protection against discrimination (Lesotho).

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1.2. Key Challenges and Gaps  Not all countries have laws that guarantee equal remuneration for work of equal value.

As a result, gender pay gaps remain. In countries where legislation on equal pay exist, implementation is often weak and inconsistent.  Many African countries have not yet implemented GRB, and there is a lack of data on gender allocations in national budgets.  In many countries, women do not have legal protection against discrimination in access to financial resources such as credit and loans and inheritance and property rights.  More women than men live in poverty. Barriers, some of which are social, others cultural, contribute to the feminisation of poverty across the continent.  While all countries, except the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (no data found), provide for paid maternity leave, not all provide paid paternity leave. Moreover, where paternity leave is available, it is often very short. Thus, women continue to shoulder the responsibility for family and home, and their unpaid care work goes unrecognised.

1.3. Recommendations  Repeal any laws or legal provisions that discriminate against women in obtaining equal opportunities in employment, equal pay and access to financial resources, and that thus prevent women from realising their economic rights and opportunities for entrepreneurship.  Adopt and promote programmes and projects that support female entrepreneurs and help them develop and grow small and medium enterprises. These efforts must also cover women in the informal sector and women in vulnerable and marginalised groups, such as women in rural and remote areas, women with disabilities, older women and widows.  Implement laws and services that enable women to participate equally in the workforce and reduce the burden of care placed on female workers. These measures should include providing paid maternal and paternal leave and childcare.  Entrench innovative, participatory, targeted and decentralised approaches to effectively address women’s economic empowerment through entrepreneurship and export-led manufacturing and gender budget initiatives as a vehicle for economic diversification and employment creation.  Support the development of opportunities and capacities for networking possibilities for female entrepreneurs to help mentor young women and to promote better access to financial services and other resources, including collaboration.

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2. Governance, Legal Protection and Women in Decision-making The Maputo Protocol, under articles 8 and 9, guarantees the right of women to participate equally in governance, political and electoral processes at all levels and enjoy legal protection.

These articles also enshrine the principles of equality and non-discrimination.

Two goals of the AWD specifically focused on women in politics and decision-making. Goal 7 (concerning governance and legal protection) sought to, among others, support women’s participation in political and electoral processes in countries where elections were held during the Decade. Goal 9 (on women in decision-making positions) aimed to implement the AU parity and ensure equal opportunities for women in decision-making positions in the legislature, judiciary and executive.

Over the Decade, the AU implemented several initiatives in line with the two AWD goals. The 2018 Parity Decision requires the AU Commission to achieve 50/50 gender representation and have 30% of youth representation by 2025. Agenda 2063 and the AU Strategy for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment also reflect the commitment to implementing the AU gender parity principle and achieving women’s empowerment in governance and decision-making. To contribute to the effective implementation of the AU’s mandate in gender equality and women’s empowerment, in 2020, the AU launched the three-year Action Plan on Women in Governance and Political Participation: Enhancing African Women’s Role in Leadership.

2.1. Key Legal, Policy And Institutional Reform Over the Decade, African countries enacted legal reforms that have a bearing on women in governance and decision-making positions. 23 countries adopted constitutional reforms, of which many prohibit discrimination based on gender and guarantee the right to vote and stand for election. Others guarantee the right to equal participation in politics and decision-making.

Some countries, including Burundi, Egypt, Rwanda and South Sudan, ensure a certain percentage of seats in elected bodies to women in their respective constitutions. The constitutions vary in the percentage of seats allocated to women. They also differ in whether the quota applies to all levels of governance.

Many countries have enacted laws that aim to increase women’s political participation and representation in governance and decision-making positions, such as establishing quotas.

These vary from 20% to 50% and, while some apply only to national parliamentary elections, others also apply to local elections. Some laws reserve seats for female representatives in national and/ or local elected bodies (Benin, Djibouti). At the same time, other countries, including Liberia, the Republic of Congo, and Egypt, specify the number of women candidates on party lists. In Lesotho, the amended legislation requires parties to use “zebra” party lists

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alternating between male and female candidates. Other laws obligate the State to ensure equal opportunities for women to participate in all electoral processes or decision-making at the local levels.

Most African countries introduced policy reforms to increase women’s representation in governance and decision-making processes. Most commonly, countries included strategies to achieve these goals in their national gender policies and procedures. Some plans aim to increase women’s participation at all levels by providing training and information (Gambia). Others seek to achieve 50/50 representation (Uganda) or commit to having a certain percentage of women serve in national parliament by a specific date (Lesotho.) Some countries have introduced special or affirmative action measures on women’s inclusion in decision-making.

Several countries established focal points and gender departments with mandates to increase women’s representation in decision-making and leadership positions. Some initiatives established funds (Morocco, Niger) or other financial resources to facilitate women’s access to and participation in politics. Other countries provided training and capacity-building for women in leadership positions.

Most African countries introduced policy reforms to increase women’s representation in governance and decision-making processes. Most commonly, countries included strategies to achieve these goals in their national gender policies and procedures.

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2.2. Key Challenges and Gaps  Many countries do not have legislated quotas. In countries where quotas exist, these do not always extend to all levels of governance and decision-making. Moreover, commitments to increase female representation are often inadequately enforced.  Progress on women’s representation in decision-making, such as in national parliaments, is uneven across the continent. While some countries have made significant advancements and have achieved or exceeded 50/50 representation, in others, women are underrepresented.  Traditional views on gender roles prevent women from fully and equally participating in political life in the Central African region. Female candidates also face institutional barriers that marginalise or exclude them. Political parties prefer male candidates, and frequently female candidates are only included to fulfil a legal obligation. Lack of financial resources and support from political parties also negatively impact the number of women who may run for elected positions.

2.3. Recommendations  Implement and enforce quotas to provide equal opportunities and increase women’s political participation in national and local decision-making bodies, ministerial positions and the judiciary, and in representing the national government at the regional, continental and international levels. These efforts should be in line with the AU parity principle.  Increase access to financial resources and support women in the electoral processes to ensure their equal participation and representation.  Adopt and implement mechanisms to monitor compliance with commitments to increase and advance women’s representation and participation in governance and decision-making processes and identify challenges and gaps in achieving these goals.  Strengthen training, awareness and empowerment programmes to include the participation of women in governance structures, political leadership and decisionmaking positions.  Implement laws that prohibit violence, sexual harassment and abuse of female candidates and voters during the electoral process. A robust judicial system should accompany the laws whereby women candidates and voters can seek redress for violations.

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3. Sexual and Reproductive Health Rights, Maternal Health and HIV/AIDS Over the AWD, progress has been made on women’s health in Africa. In 2017, 46 countries reported spending at least 15% of government expenditure on health, as set out by the Abuja Declaration. However, challenges remain. Cardiovascular diseases, for example, are now the leading cause of death among women in Africa. The continent has the highest rates of maternal mortality globally, and African women account for more than 75% of new female HIV/AIDS cases worldwide.48 The Maputo Protocol guarantees women the right to health, including sexual and reproductive health (Article 14). It also obligates States to provide health adequate, affordable and accessible health services to women and protect the reproductive rights of women, authorising medical abortion in cases of sexual assault, rape and incest and where the pregnancy endangers the mothers’ mental and physical health or the life of the mother or foetus.

Goal 3 of AWD aimed to improve women’s health, reduce maternal mortality and address the unequal burden of HIV/AIDS on women and girls in terms of infections, spread and increased workload, as well as unequal access to antiretrovirals (ARVs), good nutrition and formal medical services.49 To that end, the AU and its Member States have developed frameworks addressing women’s health, maternal health, SRH and HIV/AIDS. Among the initiatives is the 2015 Revised Maputo Plan of Action for the operationalisation of the Continental Policy Framework on SRHR 2016– 2030. It sets out a progressive framework for the achievement of universal access to SRHR services on the African continent.50 It also aligns with Agenda 2063, as well as the Common African Position to “end preventable maternal, new-born, child and adolescent deaths, expand contraceptive use, reduce levels of unsafe abortion.”51 In 2019, a new health financing initiative was launched at the Africa Leadership Meeting: Investing in Health to help deliver increased, sustained and more impactful financing for health across Africa.

3.1. Key Legal, Policy and Institutional Reform Over the AWD, many African countries adopted legal reforms on women’s health, SRH, maternal health and HIV/AIDS. Most commonly, constitutional reforms provide for the right to health or health care and, in some instances, articulate the State’s role in ensuring this right. In some countries, including Burundi, Kenya and Sudan, the respective constitution provides for SRH, maternal health and HIV/AIDS. For example, under the 2019 Constitution of Sudan, the State must provide free healthcare for motherhood, childhood and pregnant women.52 The 2013 Constitution of Zimbabwe affirms women’s SRHR, including the right for women to make decisions about reproduction and the right to access reproductive health care.53

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Several countries enacted legal reforms to increase access to sexual and maternal health care for all persons, including marginalised groups, by implementing universal medical coverage.

Some countries adopted or amended legislation on access to abortion that either expanded or reduced access to abortion. In some instances, the reforms provided for abortion on request within the first 12 weeks of pregnancy for any reason (Mozambique). In others, while the reforms reduced the penalties and provided for exemptions in imprisonment for abortion, access to free and safe abortion remain limited (Rwanda.) In others, the reforms recognised reproductive health care as a universal human right by providing access for women to reproductive health services, such as modern contraceptive methods.54

Some countries enacted laws that

criminalise transmission and non-disclosure of HIV; others provide for increased protection of persons living with or affected by HIV, such as prohibiting discrimination towards persons living with or affected by HIV. African countries have implemented policies to improve access to SRH, maternal health and HIV/AIDS services and care throughout the Decade. 46 countries in Africa have launched the Campaign for accelerated reduction of maternal mortality (CARMMA) at the national level.55 Some strategies include strategic objectives to increase contraceptive prevalence and improve access to family planning for all. As a result of these initiatives, contraceptive prevalence has increased in many countries, including Benin and Ghana. Other strategies sought to enhance the availability and quality of sex education.56 Furthermore, most countries have also adopted national HIV/AIDS strategies that address the needs of women and girls and prevent motherto-child transmission (PMTCT). Of these, several align with the 90–90–90 HIV treatment targets (90% of people living with HIV know their HIV status, of whom 90% are on antiretroviral treatment and of whom 90% are virally suppressed) by 2020.57 During the Decade, some countries also implemented institutional reform to reduce inequalities in access to health care and to increase awareness. Initiatives include expanding social health insurance, conducting sensitisation sessions on SRH and adding trial modules on SRH to the school curriculum.58

African countries have implemented policies to improve access to SRH, maternal health and HIV/AIDS services and care throughout the Decade. 46 countries in Africa have launched the Campaign for accelerated reduction of maternal mortality (CARMMA) at the national level.

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3.2. Key Challenges and Gaps  Access to safe abortion in many countries remain restrictive, which endangers the lives of women and girls. In some countries, abortion is prohibited altogether, while others provide exceptions in line with Article 14 of the Maputo Protocol.59  Investment in health care, such as SRH, maternal health and HIV/AIDS, is a challenge in many countries, as the health sector is underfunded. Some countries allocate only a small percentage of the national budget to health care, particularly women’s health.

Many countries also face a shortage of skilled health workers.  Despite progress in lowering infection rates, those of women are higher than among men in many countries. A lack of awareness of HIV transmission and prevention and other sexually transmitted diseases and the low use of contraceptives are some of the contributing factors. Moreover, not all countries criminalise the transmission of HIV or prohibit discrimination based on HIV.  In many countries, political instability and conflict impeded legal, policy and institutional reform on SRH, maternal health and HIV/AIDS responses regarding critical care and services. It also makes accessing health care a dangerous endeavour, especially for women and girls.

3.3. Recommendations  Invest in health information systems and health data to promote the accurate and timely collection and analysis of disaggregated health data by sex and other variables.  Prioritise and strengthen national and regional health research capacity, focusing mainly on non-communicable diseases and mental health. These efforts should include promoting women as health researchers more broadly and women in senior leadership positions within research institutes.  Improve support for the health care workforce, especially nurses and other frontline health workers, such as community health workers. This includes identifying and working to address gender discrimination and inequalities within the health workforce that lead to health system inefficiencies and adverse health outcomes.  Enact and implement comprehensive policy and legal frameworks on SRH rights and HIV/AIDS that improve access for all women to SRH care services such as contraception, safe abortion and medications for women and girls living with HIV/AIDS.  Improve financing for health and ensure health budgets are gender-responsive and gendersensitive.

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4. Violence Against Women and Harmful Practices Violence against women (VAW) and girls is prevalent in private and public spaces across the African continent. Many girls and women are subjected to harmful practices. These negatively affect women and violates their human rights.

The Maputo Protocol prohibits all forms of violence against women and girls. It defines VAW as all acts perpetrated against women that may cause them physical, sexual, psychological and economic harm and that take place in private or public life, in peace times and during situations of armed conflict or war. Harmful practices are defined as all behaviour, attitudes and/or practices that negatively affect the fundamental rights of women and girls, such as their physical integrity. Article 5 calls on States Parties, among others, to prohibit and condemn all forms of harmful practices that adversely affect women’s human rights.

Over the Decade, the AU prioritised ending GBV in Africa, as reflected in its work. These include the AU Gender Strategy 2018 – 2028, the Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa and Agenda 2063. The AU also launched two campaigns to accelerate ending harmful practices and raise awareness: The Continental Initiative to End Female Mutilation and the Campaign to End Child Marriage.

Harmful practices are defined as all behaviour, attitudes and/or practices that negatively affect the fundamental rights of women and girls, such as their physical integrity. Article 5 of the Maputo Protocol calls on States Parties, among others, to prohibit and condemn all forms of harmful practices that adversely affect women’s human rights.

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4.1. Key Legal, Policy and Institutional Reform More than half of the African countries adopted constitutional provisions that are considered important in prohibiting VAW and protecting women and girls from harmful practices and early marriage. They include provisions that prohibit inhumane and degrading treatment, such as trafficking and slavery, guaranteeing protection from violence, and eliminating all forms of VAWG, including rape. Other constitutional reforms set the legal age of marriage at 18 (Malawi, Zimbabwe), and explicitly prohibits forced marriage (Burundi, Guinea) and guarantee the right to marry based on the parties’ free consent (Kenya, South Sudan.). In some countries, including Chad, Côte d’Ivoire and Guinea, constitutional provisions prohibit FGM. Most countries adopted legislation aiming to eliminate harmful practices and eradicate VAWG. Several countries, including Angola, Liberia and Uganda, enacted legislation prohibiting domestic violence. A majority of countries prohibit domestic violence under the law. Some countries have adopted legislation specifically prohibiting early or forced child marriage. Some countries adopted laws prohibiting and criminalising FGM, while others made changes to the penal code relevant to protecting women and girls from harmful practices, such as FGM. Other legal reforms include strengthening provisions concerning sexual harassment and rape.

Some countries, including Mozambique, Sierra Leone and Lesotho, criminalise marital rape.

Fifteen countries (Angola, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Eswatini, Gambia, Ghana, Lesotho, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan and Zimbabwe) enacted laws that prohibit trafficking. These reforms differ in scope, with some banning all forms of trafficking, such as human trafficking, sexual exploitation, and forced labour and the penalties imposed.

Countries across Africa have adopted policy reforms to eradicate harmful practices and combat violence against women and girls over the Decade. While several countries introduced national strategies, they vary in scope. Some various forms of violence include sexual, physical, domestic, emotional and psychological violence, as well as harmful cultural practices and human trafficking (Kenya). Other countries launched strategies explicitly focused on combating harmful practices such as human trafficking.

During the Decade, 28 countries held national launches of the AU Campaign to End Child Marriage.60 Some also undertook national strategies, primarily aimed at combating early and child marriage, while others focused on VAW or FGM. Further institutional reforms include holding training sessions for law enforcement institutions such as the police and the judiciary on domestic violence, sexual violence and VAW policies and laws. Some countries have increased the protection of and services for victims of trafficking by providing shelters. Several countries have strengthened institutional mechanisms by introducing new departments or courts with a specific mandate relevant to combating violence against women and harmful practices, such as FGM and trafficking. Important judicial rulings on, for example, marriage, child marriage and marital rape strengthened women’s rights and increased the protection of women and girls.

Other countries have strengthened women’s access to justice through the establishment of courts that may hear cases of rape (Liberia.)

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4.2. Key Challenges and Gaps  Although countries have adopted legislation on SGBV during the Decade, women across the continent lack legal protection against domestic violence. Moreover, few countries criminalise marital rape. Customary law in many countries does not recognise marital rape or domestic violence as violations against women.  While many countries have the legal age of marriage at 18, exceptions in the law, such as parental, guardian or court consent, mean that girls can be married under 18.  Despite efforts to eliminate it through legislative and policy reforms, FGM continues to be practised partly because of gaps in legal frameworks and weak law enforcement. In some countries, attempts to introduce legislation prohibiting FGM have been unsuccessful.  Conflict and unrest hinder the implementation and enforcement of laws and policies on VAW and harmful practices and place girls and women at increased risk of violence and abuse with refugees and internally displaced persons particularly vulnerable.

4.3. Recommendations  Repeal laws enabling early, forced and child marriage and remove exceptions in legislation regarding age and full and free consent in marriage. Laws on marriage should meet the commitments made in the Maputo Protocol.  Adopt and implement a comprehensive legal framework that prohibits and criminalises all forms of violence against women (VAW), such as domestic violence and marital rape. The legal framework should also include protection against online violence against women.  Adopt and implement programmes that provide legal and medical support and provide other services to support survivors of VAW and harmful practices to ensure they receive the support and help they need and to which they are entitled.  Adopt, implement and enforce legislation prohibiting all forms of human trafficking.  Allocate adequate financial resources to eliminate all forms of VAW and harmful practices and ensure relevant institutions, such as police and the judiciary, can enforce the law and provide survivors with support, protection and redress.

5. Women, Peace and Security Increasingly conflicts in Africa have taken on an intrastate or interstate character, involving non-state actors and state entities. Although studies indicate that when women are involved in the peace processes and agreements, these are more likely to last, in practice women are largely excluded and their voices not heard.

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AWD Goal 6 aims to work with the AU Peace and Security Department, the Peace and Security Council and the Panel of the Wise in relation to UNSCRs 1325, 1820, 1888 and 1889 with a particular focus on VAW, peace-building and reconstruction. Concerning peace, security and VAW, the Maputo Protocol guarantees women the right to peace (Article 10) and protects women in armed conflict (Article 11).

The AU emphasised peace-building on the continent and integrated the women, peace and security agenda within its Continental and Regional Policy and Structural Architecture on Peace and Security over the Decade. To that end, the AU has undertaken several actions. In 2014, the AU established the Office of the Special Envoy on Women, Peace and Security. The Office addresses the plight of women in conflict prevention, management and resolution, and advocates an end to impunity around SGBV.61 In 2019, the theme of the AU’s 32nd Ordinary Session of the Assembly of Heads of States and Governments was “Refugees, Returnees and IDPs: Towards Durable Solutions to Forced Displacement in Africa”, and in 2020, “Silencing the Guns: Creating Conducive Conditions for Africa’s Development.” In 2019, the AU adopted key policies to ensure gender-responsive peacekeeping and guide its peacekeeping operations.

These are the Policy on Conduct and Discipline for Peace Support Operations and a Policy for Prevention and Response to Sexual Exploitation and Abuse for Peace Support Operations.

AU Member States that send peacekeeping forces to the AU missions are bound to observe these codes of conduct. Other efforts on women, peace and security sought to train women in mediation, especially in high-level mediation.

5.1. Key Legal, Policy and Institutional Reform Across the five regions, many countries have enacted constitutional reform relevant to women, peace, and security during the AWD. They introduced provisions concerning the State’s role in ensuring peace and security and the role of national security forces, the right to peace and security, women’s equal right to participation and the elimination of sexual violence. Of note is the 2019 Constitution of Sudan, which calls for the application of “UN Security Council Resolution 1325 and the relevant African Union resolutions regarding the participation of women at all levels in the peace process.”62 Other legal reforms sought to promote women’s right to a peaceful existence, fair representation of women, women’s right to participate in promoting and maintaining peace and post-conflict justice and reconciliation. Some countries have started integrating gender issues into peace agreements, while others included women in peace talks.

Concerning policy reforms, some countries have launched a national action plan (NAP) for the implementation of UNSCR 1325. Some 25 of the 55 African countries adopted a NAP. Seven countries (Burundi, DR Congo, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria and Rwanda) have introduced a second NAP during the AWD. Of note, Mali, despite having experienced an escalation of violence in the northern part of the country, implemented its third NAP (2019–2023) in 2019.

One government in North Africa, Tunisia, adopted its first NAP in 2018 . Some countries

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addressed women, peace and security in national gender policies and strategies. Other policy reforms aimed to increase women’s representation and participation, while others address SGBV in a conflict in their national policies and strategies.

Several countries, including Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Lesotho, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, also implemented institutional reforms that advance the women, peace and security agenda. Some reforms introduced national peace and reconciliation commissions to combat, for example, sexual violence related to conflict, while others established legal mechanisms such as a Special Criminal Court (Central African Republic) to address war crimes. Other institutional reforms include establishing gender desks in police stations and national initiatives to combat sexual violence related to conflict.

Among the notable examples of successful women’s initiatives around peacebuilding is the Women’s Situation Room (WSR). The WSR monitors electoral processes to ensure that situations that potentially trigger conflict are recognized and managed. Over the Decade, local initiatives have been acknowledged as essential partners in peacebuilding and preventing disputes from escalating.

Other legal reforms sought to promote women’s right to a peaceful existence, fair representation of women, women’s right to participate in promoting and maintaining peace and post-conflict justice and reconciliation.

Some countries have started integrating gender issues into peace agreements, while others included women in peace talks.

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5.2. Key Challenges and Gaps  Many countries in Africa do not have a NAP. While some countries had a NAP at the beginning of the Decade, many have not renewed their NAP once it expired.  Despite legal, policy and institutional reforms, barriers to formal participation in peacebuilding and post-conflict processes persist. Women are under-represented in peace and post-conflict processes and the security sectors or excluded altogether.  For many countries, conflict and unrest hinder the advancement of the WPS agenda and put women and girls at increased risk. Conflicts, political unrest and unstable environments also cause large displacements of populations and increases in sexual violence in these conflicts is a serious concern, especially for refugees and IDPs.

5.3. Recommendations  Adopt and keep current National Action Plans (NAPs) for the implementation of UNSCR 1325. These should include mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating commitments and integrating gender equality and women’s rights in all aspects of their work. .  Strengthen and enforce opportunities for women’s participation in developing conflict prevention and post-conflict policies, laws and institutional mechanisms. These efforts should include frameworks for CSOs and women’s advocates to participate by using a multi-sectoral and integrated approach.  Provide adequate funding for the women, peace and security (WPS) agenda.  Adopt and implement laws, policies and programmes that provide care and support for sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) survivors, particularly for those from vulnerable groups, such as IDPs, female refugees, women with disabilities, minority group members, widows and older women.  Implement a robust judicial system to enforce laws, allow survivors to seek redress and hold perpetrators of human rights violations accountable.

6. Agriculture and Food Security While African women make up most smallholder farmers and about two-thirds of the agricultural labour force and assume the responsibility of household food security, they have less access to and control over land and resources such as credit, fertilisers and technologies. Food insecurity in many parts of Africa is on the rise across the continent following years of decline in part due to the impact of climate change and natural disasters.63

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The Maputo Protocol guarantees the right to nutritious food and food security (Article 15)64 and promotes women’s access to and control over productive resources, such as land, and guarantees their right to property (Article 19(c)).65 AWD Goal 2 on agriculture and food security seeks to achieve food security and fight hunger; increase African women’s access to agricultural land and resources such as farm inputs, credit, technology, irrigation and water; and link women to markets and create new markets for their produce.

At the continental level, AU Member States made commitments to enhance women’s right to access, control and own land and recognise the important role women play in agriculture and food production These include the 2010 Abuja Declaration on Development of Agribusiness and Agro-Industries in Africa and the 2014 Malabo Declaration on Accelerated Agricultural Growth and Transformation for Shared Prosperity and Improved Livelihoods. The AU also declared 2014 the Year of Agriculture and Food Security. The AU gender equality commitments focus on achieving 30% documented land ownership and 50% finance for women.66 The AU Gender Strategy 2017–2027 builds on already existing commitments and targets focusing on rural women. It emphasises a transformative approach to empower women.67

6.1. Key Legal, Policy and Institutional Reform Over the Decade, several countries took steps to enshrine the right to food and provide equal access to land in laws and constitutions. Regarding the right to food, the constitution in seven countries (DR Congo, Egypt, Kenya, Niger, South Africa, Uganda and Zimbabwe) include a provision guaranteeing that right. The constitutions of Egypt, South Africa, Uganda and Zimbabwe also articulate the role of the State in providing food resources. Concerning land rights, nine constitutions (Algeria, Côte d’Ivoire, Egypt, Gambia, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, South Sudan and Zimbabwe) include provisions regarding ownership of land and articulate the role of the State in protecting agricultural land and promoting agriculture. The constitutions of Kenya and Zimbabwe also recognise the role of the State in ensuring land use is equitable and eliminates discrimination.

Legislation adopted in Kenya, Liberia, the Republic of Congo and Rwanda promotes the equal right to land and prohibits all forms of discrimination, such as gender, in access to land. In Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire and the Gambia legislative reform provides for support rural women’s economic development.

Across the continent, governments have implemented policy and institutional reforms that aim to increase women’s access to land and resources in agriculture, achieving food security and fighting hunger during the AWD. They include:  Most countries have a National Agriculture Investment Plan (NAIP). These aim to, among others, facilitate availability and access to productive resources and improve market access and infrastructure.

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 Several countries introduced specific strategies on gender and agriculture that includes goals such as reducing gender inequalities concerning land rights and increasing access to financial resources such as credit. At the same time, other countries have adopted strategies and programmes that address both agriculture and food security.  Regarding improving food security, countries implemented institutional reforms that aim to assist women with income-generating activities and food aid (Djibouti), fight hunger, and increase food and nutrition security (Republic of Congo), for example.  Institutional reforms in some countries sought to assist women in agriculture and agricultural businesses by increasing access to funding resources such as loans and credit for fertiliser, seeds, and production and processing equipment. Other institutional reforms established funds specifically earmarked to help women purchase land. Notably, the Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Environmental Protection of Zambia increased its quota for land reserved for women from 30% to 40%.68

6.2. Key Challenges and Gaps  While the right to land is constitutionally guaranteed or enshrined in law in many countries, few women are landowners, and gender gaps in ownership persist due to weak implementation of existing laws. Moreover, customary laws and tenure systems tend to favour men and discriminate against women.  Women farmers, particularly female smallholder farmers, have limited access to agricultural technologies, seeds, credit, finance and other resources, and markets beyond the local market.  While countries have implemented legislative, policy and institutional reforms on women and girls, food security and agriculture, women’s equal burden of unpaid care work go unrecognised.

6.3. Recommendations  Repeal any laws that discriminate against women’s access to and participation in land ownership, agriculture and agribusiness.  Recognise and take measures to address the burden of unpaid care work and its impact on women’s economic empowerment, such as time poverty, and integrate relevant provisions for unpaid care work in all agricultural and food security frameworks.

Measures should also include providing support and developing opportunities with regard to the sharing of unpaid care work.  Increase women’s access to and participation in decision-making and the development of laws, policies and strategies on agriculture and food security to ensure all women’s expertise, perspectives and needs are included.

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 Develop targeted measures and affirmative action policies to empower and develop the capacities of female farmers. These should include increasing women’s access to modern means of production and marketing to enable women to participate equally in agribusiness and to improve food security.  Enact and enforce projects, policies and programmes to reduce food insecurity among women and girls and improve women’s access to land ownership. These measures should pay particular attention to women in marginalised groups, such as women with disabilities, elderly women and widows.

7. Environment and Climate Change The effects of climate change are felt across Africa. African women and girls are disproportionately vulnerable to the impact of climate change. The African States have undertaken legal, policy, and institutional reforms to adapt and mitigate the effect of climate and environmental changes over the past decade.

The Maputo Protocol guarantees women the right to live in a healthy and sustainable environment. It obligates States Parties to ensure greater participation of women in the planning, management and preservation of the environment and the sustainable use of natural resources at all levels (Articles 18). Similarly, Article 19 guarantees women the right to sustainable development and the full enjoyment of this right and calls on States Parties to, among others, introduce a gender perspective in national development planning procedures.

To that end, Goal 5 of the AWD on the environment and climate change aims to identify women’s role in mitigating climate change as custodians of the environment, making sure they benefit from new global packages to fight climate change.69 During AWD, the AU and its Member States adopted reforms that link climate change, the environment and gender. In 2015, the AU adopted Agenda 2063, which notes the impact of climate change on the African continent and calls on the Member States to speed up actions and act with a sense of urgency on climate change and the environment and for full gender equality in all aspects of life. The AU has also introduced two strategies on climate change. Its most recent plan, the Draft Africa Climate Change Strategy 2020–2030, considers gender throughout and notes, in particular, the challenges women face and the importance of including gender equity to address the challenges ahead.70 The AU has also undertaken institutional reforms related to the impact of environmental and climate changes during this Decade. Since 2013, the African Working Group on Gender and Climate Change has coordinated and provided leadership for Africa’s engagement in regional and global gender and climate change processes.71 In 2014, the African Heads of State formed the Women and Gender Programme on Climate Change of the Committee of African Heads of State and Governments on Climate Change to advance the efforts of the Working Group.72 Its aim is to engage women in climate change-related actions, such as the provision of practical

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support and training for women negotiators, to ensure gender-responsive legislation and programme implementation in Africa.73

7.1. Key Legal, Policy and Institutional Reform Over the Decade, African countries have addressed climate and environmental changes through various legislative and policy reforms. Among the key developments in legal reforms on climate change and the environment are:  Nine countries (Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Mauritania, Republic of Congo and South Africa) ratified the 2003 African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (revised version). As of July 2018, 17 countries have ratified, and 42 have signed the Convention. 74 Among the Convention’s goals is to enhance environmental protection and foster the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.  Thirty countries adopted constitutional reforms that address environment and climate change, of which the majority guarantees the right to a healthy and clean environment.

Other reforms impose an obligation to protect the environment.  Many countries adopted legislation authorising ratification of the Paris Agreement on Climate Change. As of October 2020, all African countries, except Eritrea, Libya and South Sudan, had ratified the Agreement.75  Several countries adopted laws on disaster risk management, environment management, water and climate change. Some of which include provisions on gender, such as the 2015 Disaster Management Act of Rwanda and the 2017 Environment Management Act of Malawi.

A review of the policy reforms taken during the AWD show the following trends:  Many policy reforms on the environment and climate change consider gender equality and seek to mainstream gender in climate change and environmental mitigation and adaptation initiatives. Some of the policies link gender equality and women’s empowerment with the impacts of climate change and recognise the disproportionate vulnerability of women and girls to environmental degradation and climate change.  Several policies on climate change and the environment identify women’s role in mitigating climate and include objectives and strategies to increase women’s participation. The policies of Ethiopia, Ghana, Namibia, Tanzania and Uganda, for example, advocate enhancing the equitable representation of women and vulnerable groups in all levels of planning, decision-making and implementation of adaptation and mitigation actions.76

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 Eight countries (Cameroon, Egypt, Ghana, Mozambique, Liberia, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia) have adopted Climate Change Gender Action Plans (ccGAPs). The plans include goals to ensure that gender is mainstreamed in climate change policies, programmes and initiatives and often focus on priority sectors, such as agriculture—a sector where many women work.  Six countries (Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Togo) have adopted National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) in compliance with the obligations under the Cancun Adaptation Framework of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.77 All NAPs recognise the adverse effect of climate change and commit to reducing the vulnerability of particular groups, such as women. For example, the NAPs of Burkina Faso and Ethiopia aim to strengthen the role of women and raise awareness among women’s associations.

Many policy reforms on the environment and climate change consider gender equality and seek to mainstream gender in climate change and environmental mitigation and adaptation initiatives. Some of the policies link gender equality and women’s empowerment with the impacts of climate change and recognise the disproportionate vulnerability of women and girls to environmental degradation and climate change.

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7.2. Key Challenges and Gaps  Few countries implemented legal or constitutional reforms on the impact of climate change and environmental challenges. A survey of existing climate and environmental legislation indicates that the links between gender, climate and environment are nonexistent or weak.  Several countries have not yet adopted and implemented NAPs, ccGAPs or other climate and environmental policies. Many existing policies on climate and environment are gender-neutral and therefore discriminatory and fail to recognise the different ways men and women are impacted by climate and environmental changes.  Conflicts pose a significant challenge to the adoption and implementation of climate adaptation and mitigation policies across Africa. As a result, many flee to neighbouring countries, thus adding stress to resources, and increasing competition. For women who often rely on the ecosystem to provide an income and food security, this is a particular challenge.

7.3. Recommendations  Develop and implement Climate Change Gender Action Plans (ccGAPs) and National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) that are gender-sensitive and gender-responsive and include mechanisms for monitoring and evaluation (M&E).  Ensure women’s equal participation at all levels of decision-making and planning, financing, management, and implementation of climate change responses, such as in mitigation and adaptation processes. In establishing mechanisms for equal participation, particular attention should be given to ensuring the inclusion of marginalised women, such as women with disabilities, elderly women, widows and women in rural areas.  Enact and enforce laws, policies and strategies that reflect the inter-linkages between gender and climate change, paying particular attention to the gendered impact of climate change and reflecting the needs of women in differing contexts. Frameworks should also adhere to agreed-upon regional, continental and international climate change, environmental and gender commitments.  Include local women’s groups and indigenous women’s knowledge, expertise and perspectives in responses to environmental and climate challenges.  Invest in renewable and improved energy resources and ensure women have equal access to these as well as scientific, technological and financial resources. Responses should also consider the needs and perspectives of women in marginalised groups, such as women with disabilities, elderly women, widows and rural women.

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8. Education, Science and Technology During the AWD, countries across Africa took steps to promote access to education, science and technology for women and girls. At the continental level, the 2016 AU adopted the Continental Education Strategy for Africa (CESA 16–25), which includes goals to accelerate processes leading to gender parity and equity and launch comprehensive and effective literacy campaigns across the continent to eradicate illiteracy.78 The AU’s annual Kwame N’Krumah Regional Award for Scientific Women promotes women’s access to education and scientific careers and provides support for their research. At the regional level, Member States adopted policies to encourage and support girls and women in science and stimulate progress in achieving SDG 4.

Article 12 of the Maputo Protocol guarantees the right to education and training for women and girls and commits States Parties to take positive actions to promote these rights. To that end, AWD Objective 4 on education, science and technology aims to achieve parity at secondary and tertiary levels and higher retention rates; to increase the literacy levels of women through adult education; and to ensure the contribution of women scientists and their participation in information, communication and technology (ICT).79

8.1. Key Legal, Policy And Institutional Reform Achieve parity in education at secondary and tertiary levels and higher retention rates for girls Several countries adopted constitutional provisions on the right to education and training for all. Other constitutions (Tunisia, Chad, Somalia, and Egypt) contain provisions that provide for free education up to a certain level. Other constitutions contain broad provisions on the role of the State in providing access to education free of charge.

Across the continent countries have adopted legal reforms relevant to promoting gender balance and equality and the protection of students at the secondary and tertiary levels. Other reforms introduced free secondary education or partially removed educational fees. Some countries introduced institutional reforms aimed at improving young women’s access and retention at the tertiary level (Somalia.)

Nearly all African countries have adopted national education sector policies with specific goals for secondary and tertiary education. The policies include goals to strengthen girls’ access, retention and success (Senegal) 80, ensure that all students complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education by 2030 (Liberia)81 and facilitating the re-entry of teenage mothers into the school system and to ensure all schools are safe for girls (Sierra Leone). 82 During the Decade, important institutional reforms strengthened the rights of pregnant girls to education and protected them from being suspended or forced from school, as well as facilitating their re-entry. For example, in 2019 the ECOWAS Community Court of Justice found the ban in

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Sierra Leone, preventing pregnant girls from attending school and sitting for exams, violated girls’ right to education was discriminatory.83 Following the ruling, the government of Sierra Leone announced its intention to introduce new policies focusing on, among others, inclusion.

Increase literacy levels of women through adult education A review of constitutional reforms undertaken during the Decade show that countries such as, Angola, Comoros, Egypt and South Sudan adopted relevant provisions on eradicating illiteracy and promoting access to literacy.

In most African countries goals to eradicate illiteracy through literacy programmes are generally included in education sector plans or development plans. However, Mozambique, Tanzania and Uganda, for example, have also adopted plans that explicitly aim to improve adult literacy and education.

Two countries (Zambia and Zimbabwe) adopted legal reforms that provide for equality in access to education, including adult literacy education.

Ensure the contribution of women scientists and their participation in ICT Regarding legal reforms concerning the contribution of female scientists and their participation in ICT, 3 countries (Egypt, Libya and Morocco) adopted constitutional provisions on scientific research during the AWD. Kenya passed the Science, Technology and Innovation Act in 2013.

The review did not find other legal reforms elsewhere.

The review of policy reforms implemented during the AWD indicates that many countries incorporate science, technology and innovation in their national development agendas, as well as in their education sector plans.84 While in other countries such as Gambia (The National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2013–2022) and Malawi (2013 ICT Policy) have implemented specific policies that seek to enhance the training and access for women and girls in science and ICT. Other strategies to encourage girls and young women to take more interest in science, information, communication and technology include the national Miss Math, Miss Science and Miss Geek competitions launched in Malawi, Rwanda and Senegal have launched.85 Several countries have introduced scholarships for girls in the scientific fields.

8.2. Key Challenges and Gaps  Not all constitutions guarantee the right to education in general, or at the secondary and tertiary levels specifically. Moreover, few constitutions include provisions on eradicating illiteracy by providing free adult literacy programmes.  Few countries have adopted and implemented national strategies on literacy and campaigns specifically aimed at improving the literacy rates of women through adult education.

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 There are few policies on science, technology and innovation, some of which include “gender-related objectives aimed at promoting women’s participation in science.” These policies, however, are rarely implemented.

8.3. Recommendations  Develop and implement national plans, strategies and campaigns to implement the goals and objectives of the Continental Education Strategy for Africa (CESA) 16-25, the Maputo Protocol, and relevant regional and international agreements on education and gender equality. These efforts should include mainstreaming technical skills and knowledge in the education system and strengthening career guidance for all students, particularly girls.  Enact and enforce strategies and campaigns to increase the literacy rate for all women and promote lifelong learning. Plans should pay particular attention to vulnerable groups such as girls and women with disabilities, women and girls in remote and rural areas, and pregnant students.  Develop, support and implement policies and projects that improve women’s access to and participation in the scientific fields and remove the social, cultural, and economic barriers in this regard.  Invest in and consistently collect gender-disaggregated data on enrolment, retention, and graduation rates at the secondary and tertiary levels, on literacy rates among women and on women in science to help better analyse gaps and ensure commitments are met.  Adopt gender-responsive education budgets to improve girls and young women’s access to secondary and tertiary education as more and more female students complete primary education.

9. Young Women’s Movement Over the Decade, Africa saw a rise in young women and girls organising themselves and using their voices to challenge inequalities seeking to influence change. This is a notable development, as at the start of the AWD, the young women’s movement was close to non-existent, and the voices of young women was not necessarily heard or part of the larger women’s rights movement on the continent.

Among the goals of the AWD, Objective 10 aims to energise the African women’s movement, and to mentor young women and men leaders and professionals, both in Africa and the Diaspora, to be champions on gender equality and women’s empowerment.86 The AU has been at the forefront in investing in young people, especially the young women’s

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movement. Under Aspiration 6 of Agenda 2063, the AU calls for an Africa whose development is people-driven, relying on the potential of African people, especially its women and youth.87 Over the AWD, the AU developed programmes and policies related to supporting youth, particularly young women. These include the African Youth Charter, the African Youth Decade Plan of Action, and the Malabo Decision on Youth Empowerment. The appointment of Aya Chebbi as the Youth Envoy to advocate for African youth interests in AU decision-making bodies in 2018 demonstrated the AU’s commitment to supporting the youth in Africa. It also highlighted the importance of young women’s leadership and recognised their strength and contribution to the continent’s development.

9.1. Building The Young Women’s Movement in Africa and the use of Technology The rise of the young women’s movement is connected to the larger women’s movement in Africa. As the African women’s rights movement grew, the inclusion and the voices of young women were lacking. Young women’s activism rose from an issue-based strategy focus. They have organised around single issues, such as femicide, VAW, and rape, mobilising around specific incidents of oppression, violence, or inequality. In West Africa, young women’s activism is commonly organisation-led, led by young women within an institution.

Across the continent, young women’s movements formed, often overcoming challenges. In Southern Africa, young women began challenging the status quo, raising political awareness among their peers, building their capacity, and promoting their participation at all levels in the women’s rights agenda. In East Africa, the youth movement was male dominated, which presented young women with particular challenges when seeking to question the patriarchy and have their voices heard. Thus, young women have organised in bold and creative ways to raise issues important to them, challenge inequalities and assume their place in the discourse.

Despite these challenges, the young women’s movement continued to grow and organise differently. They use social media to mobilise, discuss taboo topics, such as sex and sexuality and put an intersectional approach that links LGBTQ rights to sex workers’ rights, climate justice issues, and sexual violence reproductive justice movements.

Technically savvy, young women use technology and social media in creative ways to connect and interact and build effective movements that challenge inequalities and influence change.

Digital activism, particularly the effective use of social media tools, has been instrumental in documenting citizens’ stories of violence and enabling young women to challenge the law.

An effective strategy to raise organise and affect change has been the use of hashtags. For example, in Kenya, in 2014, young women used Facebook to organise a peaceful protest after a video of a woman being stripped naked on public transport went viral. Using the hashtag #MyDressMyChoice, the movement challenged how men treated women in public and brought about a policy change. In South Africa, young female students organised around the #EndRapeCampaign at different universities, encompassing issues including not only gender and sexuality but also race, sexual orientation and disability.

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9.2. Key Challenges and Opportunities Some of the challenges the young women’s movement face includes:  Lack of funding and access to financial resources.  Being excluded from or marginalised in the decision-making processes.  Lack of or unequal access to social media platforms excludes many young women from digital activism.  There are also many opportunities for the young women’s movement. Notably, they often incorporate other movements (LGBTQ, sex work, climate justice issues). They contribute to broadening the discussion by addressing a variety of issues such as climate change and SRHR.

9.3. Recommendations  Include the perspective of young women, particularly girls and young women from poorer backgrounds, minority groups and rural areas and those with disabilities, in the development of laws, plans and strategies, and in decision-making processes.  Invest in young women-led programmes and initiatives to create spaces for their engagement in the design, delivery and evaluation of programmes. The investments should help young women develop their expertise and skills and enable continuous learning.  Recognise young women as experts in their own right on issues affecting their lives and futures. Young women are essential in designing programmes and changing traditional narratives about their lived realities.  Adopt policies and measures that keep African girls and young women safe online as they use social and digital media as part of their activism. Online violence is increasing, particularly affecting girls and young women.  Mobilise and strengthen young women’s movements to improve their advocacy skills and human rights knowledge to sustain the women’s rights movement.

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REFERENCES Endnotes 1

World Bank (2020) Africa’s Pulse Volume 21, p. 20

2

ICNL (2020) “African government responses to COVID-19”; UN Djibouti (2020) “COVID-19 situation report #9”, https://reliefweb.int/sites/ reliefweb.int/files/resources/Republic%20of%20 Djibouti%20-%20COVID-19%20Situation%20Report%20%239%2C%2017%20May%20 -%20 2%20June%202020.pdf; Sari, E. (2020) “Coronavirus: why Madagascar is back under lockdown”, https://www.theafricareport. com/33119/coronavirus-why-madagascar-is-back-under-lockdown/; Africanews (2020) “Republic of Congo begins life after lockdown”, https://www.africanews.com/2020/05/19/republic-of-congo-begins-life-after-lockdown/; AU and APRRM (2020) “Africa’s governance response to COVID-19”, p. 35

3

UN (2020) “Addressing the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on women migrant workers”, Guidance Note, https://www.unwomen. org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/ library/publications/2020/guidance-note-impacts-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on- women-migrant-workers-en.pdf?la=en&vs=227

4

UN Women, AfDB and ImpactHER (2020) “Transformative policy solutions to support women-led businesses in Africa in a post covid-19 world”, Policy Brief, www.afdb.org/en/documents/ policy-brief-transformative-policy-solutions-support-women-led-businesses-africa- post-covid19-world

5

OECD (2020) “Women at the core of the fight against COVID-19 crisis”, p. 6; Chisiri, T. (2020) “Cross border traders losing source of livelihood”, Gender Links, https://genderlinks.org.za/ news/cross-border-traders-lose-source-of-livelihood-due-to-covid-19/

6

Philip, X. (2020) “Uganda/Kenya: women traders hit hard by ‘COVID-19 nationalism’”, The Africa Report, https://www.theafricareport. com/38015/uganda-kenya-women-traders-hit-hard-bycovid-19-nationalism/

7

AU (2015) “Agenda 2063”, https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/36204-doc-agenda2063_ popular_version_en.pdf

8

UNESCO (2020) “How many students are at risk of not returning to school?”, pp. 5 and 12 sq, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000373992; UNESCO (2020) “Addressing the gender dimensions of COVID-related school closures”, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ ark:/48223/ pf0000373379

9

Marks, S. (2020) “COVID-19 limits force Ethiopian mothers to give birth at home”, VOA News, https://www.voanews.com/science- health/coronavirus-outbreak/covid-19-limits-force-ethiopian-mothers-give-birth-home; Nation (2020) “The Covid-19 nightmare for pregnant women”, https://nation.africa/health/Tough-call-for-pregnant-women-amid-Covid-19/3476990-55236702buxhl/index.html

10 Ndedi, A. (2020) “Framework in ending violence against women and girls with the advent of the COVID9 from an African perspective”, p. 2; OECD (2020) “COVID-19 crisis in the MENA region: impact on gender equality and policy responses”, p. 2; OECD (2020) “Women at the core of the fight against COVID-19 crisis”, p. 12 11 UNFPA (2020) “Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on family planning and ending gender-based violence, female genital mutilation and child marriage”, p. 1 12 UNFPA (2020) “Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on family planning and ending gender-based violence, female genital mutilation and child marriage”, p. 2 13 EISA African election calendar 2020, https://www.eisa.org/calendar2020.php

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14 AU (2020) “Women, Peace and Security (WPS) in the face of COVID-19”, https://au.int/sites/default/files/pressreleases/38368-pr-wps_ covid_ose_15_4_2020.pdf 15 UN News (2020) “170 signatories endorse UN ceasefire appeal during COVID crisis”, https:// news.un.org/en/story/2020/06/1066982; UN (2020) “Update on the Secretary-General’s appeal for a global ceasefire”, pp. 2 sqq, https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/update_ on_sg_appeal_for_ceasefire_april_2020.pdf; Lederer, E. (2020) “UN chief: 16 armed groups have responded to cease-fire appeal”, ABC News, https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/chief16-armedgroups-responded-cease-fire-appeal-70443437; WILPF (2020) “Centering women, peace and security in ceasefires”, https://www.peacewomen.org/sites/default/files/!FINAL%20WPS%20 Ceasefire%20Brief.pdf; PRIO (2020) “Are the coronavirus ceasefires working?”, https://www.prio. org/utility/DownloadFile.ashx?id=2056&type=publicationfile 16 AU and APRRM (2020) “Africa’s governance response to COVID-19”, p. 33 17 WHO (2020) “COVID-19 situation update for the WHO Africa Region”, External Situation Report 7, p. 7, https://apps.who.int/iris/ bitstream/handle/10665/331763/SITREP_COVID-19_WHOAFRO_20200415-eng.pdf 18 AU (2020) “AU guidelines on gender responsive responses to COVID-19”, https://au.int/sites/ default/files/documents/38617-doc-gewe_ and_covid_19_eng.pdf 19 AU and APRRM (2020) “Africa’s governance response to COVID-19”, p. 53 sq.

20 Ibid., p. 54 21 IGAD (2020) “Ministerial Statement on the Impact of Covid-19 on People on the Move in the IGAD Region”, https://igad.int/press- release/2503-ministerial-statement-on-the-impact-ofcovid-19-on-people-on-the-move-in-the-igad-region 22 AU and APRRM (2020) “Africa’s governance response to COVID-19”, p. 55 23 Ibid.; SADC (2020) “SADC guidelines on harmonisation and facilitation of cross border transport operations across the region during the COVID-19 pandemic”, https://www.tralac.org/ documents/resources/covid-19/regional/3222-final-sadc-guidelines-on-cross-border- transportduring-covid-19-adopted-on-6-april-2020/file.html 24 OECD (2020) “COVID-19 crisis in the MENA region: impact on gender equality and policy responses”, p. 16 sq.

25 OECD (2020) “COVID-19 crisis in the MENA region: impact on gender equality and policy responses”, p. 16 sq.

26 OECD (2020) “COVID-19 crisis in the MENA region: impact on gender equality and policy responses”, p. 18 27 Ibid.; UNFPA (2020) “S.O.S Violência Baseada no Género - Covid-19”, https://angola.unfpa. org/pt/news/sos-viol%C3%AAncia-baseada- no-g%C3%A9nero-covid-19; NCW (2020) “Women policy tracker on responsive policies & programs during the new COVID-19 pandemic”, p. 5, https://issuu.com/youm7/docs/women_policy_tracker_on_responsive 82de416cd86a0e; FDC (2020) “COVID-19: ligue gratuitamente Tmcel (82149 ou 1490), Vodacom (84146) e Movitel (1490)”, https://fdc.org.mz/pt/covid-19-ligue-gratuitamente-tmcel- 82149-ou-1490-vodacom84146-e-movitel-1490/; UN Women (2020) “COVID-19: UN Women supports kenya’s national helpline for survivors of sexual and gender-based violence”, https://africa.unwomen.org/en/ news-and-events/stories/2020/06/on-the-frontline- with-kenyas-national-helpline; Maphanga, C.(2020) “Victims of abuse can turn to the GBV Command Centre during lockdown”, News24, https://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/victims-of-abuse-can-turn-to-the-gbv-command-centre-during- lockdown-20200325; Raadio Tamazuj (2020) “Nationwide toll-free GBV helpline launched”, https://radiotamazuj.org/en/news/article/ nationwide-toll-free-gbv-helplinelaunched; UNDP (2020) “COVID-19 global gender response tracker”, Factsheet: Sub Saharan Africa, https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/womens-empowerment/ COVID-19-Global-Gender-Response-Tracker.html 28 UNAIDS (2020) “Six concrete measures to support women and girls in all their diversity in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic”, p. 14 29 For HIV/AIDS, see UNAIDS (2020) “Lessons from HIV prevention for preventing COVID-19 in

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low- and middle-income countries”, https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/lessons-hiv-prevention-covid19_en.pdf; UNAIDS (2020) “Six concrete measures to support women and girls in all their diversity in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic”, p. 6 30 African Union ‘African Women’s Decade’ Available at https://au.int/en/documents-43 31 AU Strategy for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment, https://au.int/en/articles/ au-strategy-gender-equality-and-womens- empowerment 32 Ibid.

33 ACHPR and ACERWC Joint General Comment on Ending Child Marriage 34 Enough with the Silence, Second African Girls’ Summit, Accra, Ghana, 24–25 November 2018.

Countries that have launched the campaign are Benin, Cameroon, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon Gambia, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Mali, Mauritius, Niger, Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Chad, DR Congo, Madagascar, Mali, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe 35 AU Zero Draft Strategic Direction for the AU Campaign to End Child Marriage in Africa 2019– 2023 36 UN Women (2019) “More resources and partnerships essential to ending child marriage and FGM”, https://africa.unwomen.org/en/ news-and-events/stories/2019/02/more-resources-andpartnerships-essential-to-ending-child-marriage-and-fgm 37 Assembly’s Decision Assembly/AU/12(XVII) Add.5 38 UN News (2012) “Ban welcomes UN General Assembly resolutions eliminating female genital mutilation”, https://news.un.org/en/ story/2012/12/429012-ban-welcomes-un-general-assembly-resolutions-eliminating-female-genital 39 AU Campaign for Accelerated Reduction of Maternal Mortality in Africa (CARMMA) 2009–2019, https://au.int/en/ pressreleases/20200206/campaign-accelerated-reduction-maternal-mortality-africa-carmma-2009-2019 40 Musau, Z. (2019) “Silencing the Guns campaign kicks off in 2020”, https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2019- march-2020/silencing-guns-campaign-kicks-2020 41 Agenda 2063 First Ten-Year Implementation Plan 2014–2023 42 AU Peace and Security Commission, Opening Address by the Commissioner Peace and Security of the AU Commission HE Amb. Amaïl Chergui to the 2nd General Assembly of the Network of African Women in Conflict Prevention and Mediation (FemWise-africa), “Silencing the Guns in Africa by 2020: Women’s Role in Preventing and Resolving Natural Resource-Based Conflicts” 43 UN Women, “SDG 5: achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls”, https://www. unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/ women-and-the-sdgs/sdg-5-gender-equality 44 UN, “Decade of action to deliver the global goals”, https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/decade-of-action/#:~:text=2020%20 needs%20to%20usher%20in,and%20closing%20 the%20finance%20gap 45 UN Women (2017) “Making every woman and girl count: annual report: planning phase” 46 Gender Equality Forum, “Accelerating progress for gender equality by 2030”, https://forum. generationequality.org/ 47 UN Women, “The Spotlight Initiative: ending violence against women and girls”, https://www. unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending- violence-against-women/spotlight-initiative 48 IHME (2020) “Findings from the global burden of disease study 2019”, http://www.healthdata. org/gbd/data-visualizations 49 AU (2009) “The African Women’s Decade, Theme: Grassroots Approach to Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment (GEWE)” , p. 4 50 Maputo Plan of Action 2016–2030 – Draft, https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/24099-poa_5-_revised_clean.pdf

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51 Maputo Plan of Action 2016–2030 – Draft, https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/24099-poa_5-_revised_clean.pdf 52 Sudan Constitution 2019, https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Sudan_2019?lang=en 53 Zimbabwe Constitution (Amendment) Act, 2013, Articles 76(1) and 52(b), https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Zimbabwe_2013.pdf 54 Van Eerdewijk, A. et al. (2018) “The state of African women report”, p. 258 55 CARMMA.org, “Campaign for accelerated reduction of maternal mortality”, http://carmma.org/ 56 Republic of Cabo Verde (2019) “Cabo Verde national report: Beijing+25 on the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action”, p. 29 57 UNAIDS, “90-90-90: treatment for all”, https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/909090 58 Burkina Faso (2019) “Rapport national Beijing +25” pp. 32, 41 59 Article 14.2 (c): the right to safe abortion in cases of sexual assault, rape, incest and when the pregnancy endangers the mental and physical health of the mother or the life of the mother or the foetus.

60 Egbetayo, V. (2020) “Child marriage and the education crisis in Africa: where do we go from here?”, Global Partnership, https://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/child-marriage-and-education-crisis-africa-where-do-we-go-here 61 AUC Continental Results Framework: Monitoring and Reporting on the Implementation of the Women, Peace and Security Agenda in Africa 2018–2028 62 Sudan Constitution 2019, https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Sudan_2019. pdf?lang=en 63 FAO (2016) “Africa regional overview of food security and nutrition 2016”, http://www.fao.org/ publications/rofsn-africa/en/ 64 Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa 2003 65 Ibid.

66 FAO (2018) “Leaving no one behind: empowering Africa’s rural women for zero hunger and shared prosperity”, p. 1 67 Ibid., p. 2 68 Zambia Central Statistical Office (2014) “Gender status report 2012-2014”, p. 67 69 AU (2009) “The African Women’s Decade, Theme: Grassroots Approach to Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment (GEWE)”, p. 4 70 Ibid., p. 11 71 Africa Portal (2019) “Women, power & policymaking”, Policy Briefing, p. 4 72 Ibid.

73 Ibid.

74 African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (Revised Version) 2003, https://www.ecolex.org/details/treaty/african-convention-on-the-conservation-of-nature-and-natural-resources-revised-version-tre-001395/ 75 Paris Agreement 2020, https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_ no=XXVII-7-d&chapter=27&clang=_en 76 Ibid.

77 UNFCCC, “National adaptation plans”, https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/NAPC/Pages/national-ad-

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aptation-plans.aspx 78 AU, “Education, science and technology”, https://au.int/en/education-science-technology 79 AU (n.d.) “The African Women’s Decade Theme: Grassroots Approach to Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment (GEWE)”, p. 4 80 Senega’s Programme d’amelioration de la qualite, de l’equite et de la transparence (PAQUET) secteur education formation 2013–2025, pp. 115–116.

81 Liberia’s Getting to Best Education Sector Plan 2017–2021, p. 73 82 Sierra Leone’s Education Sector Plan 2018–2020, p. 34 83 Equality Now (2019) “Victory at ECOWAS Court for girls in Sierra Leone”, https://www.equalitynow.org/victory_for_girls_in_sierra_leone 84 UNESCO (2015) “UNESCO science report: towards 2030”, p. xx.

85 Republic of Senegal (2019) “Rapport national de la mise en œuvre de la Déclaration et du Programme d’Action de Beijing +25”, p. 20 86 AU (2009) “The African Women’s Decade, Theme: Grassroots Approach to Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment (GEWE)”, p. 5 87 Agenda 2063, https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/36204-doc-agenda2063_popular_ version_en.pdf

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