ENSLAVED ARTISANS AT MOUNT VERNON

From sunup to sundown, hundreds of enslaved people at Mount Vernon found themselves working tirelessly for the benefit of George Washington. Alongside field laborers, enslaved artisans also contributed to the economic success that Washington enjoyed.16 Of the enslaved individuals who were able to work, about 28% were considered skilled laborers.17 There were various artisans at Mount Vernon including house servants, blacksmiths, coopers, cooks, dairy maids, gardeners, millers, distillers, seamstresses, shoemakers, spinners, knitters, ditchers, wagon drivers, and postilions to name a few.18 Washington utilized both the labor of enslaved and white individuals to perform artisan jobs. This situation was not unique to Washington, as many of his contemporaries utilized enslaved artisan work. Thomas Jefferson, George Mason, Robert “King” Carter, and James Madison are just a few wealthy Virginia plantation owners who utilized enslaved artisans.19

By using primary sources such as the farm reports, letters, and the financial papers of George Washington, historians can start to piece together the economic lives of the enslaved people of Mount Vernon. Many of the artisans at Mount Vernon were enslaved males, with most of the enslaved women and teenagers working in the fields. Theresa Donnelly argues that by having women perform the laborious and monotonous tasks of field labor, enslaved men were able to have the opportunity to be artisans.20 But there were also opportunities for some enslaved women to have skilled work.

Charlotte, a seamstress at Mount Vernon, was one example of an enslaved woman who performed skilled labor. Her work as a seamstress included making clothes for the enslaved field hands, those working in the mansion would get finer cuts of cloth called livery.21 Based off the farm reports that George Washington was getting, Charlotte was consistently making 9 shirts a week and would occasionally make other items depending on what the estate needed. These shirts were typically meant for enslaved field hands, but there a is record of her working on clothing for members of the Washington family from time to time.22 On January 16, 1793, Washington

16 Gwendolyn K. White, “Commerce and Community: Plantation Life at George Washington’s Mount Vernon, 1754 to 1799” (PhD diss., George Mason University, 2016).

17 Mount Vernon Ladies Association, “Slave Labor,” Digital Encyclopedia of George Washington, Accessed November 10, 2021, https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/slave-labor/.

18 For a more comprehensive list of the enslaved artisans look at the 1786 and 1799 wills of George Washington.

19 Henry Wiencek, “Master of Monticello,” Smithsonian 43, no. 6 (October 2012); Charles Richard Baker, “What Can Thomas Jefferson’s Accounting Records Tell Us About Plantation Management, Slavery, and Enlightenment Philosophy in Colonial America?” Sage Journal 24, no. 2 (May 2018): Philip D. Morgan, “Slave Counterpoint.” got a letter from his farm manager, Anthony Whiting, who stated that he “Gave…a very good whipping,” to Charlotte for being insolent with him. A few days after this event, it was reported to Whiting that the clothing that Charlotte had been given was refused, leading him to whip her again. Whiting was “determined to lower her Spirit or skin her Back.”23 Washington wrote back that he considered this treatment of Charlotte to be appropriate and that “If she or any other of the servants will not do their duty by fair means, or are impertinent, correction (as the only alternative) must be administered.”24 By examining these two letters, one could see that though Charlotte had been whipped just days before, with her finger injured in the process, Washington approved of Whiting’s punishment. Washington was first and foremost a businessman, and by having one person out of the workforce, it would have cost him in the long run. Washington’s textile industry at Mount Vernon was meant to help him save money rather than make money by providing most of the cloth needed to clothe enslaved field hands. Charlotte not working because of her injury and prior illness would set back the number of shirts that could have been made in a single year. Charlotte’s job at Mount Vernon was rather unique, she was in more constant contact with Martha Washington due to her job as a seamstress. It was not uncommon for enslaved seamstresses to work on clothing meant for other enslaved individuals on top of their domestic chores.25 There was nothing special about the cloth that was being produced on the plantation. It was made of some of the poorest quality fibers George Washington could buy or produce himself. The textile industry at Mount Vernon helped Washington save money by not having to buy cloth for every single one of his enslaved individuals.

20 Theresa L., Donnelly, “George Washington’s Laboring Women,” 2.

21 The livery was made of finer cuts of cloth and dyed, showing the wealth of the Washingtons, that they were able to cloth these enslaved people in such expensive clothing.

22 Weekly Report, 12 January 1793, Mount Vernon – This report is most likely prior to Anthony Whiting whipping her.

Kate, a midwife, was another example of an enslaved woman who was a skilled artisan at Mount Vernon. In 1794, Kate petitioned George Washington to allow her to “serve the negro women” as a “Granny” for the other enslaved women on the estate. This request comes to Washington from his overseer Will, who also happened to be Kate’s husband. What is perhaps more interesting about this request is that she requested monetary payment for her skills.26 Midwives would have gained their skills in a variety of ways depending on their station in life. It is very likely that Kate would have learned her skills from a white midwife, like Susanna Bishop, who delivered many enslaved women at Mount Vernon after 1785.27 But Kate’s status as an enslaved midwife would not have been new to Mount Vernon. Between 1790 and 1798,

23 Anthony Whiting to George Washington, 16 January 1793.

24 George Washington to Anthony Whiting , 20 January 1793.

25 Karol K. Weaver, “Fashioning Freedom: Slave Seamstresses in the Atlantic World,” Journal of Women’s History 24, no. 1 (Spring 2012): 47.

26 Sara Collini, “The Labors of Enslaved Midwives in Revolutionary Virginia,”19; For letter from GW to William Pearce, 17 August 1794.

27 Sara Collini, “The Labors of Enslaved Midwives,” 22.

Washington had at least eight enslaved women who attended women in childbirth.28 Not only were they midwives, but they also could perform simple medical procedures and would help in the postpartum care of both mother and child. The actions of Kate and these other enslaved women acting as midwives provide for an interesting paradox. These women, who showed their importance and value by ensuring the successful births of enslaved African Americans, contributed to the increase of slaves owned by their white masters. This natural increase of slaves provided their masters with more economic wealth by having more enslaved people that could perform the various tasks needed to run a plantation.

The Social Lives Of Enslaved Artisans At Mount Vernon

Although the economic lives of enslaved artisans are becoming more well known to historians, when it comes to the social lives of these people, there is very little known. Most of what is known about the enslaved artisans’ personal lives come from archaeological reports, visitor accounts, oral histories, and runaway ads. To understand the social lives of enslaved artisans, it is also important to understand how most enslaved people were living at Mount Vernon. Their lives were so intricately woven together. Their experiences were mostly, though not completely, the same in their private lives. There were three different archaeological digs done at Mount Vernon, with one of the most important being the House for Families site.29 For this dig, archaeologists focused on the cellar of the House for Families. The cellar was first excavated by a private firm in 1985, and then completed by Mount Vernon in 1990.30 Uncovered during both digs were artifacts like bone fragments, ceramics, game pieces, and personal items. By utilizing these archaeological findings, historians have been able to get a better understanding of items that were discarded that have offered us a glimpse into the social lives of the enslaved people. Before it was demolished in 1793, many enslaved artisans would have lived in the House for Families. After its demolition, the enslaved individuals were moved to new quarters located near the greenhouse.31 As it is currently displayed and interpreted, there are two separate wings, one for men and the other for women. There were also a few cabins that families were allowed to live in, but there is little information on the number of cabins that would have been present

28 Sara Collini, “The Labors of Enslaved Midwives,” 23. Washington was known to have hired enslaved women from other plantations to also be midwives of his estate. See- Mary Thompson, The Only Unavoidable Subject of Regret, 137.

29 Mount Vernon Ladies Association and Virginia Research Center for Archaeology, “House for Families,” https://www.daacs. org/sites/house-for-families/#home at Mansion House Farm, and no information on who inhabited them. The cabins at Mansion House Farm would have been vastly different than those of the fieldworkers on the outlying farms.32 The reason for these quarters to have been so close to the mansion was because it was expected that one would live where they worked at Mount Vernon. Many of the enslaved artisans were working in or near the mansion, and thus would have lived at Mansion House Farm. The enslaved artisans that lived on the outlying farms would have most likely lived in a cabin with their family members. It is nearly impossible to know what these cabins would have looked like since there were very few people who were writing about the private lives of enslaved individuals.

30 Johanna Hope Smith, “Adorned Identities: An Archaeological Perspective on Race and Self Preservation in 18th - Century Virginia” (PhD diss., University of Tennessee, 2017), 19.

31 Mount Vernon Ladies Association, “The House for Families.” https://www.mountvernon.org/preservation/archaeology/the-house-for-families/.

Clothing for the enslaved people at Mount Vernon varied differently, typically dependent on how close or far one was to the mansion. The cloth that Washington was providing for those not working in the mansion itself was made of coarse linens (often called negroes cloth) and wools. He allotted to them two sets of clothing a year; one made of linens for summer and the other made of wool for the harsh Virginia winters. Those that directly worked in the mansion and would have been seen by guests would have gotten finer cuts of cloth that were either dyed to match the family colors or were simpler versions of Martha Washington’s dresses. Those getting their clothing produced at Mount Vernon were able to then use dyes to liven up their clothing.33 We know that this was something that many enslaved individuals were doing based on runaway ads. The runaway ads for Ona Judge, Cupid, Pero’s, Neptune, and Jack give some clues as to the clothing that these enslaved individuals had with them, though it may not specify the colors of their clothing.34 There is an account of Charlotte who was walking around Alexandria, who was then stopped by a white woman who accused her of wearing the clothing that was stolen from her. The gown in question was one made of finer fabric and dyed, which is something Charlotte typically would not have had access to as an enslaved person. Clothing was just one of many ways that enslaved people were able to show their individuality through various stylistic choices.35

There was not much free time for the enslaved artisans at Mount Vernon. Work was from sunup to sundown, six days a week. Sunday was the only day given off, but for some of the enslaved artisans, they were needed at all hours of the day all week long. If they could, the enslaved people would try to spend their days off with their loved ones,

32 Mary Thompson, The Only Unavoidable Subject of Regret,” 161; Julian Niemcewicz, Under Their Vine and Fig Tree describes the homes of the enslaved fieldhands as “huts of the Blacks, for one can not call them by the name of houses. They are more miserable than the most miserable of cottages of our peasants,” 95; For a more general understanding of the homes of enslaved people in the Chesapeake region see Philip D. Morgan, “Housing” in Slave Counterpoint, 104 – 124.

33 Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 128.

34 Kayleigh Seng, “The Enslaved Workers of Mount Vernon and Their Social Lives,” Mason’s Legacies, http://masonslegacies.org/ exhibits/show/artisans-mountvernon/social-lives.

35 For some examples of things that enslaved people were adorning their clothing with see- Mount Vernon Ladies Association, “Clothing.” https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/slavery/clothing/. since most enslaved families lived apart from each other during the work week. During this time, enslaved families could have been doing a variety of things. Many cabins had attached to them a yard to grow fruits and vegetables, animals like ducks, turkeys, chickens, and perhaps even beehives. After Washington’s death, it is known that in his free time Davy Gray, one of two former enslaved overseers at Mount Vernon raised 32 turkeys, 20 ducks, and 42 chickens for Martha Washington who paid him about $9 for the poultry. This was not an uncommon practice in Virginia. It was known that owners would purchase eggs, chickens, ducks, and turkeys from the men and women they held in bondage.36

To get a more in-depth understanding of the social lives of a few of the enslaved individuals, I have chosen to examine the lives of Hercules and Ona Judge. Both enslaved individuals worked intimately with the Washington family, and when they escaped, their absences were well noted by both George and Martha Washington. Historians have closely examined the lives of Hercules and Oney Judge, often writing of their success running away from the Washingtons. What many do not realize when writing about them, is that by telling their stories, we are able to get a better understanding of the social lives of not just these two enslaved artisans, but the lives of countless others during the colonial period. The sources used in creating their stories for modern audiences allow for scholars to begin a deeper dive into the social lives of countless enslaved individuals in the United States.

Hercules was the enslaved cook of Mount Vernon. He was purchased by George Washington in 1754 at the age of sixteen and was a house servant for a decade before being moved to the kitchen.37 Working as the Washington family cook would not have been easy for Hercules. He would have needed to rise before Washington to ensure that breakfast was on the table in a timely manner. If the Washingtons were hosting guests, as they typically did, then his work might not have been completed until long after sundown. But Hercules quickly became an indispensable and valuable member of the Washington household through his talents as a cook. Hercules accompanied the family when they moved to Philadelphia to serve out Washington’s second term as president. According to a Pennsylvania law, Hercules would have qualified to claim his freedom after living a minimum of six months consecutively in the state.38 Hercules was given many privileges that other enslaved individuals would not have been given. One notable example was how he showed that he had some influence over the Washington family by requesting his son Richmond become his scullion and George Washington granting his request.39 Another notable example comes from George Washington Parke Custis, Washington’s step-grandson, who writes about the freedoms that Hercules enjoyed. He notes that during Congress dinners, Hercules would “make for an evening promenade,” and that his “perquisites from the slops of the kitchen,” earned him one to two hundred dollars a year. And during these strolls, he would put on his finery, and for those that knew him, they would bow to him.40 By utilizing these privileges given to him by the Washington family, Hercules was able to roam freely around in a northern city, in style, and interact with the public. By doing this, he was able to make connections that would make his eventual escape easier. Hercules ran away from Mount Vernon, on February 22, 1797.41 The response to his absence was felt differently by his family members and those that had enslaved him.42 By earning the trust of the Washington family, Hercules was able to make his way back into Philadelphia and eventually become a freedman.43 Even though Hercules was not the first, nor the last enslaved person to escape from Mount Vernon, his story showed how he was able to use the connections he created in his spare time of being the Washington family cook to gain his freedom.

Ona Judge, at the young age of ten years old, became Martha Washington’s personal maid. As Martha Washington’s maid, she would have learned various things about her mistress and her trade. As the personal maid of Martha Washington, Ona Judge had to learn everything about her mistress in order to do her job successfully. She had to know in what way and setting Martha Washington wanted things done. This meant that she spent much of her working years learning the art of the matriarch’s needs. She even became highly skilled at needlework and was even commended by George Washington as being, “the perfect mistress of her needle.”44 She was brought to both New York and Philadelphia, by the Washington family during the presidency. And although she was considered extremely valuable to Martha Washington, it had been decided that Ona Judge would be given to her eldest granddaughter, Elizabeth Park Custis Law as a wedding present.45 Knowing that her life was to be uprooted, Ona Judge had to consider the possibility of pulling off the impossible. During her time in both New York and Philadelphia she was able to create a network of connections that would help with her eventual escape. On the outside she continued to the daily work of attending to Martha Washington, on the inside, she was biding her time till her escape.

39 Kelly Fanto Deetz, “In Fame and Fear,” 77.

40 George Washington Parke Custis, Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington, by His Adopted Son, George Washington Parke Custis, with a Memoir of the Author, by His Daughter; and Illustrative and Explanatory Notes by Benson J. Lossing (New York: Derby & Jackson, 1860), 423.

41 Mary Thompson, The Only Unavoidable Subject of Regret,” 284. Note- Thompson notes that Hercules was at Mount Vernon when he runs away, despite the previous assumption that he left while in Philadelphia.

42 Mary Thompson, The Only Unavoidable Subject of Regret,” 284 – 285.

43 Kelly Fanto Deetz, “In Fame and Fear,” 86; Mary Thompson, The Only Unavoidable Subject of Regret, 285.

44 George Washington to Oliver Wolcott, 1 September 1796.

45 Erica Armstrong Dunbar, Never Caught: The Washingtons’ Relentless Pursuit of Their Runaway Slave, Ona Judge (New York: Simon and Schuster Inc., 2017), 95. Note- Ona Judge was part of the Custis/Dower slave group and thus would have been split among the four Custis grandchildren anyways. She would not have been set free by George Washington’s will.

On May 21, 1796, Ona Judge slipped out while the Washington’s ate their supper.46 Just a few days after her disappearance ads were placed in the Philadelphia Gazette and in Claypoole’s American Daily Advertiser, acknowledging her disappearance and her defiance of the president.47 These ads also offered an insight into the possessions that she had taken with her, noting that she had “many changes of very good clothes of all sorts, but they are not sufficiently recollected to describe.” Not only that, but the ads mentioned her physical appearance which is one of the few sources that gives us information on the appearances and mannerisms of enslaved people.48 Where Judge’s story differs from Hercules’ is that historians know what became of her after she escaped, primarily because she had an interview with Benjamin Case towards the end of her life. She settled in New Hampshire where she would marry Jack Staines, a freed black sailor, in 1797. The skills that she had gained in bondage for the Washingtons allowed her to get a skilled job once she was freed. There were a few moments in her life that she almost faced being sent back to the Washingtons at Mount Vernon.49 But after Washington’s death in 1799, it was said that the family never bothered her again. Ona Judge’s story is one that has captivated countless generations of people, primarily because she was able to escape bondage.

What many members of the public do not realize by listening to and telling the stories of these enslaved individuals who managed to escape, we get a sense of what their private lives were like. These enslaved people were able to form connections that would eventually grant them their freedom. The runaway ads that quickly followed the escape of enslaved people allows for us to piece together things like their mannerism, dress, and physical appearance. And although it might not sound or look like a lot of information can be found in these papers, it gives historians a better jumping-off point than they originally had.

Conclusion

46 Erica Armstrong Dunbar, Never Caught, 110.

47 “Advertisement,” Philadelphia Gazette, 24 May 1796. ;“Advertisement,” Claypoole’s American Daily Advertiser, 27 May 1796.

48 Ibid.

49 A few months after arriving in New Hampshire, Ona Judge was recognized by a friend of Nelly Parke Custis. George Washington tried to bring her back, but she refused, knowing that he could not force her back to Mount Vernon without enraging Northern abolitionists, it appears that George Washington backed off. In August of 1799, George Washington enlisted the help of Burwell Basset Jr, to find her. He relocated her, but announced his plans to John Langdon, who secretly told Judge, and she quickly left the city. – Mount Vernon Ladies Association, “Ona Judge.” https://www.mountvernon.org/ library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/ona-judge/#_ftn1

When thinking about slavery and what kind of work the enslaved people did on plantations, most people would jump to the conclusion that the only work being done was fieldwork. It is not common knowledge that many enslaved men and women were tasked with skilled labor that was vital to ensuring the plantation ran smoothly. Even as historians start to explore more in-depth the histories of enslaved artisan communities, there is still this modern opposition to enslaved people being capable of having the skills to be an artisan. Further research of this topic would include looking at the enslaved artisans on plantations throughout the Chesapeake area. Eventually, I would like this research to include enslaved artisans in Virginia and other states. The social and economic lives of the enslaved artisans of Mount Vernon, contributed extensively to the success of George Washington socially, economically, and politically. Without these individuals that the Washington family held in bondage, the Washington’s would not have enjoyed the lives they lived. By understanding the importance of enslaved artisans at Mount Vernon and on other plantations, we can begin to understand the complexities that is United States history. By continuing to tell the narratives of enslaved artisans, historians will be able to show just how essential enslaved artisans were to the success of not just white plantation owners, but the foundation United States as a whole.