ATHLETIC IDENTITY AND LOSS OF SPORT

JACK BOLZ

Major: English

Concentration: Writing/Rhetoric

Minor: Sport Management

Class of 2023

1. INTRODUCTION

Sports are an important part of society for a variety of reasons. According to Wankel and Berger (2018), participation in sport has many social benefits. Through sport, people build social connections and stay active, which altogether leads to better mental health. Many people fall in love with their sport and begin to dedicate countless amounts of time to it in order to develop skills that will allow them to perform better when they play. These people, once considered people who played sports, are now considered ‘athletes.’ The jump from casual athlete to full-time athlete can happen at any time, but is often seen taking place in the teenage years of someone’s life.

The relationship between an athlete and their sport is often referred to as ‘athletic identity.’ According to Menke and Germany (2018), “Athletic identity is the degree to which an athlete identifies with the athlete role. Athletic identity can be a social construct, conferred on the individual by family, peers, teammates, and coaches. An individual often constructs the self by emphasizing those aspects of identity that are positively regarded and enforced with other aspects of identity becoming less significant and less connected to the self.” When other aspects of the self become less significant to that of sport, it makes for the passionate pursuit of athletic success. This strive for greatness is a good thing, as it develops a sense of self-worth and motivation. However, there are instances where the pursuit of sport cannot be maintained due to the loss of sport.

While research on the mental health effects that loss of sport has on athletes is fairly extensive (Giannone et al., 2017; Taylor, 2006), there seems to be a lack of true findings to help mitigate the mental stressors that come with loss of sport (Putikian, 2016; Yang et al. 2014). Despite the amount of studies that have been conducted, there is still a need for further research regarding the mental health issues that are presented with loss of sport. The purpose of this article is to review the literature related to the loss of sport in student-athletes and its relationship with athletic identity.

The main research question guiding the review of the literature on this topic was “Given the role that sport plays in a student-athletes identity, how can coaches help athletes who are struggling with the loss of sport due to the COVID-19 pandemic?”

2. THE LITERATURE REVIEW

A search for scholarly, peer-reviewed articles was conducted on the following online databases: Google Scholar, PsycInfo, and PsycArticles. The searches were conducted with the following terms: (identity OR self-view) AND (depression OR anxiety OR suicide OR mental illness) AND (athletes OR young adults OR teenagers OR studentathletes) AND (injury OR retirement OR loss OR termination) And (sports OR athletics). No search limiters were used. While many articles were presented by the databases searched, ten articles discussed the scope of this project and were reviewed. While there are most definitely more sources available, the articles used will allow me to effectively write a review of the literature on this topic.

3. EXAMPLES OF SPORT-LOSS

Through my search for scholarly information, I have found a few examples of loss of sport that have been well-researched. The following sections will explain the findings of this research to better understand the relationship between athletic identity and loss of sport. They will also provide an understanding of the research on these forms of sport loss, and their similarities to the sport loss of the pandemic.

3.1 LOSS OF SPORT THROUGH RETIREMENT

Results from two sources in this review found that the loss of sport through retirement puts athletes at risk of some forms of psychological trauma. According to Giannone et al. (2017), those who have a stronger sense of athletic identity have a harder time coping with the loss of sport. “Athletic identity, the degree to which one identifies with the athletic role, has been proposed as a critical determinant of adaptation to sport retirement” (Giannone et al., 2017). Athletes who identify themselves heavily with their sport may be subject to more psychological issues when the participation in sport is taken away. This is often seen in the transition from collegiate athletics as the majority of those athletes have constructed their identity around their sport involvement (Menke and Germany, 2018).

A study by Giannone et al. (2017) measured the levels of athletic identity among a group of individual athletes who had just retired from their sport. Also measured were the levels of anxiety and depression the athletes experienced in the months following their retirement. “Results from this study provide evidence that athletic identity — as endorsed during athletes’ sport career — is associated with the emergence of anxiety symptoms in the months following retirement from sport”(Giannone et al., 2017). This study suggests that the higher levels of athletic identity an athlete has, the more at risk they are for psychological trauma as a result of retirement.

The spontaneity of sport retirement is a catalyst for psychological trauma such as stress, anxiety, and depression. Alfermann et al. (2003) conducted a study in which athletes were measured for their levels of athletic identity, and then were measured for their general mental preparedness for the loss of sport. Athletes who were prepared for their sport career termination had significantly better results. “This study suggests that athletes who plan retirement in advance have higher cognitive, emotional, and behavioural readiness to the last sport career transition than athletes who do not plan their retirement” (Alfermann et al., 2003). When retirement from sport is planned rather than forced by other influences, the psychological approach is much more controlled, leading to less psychological problems. In agreement with this, Menke and Germany (2018), state that many college athletic careers end due to collegiate athletic eligibility running out. Oftentimes there is not much planning for when this occurs. The spontaneity of this situation is often difficult for athletes to comprehend. Feelings of sadness, loneliness, and emptiness are experienced as a response to such a large aspect of their livelihood being lost.

3.2 LOSS OF SPORT THROUGH INJURY

Results from four sources in this review found that the loss of sport through injury puts athletes at risk of psychological trauma such as stress, anxiety, and depression (Putukian, 2016; Yang et al., 2014; Mitchell et al., 2014; Wiese-Bjornstal, 2010). Yang (2014) found that 40 to 50 percent of collegiate athletes experience an injury that prohibits them from playing their sport for at least one day in their college athletic careers. While the physical disturbance is one aspect of the injury, the psychological disturbances are another. They can even be more important than the injury itself. “These injuries often cause psychological disturbances among injured athletes, including depression and anxiety, which in turn play a role in their injury recovery” (Yang, 2014).

It is important to recognize what the post-injury responses are for athletes. Postinjury response in athletes includes struggle with stress, coping, adjustment, and the mental and physical aspects of returning to sport (Wiese-Bjornstal, 2010). In agreement with this notion, Putukian (2016) identified a hierarchy of problematic emotional responses to injury. Persistent symptoms seen could be appetite alterations and irritability. Worsening symptoms include sadness that may lead to depression, appetite alterations that lead to eating disorders, and lack of motivation. Excessive symptoms are substance abuse and excessive anger/rage.

As seen in the hierarchy, cognitive responses to injury can be “perceptions and emotions associated with stress, such as depression and anger” (Wiese-Bjornstal, 2010). Our understanding of these responses is enhanced by the notion that the spontaneity of sport injury is a catalyst for psychological trauma, and that the loss of athletic identity is tightly wound with that. Loss of athletic identity often leads to loss of confidence, fear of re-injury, and other feelings associated with doubt (Mitchell, 2014).

4. FINDINGS FROM THE LITERATURE REVIEW

There are two main findings or themes associated with the athletic identity and loss of sport. These findings are the most plausible and effective ways to reduce levels of psychological trauma in athletes dealing with loss of sport. They will be discussed in further detail to understand how they are presented by the sources.

4.1 ENHANCE SOCIAL SUPPORT AROUND STUDENT-ATHLETES

There are many benefits to having good social support around athletes coping with loss of sport (Putukian, 2016; Yang et al., 2014; Menke & Germany, 2018; Graupensperger et al., 2020; Giannone et al., 2017; Wiese-Bjornstal, 2010). Social support has been seen as the most critical aspect of this coping process (Mitchell et al. 2014). In a study that explored the relationship between social support and symptoms of anxiety and depression in athletes, Yang (2014) concluded that athletes who are satisfied or very satisfied with their social support during injury are 70-87% less likely to report symptoms of depression and anxiety at return to play. To enhance the understanding of these impacts more, a study by Mitchell (2014) examined the main effect of stressors and perceived available support. It was found that when the perception of available social support is low, stressors become associated with higher levels of psychological trauma such as stress, anxiety, and depression. Inversely, when the levels of perceived social support are high, levels of psychological distress are much lower.

It is important to recognize that most of the time, athletes will not seek help willingly. High-level athletes are often conditioned to play through pain and struggles. This mentality leads them to resent seeking help, as to them revealing symptoms is a sign of weakness. Along with this, many athletes have not developed healthy coping mechanisms, as their response to pain, loss, or defeat is to push harder and fight back. (Putukian, 2016). This is why it is so important for coaches and athletic trainers to take initiative by supporting their athletes and offering them the resources that they need. “It is important for coaches, athletic trainers and team physicians to provide support for injured athletes and keep athletes involved and part of the team. This might include keeping athletes engaged and encouraging athletes to seek help instead of ‘tough it out’. For coaches, one of the most powerful actions is to ‘give the athlete permission’ and encourage them to seek care,” (Putukian, 2016). In a study that measured athlete’s connectedness and social support during the COVID-19 pandemic, Graupensperger et al (2020) found evidence that teammate social interactions have protective effects on the mental health and well-being of athletes. By enhancing the perception of social support, coaching staffs have the power to protect athletes from versions of psychological trauma.

4.2 EDUCATE AND PREPARE ATHLETES FOR THE LOSS OF SPORT

Educating and preparing people for possible situations is essential to their development of healthy coping mechanisms (Taylor and Stanton, 2006). Athletes who lose their sport are at risk of several concerning psychological responses such as stress, depression, and anxiety. In a study that examines the transition out of sport for former college athletes, Menke and Germany (2018) suggest that college athletes will benefit from coping skills. Struggles with the transition out of sport deal heavily with the emotional response to what feels like a hole in the athletic identity that has been established for so long. In an article that reviews the psychological responses to injury, Putukian (2016), ranks the education and awareness of mental health issues and/or services as the most impactful facilitator for psychological trauma related to an athlete’s loss of sport.

In agreement with this, a study that examines the transition out of sport for former college athletes by Menke and Germany (2018), found that there are many benefits to the preparedness for the end of sport. The more prepared athletes are for activities following their athletic career, such as career opportunities outside of sport, the better off they will be when their athletic career comes to an end. Discussions about the career termination along with collaboration with counselors and sport psychologists, will help encourage the development of the whole student-athlete (Menke and Germany, 2018).

5. TAKEAWAYS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The review above has identified and examined different types of loss of sport. By analyzing the loss of sport through injury and retirement, the review has provided a better understanding of the literature of sport loss. The sport loss literature examined in this review also develops a better understanding of the loss of sport through the COVID-19 pandemic.

Among the scholarly works examined, eight articles (Putukian, 2016; Yang et al., 2014; Mitchell et al., 2014; Wiese-Bjornstal, 2010; Menke and Germany, 2018; Giannone et al., 2017; Alfermann et al., 2003; Graupensperger et al., 2020) analyzed the psychological effects of loss of sport. They concluded that loss of sport has a direct relationship with psychological trauma in athletes such as depression, stress, and anxiety.

Four of these articles analyzed the relationship between these psychological effects and athletic identity (Menke and Germany, 2018; Giannone et al., 2017; Alfermann et al, 2003; Graupensperger et al., 2020). They concluded that the more an athlete identifies themselves with their sport, the more at risk they are for experiencing psychological trauma if they lose their sport.

The two main themes of the literature were associated with the mitigation of psychological trauma from loss of sport. Six articles (Putukian, 2016; Yang et al., 2014; Menke & Germany, 2018; Graupensperger et al. 2020; Giannone et al., 2017; WieseBjornstal, 2010), analyzed the relationship between social support and psychological trauma. They concluded that the perception of social support has a direct effect on the risk of negative psychological responses. Three articles (Alfermann et al., 2003; Putukian, 2016; Menke & Germany, 2018), analyzed the education and preparation for sport termination. They concluded that preparing athletes for the loss of sport reduces their risk of negative psychological responses.

Literature on the loss of sport through the COVID-19 pandemic was quite scarce. However, the way in which sport is lost through retirement and injury is strikingly similar to that of the pandemic. The research of other examples of sport loss help us further understand the effects of the pandemic. Future research on this topic should narrow the focus to strictly loss of sport by pandemic. This way, a more specific understanding of the psychological responses to loss of sport will be developed.

6. CONCLUSION

The purpose of this article was to review the literature related to the role that sport plays in a student athlete’s identity, and the potential ways that a coaching staff can help athletes who are struggling switch their loss of sport due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, two convergent findings were found in an attempt to answer the research question. The findings presented in this article can be used to support athletes who heavily link their sport to their identity. For example, coaches and staff can enhance the sense of social support in their athletes by providing avenues for communication, such as counselors and sport psychologists. Lastly, coaches and staff can educate athletes about the potential of loss of sport, so that athletes can feel prepared before something occurs.