HUG Magazine 2016 EN - Issue №2 by PAIGEO - Pallas Athene Innovation and Geopolitical Foundation

H U NGAR IAN G EOPOLITICS

2016 2

2016/II.

ISSN 2498-647X

mihály csíkszentmihályi How can we become a creative society? sandy speicher Where are the creative leaders of the future? arjun appadurai The politics of hope sugata mitra Schools of the future will be self-organized systems yaniv erlich The genome hacker ALBERT-LÁSZLÓ BARABÁSI Control, cell biology and success istván szilágyi The geopolitics of five dimensional space

Foreword

Dear Readers! The 21st century is the century of talent, where competitive success will be determined by creativity and knowledge. In order to create competitive knowledge, we must better understand the world surrounding us. We need at once to develop a comprehensive view and unique ideas, so that by arranging these into networks we may transmit our experience to future generations. In the first issue of HUG, we provided a broad overview of our era's basic geopolitical engines, its values, and the challenges that arise from these. Our second issue addresses knowledge, creativity and technology. We believe that there is a close correlation between geopolitical contests and the world's knowledge networks and knowledge centers. In the age of information society those countries which produce no knowledge will be forced to purchase it. Today knowledge, as well as the flow of talented, educated and trained workforce is just as decisive a factor as oil used to be in the 20. century. An odd and bitter irony of technological development is that human beings' value in the labor force increases at the same moment when masses may lose their jobs due to the spread of robotics and automation. This second issue of HUG presents the connections linking geopolitics and knowledge. At the invitation of PAGEO in the past six months, world-famous thinkers have shared their thoughts on the values, knowledge, intuitions of the twentieth century as well as the global challenges that science faces.

Mihály Csíkszentmihályi, the father of positive psychology talked about creativity and the theory of flow Viktor Dörfler presented his interviews with Nobel laureates. Sugata Mitra addressed the effects of digital devices and how the Internet may aid the youngest generations in the classrooms of the future. Sandy Speicher introduced us to Standford's Design School. In this issue, you will read about the world's best universities and the background of world university rankings as well. Paulo Roberto Feldmann in his interview with HUG spoke about Latin-America's role. Albert-László Barabási told us about network research and his latest book. Yaniv Erlich shed light on the relationship between data mining and genetic research. We also interviewed the RadCube team, which follows in the footsteps of the MaSat project, so that we can learn in detail about the second Hungarian CubeSat satellite. In this issue's pages we present the inalienable relationship between knowledge sharing and technology. We wish you a very pleasant reading experience.

Sincerely yours,

Norbert Csizmadia Pallas Athéné Geopolitical Foundation President of the Board of Trustees Editor in Chief, HUG

Invisible tomorrows: TEDxDanubia

The genome hacker: Interview with Yaniv Erlich

budapest brain bar 2016

Where 9000 geographers meet

Cream of the crop: rankings of the best universities

The future of Stanford University

sandy speicher: Where are the creative leaders of the future?

Education reform in India

Sugata Mitra: The schools of the future will be self-organized systems

paulo roberto feldmann: The trick is to plan ahead

STANFORD AND SINGAPORE: Two paths of communication education

107

ALBERT-LÁSZLÓ BARABÁSI: Control, cell biology and success

116

DR. BARACSKAI ZOLTÁN: We should learn things when we need to learn them

122

MIHÁLY CSÍKSZENTMIHÁLYI MIHÁLY: How can we become a creative society?

128

Viktor Dörfler: A grandmaster projekt

134

An urbanization crisis in the developing world?

143

San Francisco: Cohabiting with creativity

150

India, a country of changes

BOOKS , FILMS , MUSIC

Bruno Giussani: The world is full of solutions

NET WORKS AND KNOWLEDGE

NE W METROPOLISES

GEOLECTURES: an international lecture series at Corvinus University

FIVE- DIMENSIONAL SPACE

SCHOOL ON THE BORDER

GEOMOMENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

156

The heart of Mumbai

164

Arjun Appadurai: The politics of hope

172

ISTVÁN SZILÁGYI: The geopolitics of five dimensional space

182

A new era of commercial satellites

186 193

After MaSat RadCube revolutionizes the space industry Curating a digital repository with the curator of WIRED magazine

198

Books we recommend

200

Films we recommend

204

The story of Hungarian folk music

GEOLectures

GEOLECTURES: AN INTERNATIONAL LECTURE SERIES AT CORVINUS UNIVERSITY The Faculty of Social Sciences and International Relations Division at Corvinus University of Budapest launched a new lectures series entitled GEOLecture at the University. The program was initiated and coordinated by Corvinus University’s Institute of Economic Geography, Geoeconomics, and Sustainable Development, with the support of the Pallas Athene Geopolitical Foundation. On average, 2-3 lectures are held each month. The series’ aim is to facilitate getting to know geopolitical, geostrategic, as well as world economic and regional processes, and to encourage thinking about these questions amongst the students, researchers, educators, and partners of the University. The Institute invites experts from Hungary and abroad, who present their research results to the students and other interested parties.

In the framework of this public international lecture series we have succeeded in bringing such internationally renowned guests as: Didier Sornette, University of Zürich, expert on crisis prediction: “Crises are not external shock effects” (March 10, 2016) Arjun Appadurai, the internationally renowned anthropologist of globalization: “The challenges of national sovereignty in the age of globalisation” (Thursday, April 14, 2016) Bruno Giussani, the European Director of TED: “TED and global knowledge sharing” (Thursday, May 5, 2016)

BRUNO GIUSsANI: THE WORLD IS FULL OF SOLUTIONS

Author: Eszter Polyรกk 8

"My work today resembles my earlier editorial work [...], the difference being that it's not me conducting an interview and writing up an article about it, but rather the interviewee him- or herself walks onto the stage to make their thoughts known to the world – live." Bruno Giussani is a world-renowned expert on technology and economics, a thinker, publicist and opinion leader. Since 2005 he has served as the European Director of the TED-network, and he organized the first TEDGlobal event as well. He played an important role in TED becoming the world's greatest and most dynamically developing knowledge sharing platform in the last few years. The magazine Wired UK named him among the hundred most influential people in Europe in 2011, 2012, 2014 and 2015. GOOD Magazine, an American publication that seeks creative answers to social problems, included him in its GOOD100 ranking. In January 2016, he received the SwissAward/Person of the Year in the Economics category. In addition to his role at TED, he is a senior

advisor to the Atlantic Council, a think tank which performs research in economic and security policy. In addition, he is a member of the Board of Directors in the Swiss software company Tinext. Between 2005 and 2015 he served as the host and curator of the conference "Forum des 100". Taking place on annually, it is Switzerland's largest convention that tackles political and economic issues. Among other things, he assists the International Red Cross in an advisory role. He is a member of the Vatican Arts and Technology Council, which was formed in December 2015 with the aim of creating appropriate strategies and tools for the digitalization of the Vatican's treasures and archival materials, and making them available to the greater public.

TED

“Ideas worth spreading" The name TED originates from the English words “Technology, Entertainment, Design”, but the conference themes now embrace a far greater spectrum than the fields originally included in the name. Since its foundation in 1984, TED has grown from a single conference organized annually to a worldwide network. In addition to the international conferences, local TEDx events and TED Salons came into being, which attract smaller participant numbers and have a relaxed atmosphere. TED is not only about events. Its sphere of activities includes online video libraries, fellowship programs, book publishing, development of audiovisual pedagogical materials with an educational purpose, and a project incubation advisory. As part of the TED network, more than 20,000 voluntary translators prepare subtitles for 2,000 TED videos in more than 100 languages of the world. The TED videos have been viewed more than 1 billion times, and the daily visitors of various online TED channels are up to several hundred thousand.

BRUNO GIUSSANI AT CORVINUS UNIVERSITY AND IN PAGEO CLUB The world-famous thinker and opinion leader Bruno Giussani arrived in Budapest last spring at the invitation of PAGEO. No seats remained free at his lecture delivered at Corvinus University, where he gave a comprehensive overview of the social effects of knowledge, the interaction of thoughts and communities from the beginning of human history. Human thoughts and communities have shaped the world since the dawn of history. This story has come to a new chapter. Just as European coffee house culture influenced the sciences, the arts and entrepreneurial spirit at the beginning of the 20th century, today the "global coffee house" formed by thoughts, conversations and communities can influence our future, exercising an important and continuous effect on global

competitiveness and geopolitical processes. Which narrative shall triumph? – we seek the answer to this question every day. How can we recreate the ideas we have formed about the relevance of thoughts and communities? How can we search more efficiently for new possibilities with their aid? Which new challenges will we face in the meantime? Bruno Giussani visited Budapest for the second time. He had already visited the Hungarian capital as a presenter at TEDxDanubia 2011. In his lecture, then, he addressed the main steps of TED's expansion and development, and he highlighted the relevance of independent, local communities and programs, such as the TEDx meetings organized in several countries of the world.

új geostratéga generációk

Types of TED conferences

TED

TEDGlobal

7 days / year

North America

Worldwide

Global and international issues

TEDYouth

TEDWoman

1 day / year

3 days / every 2 years

USA

Presentations by young talents

About the roles of women and girls

TEDx

TEDSummit

1 day / year

1 day (first in 2016!)

Locally organized

USA

Local success stories

Interactive meeting

This May Bruno Giussani, the European director and curator of TED was the guest of PAGEO Club. In the course of his work, Giussani pays special attention to the mechanics of thought exchanges, and the opportunities to develop a more modern education. In the interview, we asked him about the creation of TED, its most important results, and its vision of the future. How did you join TED? What was the heroic age of the organization like? TED has been around since 1984, and I joined about 21 years ago. Back then, it was a small group of people organizing a single conference taking place once a year in California. The aim of the founders was to tie together three fields that were approaching one another at the time: technology, entertainment and design. The initials of these words created the abbreviation TED used today. One of the founders, Chris Anderson thought that these three areas were becoming intertwined, and this was confirmed by a few concrete events: 1984 was the year when the first Macintosh appeared, and in the next year the first CDs came out. New methods were developed for disseminating entertainment content, and this is where the conference took off as well. However, with time the conference outgrew the initial three fields, and today it comprises science, philanthropy, business and a great number of other things. Chris Anderson took over the leadership of the organization in the early 2000s, and transformed TED from a for-profit to a non-profit organization. When I joined, we were a small team of organizers, who believed that they could find important thinkers who can join the conversation with their ideas. At the beginning, we did not aim to get anywhere else with these thoughts, we merely wanted to speak to the participants of the event. Later we recognized that we could create that which we today call the platform to spread ideas". We took into account that ideas gain their true meaning in the context of sharing. It is not very effective when I keep them all to myself, right? So, I joined TED. We organized another conference as well, then came TED Global, the TED-Prize, TEDx and the online platform. Our vision shifted ever more towards "ideasworthspreading", so that we could share these thoughts as part of a conversation.

As you mentioned, countless things have changed in the last 21 years. One of the newest and most remarkable of these is the TED-Prize, with which the organization supported several ideas that were waiting to come to be, such as Sugata Mitra's School in the Cloud, or Jamie Oliver's Food Revolution. Which idea influenced you the most? The TED-Prize is about a recognition that we bring together people several times a year, in the course of TEDx possibly several thousand times a year, so that they can think together about the ideas brought up. We are at the conference, and as we are listening to the presenters, we may consider what happens after the talk. There are those, who merely present their idea, and there are those, who want to realize it. But at least once a year we can ensure through the TED-Prize that one presenter has the chance to bring their idea into existence, and with this we created a framework for the community to throw its weight behind an outstanding idea. In addition to the two examples I mentioned before, the coexistence of religions, the protection of the oceans stand out, but there are prizewinners whose expertise lies in the arts, narration, written history and several other fields. The newest TED-Prize is about archeology. We announced the winner in February. One of the Prizes that I was personally affected by was the Prize that went to Neil Turok. Neil Turok is a South African physicist, who works in Canada today, and he said in his talk: â&#x20AC;&#x153;I would like the next Einstein to come from Africaâ&#x20AC;?. Naturally this is only a small goal. The greater conception aims to create opportunities for countless talented African students so that they can become great scientists and inventors. The idea that he outlined was a network of schools that trained talented students in mathematics and the natural sciences, a school that allowed them to bring their knowledge up to a level where they could continue their studies at large Western universities. Today, five years after the talk, five schools operate in five countries, and the sixth is set to open soon. This could only come to be with the aid of those who sat in the audience, and those who watched the talk on video later. This is the concept of the TED-Prize. It makes a wish come true.

There are a few basic preconditions: good, strong, evidence-based research that has relevance. However, I believe that the passion which the presenter invests into the idea's transmission is most important. That is what distinguishes a good talk from the rest.

When a single conference slowly became an entire platform, several interesting questions came up.

They asked whether we could come to their cities. Naturally, we had no capacity for this. However, this would not have stopped a passionate asker, therefore we began working on the real answer. We cannot organize it â&#x20AC;&#x201C; you can. TEDx provides a framework, the license is free of charge, you merely need to obey the rules. We permitted people to organize local programs on the basis of the TED model, in the same format and approach, under a similar logo. This was hundred percent community-initiated, and it is where we miscalculated the most: we planned for 30 TEDx conferences annually, but last year alone there were about 3,000 events worldwide. These are high figures, and we owe it entirely to the community.

From the very beginning, the idea of the platform comprised two factors: ideas and communities. We mean ideas in the context of their sharing, in those communities with whom we wish to work. In the last ten years of TED's history, the community has exercised an important influence on us several times. TEDx is one of the best examples. We started TEDx because videos shared in the Internet received countless reactions from those who had never heard of TED before.

And this, of course, changed the entire TED project: suddenly we were personally present in several thousand cities of the world, the community expanded, the conversation grew, different cultures and languages joined in. This makes possible that such ideas are included that were not discovered by us, it is merely that the community take on another role. This is where TED Education started, as well as TED Fellowships.

I believe TED's community, its presenters and its audience as well have influenced TED on several points. Where did you see the most important formative role of the audience in the organization's history?

What makes an idea worth spreading? What a good TED talk looks like in general is made up of several elements. There is no formula or algorithm for a good talk, each is realized in a different format for various reasons.

How do you keep in touch with the local branches of TEDx? Can local, inspiring TED presenters present on the global stage of TED as well?

other is TED-Ed. Its educational material is teaching effective public speaking to students. We call this presentation education. In the last years, several innovative and technological reforms have appeared in education, for instance online courses embracing countless themes, as well as mixed versions of these, online and live. The other innovation which I personally find very important is mirrored education. In general, this means that in today's education system students listen to the teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lecture, meaning they participate in a passive activity. Then they go home and the active part of learning, doing homework, takes place outside of school. The future of education is the opposite: lis-

Thus, the lessons supervised by the teachers, the active part of learning, and the passive learning done at home by listening to the talks can be used together. In my opinion this represents a significant innovation.

Arctic, on a mountaintop, or in a tiny hotel in the Amazon. They are very different, but each carries the marks of belonging to the movement. We found that determining the framework in such a manner was most appropriate, for this flexibility provides space for each event to come to be in accordance with the local circumstances and opportunities, and to facilitate local conversations.

tening to the teacher takes place before the lesson via video. Afterwards, the students come into the classroom to participate actively in conversation, in debating ideas, researching under the teacher's supervision.

of TED in more than one form. Innovative education is certainly one of those fields we would like to invest more into in the future, possibly by bringing in newer activities. In addition to this, the next five, six, seven years will be about integrating content into smartphones and other mobile devices. It will be about how we can make sure that content can be accessed easily.

In relation to presenters coming from the periphery, TEDx forms an important element in the flow of thoughts: for instance, my friends organizing TEDxDanubia have a better overview of local ideas. What I can do is come into conversation with them, so that a presenter discovered by them can appear on a larger stage. This is not just the stage of the main events, but the online platform as well, as ted.com and several other platforms ensure publication of interesting, sharp-sighted ideas from all over the world that are relevant to a broad audience. These are the dynamics of the process. The other thing that TEDx provides is a framework for conversations whose relevance is local only, and they can be shared via the video sharing TEDx channel. If they are relevant to a community, they deserve to be expressed. Thus, we can balance global and universal with the local in this network.

I can say that TED as a format truly had an effect on the world, but this effect was not due to what we created. We just concentrated on short, well-prepared talks that centered upon a single idea, not on cramming twenty different topics into a single conference. The format became popular. Today, both company and scientific events are organized using the framework of TED. I believe this is largely due to the timeframe: 15-20 minutes is perfect for the audience. However, we should not forget about the preparation of the story. After all, no matter how well you know your idea and how to present it, putting together a convincing and inspiring talk requires a great deal of work. This is what we are attempting to transmit via TED and our successes. We have made a lot of mistakes, but I believe that we have done more good than bad, and we have shown that it is possible to convince people in a brief amount of time if we are well-prepared.

Yes, to the full extent. How we organize the audience is largely about the framework in which TED is run, this determines what we can do and what we cannot do. Within this framework, however, there are numerous opportunities to run the event. There are some which bring together about eighty people in a room, and there are some that fill entire theaters, and which are put on with serious production. They may be put on anywhere: in the Sydney Opera House, in the Urania Theater in Budapest, on the ice of the

TED is a movement which permeates different cultures, or as you mentioned earlier, TED has numerous educational aspects. What innovations did TED bring to this area? Amongst the activities of TED there are several educational programs. In the framework of TED Education, we record such videos that can be used in schools, and this program is running very successfully. The

THE TED EFFECT

Innovation often takes its departure from everyday life, which is very far from scientific research. TED, however, can also be capable of connecting areas that fall very far from one another. What is your opinion, can TED become the future's scientific mediation tool? I don't believe that we have an influence on specific debates, but I can imagine the further development

"... I would like the next Einstein to come from Africa." The third part is that several billion people still have no Internet access. We hope that this will change in the next few years. Whether they access the net with old computers, laptops, or smartphones, for us the question is how we can make sure that they can access content easily. We are working on several other issues, but this is particularly important to us. In addition to science and technology TED's achievement is that it might become a trendsetter in the interaction of international and intercultural exchanges. What do you think: in sum, do Internet and modern technology have a more positive or negative effect on the interaction of cultures and religions? Neither, really, and this can be both good and bad. There are many truly positive factors in technology. Technology is really merely a key, a tool for several things, such as mobile phones, social media. There are countless positives: easy dissemination of and access to information and education, contacts

between friends and others, the formation of interest groups, greater transparency. Today, several other valuable activities have come to light which were not easily detected before. Naturally, there are also negative factors in technology. For instance, the phenomenon of the "filter bubble", the "echo chamber", which means that on social platforms people who have like-minded friends will very often only get the information relevant to their own circles, meaning that they see reality filtered through the Internet. And since they do not receive different opinions, they can only see that which they already believe. However, countless other things, such as online harassment, the complete lack of respect for privacy, and online surveillance are also harmful. Due to these positive and negative factors, much will depend on the decisions that we make together in the coming years. This is because while technology developed at a rapid pace, our adjustments, be they psychological or social, were much slower in comparison to the effects of the technology. There is no key element, but we are progressing towards a future where digital communication fills an important space, bringing both positive and negative things out of people. I hope that the balance will tip towards the good, but now everything is changing continuously, and we don't know where exactly we are headed. What advice can you give to ambitious Hungarian or Central-European presenters, with regard to, for instance, local social debates? Truly there is only one answer: participate in the conversation. If you have an idea, but you don't share it, the idea is not worth much. If you find that you could make a meaningful contribution to a conversation, this exchange will only be weaker without your idea. Participation means a great deal, the conversation and sharing the debate with the world is necessary. You can think of the future as "this" is the future, and "that" is the road leading to it. There are many organizations that determine this, they issue announcements and they organize conferences about what the future will be like, and how we can get there. This is very prescriptive. We don't intend to be prescriptive. At TED we think of the future as a place we can create together, and so we wish to make space for continuous thinking together. For this reason, all TED and TEDx events, every video, everything that we do is a piece of this thinking together.

"... while technology developed at a rapid pace, our adjustments, be they psychological or social, were much slower in comparison to the effects of the technology..."

Neither of them can say the last word on any topic. After all, a physicist can talk about any extraordinary discovery, but another researcher may question his

The newest member of the TED family is the TEDSummit. What is its most important aim, and how can we picture this event, which is to take place for

opinion, as science continuously progresses. However, it is indispensable that the conversation be carried on, that the space keeps growing, and that ever more people can make their own contribution. This is the answer to the question, and this is what we do at TED: if you have something, contribute it, for if you don't, the conversation will lead to a less interesting future.

the first time this year?

In this conversation about the future what standpoint do you and your colleagues represent? Where do you believe the world is headed? Do you mean whether we are optimists or pessimists? I think the essence could be put into these words: when we read a paper, watch the news, or browse the Internet, we may easily come to feel that the world is filled with complex, unsolvable problems. However, the reality is much worse: for the world is filled with problems that we could solve. It is particularly exasperating that we can find solutions and ideas everywhere, in the political, social, economic and scientific arenas. They are there, and in all likelihood, they have been tested and applied, and still they did not make it to the conversation, no one shared them and no one supports them. The world of challenges and crises and the world of solutions and ideas do not communicate adequately. I believe that the circulation of ideas is part and parcel of creating the connection, and this is what we work for at TED. Therefore, our vision of the future is definitely positive and full of hope.

The summit is a new kind of conference, which will be held on the last weekend of June in Canada. We expect 580 presenters to attend the five-day event, mostly those people who had previously attended TED: TEDx organizers, presenters, fellows, and authors. We will address several current problems in the course of the program organized around the TED talks, ranging from climate change to energy, from surveillance to privacy, from Bitcoin to electronic currencies to empathy. We will address many issues, thus, as always, the range of topics will be very broad. However, this time we will dedicate a lot of time to formats that we previously had not used, there will be interactive sections, workshops, and we can discuss more topics supervised by previous presenters, experts of various fields. The aim is that we collect the community's most dedicated members from around the world, so that we can debate together which ideas merit further investigation. This will be an attempt to realize that which we have discussed above: discussing our ideas together, and deciding together which ones we can realize.

INVISIBLE TOMORROWS: TEDX DANUBIA 2016 Author: Eszter Polyák, László Gere photos: Anna Győrffy

Crafting a film by using a photocopier, leaving the solar system with antimatter, and triumphing over cancer... Even those who merely dropped by for a short while to lend an ear to "Invisible Tomorrows", a conference addressing mapping and getting to know the future, may have felt they dropped into an entirely new world era. With the support of PAGEO, TEDxDanubia 2016 has once again brought interesting speakers from Hungary and abroad to Budapest, who made the inscrutable future that awaits us more visible through their innovative, entertaining and informative talks in the spirit of TED events.

THE SIXTH DANUBIA

WITH A COURAGEOUS HEART

TED started out in 1984 and today it spreads those ideas which may make the world a better place in a hundred languages and several hundred million video views. On its extraordinarily broad palette not only scientific, business, and provocative talks addressing global issues find place, but also entertainment content. The TEDx events are organized by independent, enthusiastic local teams and communities around the world. The x after the TED abbreviation refers to this independent, self-organisatory quality. TEDx Danubia has been held annually since 2010. This year's event received the subheading "Invisible Tomorrows". With these words the organizers wished to call attention to how ever faster changes and the ever more complex world surrounding us have presented us with a future that is open to an unprecedented extent. This might be frightening or dizzying, but simultaneously inspiring and motivating as well. It depends only on us what sort of a world we inhabit in the future, as it is we who "create" it, and therefore sometimes we must understand the past and the present and recognize the dangers and opportunities that are ahead of us. The talks presented at the conference reflected this guiding thread as a kind of intellectual and emotional trip.

The day's first section received the heading "With a courageous heart". Outstanding achievements came into the spotlight: Szilvia Lubics, three-time winner and ultramarathon runner gave an inspiring speech about running in the world's toughest ultramarathon race. Éva Szentesi recounted how she triumphed over cervical cancer, why frequent cancer screenings are important, and what we can do for early recognition. PAGEO's invited guest, Alisáe de Tonnac introduced herself. Previously, she studied the luxury industry of developed Western countries. Then, taking a 180 degree turn, she moved to Laos, Nigeria, so that she could observe the sharp increase of startups in emerging countries' markets. As she mentioned, having adopted the newest technologies, emerging nations are not facing continuous growth, but are rather "leapfrogging". In this section, several other presenters came up with courageous, innovative ideas. Laura Kriefman, who presented a talk in Budapest as an "architectural coreographer" conducted the giant cranes of Bristol Harbor in a performance entitled "MassCraneDance". Mátyás Csiszár creative technologist and founder of the Hungarian innovative workshop MeetLab, which catalyzes virtually any project with architectural and visual methods.

Tamás Kőszegi presented his newest short film which he assembled with a photocopier, as well as the circumstances of the "shooting" process. Tamás Balogh, a jazz pianist, presented a theoretical and practical presentation about musical improvisation. UNMARKED PATHS The talks in the next section focused on recognition. The stream of serious talks was interspersed with lighter, musical numbers, where the participants could even encounter a newly invented musical instrument (in Kornél Horváth's sound presentation), or other exotic instruments as well (in the presentation of Felícia Bozóky, who played three instruments, the ukulele, banjo, and omnichord in succession). There were those who focused on entirely new fields: Catharina Paulkner, material scientist, presented graphene's future applications; Lexi Mills digital anthropologist spoke of the links between digital networks and the study of human behavior; Yaniv Erlich, genome researcher, cyber geneticist, pioneer of new genetic methods and bioinformatics, who was also invited by PAGEO, spoke about his newest research results. Two talks investigating current geopolitical events, presented by experts, concluded the section. Daniele Genser, historian, peace researcher and energy expert, gave a talk on energy sources and related conflicts; the second was given by Hanif Quadir, an expert on deradicalization and anti-terrorism with an extraordinary life path: born in the United Kingdom, he joined Al-Qaeda in 2002, but he was repelled by the Talib system and its cruelty. Today, he is the president of an anti-extremist foundation in East London. HIDDEN DOORS The concluding part directed attention to such, seemingly insignificant events, which could turn the world towards a completely new age, a more livable future. Clio Cresswell, Australian mathematician and a popular public figure, argued that every human

being is capable of mathematical thinking, for mathematics is a culture-independent language that can be found instinctively in everyone. Accordingly, so Cresswell, several everyday things can be described with mathematical formulas: for instance, she published a book on the mathematics of sex. Ryan Weed, an antimatter physicist aims to create a rocket propelled by antimatter, which would be capable of achieving high speeds, making it possible that expeditions leave the Solar system. A few young thinkers have also introduced themselves who received support for their work within the framework of the TEDxFellowship program. Bori Fehér studies social design issues as a member of the MOME sustainability research group. Another fellow, Ákos M. Lőrincz, immunologist, seeks a solution to the future's perhaps most urgent healthcare issue, antibiotic resistant bacteria, taking as his point of departure the natural protective mechanisms of the immune system. He and his team have reduced the time of microbiological diagnostics from 48 to 6 hours, so that they can treat the patients more efficiently. Mikael Krogerus, writer, and Roman Tschláppeler, creative producer, held an interactive decision theory presentation. In order to facilitate understanding, they visualized all that is known about the conditions of effective decision making on a drawing board. The evening was concluded by a performance by Fricska Dance Assembly, which opened new doors by popularizing traditional folk dance. At the moment, these three young men hold the world record for performing the most clacks and strikes in a two-minute dance session. The Urban Dance Theatre mixes many dance styles, and through their production the audience could gain an insight into the colorful world of underground dance culture. The act of AmoebaBand and CallMeUnique, a band from Birmingham, concluded the evening. The musicians, who cooperate in several formations and musical styles, mix elements of jazz, funk, soul and hip-hop. As they put it, they wish to open the door to future music for us.

the GENOMe HACKER

– interview with Yaniv Erlich

Author: László Gere

Minimal genetic knowledge and a good Internet connection: this is all we need in order to hack into anonymous participants’ data in genetic research, according Yaniv Erlich. The then Ph.D. student’s stunning proof came to the world's attention in 2013. Although he is a renowned scientist and university professor today, Erlich became world-famous under the nickname the "genome hacker".

tremendous amount of data. This is the background of the work which we take as our point of departure. My research team develops such methods with which, using data from community websites, we can map genetic characteristics much more thoroughly. We recognized already at the outset that if we have no access to a large amount of data then we will not get adequate research results. However, people often insist on the protection of their data, including their genetic data. We must overcome these obstacles with common solutions somehow. We invest a great deal of energy in this area. You have two large projects, FamiLinx and DNA. Land running at this time. What are your most important results and what is their relevance?

In 2013 another one of Erlichâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s results merited attention: he worked out the DNA-sequencing method known as "DNA-Sudoku", with which tens of thousands of specimens could be examined together. A mutation could then be traced back with 97% accuracy to a single specimen. Among other things, this method dramatically increases the efficiency of identifying predisposition to hereditary diseases. As a fellow of the New York Genome Center and Columbia University, Yaniv Erlich has participated in the worldwide DNA.Land project started last fall. The project's aim is to collect and analyze the genetic data of several million people in a scientific manner. The database has nearly 20,000 gene maps. The maps' owners had them prepared earlier by different genetic laboratories for their own purposes (such as genealogy or in connection with medical examinations). Yaniv Erlich claims several dozen important scientific publications and two patents, and he is a regular presenter at the most renowned science conferences. The broader public can read up on his results in a number of newspaper articles, as the world's most renowned professional and popular science periodicals and publications regularly feature his research.

The renowned geneticist lectured in Budapest by invitation of PAGEO, where he gave an exclusive interview to HUG magazine.

Yes, these are the two largest projects, but there are several others in addition. These two overlap on some level. As I said, for our research we need data from a lot of people. For genetic investigations, we need to set up giant family trees. Do you know your second cousins? In all likelihood, you don't know them all. Had I asked you about your third cousins, you could say even less. Therefore, in our project FamilLinx we applied an entirely different approach to draw large family trees. Instead of asking people or trying to bring them together via a kind of top-down approach, we started out in a different direction. We turned to

the webpage Geni.com. This is a community website, one which expressly serves sharing genetic data. People can enter their family trees to the site. Let's assume both you and I upload our trees. If we have a common relative, the website sends a message: "Hello, you two are related! Perhaps we could integrate the two family trees." In this way, together, people create one giant family tree. Thanks to the people running the website Geni.com, we could download all publicly available data in one piece. Today, following detailed analysis of the data that took several years, through assigning demographic characteristics we understand several processes in the context of families. I could say that we have created a stratum with eighty million individuals, and we searched for connections between their characteristics. We can tell, for instance in the case of a husband and wife, what the distance is between their places of birth, and how this has changed over time (tracing back over generations). The historical variation of this distance shows how isolated or how mixed this population is, and this has an effect on their genetic characteristics. However, this project yielded such entertaining results as how much you would need to travel on average in order to encounter a living relative of yours. This is about what we do in the framework of the FamilLinx project. We attempt to create a very broad stratum of data related to genealogy. We already have at our

How would you summarize the basics of your research? My research team and myself, we attempt to develop algorithms and tools with which we can get to know the genetic basis of complex characteristics. Everyone knows that several characteristics, such as height, weight gain, susceptibility to cancer, and even political orientation is influenced by genes and genetic characteristics. The question is how we can develop such tools with which the study of these characteristics becomes a lot faster. Already in the early stages of our research we faced the fact that we have a tremendous amount of data at our disposal to get to know the genetic background. Thirty years ago, we thought that a particular gene is responsible for the development of schizophrenia, or for political orientation. Today we know that this is not the case. It seems rather that several different genes are together responsible for this or that characteristic. Thus, in order to be able to precisely determine interactions we need a

IN TEN YEARS TO THE WORLDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S ELITE Yaniv Erlich received his university degree in 2006, at the Department of Computational Neuroscience at Tel Aviv University, where he studied biology and psychology. He defended his Ph.D. thesis in 2010 at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York State. In his dissertation, he investigated how relatively cheap computing analysis methods can be used to analyze a great number of genetic specimens, so that rare genetic mutations can be identified. Between 2010-2014 he held a fellowship at one of the world's most renowned biotechnology research institutes, the Whitehead Institute. The title of his research project was "Harnessing Web 2.0 technologies in the field of statistical genetics". He is a member of the forum Genomic Pioneers Gateway. The 36-year-old Israeli-born computational genetics researcher is a Core Member at the New York Genome Center since January 2015, and he is adjunct professor at the Department of Computer Science at Columbia University. Under the aegis of these two institutions he is leading his own research team, named Erlich Lab.

THE FAMILY TREE OF 43 MILLION PEOPLE The Erlich research team created a global scientific database under the name FamiLinx, which represents the common family tree of about 13 million people with roots reaching back all the way into the fifteenth century. This unique system contains genealogical, demographic and phenotype data on the basis of voluntarily uploaded information reaching back 500 years. FamiLinx received its data from Geni. com, which contains nearly 43 million profiles uploaded by ten million users: these comprise family tree information, photos, and family documents. With the permission of the firm MyHeritage, Geni.com's owner, Erlich's team sorted through, systematized and made the enormous data compilation publicly accessible and searchable.

disposal the "family tree stratum", to which we can assign DNA information. On the website of DNA.Land people can upload their genetic map, their genetic data. Today about two million people have access to their genetic map (this is the number of people who had their genetic maps prepared). These genetic maps can be voluntarily uploaded to our website as a contribution to further scientific research. On DNA.Land we treat two strata together: the family tree stratum, or the genetic map stratum, thus, those who upload their genetic maps can also acquire family tree data. The next step is adding a "health stratum", or getting to know the health-related consequences. The challenge for us lies in the realization. How can we get people to share their health-related data? One possibility is preparing questionnaires. I provide a list of various diseases, you merely need to circle what you have got. However, no one is interested in filling out surveys. After 10-20 questions you get tired, and the whole thing gets boring. Even if

I were to put the world's best questionnaire together, even then, if someone receives an email with it, all they are going to think is this: not another survey to fill out! So, this was not an option, and we needed to come up with a much more effective way of connecting the data. We decided that people would be given an option to "offer up" their already available data on community sites for research purposes. Facebook stores a great deal more information about us than we might think. The kinds of text, images that we upload, the kind of pages that we view and like, and the amount of time we spend on community sites and at what intervals, all these interactions yield a kind of pattern that is suitable for research purposes. Studies prove that Facebook data and personality traits can be correlated, and with the help of Facebook data we can gather access to similarly reliable results as with an ordinary

"Today about two million people have access to their digital genetic maps." psychological test. Therefore, we are very interested in data generated by community websites. What is the future of medical treatment in general? Certainly not that we need to go to doctors ever more often. In the future, an intermediary entity will appear, a kind of automated entity, one which browses through my email, my Facebook interactions and Google searches every day, and lets me know that "Yaniv, today you are not behaving as usual. From what I have experienced in the last few days I conclude that you may have contracted a cold..." On the basis of this, the entity proceeds to advise me, as if it were my mother: "Put on a warm sweater, drink a hot tea!" and so forth. In this project, we are mostly interested in such things. Would you kindly share something from the newest results of your projects? Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll show you something that we just published a few days ago. It's not connected to these two projects in particular, but it is quite hot off the press.

Today, mapping a DNA sequence and the analysis of a DNA specimen take several days. In order for a DNA sample to be examined at all, it needs to be transported into the nearest laboratory, which might actually be quite far away. Now a British company (but they also have an office in the New York Genome Center, as it happens, located on the same hallway as mine) has developed a tool by the name Oxford Nanopole. This is, in effect, a portable DNA sequencing device. You take it in your hand, and connect it via a USB-cable to your laptop. Then you can start to sequence DNA on your laptop in quite a simple way. Thus, instead of sending a specimen to the laboratory, you merely need to take it to the se-

already want to hold the device in their hands. They did not grow up in a world where something was not yet ready. This device may frustrate them a little, but it is important that they learn that not everything is perfect. Engineers need to see things in that state, not just in the state that their smart phones are in. Therefore, we only published this device a few days ago, and this is our newest result these days.

quencing, all further operations can be carried out at home on your own. Obviously, we are very interested in this device.

DNA data protection depends a great deal on the context, and it can vary greatly from individual to individual. The health consequences of my genetic map are, in all likelihood, quite boring. There is absolutely nothing of interest in there. I have a bit of asthma, and thanks to my ancestors I probably have greater proclivity to diabetes.

We believe that it provides those students who are interested in genetic technology with a wonderful opportunity. You give the device to them, they can take it into their hands, they are not dealing with some sort of abstract theoretical knowledge with regards to what it means to sequence DNA. I had my students at Columbia University try to isolate a DNA from the lunch of a Ph.D. student. If he consumed beef, we looked at whether the food truly contained beef DNA, or whether it was contaminated with something else. I gave the specimen to the students, and in the course of sequencing they had to determine what sort of food the DNA originated in. (Beef with tomato.) Next time we are going to test a goulash soup. It is a wonderful thing that we have a device with which we can conduct real experiments, even in the classroom. Naturally the device is still a beta-version, so there are functions that don't quite function yet. It is, however, just important that the students familiarize themselves with the instrument already in the testing phase. After all, we are not old, either, yet still we grew up with computers that ran DOS. We got used to turning the computer on, then we prepared breakfast while the system was booting. These kids â&#x20AC;&#x201C; I love them dearly, but they grew up in a world where everything is ready and perfect. Let's just take a smart phone as an example. If they touch the screen, and let's say, nothing happens for half a second, they already complain that "my phone's sooo slow!", don't they? We work at the university, at the Computer Science department, we train the engineers of the future, and the trouble is when they learn some theory they

What kinds of dangers, opportunities and ethical dilemmas does the collection, storage and research of genetic data create?

"Thanks to Facebook data we may gain similarly reliable results as with ordinary psychological tests." Nothing out of the ordinary. So, I am quite open about this, there is really nothing to hide there. I will not be harmed if the data leaks out. Quite the contrary: I would like everyone to know that I have asthma, so that I can be treated appropriately. However, there are people who battle such special diseases who, if everyone knew about them, would feel stigmatized and that they could potentially be disadvantaged if the whole world knew about their disease. In such cases, the loss of privacy is a serious issue. Another such issue is that many people would like to conceal their ancestors. Perhaps this is also relevant for Hungary. After all, in the course of its history several such instances may have occurred. For example, Jews, who would have liked to keep their identity secret following World War II. However, it would be unambiguously revealed on the basis of their DNA. So, the

whole question depends a great deal on what sort of society an individual happens to live in. Therefore, it would be very important to reshape social views so that diversity, multiraciality, and bodily imperfections become acceptable. For if we live in an open society where these things are normal, then it will not be an issue, quite the contrary, it may push an individual to get to know the genetic causes behind their disease, or to want to know more about his/her ancestors. So much about the risks.

"... the future of medicine as a whole? We would certainly not have more doctorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s appointments." Concerning the opportunities, this is of vital importance. After all, when people share their data, their histories and their "heritage" will also become accessible, and we may get to know various diseases better, and we could get much better medical treatments for these diseases. This is the basis of medical research, and genetic researchers may assist in this. I believe this needs to be considered when we take stock of the risks and opportunities of data protection. Can technology keep up with the rapid pace dictated by this enormous quantity of data? Can researchers process and handle this data, or should we expect that too much data will come to hinder detailed and deep analysis? Is there some narrow cross section in the research data set? Indeed, we are speaking of an enormous quantity of data, and working with such data amounts is a very new field. In truth, training is an issue, too, since very few people are trained to handle such big data volume. One of the challenges is how we can move this mass of data. Let's say I would like to share one of my studies with you, and the terabyte or even 100 terabytes of data supporting my analysis. Downloading it through the Internet would probably last days. Sometimes it seems that it would be cheaper, and needless to say much faster to copy them to a data

carrier and have that shipped by courier, so that even this seemingly simple practical problem can present a challenge in the course of research. Another great challenge of big data is that if you begin to analyze data and make a mistake someplace, that may come at a tremendous cost. Let's imagine this as a linear chain, where one step leads to another, and each step lasts months, and then we, let's say, notice that an error occurred in the course of the third step, then you need to return to that step and restart the entire process from that point. This has happened to me many times, and occasionally it took another entire month to rerun the analysis which had already been completed once â&#x20AC;&#x201C; erroneously. A third problem is quite a conceptional question. Truly there is so much data about so many things that you need to select very carefully what you want to investigate to begin with. What exactly do you need an answer to, and how will you find it with the help of the data? The informational content of the human genome is very rich. We cannot run an infinite number of analyses; therefore, we need to be selective. We cannot say that hey, here is this pile of data, let's do something with it. We need to formulate a concrete question very precisely, and search for its answer. We are witnessing, and indeed we can be active participants in the revolution of genetic genealogy via Web 2.0 technologies. What effect does this multidisciplinary science have on the world from a social, scientific, medical or health care aspect? Indeed we are living through a kind of explosion, for instance through social media, with regards to the amount of data available. We attempt to analyze out family tree data by assigning them to genetic data, but this data could speak of may other things, for instance, how far the families are located from one another (geographically speaking), who migrated in which direction, what specimens of women and men are like. This human data, if we look at it from a certain point of view we may draw health care conclusions, from another it may yield social patterns. In sum the question is what sort of point of view we use them for. They can be useful for countless other fields of science, not only for my own research purposes.

BRAIN BAR BUDAPEST 2016 Author: Fanni Marรกczi

Brain Bar Budapest, the "future festival" organized this year for the second time, has as its core theme the effect of innovation, entrepreneurship and technology on our lives. Renowned lecturers from Hungary and abroad, all well-known experts of their professions, presented on such topics as artificial intelligence, the lengthening of the human life span, the secrets of successful startups, and the appearance of jihadist propaganda on the Internet.

VIKTORIYA KRAKOVNA – THE FUTURE OF HUMAN BEINGS

We, humans, do the same, we grow new body parts, only in an artificial way, but the essence is the same. We live longer and we feel well again. Westendorp believes that old age has nothing to do with vitality. Its opposite, apathy, can be equally characteristic of young people. From the results of a study conducted in the EU countries, according to which old people did not judge their quality of life to be any worse than that of young people, he concluded that old age in itself is not necessarily accompanied by deterioration of quality of life. He recommends, therefore, that we invest in our lives. After all, our lives become longer with each minute thanks to modern technology, and whether we grow old happily depends exclusively on our approach.

Viktoriya Krakovna, a founding member of the Future of Life Institute, attempted to dispel erroneous concerns in relation to artificial intelligence (A.I.), and she addressed the real risks as well. A.I. technology is already deployed today in numerous fields, and it is developing at a far more rapid pace than previously predicted. This year, AlphaGo, developed by Google, has for the first time triumphed over a human Go player. Most people expected this would take at least ten more years, as Go is an extraordinarily complicated game, with a multitude of possible moves. As its approach differs from that of human beings, artificial intelligence may be in a position to solve problems which we have been battling for thousands of years: eradicating poverty, curing cancer, etc. The killer robots familiar from Terminator are unlikely to appear, according to Krakovna, however, she gave an interesting illustration of the technology's real risks. While people in general are fond of animals and would not wish to harm them, humanity as a whole still represents a danger to the animal kingdom. Thus, the spread of robots might also have unpredictable consequences. Particularly, if A.I. becomes capable of creating new machines, which might exceed the intellectual capacity of human beings to an unthinkable degree after a while, we may no longer be able to control them. This phenomenon is called intelligence explosion. In addition, there is the question of ethics. Issues that philosophers have debated for thousands of years need to be implanted into the machines' operation, but who shall decide the principles which shall determine how these machines "think"? Nonetheless, it is necessary to integrate ethics. If a self-driving car receives merely the instruction to "take us to the airport as fast as you can", the machine will complete the task even if it is endangering others in the process, while another human being would understand that we actually mean the quickest safe way. Here is where the question of legal responsibility surfaces: if a self-driving vehicle causes an accident, who will be responsible? The owner, the developer or perhaps the machine itself? A.I. is therefore not a challenge of the distant future. Already in 40-50 years "too intelligent" robots may appear, and we need to actively address these problems today. As Richard Sutton put it: "There is no need to be afraid, but we do need to be cautious."

RUDI WESTENDORP – GROWING OLDER WITHOUT FEELING OLD Renowned gerontologist Rudi Westendorp’s book Growing Older Without Feeling Old was translated into numerous languages, and in his lecture of the same title he highlighted the importance of vitality and its influence on an individual's aging. The expected life span of human beings is continuously growing, and with every second we may count on a longer life. For instance, when adult children leave their parents' home, the parents might still have 30-40 years ahead of them. It is therefore worth planning with these decades in mind. Westendorp remarked, amusingly, that among groups of entrepreneurs, typically the middle-aged perform best, and it is important indeed for them to be entrepreneurial, as due to their growing life spans they have plenty of time ahead of them.

SÁNTHA HANGA – JIHAD IN SOCIAL MEDIA Sántha Hanga is the leading researcher of the Institute for Migration Research. In his talk entitled Jihad in Social Media he spoke of online radicalization. He called attention to the fact that the radicalization process may not take a long time, and that such organizations as Al-Qaeda and ISIS manipulate people extraordinarily effectively thanks to their experience gained over several years. While in Hungary the youngest generation using the Internet independently is aged about nine years, in the United States children as young as two to three years might be surfing entirely independently. It is possible that they can access any type of content with the aid of a tablet device without supervision. This is one of the reasons why Internet jihadist propaganda may be very dangerous.

"After the 9/11 terror attacks the structure of radical jihadist pages changed..." Sometimes people use the expression "self-radicalization". However, its use is incorrect because while it is true that people are alone in front of their computers, the manipulation is carried out by jihadists. This process may conclude in a few weeks, and at its conclusion – perhaps after viewing several hundred violent videos, the individual comes to completely accept violence. The goal of these websites is propaganda, but recruiting takes place through them as well. They help, for instance, in organizing travel for new recruitees. On forums everything can be found, users discuss everything from the most innocent religious themes to manufacturing bombs. Different themes attract men and women alike, appealing to men's heroism and women's maternal instincts. In the beginning these websites merely introduced the history and philosophy of these organizations. They may have contained a few articles, but they were not interactive. The structure of radical jihadist websites changed after the 9/11 terror attacks. At that time, President Bush had taken vigorous action against such pages. As a result, several others were created, so that they could not all be targeted. Forums and chatrooms became widespread at that time as well.

"... old age has nothing to do with vitality. Its opposite, apathy, can be equally characteristic of young people." He presented ways to avoid aging through the 1-2 cm large fresh water hydra. This animal, when cut into two pieces, is capable of growing a new specimen from each of its halves. Medical prosthesis, such as artificial joints, veins and pacemaker, are comparable according to Westendorp, and these can easily be accessed today.

Google, however, departed from this approach. Instead, Google thinks first and foremost in terms of the user, and how it might create a product like a toothbrush, i.e. something people use on a daily basis. If they succeed in creating a product so popular, that people will want to use it every day, the sales it generates will be stupendous. It is fair to say that this method is the opposite of the sales-focused hockey stick approach. Google is characterized by indirect business models. Android for instance does not have a business model, therefore many believed that its value lay in the data collected through the phones. However, this is not the case. If Android is attractive to app-developers,

Sántha Hanga called attention to the dangers of praising the propaganda machine, and recommended that we avoid generating free PR. Moreover, while he acknowledged that the jihadists network very efficiently, he also noted that ISIS commands better developed tools than Al-Qaeda. He concluded his lecture by stressing that search engines and social media play an important role in the struggle against jihadist propaganda – Google, for instance, actively filters violent contents, which is very effective in keeping Internet users away from these dangerous resources. In addition, it is important to foster critical thinking, something that many people cannot claim to have, therefore they are easy prey of false information in the course of ever more widespread Internet use.

importance of innovation. In addition, he presented developments related to the company, for instance, that not long ago the company was renamed Alphabet. The name Alphabet is, however, only a company name, a holding company name which includes Google. No products will be marketed under the name Alphabet. However, by uniting these different companies under a single name, these will be better able to diversify in their work.

JENS REDMER – A.l. IN BUSINESS

In his talk, he introduced Google’s business model, which is the exact opposite of the popular “hockey stick” approach. The hockey stick approach is about a company creating a product, determining its price, and then attempting to guess how the sales will go. If the company succeeds in suddenly raising sales, this looks exactly like a hockey stick on a graph, and achieving this figure is the goal of the company.

Jens Redmer has been responsible for business development in close cooperation with the engineering team at Google since 2005. His task is to create new product ideas and research projects, as well as building partner relationships. In his talk, he addressed the secret of Google's success: the

"Data in itself is not valuable, it needs people to mine it for knowledge."

they will gladly work on it, and if people like to use it, Android will be of use to everyone. Through increasing Internet use, the users' queries may be of value for Google's other search-based products. Data in itself is not valuable, it needs people to mine it for knowledge. Data analysis itself is also not valuable; creating an algorithm which generates something novel based on that data is. Google Photos is a good example of this. The system analyzed the photos automatically, thus we could search photos without having to tag them. The system recognizes by itself what happens on the photo. We may search for our child in a costume, all we need to do is type in "my little daughter in a costume". This kind of machine learning is present in Google Translate as well. Developing such technologies, however, requires new experts, who can process such quantities of data. Thus, Redmer encouraged everyone in the audience to familiarize themselves with the basics of programming, as demand for people with such knowledge will only increase with time. LUC VAN HOECKEL – THE "HOW CAN I HELP" MENTALITY Luc van Hoeckel is a member of the local initiative Super Local. He studied design at university, but he quickly realized that he was really interested in how he could truly help others. In his talk, he focused on the difference between "let me help you" and "how can I help" mentalities. One of his first projects was a home medicine preparation set, which served the purpose of letting Ugandan people get easy access to necessary accessories with which they themselves could manufacture medical preparations, from which they could gain income and aid their environments as well. The ready

set brought great acclaim to Luc Van Hoeckel, but as the locals did not use it, it did not create true change. At this point he realized that no matter how good the product was, it was indispensable to map demand before designing. His next projects all began with getting to know the target audience thoroughly, and creating the products in close cooperation with them.

"... he does not want to judge from afar, from above, what a given community needs, but rather in close cooperation with them..." One of his most successful initiatives targeted the development of Malawi's hospitals, for these used extraordinarily outdated imported devices. With the help of Pim Van Baarsen, designer, and the hospitals' medical staff they created a collection that was tailored to local demands and could be made very easily and cost effectively. The product line consisted of hospital beds, infusion stands and other equipment, and was accompanied by a thorough production guideline, so that locals could manufacture it themselves. The initiative was very successful, the hospitals were provided with good quality equipment, and at the same time, even local industry benefited. This is an example of the "how can I help" mentality, which does not wish to judge from afar, from above, what a given community needs, but in cooperating with them creates something based on their needs that the community can carry on alone in the future. GROVER NORQUIST – ANARCHY OR DEMOCRACY David Trayford, the event's moderator, spoke with Grover Norquist, American political consultant and the founder of Americans for Tax Reform. Their conversation was entitled Anarchy or Democracy. Norquist supports limited government. In his view, the United States' government regulates people's everyday lives with too many rules, and the many rules necessitate a well-populated administration. Big government comes at a great cost, which is paid for by the taxpayers through their taxes.

This thought is behind the initiative through which Norquist convinced every Republican politician to sign off on the "Taxpayer Protection Pledge" from the eighties onwards. According to his now famous motto he does not wish to do away with government. However, he would aim to create a bureaucracy so small that "one could drown [it] in a bathtub". In conversation, he used the example of Uber to illustrate the disadvantages created by overregulation.

"...find an area that has been running for decades under strict regulation, and search for a way to get around that bureaucracy..." Uber has become successful because created a new way as opposed to the extraordinarily regulated cabs. In the beginning, the government (almost as an automatic reaction) intended to ban Uber, but before they knew it, the passenger community defended the company. They could not ban it, therefore the cabs had to adjust. Since the appearance of Uber it is possible to pay for a cab by credit card in Washington D.C. Norquist's advice for those who wish to start a new startup is that they should find an area which has been strictly regulated for decades and search for a way to get around bureaucracy to innovate the given area. Just as Uber did with cabs, or email with the post office. Uber is often criticized that its prices are raised in heavy traffic so that its cost may be several times that of ordinary cab charges. It came up in the conversation that the possibility that an elderly person is unable to pay this price and therefore cannot get to a hospital suggests that there is something wrong with the system. Norquist argued that the multiplier provides incentive for drivers to pick up passengers, even if this is not optimal for them. Not like cab drivers, who are known to stay far from New York City's areas outside of Manhattan. In these areas, traffic was proven to have improved due to Uber's presence. TIM HARFORD – ECONOMY VS. BIOLOGY In his talk, British economist Tim Hartford explained that difficulties arising during work have a positive effect on the end result. He illustrated this thesis

through numerous examples, the most interesting of which was the effect that font types have on learning. A study showed that learners who used a text containing Comic Sans font type, which is harder to read, remembered the material better. The beneficial effect of disturbing factors was demonstrated via solo pianist Keith Jarret's concert in Cologne. Due to a misunderstanding, the pianist was forced to play on a piano which was in bad shape and used for rehearsals, but through attempting to balance the piano's weaknesses that concert became a huge success, and its sound recording is the bestselling jazz solo album of all time. Hartford argued therefore that disturbing external factors, inconvenient work pace through forcing concentration, and balancing difficulties may exercise a very positive effect on the end result. Another example he brought up was a test, in the course of which several groups were asked to solve tasks. Some groups consisted of friends only, whereas in others three friends and a stranger worked together. These latter groups were more successful in solving the task, although, as they put it, they did not enjoy the process. This also demonstrates that hindrances, leaving one's comfort zone, has a positive effect on performance, which appears as an inconvenience in the course of the work, but may improve the end result greatly. Through numerous other examples he encouraged the audience to step outside of their comfort zone, to try out new situations, to create hindrances, because these will spur them on to work harder, and the results will follow.

While he placed a great deal of value on transparency, there was no point in creating panic. He highlighted the importance of positive thinking in other situations, too: his mantra had become such encouraging statements as "we can do this" and "everything will be fine”. Looking back, he finds that he could have worried less, but in the given scenarios he never saw the end result with certainty. He also had this very same issue with the best-selling books of various successful businesspeople. Even if they address hardships at the beginning, when reading the story, the reader knows what the end of the story will be. They are just like an action flick, where we know that the protagonist will survive anyway. To be a leader and to be responsible for the livelihood of the employees – when having those concerns, a best-selling success story is of no help. With regards to a pleasant work environment

atmosphere and why his employees like working for him, he believes that respect is key. These people invest active emotions in the company, and if they are not satisfied, or their career is not promoted, they will leave the company. It is very important to respect them, because they have a choice, but they choose to trust his company. It is important to invest in employees, in their advanced training, but it is also important to accord them independence in their work, so that they have some responsibility. Finally, he recounted how much depends on sheer good luck. Those who did not succeed had worked at least as hard as he, but success depends on many factors. Sometimes things simply did not work out in a way that we had thought, which gives rise to tensions that can only be resolved when a company finally reaches safe port: as happened with his company when IBM appeared on the scene.

GYULA FEHÉR – USTREAM Gyula Fehér is one of the founding member of Ustream, which was purchased this year by IBM. He addressed the difficulties that come hand in hand with a leadership role, the uncertainty of the company's future, positive approaches and positive workplace atmosphere in equal measure. Gyula Fehér found himself lonely when acting as a leader: either he was surrounded by people who did not carry the same responsibility as he did, or who had led successful companies that have been running for a long time – and thus could not empathize with his uncertainty. He recalled that he felt uncomfortable when questioned by employees about the financial situation of the company. He couldn't always speak his mind, he could only hope that they would get through the more difficult times.

WHERE 9,000 GEOGRAPHERS MEET

Author: Sára Farkas

At the end of March this year geographers, urbanists, area developers and map fans arrived from all corners of the world from 87 countries for a week in San Francisco to explore and solve the world's great geographical questions with nine thousand of their colleagues. This is the Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geographers, where Hungarian researchers presented this year thanks to the support of PAGEO.

A földrajz legnagyobb konferenciája Since 1989, the Association of American Geographers (AAG) has organized its annual meeting every year, and it has become one of the profession’s most renowned conferences globally. This year the participants discussed international processes, the geography of streams, the information system, the social and economic transformation of cities, vitality and technology. Social renewal appeared several times as a recurring motif, as well as questions related to gentrification. This year 9,000 researchers participated in the San Francisco event which took place for the 27th time. Despite the meeting’s name, almost every fourth expert arrived from countries other than the United States. The United Kingdom, Canada, China, Germany and Australia were represented by the largest numbers, but professors from the Republic of Korea, Japan, and numerous European nations arrived as well. The 2016 meeting's unique features were provided by the host, the city of San Francisco. The challenges and solutions of one of America's most livable metropolises were closely related to the topic the conference investigates: the processes of gentrification. This topic presents challenges to the functioning of numerous metropolises including Budapest. Talks connected to gentrification examined the effects of economic transformation in developed countries, and at the same time presented tools for regulating economies and developing communities, which could become good practices of handling the challenges that gentrification brings. The city quarters' communities are not commodities, the regularities useful in the economic sphere showed

In the course of gentrification processes, a city's economic and social structure is transformed. Creative industries and quickly developing creative and innovative branches start an incomebased fluctuation in the city districts. A positive effect of this development is that the district's human resources, intellectual capital and economic valueproducing ability are greatly enhanced. However, the earlier inhabitants are not in a position to enjoy the advantages of growth as a result of the rising price levels, and in the end they are forced to leave the area, which leads to a sharp income-based isolation by area, segregation.

no effect here. More dynamic art and cultural tools (for instance by urban fine arts) may, however, motivate these communities. Here not large, physical, constructed spaces are meant, but rather simpler public area interventions that can create important and positive social changes (for instance, the development of green areas). Instead of encouraging gentrification processes, it is best to build on unique features, characteristic opportunities, and internal resources when focusing on the convergence of disadvantaged social groups.

SCHOOL

ON THE BORDER 43

CREAM OF THE CROP: RANKINGS OF THE BEST UNIVERSITIES Author: Anton Bendarzsevszkij

Although the quality and competitiveness of international education had always fascinated people, college and university rankings did not exist until the early 2000s. The majority of Western countries ranked their own institutions, how any given university would perform internationally was not known, be it a country’s top institution. The first international ranking was created in 2003. In the following year, several attempts were made to assess international higher education. Today, we may regard three rankings as the most popular: the ARWU, the THE ranking, and the QS World University Rankings.

The world's first ranking that classified and ranked the world’s higher education institutions was created in 2003 – paradoxically in China, by the University of Shanghai Jiao Tong. Individual countries had already ranked their own universities earlier, and a few larger Anglo-Saxon news publications attempted to conduct rankings as well. Since 1988, Business Week, The Wall Street Journal, the Financial Times, The Economist and Forbes, among others, all conducted a ranking, but these only contained the 10-50 top universities named by the paper, in many cases they focused on a particular scientific field (such as the business sphere) and their methodology was also questionable. ACADEMIC RANKING OF WORLD UNIVERSITIES In June 2003, Shanghai Jiao Tong published its first international higher education ranking, the Academic Ranking of World Universities.

The ranking’s original intention was to investigate how Chinese universities ranked internationally, then develop a higher education strategy based on the results to aid Chinese higher education in closing the gap. As a similar comparative list had not existed beforehand, the ARWU global ranking received great attention after its publication. The Economist's appreciative article also played a large role in its wide reception. Universities that came out leading ARWU snatched the ranking up, cited it on their websites and in their publications. In certain countries, a great debate ensued: for the first time, these universities were confronted with the global standing of domestic institutions, and not everyone was satisfied with the results. Research projects were initiated, and a whole series of studies came out discussing the reasons why domestic universities may have performed poorly on global rankings. The best example is France, where the low rankings of French universities forced authorities to introduce new legislation according far greater freedoms to universities.

Harvard University, USA

Here we may first observe that US universities dominate the top rankings: out of the ten top ranked institutions eight are located in the US, and two in the UK. Another aspect worth noting is that in the past 12 years the top rankings virtually have not changed (the 2003 rankings: Harvard, Stanford, Caltech, Berkeley, Cambridge, MIT, Princeton, Yale, Oxford, Columbia). Only Yale dropped out, with The University of Chicago taking its place, and MIT has substantially improved its position. According to the ARWU ranking, 146 universities from the United States made it into the top 500 universities. The United States is followed by China with 44 universities, Germany with 39, the United Kingdom with 37, France with 22, and Australia, Canada and Italy each with 20 universities. Hungary is represented by two institutions in the rankings (Eötvös Lóránd University and the University of Szeged. Many criticized Shanghai Jiao Tong University's rankings, however, primarily because it palpably privileged the natural sciences and engineering to the detriment of the humanities.

Stanford University, USA

Thus, the ARWU international ranking made a substantial contribution to the international reforms of higher education. After all, the universities and the higher education governance started out on a new, result-oriented path: the poor rankings served as incentives for change. What distinguished ARWU from previous attempts was that on the one hand they prepared a truly global list by investigating 1,200 universities, out of which they created a ranking that included 500 universities. On the other hand, they used a stable and transparent methodology: the Chinese university's ranking was based on transparent, traceable and predictable indicators; thus, each university could see the areas where they lagged behind their competitors. This, in essence, issued a call for open competition to the world's universities! Naturally, Shanghai Jiao Tong University also used the results. In 2007, it even published a book about the large international universities, in which they discussed the secret of their success and how, based on their experiences, it was possible to make Chinese higher education competitive. Moreover, in 2005 they organized a conference about the world's universities, which has since then taken place biannually. ARWU’s methodology has not changed since its first publication in 2003, while the two other international rankings have changed their methods more than once in the past few years. While this lends the

ranking a stability and marks it as a good basis for comparison, it entirely dismisses the rankings' criticisms. The ranking's basis were the universities' Nobel Prize winners: 10% of the weighting is comprised by the Nobel Prize winners who studied at a particular university, 20% by Nobel Prize winners currently teaching at that university. The ranking weights highly cited researchers at 20%, studies published in Nature and Science at 20%, researchers listed in Science Citation Index and Social Science Citation Index at 20%, and the research performance per capita for each university at 10%.

This is partly due to ARWU’s methodology, which heavily relied on the Nobel Prize, an award that lays greater emphasis on the natural sciences. Therefore, internationally renowned humanities institutions rank much lower when compared to universities that have large engineering or medical faculties.

Another criticism leveled at ARWU's rankings was that it privileged English-language journals in its weighting. Thus English-language researchers who lived in Anglo-Saxon countries had a much greater chance of being published in an English-language journal and being highly cited. THE -QS WORLD UNIVERSITY RANKINGS Times Higher Education (THE), a British weekly founded in 1971 focusing on higher education, was one of the most important critics of the Chinese rankings. The weekly’s writers questioned, for instance, why in the case of awards and publications the researcher's original alma mater received the points and not the university that financed the famous research, or whether it made sense to rank a university higher because they had a Nobel Prize winner 40 years ago? Radical criticisms finally spurred THE to create its own international rankings in 2004 together with Quacquarelli Symonds (QS). This became the THEQS World University Rankings. The THE-QS World University Rankings were based on a complex methodology: 1200 universities of 88 countries were examined, the methodology’s key element was what was known as the Academic Reputation Survey, in which several thousands of researchers were requested to give their opinion about the universities. In this way, the professional

On this basis, the latest ARWU ranking published in August 2015 featured the following universities in its top ten: 1. Harvard (USA) 2. Stanford (USA) 3. MIT (USA) 4. Berkeley (USA) 5. Cambridge (UK) 6. Princeton (USA) 7. Caltech (USA) 8. Columbia (USA) 9. University of Chicago (USA) 10. Oxford (UK)

Oxford, United Kingdom

Thus, this ranking includes three English and one Swiss university alongside six US universities among the top ten institutions. Six universities from Hungary appear in the THE ranking: Semmelweis University is ranked between 501-600, the other Hungarian universities on the list are ranked between 601-800. Amongst our neighbors, only Austria performs better with seven ranked universities. Its best institution was ranked 142nd place. The reformed THE rankings were also criticized: according to its critics it laid far too great an emphasis on publication citations, which disadvantaged the humanities on the one hand (as they traditionally use fewer citations than

reputation of the universities became an important factor in the ranking. As it provided 40% of the ranking's weighting, it was in essence its most important element. Moreover, the weighting took into account the following: educational environments, research, and concrete research. Thus, the list was narrowed down to 800 universities. The THE-QS ranking was heavily criticized, mostly because its methodology was based on the universities' reputation. Leaders of certain universities emphasized in their analyses that due to this methodology, the ranking of individual universities might change from year to year without any perceivable reason, therefore the ranking cannot be taken seriously. The criticisms finally led to internal debates between THE magazine and the British company Quacquarelli Symonds (QS). While THE's employees recommended drastic changes, QS resisted. The two companies parted ways in 2010. TIMES HIGHER EDUCATION WORLD UNIVERSITY RANKINGS From 2010 onwards THE published a new ranking based on a new, entirely revised methodology: Times Higher Education World University Rankings. Although the survey-based results remained in part (those about educational environment and about

research conducted at universities), the main emphasis was no longer on reputation, but on academic citations, which accounted for one-third of the weighting. The THE examined 11,3 million publications over a five-year period, which meant browsing through 51 million citations. The methodology's other two pillars were on the one hand learning environment (quality, university income, the income per academic), on the other the volume and reputation of research activities. Moreover, the rankings weighted international diversity at 5% on the basis of international professors and students. Thomson Reuters was the new collaboration partner until 2014; in 2015-6, THE collaborated with Elsevier. THE's 2015 ranking places the following universities at the top ten position of the list: 1. Caltech (USA) 2. Oxford (UK) 3. Stanford (USA) 4. Cambridge (UK) 5. MIT (USA) 6. Harvard (USA) 7. Princeton (USA) 8. Imperial College London (UK) 9. ETH Zürich (CH) 10. University of Chicago (USA)

own institution. The other half of the weighting is comprised by the students of the faculty (20%), the citations per academic (20%), and the number of international students and professors (5-5% each). Thus the latest ranking published by QS is as follows: 1. MIT (USA) 2. Harvard (USA) 3. Stanford (USA) 3. Cambridge (UK) 5. Caltech (USA) 6. Oxford (UK) 7. University College London (UK)

the natural sciences), while on the other hand nonEnglish-language universities may be disadvantaged as well.

8. Imperial College London (UK) 9. ETH Zürich (CH) 10. University of Chicago (USA)

We could mention as an example the London School of Economics and Political Science, which was featured at 11th place in the ranking prepared in collaboration with QS. However, in the 2010 ranking prepared independently by THE, the renowned English university only finished at 86th place. At the same time, it is interesting that in the 2015 ranking by THE, the London School of Economics and Political Science improved its ranking and now occupies 23rd place.

This ranking includes the fewest American universities in comparison to other rankings: the top ten contains five American, four English and one Swiss institution. As the ranking is largely based on survey-based rankings, outstanding universities of certain regions may receive larger emphasis and better rankings. For instance, 21 Russian universities are featured on the QS rankings. The best one, Lomonosov Moscow State University is ranked 108. In comparison, the THE rankings feature thirteen Russian universities, whereas the ARWU ranking a mere seven. We see similar results in other regions as well: Brazil is represented by 22 universities in the QS rankings, in comparison to 17 universities ranked on THE, and a mere 12 on ARWU. Hungary is represented by four universities in the QS rankings. Szeged University received the best ranking followed by Debrecen University, Eötvös Lóránd University and Corvinus University of Budapest. Amongst our neighbors, Austria received better rankings (7 universities, the best institution ranked as 153.) and Ukraine (six universities). Romania is represented on the list by four institutions. As half of the ranking is comprised of impressions and evaluations based on personal opinion, the ranking continues to receive similar criticism as was leveled at THE-QS ranking started from 2004. Particularly universities whose emphasis is the natural sciences question its methodology. Due to its methods, relatively significant differences may occur from one year to another: thus, for instance, Imperial College London was ranked 8th in the 2015 rankings, whereas in 2014. it was ranked 2nd.

QS WORLD UNIVERSITY RANKINGS After Times Higher Education and QS parted ways in 2010, the company QS came up with its own university ranking under the title "QS World University Rankings". The list is compiled by the British company Quacquarelli Symonds (QS) specializing in education and study abroad, and it has been present on the market since 1990. The company’s profile includes study abroad, and in addition to the ranking it has an analytic division, which prepares studies for higher education institutions about the education market. After breaking up with Times Higher Education, QS made virtually no changes to its earlier methodology, and thus continued the practice of the previous years. The weighting includes 40% of evaluation received by representatives of the profession, 10% of evaluation by employers, who judge the performance of the graduates of various institutions. Thus, half of the QS rankings rest on reputation-based evaluations that are opinion in character. Professors participating in the survey may nominate up to 30 universities but are not able to vote for their

Despite the differences between the three largest higher education rankings, if we take a look at the top ten, seven universities are the same across all three rankings: Harvard, Stanford, MIT, Cambridge, Oxford, Caltech and the University of Chicago. ALTERNATIVE MEASUREMENT METHODS AND RANKINGS In addition to the best-known rankings, there are alternative methods to measure the international higher education field. These measurements were also devised after the second half of the early 2000s. One such list is Webometrics – Ranking Web of Universities, which is prepared by the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) Cybermetrics Lab. The essence of Webometrics is that it ranks universities according to online presence. It exists since 2004, and at the beginning it was created to provide an incentive to universities to increase their online presence. The rankings take into consideration each university’s commitment to openness and their commitment to knowledge sharing: the number of subpages, citations, files shared etc. are taken into account. This ranking is wholly dominated by the United States: the top twelve comprises only US universities, and Oxford and Cambridge, which fare traditionally well, received places 13 and 14. Amongst Hungarian Universities, Eötvös Lóránd University and Budapest University of Technology and Economics finish in the top 500 (365 and 411) and are followed by Szeged University (530), University of Debrecen (596) and University of Pécs (896). The G-Factor University Rankings used a similar principle (Google Factor): this international ranking also measured online presence, but ranked universities by counting the number of links only from other university websites. However, this ranking is no longer accessible. Fired up by the Chinese higher education ranking published in 2003, other regions also prepared their own ranking: for instance, Moscow's Global University Ranking. This ranking was short-lived, as it was quickly discredited for having ranked Lomonosov Moscow State University 5th, before Harvard, Stanford and

Cambridge. Both the collaborating company and the website ceased to exist. The better-known university rankings include HE-EACT, created in Taiwan in 2007, the rankings published in 2007 by the Dutch Leiden University, CWTS Leiden Ranking, and the rankings published by the Saudi-Arabian Center for World University Rankings, or the Russian Round University Ranking from 2013. THE ANCHORING EFFECT OF GLOBAL INDICES A serious criticism leveled against global rankings is the so-called "anchoring effect". According to certain studies the first global rankings published in the early 2000s substantially influenced international opinion regarding universities. The anchoring effect's essence is that human beings rely heavily on the first piece of information, on previous knowledge, when making decisions: in other words, that a certain cognitive bias influences our judgments and opinions. The first published global ranking could have contributed to the formation of previous knowledge or an opinion with regard to great universities. This is particularly true about the first publication. Shifts in existing rankings are no longer in a position to effect great change in opinion. This "anchoring effect" is easily measurable: compare those who had never heard about the rankings with those who had seen at least one of them. On the basis of studies there is a much greater chance that the subject (who had already seen the rankings) names one of the universities included in the top rankings as the best than any other institution. These studies therefore question the results of those rankings which base their research on surveys. All of this might result in quite far-reaching and surprising effects according to the studies: the results of international higher education institutions may influence the university's research performance, and the behavior of its professors and students. Thus, year by year a kind of reverse effect might come to be: it is not the university's performance that influences its prestige and evaluation, but the ranking itself might become the incentive for its prestige and performance.

Cambridge, United Kingdom 51

THE FUTURE OF STANFORD UNIVERSITY Author: Rรกhel Czirjรกk

The world's best research university, regularly ranked among the top three higher education institutions in various global rankings, will turn 125 this year. The history of Stanford is inextricably linked to the world's most important technological innovation center, Silicon Valley. To this day, a close cooperation characterizes their relationship. The following article intends to show how the progressive-spirited knowledge center has come to be, and what role it fulfills in our age's complex and challenge-filled world.

FAMOUS STANFORDIANS • Philip Zimbardo, legendary psychologist, whom PAGEO invited to take part in Budapest Brain Bar, also reached fame at Stanford, where he is now professor emeritus. • Kenneth J. Arrow, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, Professor of Economics • Steven Chu, recipient of the Novel Prize in Physics, Professor of Physics between 19872004. • Milton Friedman, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, Professor of Economics, Hoover Institute • Donald Knuth, the creator of TeX and a pioneer of computer science, professor emeritus • Robert Laughlin, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics, Professor of Physics between 1989 and 2004 • Lawrence Lessig, a professor working on intellectual property and constitutional law • John McCarthy, the inventor of the expression artificial intelligence, and the creator of Lisp programming language. • Douglas Osheroff, Professor, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics • Martin Lewis Perl, Professor, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics • Charles Richter, seismologist, creator of the Richter-scale • Myron Scholes, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, Professor of Economics • Paul Berg, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Professor • Alvin E. Roth, recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, Professor of Economics HUNGARIANS AT STANFORD • Rudolf Emil Kálmán (1930) Hungarian-American electrical engineer, mathematician, member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, between 1964-1971, professor at the university • György Pólya, Professor of Mathematics • Gábor Szegő, Professor of Mathematics

Stanford University (official name: Leland Stanford Junior University), was founded by Leland Stanford Sr. (1824-1893), then governor of California. Leland grew up in New York, where he studied law, then, like many others, migrated west during the era of the Gold Fever, and, thanks to his investments connected to railroad construction, amassed an enormous fortune. A member of the Republican Party, he served as Governor of California (1861-1863), and later on as a Senator (1885-1893). He and his wife, Jane, had one son, Leland Stanford Jr., who died of typhoid fever in 1884 at the age of 15. Following the tragedy, the couple decided that as they were no longer in a position to do anything for their own child, they would take California's children into their care. To this end, they sought a method through which they could erect a lasting memorial to their deceased son.

In this regard, they had several ideas: founding a university, a museum, or a training college. Finally, they decided that they would create a museum and a university, which were to be named after Leland Jr. On the occasion of the new university’s foundation, they visited several renowned institutions on the East Coast – among others, Harvard, MIT, Cornell and Johns Hopkins – so that they could be advised on creating a new kind of higher education institution. The new university was revolutionary in its spirit: it featured co-education, although in the 19th century higher education was only accessible to men; it was non-sectarian, although all universities at the time maintained ties to one religious organization or another, and its openly proclaimed goal was to educate "cultivated and useful citizens".

After six years of planning and construction, the university opened its gates on October 1st, 1891 to 555 male and female students. Despite the skepticism of many contemporaries, Stanford was such a popular institution from the outset that already in its second year of operation the original 15 member faculty had grown to include 49 members. The university's first president was David Starr, a graduate of Cornell, who gave up his post as President of Indiana University to take part in this adventure. THE SPIRIT OF STANFORD THE BIRTH OF SILICON VALLEY Stanford lies in the heart of Silicon Valley, and its history is closely linked to the area ranked as the world's most important innovative center, for the "valley" owes its existence to the university. Upon encouragement from his erstwhile teacher and mentor, Frederick Terman, David Packard, a graduate of Stanford, and William Hewlett created a small electronics company in a garage in Palo Alto. This garage is now widely regarded as the birthplace of Silicon Valley. Under the leadership of the electrical engineer Frederick Terman – who worked as the university's director between 1955 and 1965 – the university began building "towers of excellence", or such outstanding scientific and engineering research that would attract the very best students. Terman played an important role in fostering an ever closer cooperation between Stanford's students and the technological companies. For this reason, he is widely regarded as the father of Silicon Valley. He introduced an entrepreneurial spirit, which today pervades all of Stanford's academic fields. In the following decades the university became a kind of innovative center – and it retains this role until today –, where numerous research projects and developments sprung up, and companies were founded that made Silicon Valley the world's most innovative and most productive high-tech region. Such legendary "Valley" companies maintain close ties with Stanford as Cisco Systems, the Hewlett-Packard Company, Intuit, SiliconGraphics, Sun Microsystems and, of course, Google.

first recipient was Professor Felix Bloch (1905-1983) in 1952, who shared the prize with Edward Mills Purcell. The two men discovered magnetic resonance in fluids and solids. Bloch, born in Switzerland and Jewish by birth, pursued his studies in Zürich, where John Neumann was one of his fellow students. The physicist who later worked Europe-wide was forced to leave Germany after Hitler came to power in 1933, and to emigrate to the United States. He began working at Stanford in 1934, where he became the first professor of theoretical physics. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics along with Purcell in 1952 for their essay entitled "New Paths and Methods in Nuclear Magnetic Precision Measurements". There were altogether 32 Nobel Prize recipients in Stanford history. Of these, 20 are currently serving on staff. However, we can not only find Nobel Prize recipients amongst the outstanding graduates of Stanford, but also a U.S. President, who studied at the university. Herbert Hoover began his studies at Stanford in 1891, and earned a Bachelor's Degree in mining engineering.

NOBEL PRIZE LAUREATES Nothing provides better proof of Stanford's performance in science than the fact that several of its researchers have been awarded the Nobel Prize. The

Sr. Leland Stanford

THE CHILDREN OF CALIFORNIA SHALL BE OUR CHILDREN Stanford was founded by the railroad tycoon, senator and governor Leland Stanford and his wife. They named the university after their son, Leland Stanford Jr., who died in 1884 of typhoid fever, just before his sixteenth birthday. Stanford then said to his wife: "The children of California shall be our children." Thereafter the couple visited Charles Eliot, who was Harvard's rector at the time, and asked him how they could help the youth of California. Eliot recommended a 5 million U.S. dollar endowment, which in 1884 sufficed to start a university. Today, that sum would be worth about 131 million U.S. dollars. The campus was under construction between 1886-1914. The foundation stone was laid in 1887, on the 19th birthday of Stanford Jr.

Hoover, who after World War I was involved with relief efforts, offered money and means to create a collection of documents about war and peace, which later became the Hoover Institute. In 1928 he was elected President of the United States. As a successful businessman, he did not claim the presidential salary, but rather offered the entirety for philanthropic purposes. EDUCATION The world's leading research university currently has 6,994 Bachelor's and 9,128 Master's students. The student to professor ratio is 4:1, which is meant to foster a close professional relationship with the educators. The university has seven faculties: Business Administration, School of Energy, Earth and Environment Sciences, School of Education, School of Engineering, School of Law, School of Medicine, and School of Liberal Arts.

In accordance with the innovative, entrepreneurial spirit of Stanford, the students have the opportunity to take part in the numerous research projects taking place on campus, so that they can find creative solutions to the world's problems. Altogether 93 research centers are active on campus in engineering, liberal arts, medical, natural science and social science disciplines. Among the high-quality institutions, one deserves special attention, as it played an important role in the technological development of the 20th century. Namely SLAC (Stanford Linear Accelerator Center), where the world's longest particle accelerator is located. Stanford was home to several important related discoveries and also

climate change, health care, and education reform for millions of people. Phillip Knight, the founder of Nike, contributed 400 million dollars to the budget, Robert King and his wife, Dorothy contributed 100 million US dollars, and a further 250 million was contributed by other supporters. Stanford's president, John Hennessy, who served in his post for the last 16 years, designed the program. Mr. Hennessy will probably retire this summer, however, he will not be condemned to inaction, for after he leaves the post of the presidency, he will remain active as the director of the Knight-Hennessy Scholars Program.

boasts that North America's very first homepage was developed here. In addition to its scientific pursuits, the university provides numerous opportunities for recreation. 97% of all students reside on campus in housing units of various sizes and compositions. As more than 650 sports, cultural, religious, and other organizations are active on campus, thus everyone is guaranteed to find the group that corresponds to their interests.

The program has been running for three years, and according to the target, it aims to graduate a hundred students per year. In the course of the program, the scholars will be trained in Stanford's university programs, but in addition to the traditional curriculum offered by various faculties, they gain in-depth

knowledge about innovation and entrepreneurship. During vacation, they will intern at Google and Facebook, where they will gain insight into the real-life functioning of Silicon Valley. Moreover, a course on leadership will provide a pivotal point of the training, which Stanford aims to realize in an ever more praxis-oriented manner. After all, leadership can only be learned via real-life experience, and not it the classroom. In addition, the university will create a center whose main task is to foster relationships and networks amongst the scholars via personal acquaintance. The university also hopes that the center will foster professional cooperation among the participating scholars. In light of this, we can claim with certainty that Stanford is well prepared to face the challenges of the new century, and knowing the institution's successes so far, we can be certain that it will provide solutions to today's challenges.

STANFORD IN THE 21st CENTURY The rapidly changing circumstances of the 21st century have demonstrated to Stanford, which had a notably progressive spirit up to that time, that the century's new challenges provide new opportunities to do things differently. With its plethora of fellowships, a heritage of entrepreneurial spirit, and the pioneerspirited faculty, the university has committed to the renaissance of research and education through the interdisciplinary approach. Cooperation between different sciences is important, and has received renewed validation, as according to the university's views the most serious social problems of the present age â&#x20AC;&#x201C; including climate change, sustainable energy, diseases and global security â&#x20AC;&#x201C; do not belong to a single science. Thus, common scientific pursuits that transcend the traditional academic boundaries are needed. It is not surprising, therefore, that this university, which always assumed responsibility for handling social issues, announced in 2016 that it will start a fellowship program with a 750-million-dollar endowment to train the future's global leaders, who are in position to tackle such giant challenges as global

Sculptures in the garden of Stanford University, USA

WHERE ARE THE CREATIVE LEADERS OF THE FUTURE?

Sandy Speicher on design thinking and education Author: Eszter Polyรกk

From the point of view of the future there is perhaps no more important challenge than sharing knowledge, creativity, and nurturing new talent. A professor of Stanford's Hasso Plattner Institute of Design, Sandy Speicher, regards innovative thinking as the most important skill of the future's creative leaders, which the students learn in the framework of a new kind of education. As an employee of IDEO, a creative advisory firm, she uses the process of design thinking to solve everyday challenges. She spoke about this topic among others when she was the guest of PAGEO Club.

EVERYDAY CHALLENGES I would like to start straightaway with a question. Have you noticed how unsettling the world has become? That we are facing such enormous challenges as global warming, and we have no idea what to do about them? We feel inundated every day by problems that we cannot handle either emotionally or within our established frameworks. But I am also thinking of how much the world has changed from the human side: we are connected in ways that we have never been connected before. Although this is no longer news today, I am still fascinated that a child can speak simultaneously with all of his or her grandparents through the Internet. Today everyone can speak in public, regardless of their physical location on Earth. No U.S. President prior to Obama could have been invited to prom by a girl who uploaded a picture to the Internet. The technology that we use grants us the chance to connect, share and consume wherever we might be in the world. There is a street in the United Kingdom where pillars have been equipped with cushions, as people were always looking at their phones while walking and the area was rife with accidents. I believe that

from what I have just illustrated now you can guess what I am going to be talking about. The pace of innovation was determined by the explosion of accessibility and connectedness, and this outpaces our reaction time. Beginning with governmental policies, through business structures, and up to education systems, our social institutions can barely keep up the pace.

"... we feel inundated every day by problems that we cannot handle either emotionally or within our established frameworks..." It is certain that we need the kind of leaders who can manage this uncertainty. However, there are people who could lead within well-established frameworks, and they would not ruin everything that we have built up so far.

THE WORLD'S OPERATION If we look into a classroom where future leaders are trained, we see bored students barely willing to participate, who are trying to live up to the requirements of a system that is very far indeed from the way the world operates today. We simply do not prepare them for today's world, and certainly not for creating the world of the future. IBM carried out an outstanding survey called the Global CEO Survey. In its framework, they interviewed CEOs throughout the world about their views on the most important leadership qualities in the future. The first two places in the ranking were taken up by creative integrity and global thinking. The survey also posed the question of what today's leaders may need in order to work efficiently. The acceptance of uncertainty, so that they are not merely innovative in terms of products, but would also be in a position to develop the organization itself. These were named as their most important needs. The World Economic Forum made a report about what schools will need in the future. They listed wonderful things, such as basic skills including reading and writing, knowing numbers, which we all know are important. However, they also

included the development of certain competencies such as creativity, communication, and character traits such as endurance and determination. The development of these abilities and traits will be very important to all of us in the future.

I declare all the classrooms of the world as not good enough, I would like to introduce a task. I used to have a teacher who always asked the following question: were an alien to arrive in our classroom, what would it think, what was going on in there? Let's imagine that our Martian is here, it dropped into our classroom. What do we think is going to happen? It might say that they are learning to sit in rows, overwriting the momentary needs of their bodies. It might also say that they are trained to move when the bell sounds. Were it to give the matter some further thought, it might say that they needed to come up with exactly the stuff the human in front of the room already knows. Finally, it might conclude

We started out thirty years ago, by designing the first mouse for Apple, and this is where many will know us from. Today, however, with the very same process that we used to design the mouse we seek answers to different questions, such as health care services. In the recent past, we collaborated with an organization called Pill Pack, focusing on how we could help people in more easily observing the proper method for taking their medications day by day. For this, they received their daily dose every day in little sacks, thus they no longer needed to worry about taking several different kinds of medicine.

that schools were designed with the purpose of educating the citizens of the industrial era who are preparing to fit well into the crowd, to sit tight and silent, move upon command and do things that do not require real knowledge. Whether it arrived in the school in 1890 or today, it would most likely draw the same conclusions. But we know that the world has changed. A completely new era has grown out of the industrial needs, an era of innovation, information and participation. I believe that for us one of the most important things is to recognize that these schools are the products of decisions made at a certain historical time. A series of decisions that we make up to this day continuously, every day. Why do we do this, and what should we be doing? What is the curriculum? How do we shape the teacher's role? Everything that is related to schools is in fact a planned experience.

ing services for citizens. For instance, we collaborated with the Ministry of Human Resources in Singapore in redesigning the labor division, so that they can get in touch with those arriving in the country looking for work. We are rethinking school creation as well, and in the following I am going to address this in depth. IDEO has been around for more than thirty years, it has ten offices and more than six hundred employees worldwide, who received training in creative leadership. Our work is to seek new solutions for the future. Everything that we do is permeated by the approach of human-centered problem solutions. Therefore, whenever we are asked to design an entire school system, we consistently begin by understanding the people first. This does not mean that we do not consider the business side, the markets or the prices, and it also does not mean that we disregard technological viability checking. What it means is that we ask people what is important to them, how we can make their lives better, how we can harmonize business and market realities and technological viability, so that we can create a better life for them.

THROUGH THE EYES OF AN ALIEN We have seen a great many lists, with many words that we all believe in, but we simply don't know what to do with them. As I look at these lists, I see as their basis the concept of "creative leadership". This helps us get oriented in one direction: in the future, we shall not only need leadership, but creative leadership. We need to value those abilities that help us in development and discovery, and thus, we may succeed in keeping pace with the world's changes. Let us take another look in our classrooms. Before

"... the schools were designed to educate the citizens of the industrial era ..."

I believe it is important for us to recognize this, because as soon as we have recognized it, we can make decisions about how to redesign. This is very difficult for very many reasons, one of them being that we all have been pupils at some point. Indeed, many of us may have school-age children. Therefore, we see things in a certain way. However, if we want to change these two things, it is indeed very difficult to think outside of them. And therefore, it is difficult to imagine it as different than the design of the present. IDEO â&#x20AC;&#x201C; DESIGN THINKING I began in the middle and I shared all of this without saying anything about myself or about where I come from. I work in a company named IDEO, which aids organizations in reforming via design and innovative advice.

We have collaborated with governments in redesign-

PROJECTS THAT BUILD ON EXPERIENCE There are two aspects that I would like to highlight in relation to design thinking. The first is that people inspire us. Instead of just sitting there thinking about what the next best product is going to be, we do field research and experience what it is like in reality. In the case of the next project the question was how we could improve on the experience of care received at the hospital emergency unit. One of our designers who was a member of the team that rethought the hospital emergency room checked himself into a hospital and wrote "please don't cut" someplace, as in reality he was fully healthy.

But he checked himself in, and all the while he held a camera next to his head, because this way he not only personally experienced what it was like to be a patient in the hospital, but he could also show our clients what the patients see and experience when they are in their hospitals. Can you imagine what the camera showed? The ceiling for five hours. Sometimes a head appears, which speaks about him without ever addressing him. When the hospitals' directors saw this, they were stunned, because they had no idea what the patients went through in their hospitals. This is why we must get our inspirations from the people.

"Design thinking is empathetic, optimistic, it believes that a better future can be accessed; it is based on experiments, we try things out, so that we can learn about them..." "Design thinking is empathetic, optimistic, it believes that a better future can be accessed; it is based on experiments, we try things out, so that we can learn about them..." This does not just mean that we do everything for the people, but that we also try these ideas out. One characteristic approach is that we not only think, we build; we are not just sitting in a room, we also create so that we get feedback from people. We try our ideas out with them, and we encourage them to participate so that they can aid in developing the idea. For example, we collaborated with a hotel chain to improve customer satisfaction. We got to know the people, we went to the hotels, we gained experience, we had new ideas, and then we rented a storage place, where we built a life-size prototype of the imagined model. We invited guests and employees, even the owners of the member hotels, and asked them to tell us everything they think about the topic, to give us advice on how we could make it even better. Thus, merely by asking about people's experience we could improve

a great deal upon the plans. The hotel chain used our ideas in the most precise way, the member hotels adopted the new ideas of the central organization. That we included people in the process was an excellent experience of ideas coming alive independently. This process often differs to a great extent from the work of other organizations, and I believe that this is not only evident in the various stages of the work, but also in its way of thinking. Design thinking is empathetic, optimistic. We believe that a better future can be accessed. It is based on experiments; we try things out, so that we can learn about them. And it is of course teamwork; we bring talents from many areas so that we can approach complex issues from multiple sides. D-SCHOOL â&#x20AC;&#x201C; THROUGH DESIGN TO EDUCATION Now I would like to return to questions of education, as we could ask the question, just how design and education can be connected. On the one hand, we use it to rethink what we would like to learn; on the other hand, to rethink how we should develop future leaders, as well as how we learn, and finally how we need to redesign the system to this end. I would like to provide examples for each dimension. The first one: how do we develop creative leaders, what do we learn? As one of the world's most successful universities Stanford University in California reconsiders the learning methods that it expects from its students. The Stanford Design School is an institution that accepts students from all parts of the university, and focuses on the education of future creative leaders. This began with a napkin when a couple people gathered, among others David Kelly, the founder of IDEA and the Design School. These people thought that the learning methods should be changed. Students needed to be taught new abilities so that they could act differently in the world. Therefore, they decided that they would found the best design school that would train future leaders and applies design as a learning process. Thus, new pathways open up to apply the knowledge gained, and the aim of the founders was establishing in-depth teamwork and project-based thinking, and these form the elements of D-School design. How does this work in practice? Let us take as an example the course "Design for extreme affordability", in the framework of which the students travelled to different corners of the Earth to familiarize themselves with the most important

challenges, in this case problems posed by poverty in particular. The question was what they could design in order to make the lives of the poor better. One group travelled to Nepal, where they were confronted with the problems of infant mortality: many babies are born premature, amongst which many die in the first weeks. One of the reasons is that incubators cost about twenty thousand dollars, and they are not accessible from small villages. After they returned home they began pondering a solution, and finally they created a machine whose manufacture costs about twentytwenty five dollars. They have already graduated Stanford and they created a non-profit organization, which creates products for people living in deep poverty. They are present in eleven countries of the world. The D-School selects students from Liberal Arts, Computer Science, Engineering, Education and numerous other science fields, and they place them into classes where there is no learning material per se. Instead, a great challenge serves to orient learning. The courses are based on the process of design, and in each Stanford course that is what happens. The participants are made to go through the process of design thinking. Through this process they not only learn the methodology of planning, but they

reinforce their creative abilities, those abilities with which they can effect a change in the world. Countless different topics serve as topics for the lessons, and in many cases, there are several professors in the course. Last year, for instance, I gave a lesson about the organization of a high school. How can we redesign high school? There were many solution for the usage of space, for instance, in a particular classroom you cannot even see where the teacher is located. In fact, there are five, without us being able to recognize them unambiguously. Can you imagine what it might be like to be learning in that classroom? This is not only good, but it sets a deep side of a person in motion, which is the ability to create with others. “DESIGN FOR CHANGE” In relation to these same ideas I would like to show other examples. One of them is the "Design for Change", a school competition that we created in collaboration with an Indian educator. He wanted to let the children know that they can also effect change in their environments. We took the process of design as our point of departure, and adapted it for ten-year-olds. We created a country-wide competition in India, so that the youth could show what they were capable of when asked to take part in solving the problems of the community. The process offered

to the students was fairly simple. The first step is "Feel it" go into your own community so that you can feel people's pain. The second step is "Imagine it", imagine what you would undertake against the painful things. The third step is "Do it", choose an idea and do something. The fourth step is "Share it", a particularly important step, so that upon seeing the change created by the children, the adults can also recognize its relevance. All of this was realized in practice in the following way: in one village, a group of kids noticed that many of their parents were under the influence of charlatans. Whenever they became ill, they went to these snake oil salesmen, who were no true doctors, and the kids wanted to do something against this. Therefore, they organized a lecture, which they presented in the middle of the village, so that the adults could also see the "science" behind the tricks of the charlatans. As a result, almost one hundred adults promised never to go to these fake doctors again, but to visit real doctors instead. A further example took place this year – even I only heard about it recently – and I found it very inspiring. A couple of girls realized that in spite of the fact that their mothers took on a very active role in their education and in their lives, none of their official documents had their mother's name printed on them. Only the father's name was included. The girls felt this was very unjust. Therefore, in collaboration with the local government they changed the forms, and in the future the names of both parents will be printed. If you have been to India, in particular in the country's isolated and hidden parts, you will know that this is a radical change. In the first year that we organized this competition, 1,500 teams arrived from the entire country. The children solved such problems as lack of education, illiteracy, traffic, pollution. The competition is now on in thirty countries worldwide, alas, not yet in Hungary. It would be a worthwhile task to bring it to Hungary as well, and I would love to help to contact the organizers. A NAMEPLATE AND LEADERSHIP ABILITIES To move on I have another related story. Andrew was a pupil in ninth grade in the Henry Ford Learning Institute, which is located in Dearborn, Michigan. Andrew participated in a lesson similar to D-School, which we adapted to high school students in particular.

"The children solved such problems as lack of education, illiteracy, traffic, pollution." The introductory product was a nameplate for one of their classmates. Personally, I thought this was a very dumb idea, it seemed too simple and boring to design a nameplate for someone else. There were a few other projects in the course of the lessons, and they became ever more difficult as time progressed. After the course was over, I interviewed Andrew, so that we could improve the subject on the basis of his experiences. I asked him which one was his favorite project, and what did he tell me? The nameplate project was his favorite. I thought he was kidding. The nameplate project? But a good interviewer does not let his emotions show, and so I asked him why he liked that project so much. He answered: "In the course of this project I learned that I am a leader. I learned that I could effect change in someone else's life. I learned that I could pay attention another person's needs, that I can do something for him, that I can make someone's day better. I believe this was a great lesson that could be of use to everyone." After this I said that yes, you had an effect on someone, which is great, but what could you use this process for? He looked around a bit and thought about the matter, then he said that the Michigan economy could use some help and that he would love to redesign the school cafeteria. Then I thought: yes, that is exactly what we need, and from the conviction that we can have an effect on a single person, this very conviction, ability and method could be used to reshape a state's economy, or we could create a cafeteria where it actually feels good to have lunch. These stories provide a picture about what we do to educate future leaders, and how we reshape what and how we learn. However, many people say that in reality we are not taking the system as a whole into consideration. In my stories, I spoke only of this or that project and a competition, but we can use the same process of design to rethink systems. Let me therefore say a few words about the history of Innova schools.

PERU AND THE INNOVA SCHOOLS The Innova schools make up an affordable private school system in Peru. In 2012 Peru was ranked 65th out of sixty-five countries in the global Pisa survey, thus we can say that worldwide it ranked last on the basis of the quality of education. In the last ten years, their economy grew and stabilized, however, they did not succeed in developing their education systems. In fact, their results worsened when compared to tests from a few years before. Therefore, in Peru people felt the limits of development despite growth, as there are no talents who in the future would continue to shepherd the economy. There is fast-evolving middle class who would like to secure much better prospects for their children.

"... yes, that is exactly what we need, and from the conviction that we can have an effect on a single person, this very conviction, ability and method could be used to reshape a state's economy." The current Peruvian requirement might as well be cast in stone. A teacher speaks in front of the class, the children take notes. When the children take home a notebook full of notes, the parents believe that they are progressing well in their learning. The old buildings are falling apart, and the teachers are trained in an educational system so defective that we could in essence call them uneducated. One of the greatest challenges in the reform of Peru's educational system is that there is not quality as a point of departure. There are no talented teachers who could shape the children appropriately. Both parents and educators would love to do something, they would love to be part of the change, they are reluctant to carry out the instructions forced on them from above, but they have no idea how to start. They would love to learn and help, but they need someone, who knows, what a good system would look like. It was amazing to speak

with the students, they are just like any other kid in the world. They are happiest when they can use their imagination, they showed us their notebooks filled with their lessons, and they spoke of the secret things that they had done at home above and beyond the exercises; about the book which had helped them imagined something that they had never thought of before. HOW CAN WE CREATE A HIGH STANDARD AND AFFORDABLE SYSTEM? The schools decided that they wanted to address the country's problem. They wanted to create a system which was affordable for the rising middle class, which was measurable, so that they could measure the effect made on the country, and one that was of outstanding quality internationally. Their mission was to educate a new generation of leaders. A team of IDEO worked in close collaboration with the team of Innova, they spent six months with field work so that they could design the school system that could achieve the above-mentioned goals. After much drawing and discussion, feedback and posters, we arrived at the conception of Innova schools. We had to design everything, not just the mission of the school and its way of thinking. We recognized the things that those participating in the system might need, we believed that we needed to draw on the children's imagination, that we needed to help the parents and the teachers recognize the concept of the good in this new school. We planned everything, the school model, the curriculum and the pedagogical methods, what the spaces would look like and what the lesson plan would be. We planned what sort of tools they would create in order to increase the system's efficiency, how they would determine the role of the system, how they would finance it, and naturally how all this would fit into a composite picture. This system was planned uniquely for Peruvian circumstances; however, it might fit other places as well. We created a mixed learning model, where we combine the best qualities of teaching and technology, in order to help students, learn autonomous learning, so that they would not learn only because the teachers said they should. There are two teaching formats. One is teacher-led and project-based, where the teacher initiates a discovery conversation with the pupils. Thus, they learn through a project.

The other one is technology-based, where the pupils use the very best resources of the world with the help of a teacher to gain basic knowledge. As I mentioned before, the teachers were part of the difficulty as they were not trained well enough, and now we asked them to apply innovative methods that they had never learned about before. We had to solve creating a system in which they could also learn and develop. So, we create a standard lesson plan which made possible that they worked with the students on the basis of the projects. Innova created 19,000 lesson plans, which is a starting point accessible via a central database, the Teacher's Resource Center, to which the teachers were given the 30-70 guideline: 70% of the plan should be kept, 30% they would shape according to their own decisions. But when they change something it should be put into the database, so that through this their colleagues could learn from one another, and the center could see if someone innovates the lesson plan in an outstanding way. To me it is very interesting that instead of writing scripts, we had to find a different solution, as the teachers did not want the plans that proved to be good already, but they also wanted to contribute their own creativity, so that they could also be part of the change. Even they were aware of their knowledge deficiencies, so a common solution could be found. We give you a point of departure, and we make your

development possible. The buildings' exterior was important as well, as we noticed that the growing middle class had seen numerous elegant private schools, where they would have loved to send their children. So, we decided that Innova schools were going to be very beautiful despite their low budgets, so that parents can would proudly bring their kids school. Our work together concluded in April 2012. Since then, 29 schools have been operating with twenty thousand students, roughly 900 teachers, and in two years they have achieved very good results in comparison to state schools. As I mentioned, we would like to educate a new generation of Peruvian leaders, so the goal is not merely that they would do the same thing better and better. The model built by us made us think about what material should be taught. We knew that we have to develop those different abilities listed by the World Economic Forum: creativity, teamwork, communication, endurance, determination and all those qualities that would like to see in future leaders. Therefore, Innova schools close every year for two weeks, and each student participates in an innovation program, where they use the process I described earlier, just as the Indian children did before.

THE CREATIVE LEADERS OF THE FUTURE They address the social problems of their communities, they get to know those issues that their citizens find important, they use that which they have learned earlier, and they cooperate in many ways. The teachers cannot tell what is good, because they also don't know what the answers will be. Then they often get scared, but the children on the whole can keep the situation under control. It is very uplifting when we see a group of eight year olds and a group of sixteen year olds proposing solutions to the same problem. This year 13,500 children worked on solving social challenges.

Now I would like to return to the beginning. If anyone remembers the feeling of how complex our world has become, that we always seem to know more and more, and yet we keep feeling that we understand less and less. We also know that not only we need to orient ourselves in the world, but young people as well, without it placing its full weight upon them. We need new approaches for our problems. Only in this way can we create the future that we all desire. So, education comes to be central, and many of us get into the picture, because we adults are capable of redesigning the system such that it can adjust to the needs of the future.

Sandy Speicher and Stanford Author: László Körtvélyesi

"Design-based thinking is really about knowing your environment, believing that you have a role in shaping the world, and choosing the appropriate steps to reach a more ideal future." As a professor in Stanford's D-school and as executive director of IDEO's education division, she works on developing innovative and supplementary education systems, which provide more effective solutions for local social problems, as yet unsatisfied needs, or which help the dreams of young talents come true in practice. Speicher introduced design thinking into both lower and higher education systems, taught several years herself, but she also cooperated with several companies, organizations and public institutions. PERU'S EDUCATION REFORM The task was to reform one of the worst public school systems of the world. Just the preparation took about half a year, but they managed to find a scalable and affordable education structure. At the beginning, they took over three schools, which quickly became twenty-three with 13,500 pupils and 725 teachers. According to their expectations, in the next three years the number of schools will double. DESIGN FOR CHANGE The competition will be held in India, but it attracts pupils from all over the world who would like to work on solutions that stimulate social change in their own communities. http://www.dfcworld.com/

Sandy studied education policy at Stanford and visual communication at Washington University. She started her design career in MetaDesign as a developer for brand profiles and interactive systems. She taught visual communication at Washington University, and for six years she taught "design thinking" to fifth graders in San Francisco schools, that is, reasoning that is based on the principles of design. Sandy teaches a course on designing school models at Stanford and she is a strategic advisor to K-12 Lab Network at Stanford University. In her free time, she loves to travel, get to know different cultures, and collects Mona Lisa knickknacks. IDEO IDEO is an international design, planning and strategic advisory firm, which was created from one of the spin-off companies of Stanford (from David Kelly Design, which was named after its founder, an American objectivist philosopher). At the beginning, they were involved in product design, for instance they designed Apple's first mouse and Steelcase's workplace swivel chair. We can find their results in the products of Air New Zealand, Coca Cola, ConAgra Foods, Eli Lilly, Ford, and Medtronic as well. From 2001 onwards they focused much more on understanding user experience (UX: UserExperience; for instance, they planned non-traditional classrooms), and in the last years they focused on finding practical and business applications for design thinking.

fotó: Kazuho Okui

DESIGN THINKING FOR EDUCATORS: Sandy assembled a methodological curriculum so that educators can learn the basics of design thinking based education. It can be downloaded free of charge. The toolkit contains a textbook and a workbook. http://www.designthinkingforeducators.com/

100KIN10 This project has as its aim that in ten years 100,000 outstanding teachers will train students in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM fields) in the United States. This is necessary because 10 out of the 14 fastest developing industry branches suffer a serious lack of workforce and expertise in America. According to the organizers of 100Kin10 the competitiveness of America depends upon whether they are able to live up to this challenge. https://100kin10.org/

EDUCATION REFORM IN INDIA – THE POWER OF KNOWLEDGE AND INFORMATION Author: Péter Klemensits

India has created one of the largest education systems in existence today. However, despite the extraordinary developments in the last decades, further reforms are necessary. The Indian government, recognizing the true importance of education in the 21 st century, has made a firm commitment to creating a knowledge-based society through legislation.

Globalization brings numerous opportunities for India, which the South-Asian country could turn to its advantage due to its demographic and economic potential. More than half of India's population is of working age, and according to forecasts, by 2020 one quarter of the world's labor force will be made up by Indians. Job creation is of central importance to the government, for its success can become the engine of economic development at later stages. In the Age of Information society, however, there is only demand for a well-educated, professional workforce, therefore education is of paramount importance. The education system of the subcontinent's largest country attempts to adjust to the challenges, but there is no

concerning Education" was passed, a modified version of which is still treated as a priority project by the Modi-government. Women's participation in education was minimal at the beginning, but by 2001, with government support, more than 50% of all women could read and write, which can be seen as a formidable step forward in comparison to 15% in the 1960s.

doubt about the need for reform. In the past years, India's governments have consciously striven to correct the errors of the old system, to adopt new developments, and to build a knowledge-based society that privileges creativity and innovation.

and local communities, in addition to numerous and varying kinds of private schools. Education is pursued on three levels: elementary, middle, and higher. The lower section of elementary education comprises five years, then follow three years of upper elementary, and four years of middle school (divided into two sections each lasting two years), then at universities and colleges there is three years of Bachelor's, two years of Master's, and in certain cases three years of Ph.D. training.

THE WINNERS AND LOSERS OF PUBLIC EDUCATION Before the age of colonization there existed no central educational system in India. If someone wanted to study, then he voluntarily joined a master, who initiated his disciples primarily into the secrets of Sanskrit, mathematics and metaphysics. The British introduced modern school system into the country in the 1830s, as a result of which the close relationship between master and disciple ceased to exist, and the curriculum featured primarily natural sciences. In the course of the 1920s, the British created several central institutions to oversee education in the various states, the relevance of which increased after India gained independence. According to Article 45 of the Constitution of the Republic of India, education is compulsory for children aged 6-14, but the government encountered difficulties in attempting to enforce the article in certain areas even at the end of the 20th century. At the outset, overseeing education was considered each state's home affair. Thus, India's government had little influence over questions concerning education. This situation only changed in 1976, when, after an amendment to the Constitution, education came under the national government's purview. In the 1980s many legislative acts were passed to enforce compulsory education regulations and to develop elementary education. In this spirit the program "National Policy

BIANNUAL HIGH SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS In India's current education system both government and private sectors are represented, where maintenance of state institutions falls under the purview of the central government, single state governments,

"... by 2011 the literacy rate among children aged 7-10 reached 75%..." The most important government body that exercises oversight over public education is the Council for Education, Research, and Technical Training. Among others, it oversees the implementation of education policy in the country; furthermore, it determines teaching materials and the curriculum, while it also provides financial support to institutions. India boasts serious accomplishments in elementary education development. As a result, by 2011 the literacy rate among children aged 7-10 reached 75%. This had a positive effect on economic development as well. 80% of elementary schools are state-financed. Accordingly, in 1994 a new program was started to unify elementary education, which also contributed to the development of elementary education. The newest program that aims to provide unified education for all is Sarva Shiksa Abhidjan, which is currently one of the greatest educational initiatives in the world.

Schoolchildren, Raxaul, India

A characteristic feature of Indian high school education is that students must pass examinations after finishing each two-year section. In order to participate in an exam, candidates must have reached a certain age. In addition to high schools – with government incentive – a significant portion of middle institutions today also offer technical training to pupils, in order to foster their eventual later placement on the labor force market. Disadvantaged children enjoy special privileges in this area. The Kendrija Vidalaja program was initially created for the children of public servants, later however it became a networks of state schools engaging in unified education activity. Today high school education in India places strong emphasis on scientific and technical knowledge, but also on cultivating traditional arts. As a result, yoga is an integral part of the curriculum. Despite the fact that in-state institutions’ teaching is free of charge, a tendency can be observed that even the poorest strive to get their children into private institutions, primarily due

to better infrastructural circumstances and better quality of education. Currently about 30% of all youth study in private institutions. Some of these institutions are indeed expensive and exclusive boarding schools, whereas others follow a special method (for instance Montessori schools), but there are also true international educational centers amongst them. THE WORLD'S LARGEST HIGHER EDUCATION CENTER India's higher education system, following the United States and China, is the third largest in the world. Owing to the reforms and increasing investments it is continuously growing. Between 2001 and 2011 nearly 20,000 colleges were founded, the number of those pursuing higher education increased by 8,000 people. (As a principle, the generation aged 18-24 is considered to be students of higher education.) Currently there are 750 universities and 34,000 colleges in the country.

According to some opinions, India might become one of the world's largest higher education centers, which is counting ever more on the participation of foreign students in the system, primarily owing to distance education.

"Currently there are 750 universities and 34,000 colleges in the country." Currently the Indhira Gandhi Open University is the world's largest educational institution with nearly 3.5 million students. The most important coordinating body in higher education is the University Fellowship Committee – in subordination to the Ministry for the Development of Human Resources – which has the right of accreditation and thereby exercises de facto oversight over autonomous institutions. India's education policy privileges modern scientific and engineering trainings. Therefore, primarily universities and colleges specializing in these subjects have gained greater prestige over the years. Mumbai University and Jawaharlal Nehru University have gained global recognition for their world-class programs. Nevertheless, amongst the 2015 global rankings two other Indian universities can be found among the top 200: The Indian Institute of Science

in Bangalore was ranked 147th, Delhi Technological University 179th according to the survey. Among universities, state-financed technical universities are in the most advantageous position. As institutions of paramount importance, they are expected to deliver outstanding scientific developments. Accordingly, they have no shortage of financial sources. Institutions run by single states – their numbers are the highest in the country – are quite heterogeneous with regards to the quality of education delivered, and their financial means are limited. During the past few years, the number of private universities grew further, increasing available options to future higher education students. A unique characteristic of Indian higher education is a quota system, which was introduced in the interest of historically marginalized outcast tribes and pariahs. Today there are more than 1,300 different outcast groups in the country. India's affirmative action policy, known locally as reservation, ensures that universities and colleges reserve at a minimum 50% of all places for the historically outcast, so that they can gain training and degrees as well. CURRICULUM AND EDUCATION REFORM The Indian government already recognized in the 1980s that moneys spent on education pays off in the future. Therefore, it planned to spend 6% of GDP on education. On the whole, however, by 1997-8 the government only succeeded in raising spending level to 3.6% of GDP from 1% in the 1950s.

WHERE REFORMS ARE NEEDED Despite the last decades' tremendous development several problems are present in Indian education system, the handling of which is a matter of urgency. On the elementary level, primarily rural schools struggle with serious infrastructural shortcomings. The teacher per student ratio is far too low; as the teachers are unqualified, the quality of education delivered is not satisfactory. With regards to high schools, in the recent past the system has primarily been criticized due to outdated teaching materials. According to the critics, the materials did not develop problem resolution skills and did not prepare students according to the expectations of today's labor force market, but rather encouraged students to memorize outdated knowledge. In higher education, there were also issues related to quality, and as several institutions are operating without accreditation, there continue to be universities and colleges offering less valuable or even invalid degrees in the country.

Up to 2014 there was hardly any change in this regard. Then, when Narendra Modi came to power the new government set 6% as target once again. In the past, government reforms focused fundamentally on the development of elementary education, by expanding the number of pupils participating in education. By the 2010s, this changed fundamentally, and the emphasis now shifted to higher education reform. According to a survey, higher education students studying abroad between 2000 and 2009 increased by 256%, which makes the difference in quality between Indian and foreign institutions palpable. Moreover, as part of brain drain, only slightly more than 5% of them return, or seek employment in India. Reacting to the shortcomings described, in 2013 India's president, Pranab Mukherjee named accessibility, affordability, and quality as the prime components of success in the course of education reform.

"... so that by 2022 India may have at its disposal a trained labor force numbering nearly 500 million..." Manmohan Singh's government drafted the 12th strategic plan, which, in addition to supporting engineering training and research, wished to emphasize infrastructural development, modifying teaching materials and distance education. It is not unimportant that under the tenure of Singh's government technical training receive priority with the purpose that by 2022 India may have at its disposal a trained labor force numbering nearly 500 million. THE MODI GOVERNMENT'S ACCESSION Following the election victory of Narendra Modi and the Bharatiya Janata Party in May 2014, education reforms received a new momentum. Modi recognized correctly that state investments aiming to develop human capital simultaneously contribute to economic growth. Currently India has 7% economic growth, and it is counted among the world's fastest developing economies. Unemployment however remains a serious issue. Owing to the demographic explosion, by 2024 nearly 120 million young people – the majority of whom are untrained farmers – will appear on the labor market, while demand will

largely only increase for the professionally trained labor force, in particular from foreign companies that arrive in ever greater numbers in the country. In addition, the universities graduate about 2.5 million students annually, including 25,000 medics and 350,000 engineers. However, owing partly to the shortcomings of the educational system, nearly 5 million university graduates remain unemployed, while in certain sectors the lack of trained labor force has become permanent. From the outset, the prime minister showed himself as a supporter of innovation, creativity and lifelong learning, and is also a steadfast supporter of Internetrelated technological developments. Although in the area of reforms the state is counting on the support of other domestic and foreign actors, with regards to education it continues to insist on forceful centralization. In this spirit the government expanded the purview of the university fellowship committee and it strengthened its oversight function over higher education. We may consider as a great success that in 2014 India joined the Washington Convention as the 16th member state. Thus, students studying in Indian engineering training institutions accredited by the National Accreditation Council may further pursue their studies in the institutions of other member states without having to pass any further entrance exams. According to the intentions of the government and in relation to Modi's program supporting foreign investment (Make in India), a bill on the legal status of foreign suppliers will enable renowned foreign universities to establish branches in India to further aid raising the prestige and quality of higher education. From fall 2015 in the framework of the New Education Policy initiative and via the MyGov internet platform, citizens could also voice their opinions in relation to the educational reform, and thus aid in the creation of a new, high-quality, innovative government policy that corresponds to the challenges of the present. Starting from the academic year 2015-6 the government introduced choice-based credit system in higher education. This means that students may decide themselves which subjects they complete, when, and in which particular order. Compulsory, basic and elective courses have made an appearance in the new system, thus education has become a great deal more individual than earlier.

Simultaneously evaluation has changed, as the earlier point-based system (1-10) yielded its place to a letter-based grading scale. Adjusting to the requirements of globalization, a semester-based training has been introduced instead of the traditional academic year, while â&#x20AC;&#x201C; to make global comparisons easier â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the ranking of Indian higher education institutions has begun. Increasing the number of nationally relevant engineering and leadership institutions is also meant to prove India's global role. Although the Modi government committed itself primarily to developing higher education, several measures passed to develop elementary education and high schools. Such innovations as Smartclass and Edu India must be mentioned, as they truly mean radical innovation for the students. The former is a multimedia, 3D technology based digital teaching

THE KERALA MODEL In the course of public education reform, we may regard the Kerala state's practice as exemplary. In Kerala state the literacy rate is about 90%, by far the highest in the country, and girls' education enjoys priority. Thanks to the modern curriculum, students command a truly usable set of skills. From the outset, the government spent enormous sums on education, which in the end provided the foundation for economic growth.

material database, which aids teachers in teaching and examining, and students in learning. The latter is basically an educational YouTube channel that focuses on curricular materials. THE EDUCATION SYSTEM OF THE FUTURE The series of education provisions in the 2016-7 draft budget provides an exact picture about the Modi government's future plans with regards to education. The government is planning to establish a new institution (Higher Education Financing Agency) to oversee the infrastructural developments in higher education. At the same time, owing to standardization of training, a new regulatory body's establishment has also been on the agenda. In addition to supporting online courses, the next step of the government in the direction of digitalization is the creation of an online register for report cards and degrees. Concerning state investments, as stated earlier, higher education continues to enjoy priority, but public education, particularly technical training, will also benefit, as the allocation of financial sources makes clear. Whether the reforms live up to their promise cannot yet be seen. However, they certainly prove that India has recognized the challenges of the 21st century, the power of knowledge, information, and innovation, and accordingly radical reforms are taking place in the country. The successful creation of information society would carry great opportunities for India, while its failure could push the state towards not just an economic but a political crisis as well.

THE SCHOOLS OF THE FUTURE ARE SELFORGANIZED SYSTEMS Sugata Mitra, the world-famous presenter shared his ideas with us at Brain Bar Budapest at the invitation of PAGEO.

What will schools look like in the future? First, we should explain what these selforganized systems are. People often think by this we mean self-directed study, or worse, independent study. This is by no means the case!

HOLE IN THE WALL Let's take for instance clapping. When we listen to clapping in slow-motion, then we can hear that in the first seconds clapping is chaotic and random, then a common rhythm emerges. Emerge is really the only right word here. This is what we call a self-organized system. Some call it "spontaneous order". It is everywhere in nature, but we know very little about it. For instance, relationships among children is such spontaneous order. I would like to begin with an experiment of mine which I conducted 16 years ago, as at every talk where I left a "hole in the wall" the question came up: "What happened?" This hole is a computer in the wall, at three feet height. Three feet, because then every three-foot-high human being will flock to take a look, to play and understand. Why was this necessary? It was necessary so that the children formed groups, and once you have that, self-organized systems will come to be. What have we discovered with this experiment? That groups of children who use the Internet can learn everything on their own. 14-15 years ago, I said that groups of children can learn to use the Internet and computers on their own. But what happens

after they have learned to use the Internet? They begin to browse. They play games, they paint pictures, and finally they begin to browse. And the Internet gives them everything. I thought that this was not learning. But it is. The children come in, they copy their homework into a browser, they copy everything that appears on the screen, then they go back to school, and the children know they copied what they needed. What do they do if they receive a difficult assignment in Geography, History, Natural Science, Mathematics or Biology? What if we ask 12-year-olds something about chemistry, postgraduate physics or quantum mechanics? They figure out the gist in 25 minutes and they talk like experienced physicists. Let me cite an example from an experiment close to my heart. The children are 11-12 years old. I asked: what happens when I throw this ball to the wall? It bounces back. And will you catch it? Yes, you can catch it. And if you throw it to the wall again, it will again bounce back. If you do this many times, could it happen that the ball does not hit the wall but rather passes through it and comes out on its other side? Then they laughed and they said such a thing cannot happen.

They were given 25 minutes and the came back with Schrödinger's equation. They said that the ball is a probability curve, it can compress, generally it aggregates on this side of the wall, that's why it keeps coming back. But sometimes, somewhere in the universe it might aggregate on the other side. Which suggests the groups of children can learn anything on their own. What does this mean all this with regards to education, schooling, or anything else? These are experiments I conducted in several countries. THE GATESHEAD EXPERIMENTS In the course of the experiments we realized that when a spontaneous order emerges from a chaotic system, an adult may be present, but only one who admires the process. So, I issued a call in England: "If you are an English grandmother who has an Internet connection and a web cam, would you give me an hour of your time per week for free?" Several hundred people wrote back, not all of them grandmothers. There were young men and women as well. You can also be a "Skype-granny" if you wish – that's their nickname. All they do is they come up with a question, any old question, that the children need to find an answer to. Gateshead is a small town on the banks of the Tyne river, across from Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where my university is located. We emptied a room in a classroom, we put in 4-5 computers with big screens and let in 20 children. The kids asked why there were only 5 computers. Then we asked them a question: "how come only men can grow a beard? Why can women not grow a beard?" First everyone laughed, but then they got on with it, and the question pulled them into evolution, anthropology, into cells, genetics, the X and the Y chromosome, and the whole thing just went on and on, and in 25 minutes the usual miracle happened. This is a self-organized learning environment. What did we need? Broadband, a cooperative environment, encouragement, recognition. How can we create a cooperative environment? The children only cooperate if they are alone, if no one is watching over them. This is the SOLE method, and now let's just take a look, how does it work? In a London school I asked the question: "Why do glowing hot rocks form at the edges of tectonic plates?" ... I asked seven-year-old

children! I remember to this day, for exactly 25 minutes there was huge noise and commotion, the children were running up and down. And then two little hands go up in one of the room's corners. Everyone looked to that corner and saw the two little hands. Elementary school geology in 25 minutes.

"... we prepare our children for the world of 1890. But that world no longer exists." Let us imagine an office at the end of the 19th century. There were no phones, no computers, there were barely any lights, a long row of clerks sat, because back then there were no such machines and people had to do it everything by hand. They read, understood, and followed instructions, they wrote the answers down, and if needed, they did mental arithmetic. In that system, two things were forbidden: asking a question and creativity. Then let us take a look at an examination room in India today, in 2015. Nothing has changed, the problem is exactly the same: we prepare our children for the world of 1890. But that world no longer exists. When we take an exam, why can we have no access to computers, or to our smart phones? I thought, “what would happen if we took the Internet into the examination?” We could say here is paper and pen, and you can use the Internet, your smart phone, do what you want. We would have to tell them, look, you must learn to browse properly, to make a distinction between a good and a bad website, to compare them, to decide which one is good, what peer review means, and so forth. These are all things that everyone ought to know but it is not taught in schools. If we want to achieve change in a system, it is not sufficient to reshuffle it, but we must make an administrative decision and must change everything dramatically and fast. I have traveled all over the world and tried to tell people: "Look, this is the easiest way to do it, just give it a try." Instead of general questions we should ask questions such as: "Where do living beings get their energy from?" The answer is obviously: "From food." The next question would be: "How does food become energy?" They will say out of two molecules which have phosphorus in the middle.

THERE ARE FEWER COMPUTERS THAN PUPILS. WHY? If we want to create an unsupervised, slightly chaotic cooperative environment, then we naturally need fewer computers than children. Otherwise we would have to tell them to form groups, but this is a prescription which does not correspond to the basic principles of the method. But if there are five computers for 20 children, then you don't need to tell them anything, because they will form groups. They have no other choice. In a way, I am trying to bring the Ph.D. system down to the level of 9-year-olds. What happens today, in the more developed part of the world, anyway, is that there are only a few computers in the SOLE or School in the Cloud system. Therefore, groups form, but when the children go home, they all have their own computers. So then they begin to write to each other, research some more, and so forth. But if we do this in school, they cease to communicate with each other, that spoils collaboration. But what do we need conversations, interactions for? It's very simple. There is a theory in physics on why different people clapping eventually clap in sync. The human ear hears only clapping by 7-8 other people, and responds to this average. Why, however, did nature select phosphorus as the basis of all of energy? And then we will have the answer to our big question. SCHOOL IN THE CLOUD When I received the one-million-dollar TED-Prize money, they called me and told me that they found a project and if we liked the idea, they would transfer the money to the university. The project was called School in the Cloud.

"The harder the exam and the material is, the better the results. The easier you try to make it, the worse the results become." When you pose questions to children, including examination questions, and leave them alone to use the Internet and work in groups, and then examine them a few months later, with a paper and pencil exam without Internet, you will see how tremendously they developed. This is an atypical result. How can it be that they remember better than on the first day?

Because they Googled on after the first day. When they worked in groups, they reach a certain point. Individual memory formation is another, higher step. I gave secondary school questions to 8-year-olds, and this time I examined them beforehand, too. Most examination results are good, of course they use the Internet here, and they get the answers. Individual answer scores are high, too, but not as high as before, with the exception of one subject, Geography. I asked the parents why, and they responded: "We have no idea what they do in school, but when they come home, they ask terribly difficult questions. We could only answer where we remembered something from Geography." When children browse the Internet, the Internet does not know that they are children, and it gives them all sorts of results: scientific papers, articles, studies. The children read them and seem to understand what they read.

I used the TED-Prize money that I won in 2013 to take the method to seven places in the world. Out of these five were located in India, and two in North-England. Among the Indian locations there were some where there was nothing, no electricity, no health care, no school system. On the other end of the spectrum there were middle-class English schoolchildren. I studied for three years how far the children advanced. Jerry Rothwell, the filmmaker, made a documentary film about it. WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF EDUCATION? I would like to have such institutions where children study the big questions posed by their mediators. I call them "Schools in the Cloud". You can build your own group, you can join another, you can walk back and forth from one to another, you can take a look at what others are doing â&#x20AC;&#x201C; in other words it is not like a classroom at all. Korakati may be different or no different at all from English schools, but now we are looking for something like this.

Almost every order that emerges spontaneously appears at the height of chaos. This is SOLE: we put the children into an environment which permits them to be themselves and we just wait for order to emerge. Along with order comes learning. The worst that can happen is that we return in five years and nothing has changed. The best that can happen is that the examination system has been changed... It is not us effecting change. We let it happen. He is an Australian, I am not sure what he is doing to the kids' pronunciation, but they love him. The Internet cuts out all the time, it is extremely challenging to provide the technology, but there they are, in the largest classroom, where forty children can cooperate. Here we measured very good things. In the meantime, teachers all over the world tried out SOLE, I cannot even remember how many, several tens of thousands on all continents. So here is the next billion people. If you invite me next year as well, I can tell you where they ended up.

I began to measure this and I found some interesting things. The harder the exam and the material is, the better the results. The easier you try to make it, the worse the results become. If you say to children: now I will give you a really easy task, how will you do it? Alone or in groups? â&#x20AC;&#x201C; they will respond at once that they will work alone. But when I give them something really difficult, that only 17-year-olds can solve, and ask them whether they wish to work alone or in groups, they will respond that they will work in groups.

SUGATA MITRA: THE REVOLUTION OF EDUCATION Author: Fruzsina Simigh

EARLY SCIENTIFIC WORK Sugata Mitra received his Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) on Solid State Physics in the 1970s. During his doctoral research, he discovered that the structure of molecules determines their function more than the constituent atoms. After completing his Ph.D., he began researching energy storage systems, first in the Center for Energy Studies at the Indian Institute of Technology, then at Technische UniversitĂ¤t, Vienna, Austria. This scientific pursuit resulted in a new design for zinc-chlorine batteries (1982), which is used by the military. In addition, he studied the flow of electricity through biological systems, computer networks, the human mind, memory, and learning. Mitra was one of the first in the world to show that stimulating nerve networks can help decipher the mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease (1994). THE FUTURE OF EDUCATION Sugata Mitra is the initiator of Minimally Invasive Education (MIE), a pedagogical method which in essence advocates that children

learn in unsupervised environments from experiments and experiences that they themselves dream up. He proved this by the "Hole in the Wall" experiment, which started out in 1999 in a district of New Delhi, and was eventually expanded to include other countries as well. In this experiment Mitra literally put a "hole in the wall" and left a computer for the slum's youth to use as they wished to. It quickly became clear that free and public access to a computer and the Internet provided to a group of children results in the children independently developing their computer, English language, and learning skills such that it improved their school achievement. Moreover, their ability to interact socially was affected as well: they formed individual opinions and value systems. Mitra developed this method further in the SOLE (Self Organized Learning Environment) program. He gave a talk about this project at the Budapest Brain Bar in 2015. Mitra showed that, building on a spontaneously formed order, children can be left alone to learn under minimal external intervention. There is no need to spoon feed them information and knowledge. If we let the children form groups themselves in order to answer an appropriately stimulating,

photo: Campus Party Brasil

Sugata Mitra, the Winner or the 2013 TED-Prize, was born 12 February, 1951 in Kolkata, India. Currently he is a professor at the School of Education, Communication and Language Sciences at Newcastle University, and chief scientist of NIIT, an Indian multinational company focusing on education and training. Sugata Mitra became famous with his research entitled "Hole in the Wall". Numerous studies on education and public education cite the method of this renowned expert.

complex, but smart and interesting question, then we will see such marvelous results as young school children understanding how it is possible, according to SchrĂśdinger's theory, that when we throw a ball at the wall that the ball may drop down on the wall's other side. In addition, Mitra saw that children retain an extraordinary amount of information, because if a question awakens their curiosity, then they continue the research at home. The SOLE method and cloud-based learning may reform the education system: it might motivate reform of the examination system to spur students on to creative problem resolution instead of accumulating

factual knowledge, which corresponds a great deal better to teamwork at the modern workplace. Moreover, it motivates the questioner to pose ever more complex questions that focus on research, not just the answers that the Internet browser lists as first hit. It is of paramount importance that we do not enforce learning, but we simply let it emerge in groups, in chaos that slowly becomes more systematic, creatively, without supervision. With adequate pointers and motivating support people's natural curiosity and adaptability finds the answer to any question, be that about the English language, the mysteries of Internet browsing, or plate tectonics.

Paulo Roberto Feldmann: THE TRICK IS TO PLAN AHEAD Feldmann visited Budapest at the invitation of the PAGEO Foundation to give lectures at Corvinus University of Budapest, The University of PĂŠcs, and in the Institute for Foreign Affairs and Trade. Author: Lilla Balogh

Paulo Roberto Feldmann, Professor in Economics at Universidade de Sao Paulo, coordinator of Institute of Management Foundation (FIA). In addition to his academic career, he worked more than 25 years in leadership positions at Brazilian and international corporations. Among others, he served as Director of Innovation at Microsoft's Brazilian branch, as partner in the strategic advisory division of Ernst & Young's Latin-American Center, and he served in senior roles in the Brazilian subsidiary of Citibank and Phillips, Banco Safra and Nossa Caixa financial institutions. His scientific research focuses on Latin-American management, examining the relations between innovation, productivity, and businesses.

You command a broad range of experience in both the competitive sphere and academic community, as you served in leadership positions in several multinational firms, and, in addition, you have held a Professorship at the University of Sao Paulo for more than twenty years. In your opinion, how well can secondary and higher education keep up with the trends shaping the world and provide their students with appropriate skills? I believe that especially in emerging countries, and here I mean the majority of Latin America, education systems are not prepared to adapt to the economic, technological, or energy changes that are expected to happen over the next years. Thus, we are facing great challenges. Education systems are mostly too slow to react, in particular to changes in technology. Of course, these are very common and very radical changes these days. At times, not even the scientific

community is in a position to see them coming. The emerging nations, such as Brazil and other LatinAmerican nations are particularly affected, but the situation is not substantially better at other parts of the world. For instance, owing to the phenomenal pace of urbanization almost eighty percent of the entire population lives in urban areas, and some of the world's largest cities can be found here, including Sao Paulo, Mexico City, and BogotĂĄ. These vast urban spaces struggle with enormous challenges in the areas of overcrowding, traffic, and environmental pollution. Despite all of this I believe that we are close to finding a way out. After all, we have solutions at our disposal on how to manage the decisive majority of these problems. Naturally, we need to prepare people, and in particular young people, students. Here education plays a central role.

Faculty of Law of USP-Sao Francisco, Sao Paulo, Brazil 88

You mentioned the relevance of technological changes. According to a 2016 OECD survey, employers honor advanced practical IT-knowledge with higher salary and better career prospects than official degrees paired with lesser IT-competence. In your opinion, may formal education lose its relevance due to the dominant role of practice-based learning and technological abilities? This is a very important question with regards to the future, as currently we are not sufficiently engaged with this problem. Increasing unemployment rates are a huge issue in Latin America, but also worldwide, and the origin of the phenomenon is very complex. The first factor is technology. As we are deploying advanced technology in ever broader circles, in many places the human workforce is becoming superfluous. In many cases, machines and computers permanently replace the human workforce, and while in the course of the transformation process many new jobs

become available, the lost jobs by far outnumber those newly created. The second factor is none other than the crisis of the capitalist system worldwide, the effects of which can be felt particularly forcefully in Latin America. Owing to capital investments, those in good financial positions are able to secure sizable returns, while those who have no income to invest continue to depend on salary-based earnings. Therefore, they are also most affected by job loss. In other words, the rich become richer, the poor become poorer. Along the same dynamics, a huge power concentration is taking place in the banks, which have become the world's most important corporations. Those predominant global companies that are not operating in the banking sphere also have ties to the banks or are owned by them. The current situation may be pointing to the end of capitalism, and people must take account of this reality.

What is in the background of the crisis? The age of Communism and Socialism concluded with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, for the system failed, but in my opinion currently capitalism is struggling through the greatest crisis of its history. The number of poor people is growing. In Latin America, for instance, one third of the population lives on less than 10 dollars a day, but in Asia inequality is growing at the same pace and rate. The effect of the crisis is not as strong in Europe, for the system protects jobs and social benefits. In some European countries, the model of the welfare state is still operating well, but, for instance, the United States of America is struggling with serious issues. This is the first time that the United States of America must face this reality. Wealth concentration is not a new phenomenon in Latin America, but no one has ever paid attention to it while it remained an isolated problem. Now that the United States is also affected by it, we might find its solution. We speak of inequality as the greatest global risk these days. What is your opinion on this matter? A few years ago, a book written by the French economist Thomas Piketty became a bestseller [Thomas Piketty: Capital in the Twenty-First Century, 2013 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; ed.] who researched income and wealth inequality among other things in the United States. According to Piketty's thesis, the returns on capital are constantly greater than the rate of economic growth, which in the long term leads to wealth concentration in society, which increases instability and social tension, in other words leads to crisis. Cities must prepare for this situation as well, as due to the large crowd of job-seekers flowing into cities, federal or state systems must eventually support a broad social stratum, who lose their jobs due to technological developments, but still need health care, education and public transport without being in a position to pay taxes for them. This may indeed lead to crisis. Speaking of changes, according to a report of the World Economic Forum (World Economic Forum: Future of Jobs Report, Jan. 2016), 65% of schoolchildren today will be working in jobs that do not yet exist. As skills will become the levers of the new economy, and skill development and nurturing

talent will be the central elements of national development, what in your opinion can countries do to create efficient programs on these fronts? There are few countries in the world where education is truly progressive. Finland and Sweden, and to some extent Germany are good examples, but most education systems do not prepare children for the requirements of the new economy and technological changes. A Finnish delegation visited Brazil about a month ago to draw up recommendations to Brazilian ministers and state secretaries in relation the development of education. This is a good initiative, but the knowledge transfer can unfortunately only be partially implemented, as the education systems of emerging nations are often very backward. For instance, it would be impossible to give a laptop to every child in Brazil, whereas this is the norm in Finland or Sweden. Emerging nations face a dilemma, namely that the system must be reformed and some schools need support, but due to the budget deficit, state expenditures must be decreased. Unfortunately, education is the first area that sees its funding cut due to austerity measures. The only alternative for parents is to send their children into private institutions. However, many don't have the necessary financial resources for this, or they might lose their job in the meantime, or the buying power of their earnings. This problem is largely unsolved and it represents a truly great challenge with regards to the future, in particular in emerging nations. In your book (Paulo Feldmann: Management in Latin America, Threats and Opportunities in the Globalized World, 2014) you discussed that there are certain factors that determine economic development that cannot be described with conventional economic theories. Rather, they are tied to national values, which are inherited from generation to generation and determine people's behavior. Which values do you mean, and what effect do they have on development? Culture has a tremendous effect on management methods. This statement is of vital importance, because large corporations have central relevance for their countries. The power of countries is based on the number of their global corporations. For instance, the United States is strong, because onefourth of the 2,000 largest companies are American,

but Japan also wields great economic power, as their share is 10-12%. Latin America could have important corporations, but it does not have any. A cause of this can be found in management methods.

"Management is not universal, not the same in every culture, but rather it changes in the context of each culture." Management is not universal, not the same in every culture, but rather it changes in the context of each culture. Michael Porter wrote that management is not a hard science like physics, because then it would have to be the same all over the world, just as gravitation is constant everywhere or the periodic table contains the same elements. Yet management differs in the United States, in Hungary, or in Brazil, depending on the given culture. Sometimes culture exercises a negative influence on management methods, and this may become problematic. In Brazil, for instance, family is of paramount importance, Thus, when a new firm is founded, leadership positions are reserved for family members. This practice is unimaginable in the United States, as there the best prepared professional candidates are preferred. But many Italian multinational companies are family-based as well, and still they are successful globally, too. This is a very good example; indeed, Italy is the only place in the world where the family-based model operates well, but only in the case of smaller firms. In my opinion one of the most important results of the Italian economy is that they have found an operational model that privileges small and middle-sized businesses. If you think about it, there are hardly any large Italian companies, with the exception of a few, such as Pirelli or Fiat. On the other hand, Italians compete very well in sectors where characteristically small- and medium-sized companies dominate, such as the textile or leather industry, or design. These businesses cooperate with one another, and thus they are able to take on larger competitors as

well. Economic policies consciously support this cooperative consortium model, so that companies operating in a sector can join forces directly with one another, and, for instance, so that they are able to export jointly. Benetton is a good example of such a typical consortium, one that brings together innumerable smaller firms. This is a very advantageous model, and I have argued for a long time for its introduction in Brazil, but alas creating the legislative environment has proven to be difficult. As the President of Fecomercio (Federagao do ComĂŠrcio do Estado de Sao Paulo â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Trade Alliance of Sao Paulo) I have negotiated with several governors and ministers about the legislative environment necessary for the creation of consortia, but unfortunately, I failed. Why do you think I did not succeed? In Brazil, politicians owe their success to large companies, as they pay for the costs of the election campaign. Large companies do not want to see legislation that protects the interests of their smaller competitors. This, in a nutshell, is the reason why there are no consortia in Brazil. But the question is all the more justified as Brazilian culture greatly resembles Italian culture. Italian influence is particularly strong in Sao Paulo. After all, descendants of Italians make up nearly half the city's population. Due to political lobbies, however, we failed in creating a similar economic model as in Italy. In your opinion, could such a model be successful in Hungary? One of Hungary's most important resources is a well-trained workforce. Natural science and engineering education has a long tradition in the country, as evidenced by Hungary's Nobel Prize laureates. For Hungary, the quality of education makes a real difference, as it is of very high quality. I am not an expert on the Hungarian economy, but before I arrived, I took a look at the list of the most important companies in the region. These were mostly banks, just as in Latin America. Therefore, the creation of a mechanism that channels the power of the banks into education would be very important. How would this be possible? In the case of Brazil, and I know this sounds incredible, banks give no credit to companies and private persons, because they prefer to invest their money on the stock and bond markets.

Estalada Bridge, Sao Paolo, Brazil 92

Paulista Avenue, Sao Paolo, Brazil

At the same time, many small and middle-sized businesses face difficulties. Just in the last six months about half a million small and medium-sized businesses filed for bankruptcy. The employees of a wellknown magazine did some research and interviewed about two thousand entrepreneurs to chart the reasons for mass bankruptcy. The main reason was none other than lack of credit. In Brazil, the banks are strong, but they give very little credit to small and medium-sized businesses. Therefore, banks must be given incentives to invest in the local economy, in promising projects, to contribute to the development of industry, and to create new jobs. What would you recommend in the case of Hungary? In the case of Hungary, it would be of advantage to exploit the high quality of education and to provide sufficient support to people to become entrepreneurs, to establish startups, in particular in the technological sector. This is not at all a widespread practice. The only country that succeeded in institutionalizing this is Israel, which is widely regarded as a country of start-ups. A book discussing this topic was published, and it sports the title "Start-up nationâ&#x20AC;? [Dan Senor: Start-up Nation: The Story of Israel's

Economic Miracle, 2011, â&#x20AC;&#x201C; ed.] as there are as many start-ups in Israel as there are in the United States. But how it is possible that a country smaller than the city of Sao Paulo or even Hungary could catch up with America? The three main ingredients of the successful model are incentive for the setting up of companies, close cooperation between companies and universities, and finally the operation of business incubators. In Israel there are 450 incubators, in Sao Paulo there is a grand total of one. Yet for the support of small companies we need business incubators, particularly in the technological sector. In my opinion this is a fundamental question of national strategy. If a nation wishes to get ahead, it needs strategic developmental policy. How can we implement such a strategic development policy in practice? There is an example I often bring up with my students. Namely, what is the difference between Latin America and Asia? Why did the Asian region outpace Latin America in development so spectacularly in the past fifty years? If we compare Brazil and South Korea fifty years ago from the point of view of income per capita, South Korea was much poorer than Brazil.

"South Korea prepared a long-term developmental policy, and it stuck to that plan. We in Latin America have no such plans. In fact, we do not plan ahead. Why not?" This situation took a 180 degree turn since then. What is the trick? The trick is to have a plan. South Korea prepared a long-term developmental policy, and it stuck to that plan. We in Latin America have no such plans. In fact, we do not plan ahead. Why not? Because some believe that to make plans is at loggerheads with the principles of the free market. The free market must reign. This is an ideological question, which gained strong currency as a result of American influence in the nineties, in the wake of the Washington consensus.

Would you tell us about the effects of the Washington consensus in Latin America? After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, the United States implemented a foreign policy change. They thought it was necessary to open these markets for American companies, therefore they ratified the Washington consensus. In a nutshell, the consensus sent this message to the countries: open up your import market, do not protect your industry, companies must compete! Get rid of state enterprises, privatize everything! Thus, the state as a market player became superfluous in principle, or, if you like, it was excluded in the interest of the marketplace. But this rhetoric only applied to other parts of the world. The Americans themselves did not follow it. In the United States, the state remained a strong market player. Encouraging the reign of the free market and the exclusion of the state, however, had disastrous consequences in the Latin-American region. As there were the accepted guidelines, each country had to abide by them if they wanted to secure support from the IMF or the World Bank. So, everyone followed the prescriptions, which three Washington-based

"South Korea, Japan, India, China, in fact the success of all the Asian small tigers originates in having prepared good plans and having stuck to them." three, four, or five years, but then it is bought up by a large company. Skype, for instance, was a European company full of promise, and today it is a Microsoft subsidiary. Therefore, it is important to create the necessary protection for smaller companies. After all, in the absence of protection the large companies become ever more concentrated, and local industry has no chance to develop. In addition to aiding and protecting technological start-ups, what else constitutes an important opportunity to break out for the Central European region? With regards to Central Europe, I would like to stress that generally it should strive to create closer economic ties to Latin America, as their economies

organizations dictated: the IMF, the World Bank and WTO. Following these prescriptions also meant that these countries no longer planned ahead and slowly lost their ability to do so. In contrast, Asia did not accept the Washington consensus, as from a geopolitical perspective they were not under as strong an influence by the United States as Latin America. Could this be one of the reasons behind the regional differences in economic development between Latin America and Asia? South Korea, Japan, India, China, in fact the success of all the Asian small tigers originates in having prepared good plans and having stuck to them, even if a regime change takes place in the meantime. This is a very important aspect, for the plan's time frame might be 20 or even 30 years, such as in the case of China. The plans do not fundamentally change, they might be modified eventually if there is a serious need to do so, but this has no influence on their execution. In contrast, in Latin America not only do we see frequent regime change, but we make no plans at all with regards to the future, which explains, in a nutshell, why we fell behind in the technology, infrastructure, and energy sectors.

complement one another. Latin America has a wealth of natural resources and raw materials, much more so than the Central European region, but it lacks a trained workforce, which it could import from Central Europe. If I may include a related anecdote: as two or three years ago there was a shortage of medics in Brazil, President Dilma decided to invite doctors from Cuba to work in Brazil. First, she was greatly criticized for this decision of hers, but in time the initiative became extraordinarily successful, as Cuban doctors are amazing experts. In addition to doctors, we also need engineers, who could be Hungarian, Polish, or Czech in origin. I see many unmined opportunities and I feel that creating closer cooperation between Latin American and Eastern and Central Europe would definitely be a worthwhile undertaking.

We have already spoken of the challenges that come with the rise of urbanization, but in addition to all the negatives, cities are also the center of research and development activities. According to a survey of the OECD (OECD: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Trends shaping educationâ&#x20AC;?, 2016) cities register more patents than all other parts of a country put together, in all sixteen examined OECD countries. Stockholm and Paris are important centers, but could Budapest become a regional hub in the Eastern-Central European region? In my opinion Budapest has great potential to become a research and development center, as the most important criterion is given, which is none other than highly qualified labor force. In my opinion, it is necessary to strengthen developmental policy so that it stimulates the appearance of technological innovation. This stimulus is important from the financial and the legal points of view, for technological start-ups need protection at the beginning so that they become strong and are able to compete with large companies. Here I am not only thinking of patents as in the absence of legal-economic protection, large companies either destroy or buy up rising start-ups. It is a common occurrence that a promising start-up survives for

Budapest

STANFORD AND SINGAPORE: TWO WAYS OF TEACHING COMMUNICATION Author: László Körtvélyesi

Modern media and communication science, born after the spread of periodicals and growing up in the age of film theaters, newsreels and radio propaganda, is seeking its proper place in the world. Modern communication research has become a multifaceted interdisciplinary enterprise in the interactive, grassroots digital 21 st century.

KNOWING A BIT ABOUT EVERYTHING BUT NOTHING IN DEPTH

POLIHISTOR JOURNALISTS OR CREATIVE INDUSTRY SPECIALISTS

Every faculty at every university (from medicine to economics to physical education), and every selfrespecting institution feels that it serially encounters such fields which it is unable to explore with its own tools. The natural sciences encounter issues of social psychology; the social sciences must answer to questions related to information science and political communication in order to develop.

The subject named communication and media studies as offered by the humanities and social science divisions of most universities essentially means journalism. Investigative, radio and television, as well as digital journalists arrive on the labor market sporting the same journalistic attitudes. This essentially is the Western model.

As communication and media science sought its identity, it absorbed rhetorics, calligraphy, social psychology, journalism, the basics of economics, law, and information science... Today communication science – the definition is up to interpretation – fits into the curriculum of nearly all universities. While these degrees often bear similar names, have a number of different specializations (marketing, design, journalism, digital media) and are often not compatible with one another. I would like to illustrate the advantages of market and community approaches by offering two isolated examples. This way, we can also create order in the confusing forest of communication research.

Other divisions might offer communication science mixed with marketing, information sciences, or social psychology, but these specialized courses seek the answers to a subject's particular communication issues. Thus, from the point of view of communication education, these degrees should be viewed first and foremost as engineering, economics and sociology degrees. The National University of Singapore (NUS) turned the question around, and while it did not wish to react only to the issues of a particular specialized field, it also did not want to approach communication from the perspective of journalism. NUS analyzed the demands of the creative economy and established an institute (department) which examines and teaches

NUS, Singapore

the role of communication based on new technologies. According to the National University of Singapore, communication experts satisfy the demands of the creative industry, be that through political blogs or designing video games. The University placed the Department of Modern Media in a special social science institution. There, in addition to offering practice-based communication education courses, place was also accorded to departments with a focus in urbanistic social geography and political science. By the creation of this hybrid institution the NUS responds to the demands of the creative industry market, and it does that so well, that, based on QS rankings, NUS counts as the best university in Asia. Its practice-oriented education based on entrepreneurial spirit – with its social, economic, and technical foci – provides world-class education. STANFORD AND THE CLASSIC WAY – THE WESTERN APPROACH TO COMMUNICATION STUDIES The creative industry, business communications, PR, and information science need well-trained communication experts. In order to satisfy this demand, Western higher education institutions train students who specialize in various subjects (faculties and universities).

The majority of Western universities interpret communication and media science broadly as journalism and reporter training. Parallel to this, communication theory is usually offered in psychology and education schools, communication management and marketing in economics departments, and a wide-ranging spectrum of courses from online media to game development in information science departments. At the same time a significant portion of those employed in the creative industry comes from Fine Arts Schools. Stanford University offers traditional journalism education. In the courses the students concentrate on printed press and media industry, the center of the training is the Center for Communication at the School of Humanities and Sciences. At the same time the Institute considers interdisciplinary education of importance, thus it closely cooperates with other Stanford institutes. In their doctoral schools, all Ph.D. students have to find an external member for their Ph.D. reading committee, for instance a faculty member who has a Ph.D. in law, engineering or medicine. However, students on the Bachelor and Master's level may gain knowledge necessary to access the wider circles of creative industry by taking courses towards a minor or even major at other faculties (School of Business, School of Engineering).

"Communication that creates. [...] The institute melts together social sciences, humanities, arts, computer science, design and engineering sciences, so that in the context of new and developing media education, research and practical applications may all find their space. The institute's hallmark is its multidisciplinary, science-centered approach. We fulfill a leading role in spreading new media practice by merging different paradigms. [...] We expanded education and research with a social, cultural, philosophical, economical, industrial and regulatory perspective." / Mohan J. Dutta, Director of the Communication and New Media Institute / The Stanford model may be termed classic as course offerings include "new media", that is, the analysis of non-traditional or new communication tools, but they are not emphasized. For instance, they study visual communication (that is, in this case, data representation), but this is first and foremost tailored towards journalism (Computational Journalism, Data Journalism). The aim of the Communication Institute is to train polihistor experts, who are well-versed in social psychology, the social sciences in general, law, as well as economics. This knowledge base is the perfect toolkit of a well-prepared journalist who produces value for the public, but who does not aim to cover the entire spectrum of the creative industry. THE SINGAPORE NUS MODEL â&#x20AC;&#x201C; GEOGRAPHY, ECONOMICS, COMMUNICATION IN ONE PLACE The Singapore model differs entirely from the Stanford model. In a radical departure from the classic approach they created a merged humanities and social sciences department, in which next to communication, economics, political science, and geography institutes have received a place. The National University of Singapore was established in 1905, and it is the oldest higher education institution in Singapore. It started with the petition of Chinese

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research medics and it was built on British foundations and with British support when Singapore was still a colonial city. Today it is the largest higher education institute in the city state and Asia's number one university. The research university with its broad focus ranging from medicine through the humanities to a renowned business school to engineering sciences offers education for nearly all professional demands. The university's leadership is proud of the university's entrepreneurial spirit and that in each course entrepreneurial spirit is taught, as well as the dimensions of usability and practicability. It is worth highlighting the Yale-NUS division, which is in essence an liberal arts college of Yale in Singapore. It is possible to obtain a Law and an MBA degree there as well. In addition to traditional Bachelor and Master's education (for instance double major BBA plus Law, BBA plus information science, BBA and communication science), NUS also offers experimental education: practical seminars in multinational companies, with real-life decisions, but they also organized a leadership seminar in the Gobi desert. Intriguingly, everyone must complete a module on Globalisation and New Media. Moreover, in the makeup of single majors much emphasis is placed on in-depth study of digital, economic, political and area dimensions. In the course of Master's and Ph.D.

training the students may choose from such modules as: Network Society, Political Communication, State and Civilians in the Age of Information Science, Computer as Environment, Technological Realization, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Development... CONCLUSION

This essentially corresponds to the practice of journalism (journalism holds together the various disciplines as an external element), in which openminded creative experts armed with broad theoretical knowledge are trained, and who specialize in the course of their careers (for instance they become creative directors in a company, or editors at a television).

The technology-intensive creative industry may become one of today's economic engines. In order to supply this quickly evolving branch of industry with appropriately trained experts, we must rethink higher education practice in communication and media. We

The Singapore university owes its success to placing various institutes, which according to the classical approach belong to divergent fields (Department of Economics, Political Sciences, Communication, Sociology) into a single department and dedicating

have seen examples of good practice abroad: Stanford's classical approach based on Western journalism (a model which is prevalent in Hungary), and Singapore's research, design and manager training approach. The Stanford education is successful because its humanities communication institute places extraordinarily large emphasis on interdisciplinarity: thus, the communication department provides professors and courses to other subjects and institutes, and encourages its students to get in touch with other faculties while writing their dissertation thesis.

its teaching to new media and discussion of practical issues relating to the creative industry. Students trained here are not primarily journalists, but rather researchers and design experts (journalism only appears as an optional specialization). This model corresponds with industry and company practice (where marketing and communication divisions are responsible for design, management, crisis communication, use of new technology, PR, international cultural, and other creative industry challenges).

MONEY AND TALK â&#x20AC;&#x201C; PARALLELS IN EDUCATION HISTORY We have used money for thousands of years, the struggle for various goods has shaped our history. Still, we can only regard economics as an independent scientific discipline since the 18th century. Until then it was part of philosophy and only after the Industrial Revolution did it become a separate, broadly taught discipline. As a discipline, communication's roots reach even further back than economics. Yet it only became an independent scientific discipline in today's sense once the role and power of mass communication was recognized. The roots of media and communication studies reach back to ancient history. The Middle Ages inherited the study of rhetorics, grammar, and logic as a compulsory set of subjects named trivium. Media and communication theory appeared among the ruling scientific disciplines when periodicals appeared, as a cousin of language philosophy, theory and psychology. The age of mass communication is ushered in by the fast spreading of radio, film, then television. Once the role and power of media was recognized, it became necessary that it gain a proper place in higher education, and that it respond with an appropriate toolkit to the questions of mass communication, propaganda, political communication, and creative industry.

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THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION OF THE CREATIVE INDUSTRY In the United Kingdom 2.8 million people worked in the creative economy between 2013-2014. This represents 8.8% of the entire labor market. The British government aims to create Europe's largest and one of the world's largest creative economies by 2020. For this reason, David Cameron appointed a state secretary responsible for creative industry and started the CREATE UK. One of its pillars is the development of creative education 1) with an education system tailored to the next generation, 2) development of employee competences, continuing education. The aim of the British government is that young people should be able to learn in a kind of fusion or combination of creative, technological, scientific and entrepreneurial subjects. In Great Britain with the introduction of STEAM, a basic principle for education, they would like to reform public education. The steam engine brought about the Industrial Revolution. The name therefore refers to the connection between creativity, human and fine arts, sciences, and the industry. The education system ought to support creativity in focus with STEAM. (Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, Math). Thus the acronym used previously, STEM, now features "Art" as well. The English word stem means stem, whereas steam means steam.

National University of Singapore The National University of Singapore has 17 divisions and schools, and there are about 2,000 modules in a semester. Based on the 2016 QS World University Rankings the National University of Singapore ranks as the 12th best university in the world.

The University's 17 divisions

HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

HUMANITIES DIVISION

ASIAN STUDIES DIVISION

Political science

Social work

Social science

Sociology

division

Economics

Geography (urban studies)

Psychology

Communication and New Media The university's Department of Communication and New Media is world-famous. According to the QS, it ranks first in Asia, and it secures a distinguished 12th worldwide.

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

INTERACTIVE MEDIA DESIGN

It examines the social, political, and economic dimension of media, primarily in a theoretical framework, focusing on the newest communication tools.

Here the interaction between human beings and computers is central. Emphasis is placed on project-based practice. The goal is to prepare a ready design portfolio on firm theoretical basis.

An example from course offerings: digital economics, government and new media, cyber crime, international information production, science management, creative and culture industry, new media and ethics, ... NUS, Singapore 102

An example from course offerings: data-visualization, usercentered design, area-based design, public and design, digital human interactive narration.

COMMUNICATION MANAGEMENT MAJOR This provides PR training based on applied research and strategically planned practical communication, specialized in new media. An example from course offerings: crisis communication, strategic and campaign communication, communication in science, health care, in company environments, new media organizations, corporate social responsibility. 103

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NETWORKS AND KNOWLEDGE

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CONTROL, CELL BIOLOGY AND SUCCESS Interview with Albert-László Barabási, conducted by: László Gere

Albert-László Barabási is one of the best known and most cited figures of Hungarian scientific life in our days. His name is closely entwined with the most dynamically developing area of our age, network research. The researcher held a public lecture on February 18, 2016 about network theory in the framework of the PAGEO Club. Below you will find an interview with Albert-László Barabási.

Albert-László Barabási was born in Karcfalva, Transylvania into a family of humanities scholars. He attended high school in Csíkszereda, where he studied sculpting, then won the student Physics Olympiad. He received a Master's degree in Fractals at Eötvös Loránd University, then he received his Ph.D. at Boston University in 1994 under the guidance of H. Eugene Stanley. Thereafter he was employed by IBM, where he first came into close contact with network theory, which was to become his specialty later on. His work led to the recognition of scale-free networks in 1999, when he created the AlbertBarabási-model, which describes the structure of the world wide web as well as complex metabolic networks and genetic systems. Until 2007 he was professor at University of Notre Dame, Indiana. Today he teaches at Northeastern University in Boston, where he is director of the institution's Complex Network Research Center. In addition, he teaches seminars at Harvard University's Medical Faculty. He is a member of the American Physical Society, the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and an external member of Academia Europea. In 2003 he was elected Scientist of the Year by Wired magazine. The world-famous network researcher gave a talk on February 18, 2016 in the framework of the

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PAGEO Club on how networks permeate our lives. Then he gave an interview to HuG magazine about his current research, and the links between network theory and geopolitics. What are your most important research directions at the moment? What kinds of questions do you seek to respond to? At the moment, we have three teams that do lab research. One question we are exploring is the control of networks: in the past fifteen years we have studied what networks look like, but now we are ever more confronted with what happens on these networks and what kinds of tools we have in order to exert some influence on network processes. We are calling this control, in part because the toolkit we are using for this purpose originates from control theory in engineering science. We are attempting to extend its use to networks. The other direction is understanding the networks within cell biology, explicitly focusing on understanding diseases. Our goal is to find a cure for existing diseases, or to improve the condition of the ill. The third direction unites issues related to social questions: more precisely, we study success, in particular scientific success, how one network node comes to stand out from others, how we can describe

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a scientific career quantitatively, how we can predict the potential effect of a Ph.D. thesis in numeric terms. These three research projects are running at the moment: control, cell biology, and success. The central interest of your book, Linked, was computer networks, a topic that your latest volume, Bursts, also discusses. At Harvard, you researched cell networks. Which network interests you the most today? For us topics open up and close continuously. We have not done any research on the Internet for ten years. The book Bursts, for instance, was about human locomotion, but that research is now over, too. As topics become too old, we close them down, we have no interest in carrying skeletons along. Do others not continue them, either? Yes, others research them, but there is a certain toolkit in our hands and applying it we can get a certain level of result. Thereafter we could only get derivatives of the same question, and we could not get anything substantially novel out of it. At those times, if a new, exciting topic comes up, we redeploy our researchers to that field. From this point of view, our system is good, because the students graduate, the postdocs get teaching jobs, and then we no longer employ new people for the old topic, but we strengthen our capacities in the new one. In the future, what applications will your models have? Which topic occupies your thoughts the most these days? All three topics I mentioned above occupy me simultaneously. Through network research we can focus on many, many things. There are researchers who study networks in space. This might in fact be closest to geopolitics, but one could study the world wide web, social networks, linguistic networks and so on. The area is inexhaustibly rich. We have taken on these three at the moment, In the future the next big topic potentially coming up is the brain, more precisely, comprehending the networks of the brain, as we can expect better and better data. Therefore, we will probably move in this direction. Which direction we can move into also depends on which fields yield data of such quality that are already useful for our tools, but the topic is not an old hoary chestnut yet.

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What would you advise those young researchers who would like to study network theory in depth? Quite a few students ask me this question. Then we always discuss what it is in particular that they are interested in, and then we try to find something for them in that smaller field. If you tell me that you wish to study biological systems at all costs, obviously, I will not give you a problem from the field of sociology. The other thing we need to consider is where the big questions are. There are two big question packets: on the one hand, in basic research we have a very good understanding of network structure, but not yet of network dynamics. We have no comprehensive theory about what happens in networks, and how the network process influences the structure of the network itself. There are many partial results, but there is no comprehensive theory. If someone feels that they wish to study fundamentals, and has a very strong background in mathematics, then this is the direction I would send him in. Here, a solid background in mathematics is indeed very important, as this is not an empirical question. Here, the student needs to come up with a theory. Simultaneously, there is great potential in the application of these tools in new fields. In the coming 10-20 years, the largest potential field of applied research, as I have already mentioned, is the brain. For we have just come to the point that the brain must be mapped. The conceptual toolkit is being developed in the world, primarily in the United States and in Europe, using which we can map simpler organisms' brains for the time being, but later on the human brain as well. Once these maps appear, an enormous set of questions will emerge, namely, how we can analyze these maps, how the brain works as a neural network. Here, applying the network theoretical toolkit will become unavoidable. I am not saying that the network will be the solution to the understanding of the brain or the explanation to the questions of consciousness or memory. Many kinds of breakthroughs will be needed, but without network theory it will not be possible to answer these questions. I would advise those thinking longterm to start out in this direction. In this field, there are those students who want to tackle such fundamental questions as what a network looks like, how it influences the brain processes that participate, and those students too, who want to tackle biological or

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medical questions, such as in what manner can we "fix" the brain, i.e. how we can cure the brain's diseases. The brain problem is doubly a question of networks. Partially, the molecule networks within brain cells collapse, when we say that there is a lack of dopamine, but as a result of this, the neuron network itself may collapse. These two questions overlap. For instance, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's are both collapses of a particular neural network. A certain part of the brain quite simply dies. In another case, certain molecules form, and therefore the network cannot run. This twofold network question will take a very long time to untangle and for us to understand in some way. This will keep several generations engaged. To what degree are brain research and research on artificial intelligence connected? These are two very different worlds. The issue of artificial intelligence is at present in the hands of programmers. It might be inspiring for us with regard to the functioning of the brain, but it is not obvious that artificial intelligence is going to be solved on the basis of the brain's operation. The hardware is namely very different. One possibility is that we build a software on it that simulates on the hardware what our brain does, the other possibility is to create a software that suits the hardware better.

"...the strength of machine intelligence is not to reproduce human thinking in its entirety, but to complement it... " In my opinion, the winning software is likely to be one that maximally exploits the hardware's capacity, and not one that emulates human thinking. This is only a hope, that the difference between human thinking and machine thinking will always remain and will always remain qualitative. Because the strength of machine intelligence is not to reproduce human thinking in its entirety, but to complement it. The toolkit of network research so far has not really been deployed for the examination of geopolitical or international relations issues. What could the reason for this be?

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I am not sure whether it truly has not been deployed or whether we merely do not call it network research. In 2007 we published a long article in Science, in which we studied import-export networks. This study not only yielded a book, but also an entire movement. We examined which countries export what, and out of this we constructed a network. Through this we succeeded in posing such questions as what territories may become reachable for a given country in the future. Let me take an example: if a country is very good in exporting bananas, this means that it has the appropriate plantations, climate, that there are agricultural experts and know-how on packaging and shipping. All of this may be really easily used towards, say, fig cultivation. Thus, the country may easily switch to fig exports, if that happens to be a more profitable branch. However, all of this infrastructure is of no use if the country wants to switch to iPad production. However, if someone has the technology to produce laptops, that may not be great help in banana cultivation, however, he may easily produce iPads. Thus, from this point of view what the spectrum of possibilities is lies in the hands of the country. It is possible to say very precisely which branches of industry are achievable for them at present. Banana cultivating countries need a giant effort spanning several decades to come into a position where they are able to manufacture iPads, as they need to acquire new knowledge, new technologies, and train engineers and experts. It is not realistic when a banana cultivating country, which currently possesses no experience in electronics at all, declares that it would like to become an electronic powerhouse in the next 20-30 years. Thus, networks have succeeded in measuring the economic potential of countries. This tool is now widely used, for instance by the World Bank. If a country applies for development money for a certain branch of industry, they then examine with the aid of networks whether this switch is realistic. Then they either reject the proposal or they help them in developing a realistic portfolio based on their current resources. A specific example occurred for instance when Pakistan turned to the World Bank with a great new development, and was advised to go in a different direction on the basis of our map, for what they originally planned was simply not realistic. An ex-student of mine, who is now a professor at MIT, CĂŠsar Hidalgo, developed this toolkit, when he was still researching in my lab with Ricardo Hausman.

In the meantime, they have further developed this topic. Starting from the World Bank, they advise other countries in this regard, and they help map the given country's opportunities. This comes to the forefront in geopolitical areas as well. After all, who may manufacture or produce which good is very much determined by its environment. There are very clear clusters in this regard. For instance, the Southeast Asian cluster is very strong in computers. This is by no means a product of chance. They learned from one another, similar toolkits and knowledge is available to them, etc. As a result, capacities form. Thus, this is very much a question of geopolitics.

In the United States, a new doctrine appeared, accordingly, which is called net-war. In the next 30-50 years, all of America's wars will mean fighting against smaller groups, not a real, regular army. In these cases, fighter planes and tanks will not be as useful. Understanding communities, mapping emotions, learning who is friend and enemy within a village will be much more important, because the civilians and militarily active population has become fully intertwined and indistinguishable from one another. We must figure out who is our friend, and who is our enemy. This is a very important paradigm shift all over the world.

Do you have any connections to security policy?

Is your model used in order to obtain information from Facebook and Twitter profiles and activities for security policy purposes?

We do not, but there are many who study this topic. Security policy has very many different aspects. One that is interesting to network theory is this whole war on terror. These days the war on terror has been transferred to a network theory basis. After all, in today's conflicts it is not two great armies facing one another, but large armies face little groups who organize in networks.

These kinds of data are public; therefore, they are used ad nauseam for all sorts of purposes. This really belongs to the category of data processing. I am a founding member of a firm called Maven7 here in Hungary. It's a very successful firm, we have clients all over the world.

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how countries connect to one another through their minorities. For instance, there is a Hungarian minority in Romania, thus these two countries can be connected, you can build a network and then analyze it. Of course, we cannot yet call this research. It's more like a finger exercise, but the fact that the students can do it with such ease in a four-week course shows that this is a feasible option. I do not follow this literature much, but today ever more details are becoming available in relation to international relations, therefore the area would be relatively easy to examine.

"... year a group examined how countries connect to one another through their minorities..." Would you say a few words about your new book which is about to be launched (Network Sciences)? We do Twitter data processing, social network site data processing. We look at what is relevant for us from the mass of data that is available. Today this has become a separate profession. It is not routine in the sense that network-type thinking is not necessarily the heart and soul of every tool, but in more and more cases, it is. There is a constant tension between data mining and network thinking. However, network data mining tools are beginning to appear, which have absorbed network thinking. For instance, in our Boston institute we recently hired a lady whose specialty was network-based data mining in particular. Many people see the future in the disappearance of borders. What is your opinion, will the role played by borders shift? Borders have been eroded systematically for a long time. There are certain types of people, like myself, for whom borders really no longer play a role. This process is unstoppable in my view. Obviously, this is in stark opposition to national identity and community awareness. The question is how these local interests can be connected to these "borderless countries". If we consider Hungary, we have interesting double

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interests: we would like our border to disappear so that Hungarian communities abroad could become part of the home country, meaning that there would be no difference between an ethnic Hungarian from Transylvania and a Hungarian from Hungary. At the same time, we would prefer that our borders not disappear, so that we could hold unto a certain national identity. This is a Gordian knot and there is no magic bullet, such as network theory, which could provide a solution. Network theory is an appropriate tool to map these various points of view, to make us understand the issue, and the effects and availabilities of potential solutions. In the hands of decision makers, it could perhaps operate as a tool, so that they can figure out what the next move is. Is network model appropriate for international relations, or in economic interactions and their analysis? At present, we do no such research, but our students constantly study these areas, here in Budapest as well as in Boston. I have an annual network theory course, and in it students must prepare a project working in pairs. Each year there are a few groups who make a network about relations amongst countries, then they analyze it. Last year a group examined

This is a textbook that I wrote over the past five years and I taught it in Boston as well as in Budapest, at the Central European University. As the book was being written, the chapters of the English version were published on the net. Still, interestingly, the first published book is going to be in Hungarian. Although this is of course a translation from English, but the English version will only come out in June-July. This course, I find, is actually made up of two very different communities. On the one hand, there is the Budapest community, which is made up primarily of economists, sociologists, political science students (though at times medical student also attend), whose mathematical skills are very different, therefore I show them the mathematical equations and we have a conversation about them when I teach, but I don't expect them to approach the problems from a mathematical point of view. There is a software packet which aids them in applying their knowledge to real networks. On the other hand, I teach the same course in Boston to Ph.D. students with a solid background in Physics, Computer Science, and Mathematics, for whom the mathematical derivation is also very important. So, the question was this: how to write a book that satisfies both types of audiences? I

structured the ten chapters of the book in such a way that the chapters contain formulas, but there are no proofs or mathematical derivations. I say what the formulas are good for, how they can be applied, I illustrate them with concrete examples. Each chapter has a section at the end for advanced students, which contains the derivations as well. Obviously, I wrote the textbook primarily for those who found Linked exciting, but found it contained insufficient mathematical content. This book has another interesting aspect, namely the question came up, why should it only be accessible in English? Obviously, it is possible to have it translated the classic way: the publishing house in each country hires a translator, then publishes the book. However, it is a rare instance in the scientific world to translate such textbooks, as those students who navigate in this direction typically try to read the book in English, anyway. So, by having a Hungarian translation, one and a half years ago, we started an interesting experiment. I kept the digital rights to the book entirely to myself. Thus, I provide opportunity for communities to assemble, translate the book together, and make the book available on the Internet. To help the process, we provide the entire software packet, so that the final book looks exactly the same as the original English, so that the images integrate nicely, the entire layout is beautiful and so forth. We started experimenting with this in Hungary, and we learned a great deal from it, so we take this experience along everywhere in the world. Along with the Hungarian translation, a Chinese translation is underway (true, this happens through an official publishing house). However, we have also heard from Japanese, South American, German, and Italian groups, who assembled such communities and would like to make the book available. This is very exciting for me, as it is a new model. What is important to me is that the knowledge, the toolkit becomes available. We are trying to spread this model worldwide, eliminating the obstacles that copyright used to create earlier. You studied in Bucharest, Budapest, and Boston, and at present you teach at Harvard and Northeastern University. What is the most important difference between the education and scientific life in Hungary and in the United States? The differences appear on many levels. The educational philosophies are fundamentally different in the American and Hungarian systems. My children

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attend school in Budapest, so I have insight into the Hungarian school system. One difference is that the European education system is knowledge-based. The American system however is thought-based. In the United State, we do not transmit knowledge, rather, we instruct them in how to think. It is for this reason that European students in secondary education and indeed up to the first and second years of college seem to know a great deal more than Americans. But in the long run this rate changes, as the role of universities and education is not necessarily to put a certain amount of knowledge into our hands. After all, what really remains of school: we can write, read and count. Perhaps we remember that there was

create a network, which had not been mapped before, they figure out which network this should be, then they demonstrate on this network what they learned in the course, and how well they can apply the tools. I certainly don't sit down to examine and say hey, you, now go ahead and tell me about the basics of the Erdős-Rényi model. This they can look up in a book. But do they understand, how to analyze a network? Then they have learned everything necessary. If we managed to make this shift, this could be very successful. There are other aspects of this same issue. In Hungary schools, even schools in Budapest, the elite schools, struggle with tremendous budget deficits. I don't even dare to think what happens in rural areas,

a battle someplace. Everything else we forget; all fact-based knowledge is gone. We can look it up if we really need it. What is, however, crucial for us is the way we see a question that pops up, where we look for answers, and how we approach problems. In the long run, or at least in the world of research, and in other areas of life this active system that incentivizes thinking is somewhat more successful.

in villages. The same is true of universities as well. Interestingly, when we take a look at what the Hungarian nations is proud of, it's our Nobel Laureates and Puskás. That student of mine who studied export-import questions, César Hidalgo, also created another tool, in which he took a look at the cultural exports of specific countries: in other words, what other countries are familiar with. What is the cultural export of Hungary? Music, science, and soccer. This is where we have excelled. The question is whether we can maintain this.

"... when I teach, the grades are not based on students' examinations..." How would it be possible to "copy" this a little in Hungary? We must learn out of this in some way or another. I am not saying that we must implement something like this already on the elementary school level, but at universities drastic changes are necessary. Having gotten to know the American system, I was astonished at how simple the HungarianRomanian system really was: the whole year through we goofed off, then we prepared really hard for the year-end exam. In other words: in two weeks, we absorbed the entire material, then we were examined, and afterwards we straightaway forgot it all. In the United States, things do not work this way. There, grades represent an entire year's activities, and a student cannot afford to only prepare for the yearend exam. For the educator, this means a great deal more work. Having constant expectations where we keep testing the student, however, means much better learning opportunities for students. When I teach, the grade is not based on students' examinations. Rather, the students typically map a project, they

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This does not mean that we should not participate in CERN's work, where Hungarians indeed perform very well. Rather, I am saying that we have certain abilities upon which we can build, and upon which it is worth building. I just randomly highlighted two fields, mathematics and brain research, and of course I would add network theory, too, where there is a lot of overlap with mathematics in Hungary, and in the long term there will also be a great deal of overlap with brain research, too. Certainly, there are numerous other fields with great potential that I have no knowledge of.

I do not write in English because I find it easier, or because in some way I have greater affinity towards the English language. I would love to write in Hungarian, but the market is elsewhere. With regards to everything that I do, my goal is that it become available in as many platforms as possible.

Do you plan to write a book in Hungarian at some point?

If I write the book in English, it can be very easily translated into very many languages, including Hungarian, so the Hungarian community is not excluded. If we think about it, Bursts is actually a very, very Hungarian book. But it was written in English. Its theme however is very strongly Hungarian, and it was a great deal more successful in Hun-

This is a question of markets. I just sent off a book proposal for my newest popular science book, and it will also be written in English.

gary than in any other part of the world, because in other parts of the world people could not identify with its story, whereas in Hungary the entire public identified with it.

If you were to decide in what scientific areas the Hungarian Academy of Sciences should finance basic research, which ones would you choose? In your opinion, in which scientific area could Hungary become world-famous in 10-15 years? There are areas where we have no solid traditions, and there are others which continue to be important, where we must continue to invest, and where we must pay attention that the current momentum is preserved. Such a field is mathematics, or brain research in Hungary in the last few decades. Perhaps one of the questions ought to be where have we got solid traditions, and within that scientific which specializations could become potentially even more important in the long term. I have not studied science in such depth to be able to answer this question, but the role of a leader or a thinker is really not to say, hey, here's where we need to invest, but rather he or she needs to approach the question properly. This proper approach is to ask where the necessary gray matter is, upon which we can build and develop. So, for instance it would be pretty hopeless for Hungary to enter the race in particle physics, as we shall never have a particle accelerator.

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WE SHOULD LEARN THINGS WHEN NECESSARY, NOT A MINUTE EARLIER OR LATER Author: Prof. Dr. Zoltán Baracskai

Today many more people know much more than yesterday and the day before yesterday, but this knowledge is shallow. Elements of knowledge and/or theories that are necessary to solve problems should be learned in depth when and where it is necessary. It is not possible to know ahead of time whether and what parts of knowledge at our command will be useful in solving future problems, or whether this knowledge simply does not exist yet. This is the world we must prepare for, and for this purpose I sketch a school, a kind of workshop and education, where knowledge production and knowledge transmission rid themselves of mediocrity and the fashion of karaoke. Perhaps in this school, New Alexandrians would have fun learning and researching. PROBLEM SOLUTIONS: WORKSHOPS KEYWORDS: CONCEPTUALIZATION, EXPLANATION, ALGORITHM MILIEU: THE COFFEEHOUSE OF THE NEW ALEXANDRIANS One of my favorite stories is a news story about a strange Japanese mathematician. “After more than a decade of research, Japanese mathematician Shinichi Mochizuki, published his 500-page study about the proof of abc conjecture on August 22, 2012. Today, three years later, still only four people have managed to understand the study: a mathematician in Nottingham after two years of study, as well as three other mathematicians, to whom Mochizuki himself explained the matter...” After hearing this news, I asked a couple of my friends who are mathematicians. Not one of them doubted that something is up. The fate of the study is of no interest to me. Rather, I am interested in such "purposeless" research, or fundamental research. No one denies that that world

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is better where a few researchers can use research money as they see fit, without promising a particular result. Today perhaps only Nobel Laureates can get money like this – in a way, trust is advanced to them. It is difficult to specify the conditions, but "the bar needs to be set very high". The most famous workshops of the world always centered around a single person. For instance, "Biotechnology at DNAX" around Arthur Kornberg, "Chicago Fermilab" around Enrico Fermi, "USC Dornsife" around György Oláh, and "UC Irvine Sherwood Rowland Lab" around Sherwood Rowland. The master attracts money and disciples. If these three elements are there, all you need is luck. But we may reason the other way around: if there is luck, then the master, the apprentices, and the money will gather. The workshop's success rests on a double foundation: on the one hand, well-organized infrastructure and financing, on the other hand a good research concept. It is superfluous and likely not possible to innovate in creating the ideal problem-solving workshop's milieu, or to organize the finances of research. Innovation

however is indispensable when it comes to working out the unique, as yet non-existent research concept of the New Alexandrians.

"Operation can be learned, and we can stick with tried and true recipes, but the concept itself must be new, sensational, pioneering." "Nothing more closely resembles a monastery (lost in the countryside, walled, flanked by alien, barbarian hordes, inhabited by monks who have nothing to do with the world and devote themselves to their private research) than an American university campus. Sometimes the prince summons one of those monks and makes him a royal counselor, sends him as an envoy to Cathay; and he moves from the cloister to secular life with indifference, becoming a man of power and trying to rule the world with the same aseptic perfection with which he collected his Greek texts." Umberto Eco's comparison is at once appealing and off-putting. Let us take a closer look at the milieu in which research results are born! In the

closed space of the laboratories mentioned above thinkers sooner or later justify that something works with measurements. In a milieu comparable to the Japanese mathematician's study, a lone wolf type thinker may achieve enlightenment, but only logic can back up his results. The philosophers of the Viennese circle might even quarrel in the open space of coffee houses, and ultimately, they might accept or reject other's thoughts. The milieu of coffee houses enables people with different kinds of background knowledge to gather, and to share their thoughts with one another. Steven Johnson, in his TED talk, called coffee houses a conjugal bed where ideas could meet and have sex. Since the appearance of coffee houses, an incredible number of inventions owe their births to this milieu. Could Ernő Osváth collect manuscripts in coffeehouses today? Maybe, maybe not. In the last five hundred years, the English coffee houses had a decisive significance on the emergence and the spread of one the greatest intellectual movements, the Enlightenment. A wise man prefers not to make predictions about the number of coffees sold by the coffeehouse next week. Experienced experts, however, may be in a position to predict whether coffee houses continue to exist in fifty years. Often it is easier to perceive the general picture of our future lives than its individual little details.

Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum, USA

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DEMARCATION 2.0: THE TERRITORY OF SOFT DISCIPLINES As we learned from Karl Popper, the problem of induction originates from an invalid solution to the demarcation problem. Induction comes from the positivist faith that the scientific method distinguishes science from non-science, and that it leads to true, certain, and verifiable knowledge. However, this faith proved to be incorrect in many regards. What is strange about all this is that I have encountered a non-positivist who understood and did not regard the positivist as a charlatan, but I have yet to encounter the reverse case. Let us find a new demarcation! It makes sense to solve a problem if there is lack of knowledge. This is a contradiction between new and old knowledges. Problems (lack of knowledge) are idea constructions – inventions – which always contain a great deal of known and some unknown concepts. "The demarcation problem was not to distinguish between science and metaphysics, but rather to separate science from non-science." Everything that I could say pro and contra science would return like a boomerang. In the sciences "only those who have tradition at their fingertips can become true revolutionaries", after all, in the puzzle-solving phase the gaps in background knowledge almost invariably lead to invalid problems. Stories abound about those who command insufficient knowledge yet attempt to discover America. This results from them imagining a problem whose acceptable solution has long been present in background knowledge. Let's consider another example to understand the nature of invalid problems!

"Perhaps it is time to think about demarcation 2.0 that would separate hard and soft sciences." "Perpetuum mobile" is, for instance, just such an invalid problem, according to some authors a quasiproblem or a pseudo-problem, which appears to be valid but sooner or later we find ourselves at a dead end. More and more problem-solving workshops – whether having learned from experience or due to external pressure – attempt to escape monodisciplinarity.

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Disciplines have become specialized over the course of time. In 1300, following Basarab Nicolescu, research was divided into seven disciplines. In 1950 the number of disciplines was fifty-four, in 1975 almost two thousand. Today more than eight thousand disciplines exist. It is impossible to feel our way towards a particular problem's solution exclusively within the framework of a single discipline, however, it does not follow from this that disciplines can be chosen at random. "Mother Nature does not like overspecialization." Indeed, real problems normally do not do us the courtesy of remaining confined to a single discipline. A sharp distinction between disciplines exists, which happens to be accepted, but has never been used widely. The terms Sciences and Humanities reference the fact that some disciplines belong to the sciences, while others remain left out. The "invisible establishment” of science was not willing to separate hard and soft disciplines. When it comes to financing, practitioners of soft disciplines expect to be considered under the same umbrella as practitioners of hard disciplines. However, when it comes to measuring performance, the practitioners of soft disciplines protest being considered under the same umbrella. Perhaps the solutions to real problems need to be sought at the periphery of hard and soft disciplines. What is on the periphery of what depends on what we consider to be central. If we put economics into the center, straightaway we see exciting things. Economics however can only experiment with models in real life. Thomas Sedlácek writes this about the book of Paul Samuelson: "This book, however, approached a physics book: a graph, an equation or table was sprawled on every second page. Not a doubt, not an ethical-economical issue to be encountered anywhere. Everything was clear and simple: behold the mechanical machinery which is economics." It is not the task of this essay to investigate quantification in detail. The trap is that in the operation of economics, many measurable things can be expressed in money. The movement of money happens in such a complex world where change is not deterministic. In the past few decades, we have heard about two research methods. In one of our workshops, Davide Ravasi explained the difference between quantitative and qualitative approaches by drawing an analogy to the difference between baking and cooking. When we bake a cake and we put the cake into the

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oven, in the course of baking we are no longer in a position to alter the recipe. In the case of cooking, food develops while being cooked. We may try it, and if necessary, we can add this and that. There are two kinds of qualitative approaches: one validates valid theories and convictions, while the other uses theories that only a few people have heard of. What is not verified in the soft disciplines is not necessarily false. At times, measurements are good conversation starters: we being our conversation based on the measurement, and thereby we learn, i.e. qualitative research may commence. Elsewhere we measure nothing that makes sense. The quantitative method means that we measure the measurable. Recently, in-

what lesser and subordinate organizations can do.’ These are strong words. I would formulate it simpler: it is wrong to take away people's responsibility.” The basic principle of subsidiarity says that smaller, local communities may maintain enough independence in order to get by – no more, no less. If we follow Charles Handy, we can define subsidiarity as "reverse delegation". The question is not how we can regulate a contradiction, but rather how we can coexist with it in a peaceful manner. "When mutual trust exists, there is no need to codify rules, there is no need for handbooks, controllers, performance indicators and endorsements, which render the lives of large organizations so difficult. These are all signs of mistrust and

MASTERS: The most famous workshops of the world always centered around a single person. Even in the problem-solving milieu of New Alexandrians, opportunity should be granted to a few, world-renowned and exceptional professors to conduct research free of any pressure for results, solely to pursue research to satisfy their present interest, and the sole limit imposed would be their intellectual integrity. "Intellectual integrity does not consist of attempting to strengthen or to substantiate our ideas, but rather in defining the conditions under which we are willing to give up on them." Such research often results in a new concept or a new conceptual framework, which may awaken the interest of the scientific world, even

terviews have been accepted as qualitative method. If I look at the disciplines from a chopper, then I can say that the hard disciplines, say physics or biology, can grapple with measurements one way or another. In the soft disciplines we have ideas, concepts. Here identifying problems and feeling our way to a solution cannot be reproduced. It is impossible to experiment under the same conditions, as in the soft disciplines there is a large "entry tax". The weak autonomy of the soft disciplines originates in the fact that those who feel they play a subordinate role in comparison to hard sciences are quickly swayed by external expectations. "Labor capital" plays an enormous role, after all, we know from experience that the results of famous laboratories are validated without issue, and at the very least receive a great deal of attention.

refer to the fear that makes so many organizations seem like the prison of the human soul." Recognition of problems is always the result of speculative work, a labor of thought. There are problems that we can describe in a different way when we observe them from above than if we were to inhabit them or coexist with them. Let the first basic principle be that in the workshop of New Alexandrians it is wrong to deprive people of their duty to recognize problems.

if it does not gain complete or immediate recognition. Harmony is the essence of the New Alexandrian master's labor. The inner consistency of these new conceptual models is perfect. We have not wasted money then, either, when its external consistency doesn't yet stand the test at times. Today it is fashionable to give back essays (articles, dissertations) so that smaller or greater amendments are made. This is different here, as conceptual models are cannot be amended. If its inner consistency is acceptable, then the "publisher" might like it or not. If its inner consistency is unacceptable, then it is incorrigible. It is incorrigible then, too, if the inner consistency is impeccable, but the "publisher" does not like the general picture demonstrated in the essay.

SEEKING SOLUTIONS: THE PRINCIPLE OF SUBSIDIARITY I doubt that the world shall have many Silicon Valleys and Californias. Rather, we should strive to create places where those who seek to solve problems that no one else had dared tackle before also have a chance. It is not an accident that Paul Krugman believes that we cannot all live in one giant city, and the world economy cannot confine the production of every single product to a single location. "Singapore will never be an intellectual center like Berlin." Those do not feel their way towards problems, but buy them ready-made, will never experience what problem solution is like. In the New Alexandrians' workshop subsidiarity is essential. "This was rephrased in Quadragesimo Anno published in 1941 ... ‘it is an injustice and at the same time a grave evil and disturbance of right order to assign to a greater and higher association

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Unlimited resignation in the face of effects and spirit of globalization does not lead to anything good. These days many strive to emulate solutions that have been tried elsewhere and to create their world accordingly. To define knowledge necessary for a solution is always the result of speculation, a labor of thought. On the basis of the background knowledge of various disciplines we can launch our quest for knowledge. Let this be the second basic principle, which also originates in subsidiarity: it is wrong to deprive people of the responsibility to seek knowledge. The soft disciplines may lead to such results as a new conceptual framework, the explanation of unique solutions, or an algorithm. Following Thomas Kuhn, we know there are no such method that we regard as universally valid and consequently follow in each paradigm. Whether these results will bring about a paradigm shift in Kuhn's sense only time and later debates will decide. The world must create the results of the New Alexandria in its own image after it recognized their ingenuity and their range of validity. The solution of a local problem may be decisive for the global world. A locality that forms an entire and complete community in itself may provide footholds and offer solutions on the global level as well. The New Alexandria may play three kinds of roles in the problem-solving process, and they may be as follows:

"Problems must be recognized where they are. The solutions however must be sought where there is knowledge." EXPERTS: Following the conceptual models, the experts start to research seeking to explain unique phenomena. At the beginning of the 1990s, the London Business School and London School of Economics served as the model for the training of economists in the Carpathian Basin. Business had to be separated from economics. It is possible to separate them – it even has a beneficial effect -, but they always remain perceptibly in each other's periphery. Philosophy and art do not help welfare, they merely endow it with meaning. Anthropology does not aid

welfare, it merely makes us understand what kind of value order we come out of. Systems theory also does not aid welfare, it merely makes us accept that complex systems cannot be comprehended on the basis of their elements. Epistemology does not aid welfare, it only makes us understand that knowledge is often more important than measurable facts. Experts in the Carpathian Basin can start their research on these peripheries. APPRENTICES: The apprentices are often the citizens of doctoral schools, who prepare the algorithms that aid practice then and there. Water polo players can swim, but not everyone who swims can play water polo. The water polo players jump into the pool, but not everyone who jumps into the pool plays water polo. It is essential that we grasp the perversities of inductive reasoning, for without this it is incomprehensible to spread the thinkers' results. Every thinker reads, but not everyone who reads is a thinker. It is a problem if the apprentices do not read Greek philosophy, and it is also a problem if they only read Greek philosophy. It is a problem if they have nothing to forget, but also if they stop at the ancient Greeks. "The critical phase does not come unless it's preceded by the dogmatic phase, in which a systematic expectation or behavior forms in such a way that the elimination of errors may commence." If I accept this, then, using Karl Popper's concepts I can claim that in solving problems, the philosophy of science is unavoidable, i.e. it's the dogmatic phase. The trouble begins when the dogmatic phase is not followed by a critical one. Sometimes a dogma is so deeply rooted, that no disappointment can dislodge it. It is a big question whether these three players must come from a single school. It is much easier to start research for those apprentices who in their schools studied under New Alexandrian masters and experts, and may have taken a peek into how conceptual model are born and how they are explained. However, from this it does not follow that those external experts and/or apprentices must be excluded if they come equipped with thick letters of recommendations. "The research program consists of rules which partially regulate what paths must be avoided (negative heuristics), and partially which paths should be taken (positive heuristics)." Perhaps it is time to establish a transdisciplinary problem-solving workshop, which runs according to a unique conception and attempts to realize a program that has never been tried before.

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MIHÁLY CSÍKSZENTMIHÁLYI: HOW CAN WE BECOME A CREATIVE SOCIETY?

Mihály Csíkszentmihályi, a psychologist living in the United States, a recipient of the Széchenyi Grand Prize, the creator of the concept of flow, arrived in Budapest at the invitation of the Pallas Athene Geopolitical Foundation to give a lecture about his specialty, research into creativity. Several hundred people attended his lecture on creativity's components, its effects on society as a whole, and about the similarities discovered among thirty Nobel Prize Laureates.

Author: Fanni Maráczi

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LEAVING A TRACE FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS I have been studying the question of creativity for over fifty years. It all started in October 1944, when I was nine years old, when we departed from Nyugati Railway Terminal, Budapest, to leave Hungary behind for good. All over the city we heard the guns of the approaching Soviet troops. We returned to Italy, where my father worked. At that time, as a nine-yearold, I was surprised that many grownups who served in high offices in our country had not known what would happen, despite the fact that they were welleducated and very experienced people. The events, and the fact that the government's entire character and structure changed completely caught them unaware. Thus, I began to seek an explanation. What was missing from the lives of these people? What could convince the rest of the population that they could live their lives in such a way that they made their own lives and society as a whole better? I became convinced that the decision was in our hands whether our lives would be brutal, short, and full of pain, or a life that is flourishing, has purpose and meaning. Moreover, this would leave a trace on future generations. Creativity is a potential that exists in people, just as the potential for destruction and cruelty is in them. However, it is our responsibility to make sure that creativity, not destruction, triumphs.

"the decision was in our hands whether our lives would be brutal, short, and full of pain or full of purpose and meaning." We must distinguish between two types of creativity. One type transforms culture, the way people view the world. This is big “C” public creativity. Small “c” creativity appears in the lives of people who never get to be famous, but through its deployment their own lives are enriched and gain meaning. Here I will mostly address creativity with a big “C”, because it is easier to study, and it has a greater effect on society, or rather this type of creativity is the kind that we must make sure to preserve. Creativity makes society lively, healthy, and progressing.

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A characteristic of Creativity with a big “C” is that it is rare. Creativity does not occur frequently, statistically speaking, so it is imperative that society, or at least part of it, appreciates it. The most exciting part of my studies is how society recognizes novelty, rare occurrences, which bring about change. Renaissance culture changed the Western world. When we read about the Renaissance in Florence, we discover – as historians discovered, too – that the Renaissance was the work of the ruling class, and not talented youth. The talent was always there, however previously it simply did not gain recognition. The City of Florence's commitment to seek out such artists, painters, and sculptors so that they could decorate the city is something quite incredible. These artists could come from anywhere, they could be rural kids who appear to be talented, so even I had a chance. They were sent to schools and taught how to use techniques and materials. All of this came to exist because society learned to recognize, teach, and enjoy excellence, those rare talents. TEN THOUSAND HOURS AND ONE MORE This work then must be completed. The big idea itself, that we then forget, is not Creativity with a big C. They say a person needs ten thousand hours to become a master of a subject, whatever this subject may be: geometry, biology, painting or music. However, this is not yet creativity. A creative person surpasses mastery. It is important to emphasize that creativity is not an isolated phenomenon that happens on its own in someone's brain. It has to be the synergy of the entire system. In the course of big “C” creativity you can change the symbolic representation of some part of reality, be that physics, biology etc. The individual can enrich the community's experience as it relates to that domain, a separate realm of skill. Creativity may change this domain and its rules, it may change how we use numbers, instruments, colors, and sounds. Creativity means that a person is able to learn to work within a domain, then become that domain's expert after ten thousand hours, and then, once he has learned all this, he sets out to change it, and people say: "Well, I have not thought about it that way before, but this method is indeed better." Creativity is made up of three elements: the first is culture – where rules and the domain are embedded.

RUBIK’S IN THE SHED Ten years ago, we were driving with my family in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. There were no people, no cities, just bears and all sorts of other animals as far as the eye could see. Our car overheated and we wanted to change the water, whereupon another vehicle stopped and asked what the problem was. We began to talk, and to my great surprise it turned out that this man, who lived nearby, was the curator of a small town's Rubik’s museum. He knew that Rubik’s cubes came from Hungary, but aside from this he only knew that it was a magic cube that people played with all over the world. The museum was located in a nicely painted shed and they had cubes from all over the world. Some of the cubes were signed by Rubik himself. This man's imagination advanced as far in the civilized world as it possibly could. This is big “C” Creativity.

The second is that man who learns the rules but thinks he could do things differently. For instance, Albert Einstein responded to the question of what motivated him to create the theory of relativity by saying that he could not understand physics the way it was taught back in his day, so he came up with the theory of relativity. The creative person realizes that there is something missing, something that is hard to understand and says: why don't we find a new method? This is where creativity begins. The experts are the third element. When a society is not creative, when there are no new ideas, products, lifestyles, that is not because there are no smart and creative people, but rather because those in power do not want change. The experts decide on the new ideas that are imported into culture, which owes its progress and complexity to this process. The next generation can use it for its own success, or they might also create novelties, and make decisions about whether they would continue teaching them.

This model also applies to smaller-scale systems. For instance, if we think of a business or a school, or any human community, all of these have their own culture. A common knowledge, traditions that belong to a firm or a school. Most workers may only be there because of the income, and they keep the system running. But then there are those individuals who wish to improve the system with new elements. If the company management takes no notice of its employees' good ideas, it slowly excludes the company from progress. If they accept too many ideas and import too many novelties, that may have a destructive effect on the company's future. The management must know which ideas to choose and it must integrate them into the company's culture. When studying people, we quickly realized that we always strive to conserve energy: we repeat things as always, we eat the same things, we spend time with those whom we love. This is a conservative tendency. After a while, however, we like to transcend our own boundaries. We want to do what we do better, with less effort and greater precision. This is a spreading tendency, and this one is more important when it comes to creativity. When creating something new we need free attention. The debate continues to this day about how much information a man can process in a single day. A good estimate is about half a million pieces of information: these are things like hunger, being hot, signals coming from the environment or inside – your memories, your imagination. This information is all caught by your brain. If all this information relates to work, food, and bathing, and you spend your waking time doing irrelevant things, then nothing new can come to be, and no one will recognize your talent. WHY DO PEOPLE WANT TO BE CREATIVE? We have a tendency that we want to perform better. Creative people learn to enjoy what they do. They don't only do it for the money anymore. They want to do it better, in a way that no one had done it before. In the creative people who I investigated, all had a kind of joy. This is one of the most exciting things that makes up flow. Flow is the feeling we get when we are doing something in the best possible way. Something we must do and we do it better than anyone else. We get support from other people, so we continue and we achieve such things where everyone says: this is outstanding.

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POLITICAL FORCES BEHIND CREATIVITY The first Egyptian dynasties were very creative, but then they decided that because they were much stronger and richer than other countries they no longer want change. The pharaohs created an entire office whose function was to go from artist to artist and to punish them if they were caught doing something new. Thus, Egypt's rulers preserved the culture's status quo, in contrast to the first dynasties who changed and progressed. This is the responsibility of experts and leaders. Those people in Florence who had those new buildings built and ordered those paintings and sculptures, were the big banking families and the leaders of the unions of the age, the guilds, workers of the cotton and the textile industry, who were proud to support the city's beauty. They donated the money so the best artists could be hired. A society becomes creative if there is a political system that recognizes and supports novelty that deserves support. It is not simple and it is very rare that a society gets to the level where it has the opportunity and the political ability to foster good ideas.

Flow has a characteristic where you must know what next step is going to be, what is needed. Whether you are a pensioner, a sportsman, or a businessman, you must know what you must do. You get information regarding whether what you have done was good. So, you need clear goals and immediate feedback. For flow, you must feel that you are doing exactly what is needed. If you must do more than you can you would feel bad, you would be worried. If the task is too simple, you would be bored. Once you have these elements in place, you need to focus. In that situation

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you forget about the future and the past. You are in the present. You feel that you can do what is needed, you don't feel that you must do it, you only feel that you are doing it. Time passes by very fast, you take no heed, then you look up and you realize that half a day has passed and not half an hour. You forget yourself, you don't think of yourself, your work, or your paycheck, you don't worry about your career, you just focus on what you do. This is flow, the state of creative people when they work.

We must recognize this. No matter how far we can see, how deeply we understand something, it is because we are standing on the shoulders of previous generations. Creative women typically have feminine traits, but they are also strong and competitive. Men tend to be more sensitive, they are more interested in emotions. From childhood, onwards we see two different realities if we are boy or girls. This is what we teach our children as well. Creative people can use opportunities, because they are not constrained.

Let's take rational thought – acting in the interest of pure results. This is a distinguishing trait of creative people, but at the same time they display a kind of childlike naivety. Their ideas go in unexpected directions, and this is not something you can expect of a grown-up. Goethe was asked to explain how he became the genius of German poetry and he responded that he still sought to preserve his childlike naivety. They can think rationally, systematically, and they can think like a child. These people are playful yet disciplined and responsible in their work and in their lives alike. From among the thirty Nobel Laureates I wrote about, six or seven spent some time in prison, as they did not function according to the expectations of the system. Linus Pauling was arrested because he participated in a demonstration against nuclear weapons, when he laid across the railroad tracks. Egypt's single Nobel Prize Laureate Naguib Mahfouz was knifed by Muslim extremists on the street, because he had written about the future uncertainty of Egypt's Muslims. He was punished for not being a fundamentalist, but he said that he simply had to speak his mind. He almost died, but he managed to recover.

AGONY AND ECSTASY Passion is crucial even in the sciences where we have to be cold and rational. But creative scientists are very passionate. They notice things that others don't, they are very interested in what else they could discover. In this they resemble great poets. I translated the poems of Salvatore Quasimodo, an Italian Nobel Laureate, into English and I changed certain words so that they sounded better in English. He sent them back to me saying that these were different in the original. Not a black bird, a raven. He was very careful with concrete words, in the details of language, how he wanted to represent reality.

Years ago, a book on Michelangelo's life became a bestseller. Its English title was The Agony and the Ecstasy. It addresses a duplicity in Michelangelo's life: he did not know how to express himself, so he had to make compromises, live in a fashion he did not want to live. The ecstasy he felt when working was one of a vision appearing. This is the life of creative people – agony and ecstasy, uncertainty and suffering, because the world is not yet mature to receive their ideas. But there is also joy and satisfaction, which they feel when they have accomplished something they did not know it was possible. These are the traits of creative people. If we want a more creative society, excitement and progress in culture, the problem is usually not that there are no people around who think that way. Rather the problem is that they have no chance to express themselves, they have no support and no access to the right instruments. For big “C” Creativity we must become a creative society, like Athens or Florence used to be. The fact that the Hungarian National Bank chose Pallas Athene is a good sign. We need a vision for the future, which leads us to a better history, to a better era for humanity. This is the challenge that we are facing.

Reality and imagination are also very important. The traits of creative people show that creativity comes to be when opposing forces meet. We think that these are introverted people working alone. This is true, but they are also very curious about how others work. Not because they want to imitate them, but because they think they could learn something. Society is very important for scientists. If you think with others, the continual interaction with others is indispensable. Ambition – these people are competitive and at time arrogant. Isaac Newton was once asked how he could see so far where no one else could – they were thinking of discovering gravity, of course. He said it was because he was standing on the shoulders of giants.

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VIKTOR DÖRFLER: THE GRANDMASTER PROJECT Author: László Körtvélyesi

After developing numerous models of knowledge, Viktor Dörfler, professor at the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow began research into creativity and intuition. Dörfler's goal was the systematic modeling of knowledge creation as well as "personal knowledge". His latest research focuses on the knowledge of "grandmasters", i.e. geniuses (Nobel Prize laureates, world-famous chefs, economics experts), seeking the answer to such questions as: how do knowledgeshaping masters think? Where do their intuitions come from? How do they transfer their experiences and ideas to others?

"My idea was this: if the teller [teacher] is a grandmaster, i.e. he has a bulb, then depending on the listener's skills and knowledge of the world, the listener might see points, lines, planes, or tetrahedrons. Thus, depending on their previous knowledge, every listener will learn something different from the grandmaster. Perhaps they might even surpass him. However, if the teacher is not a grandmaster, then they can only pass on their own knowledge level. For instance, Joseph Taylor figured out in one second why I could not imagine gravitation "properly". He explained it in a minute." So far, he has interviewed twenty internationally renowned experts, including 17 Nobel Laureates, economists, and information scientists. His research was published in Management Learning, the International Journal of Management Reviews, the Knowledge Management Research and Practice, Creativity and Innovation Management. "It is very important to know here that I am not interested in what they are talking about. I am interested in how they think. In order for them to address me in such a way that I can figure our how they think, they must regard me as a partner. They must believe that I understand their research field well enough that they can converse with me in a meaningful way.

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Accordingly, I learned a lot of physics, chemistry, and economics in the past few years. Another very important thing is to be on the same level with them in terms of ego." "My interview with György Oláh was particularly interesting. That was the only interview I could not give my secretary to transcribe, as we spoke in a mix of Hungarian and English so that aside from us no one could understand." "We have not found any methodology we could conceptualize. It was very clear from the first moment onwards that anything as narrow as a method would be too crude a tool to grasp such rich knowledge material. There was only one person who conducted deep interviews with more Nobel Laureates than myself: Mihály Csíkszentmihályi. So I asked him how he went about the task. He said: I have tried every known psychological method and none led to any results whatsoever." "What I have learned from the interviews relates to the way Nobel Laureates think. What characterizes their thinking? The first and most important thing is intuition. We attempt to ban intuition from science claiming that it is not systematic enough etc. Yet we

have not found a single outstanding result of a single Noble Laureate that was not born out of intuition." "The next thing that is very important is harmony and beauty. For instance, I spoke with Roy J. Glauber, who asked me whether I was aware that Maxwell managed to finally derive Maxwell's equations, as he felt a term was missing from their beauty. I am a mathematician, yet I cannot perceive the beauty in there. He responded that you'd see it if you describe it with tensors, then you put these into a matrix. Then, you can see that the matrix is symmetrical, and this symmetry is beauty. Later, when I spoke to Yoichiro Nambu, he said that Japanese beauty is different: it is based on asymmetry. They see the beauty in what they discover." "The other incredibly important thing is seeing the essentials. It is almost a cliché that the grandmaster sees the complete picture, a cliché for those who have seen a grandmaster and know that it is this way. The grandmaster not only sees the complete picture, but also it details. Which details he sees is the key. Yoichiro Nambu, whom I just mentioned before, imagined Tesla engines. His brain seems to run in differential equations. He told me that he never corrected an equation, never prepared a derivation, rather he noted its beginning and its end, and the rest takes place in his head. He sees the detail, he sees the grand picture, and he is able to shift between the two with incredible speed." "The next very important thing is that a genius inspires his genre. Now I am not talking about an imaginary person or (as everyone's hero is Einstein) Einstein. Einstein did something that almost beggars belief: there were two grips in physics, space and time, and he gave them up. An inspiring person must be seen, talked to, and listened to. Sherwood, the Nobel Laureate said that he went to university and asked the students in upper-level courses whose lectures he should listen to, and they said Enrico Fermi's. Sherwood said he didn't understand. Fermi is a physicist. So? That doesn't matter! It's not what he is talking about that counts, rather how he is talking about it and who is doing the talking." " We discovered many things, but there were a few things where I made mistakes. For instance, I thought that everyone must go through the "master-apprentice" relationship, except, of course, geniuses. I was

wrong. Geniuses must go through it, too. This was a very good lesson. Afterwards, of course, I discovered that Howard Gardner has written exactly the same about Mozart. Mozart regarded someone as his master, though he surpassed him already as a child. Nonetheless, he went through the master-apprentice experience in a symbolic way." "It does not follow that the people who are in a position to inspire the next thinking generation, that these people definitely have students. Feynman, for instance, never had students. Roy Glauber explained this by saying that "THE Feynman" could only have taught others how they could become Feynman, but no one other than him could be Feynman. Yet he was

Viktor Dörfler was a lecturer in Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Today he is Senior Lecturer at the Department of Management Science, Strathclyde University, Glasgow, where he earlier received his Ph.D. The title of his Ph.D. thesis was Model of Learning Ability. As Director of the Management Development Programme (MDP) 2010-2013, he conducted a full redesign of the three-year-long undergraduate course. Currently he teaches undergraduate and postgraduate modules. His main subjects of expertise are: management, business technology, knowledge economy, e-commerce, data mining, research/science philosophy, information management. He is Visiting Professor in the Business School of Zagreb and NHTV Breda. The professor likes to examine such knowledge-based research- and education systems as e-learning and other similar smart applications. Among the UK Business schools he was the first to develop a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) educational platform. Through this, university courses can be organized for great masses via an Internet platform.

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Daniel Kahneman

one of the most inspiring people, he inspired masses to take up physics, but he was completely unable to do this in a master-apprentice relationship." "The master-apprentice relationship is a terribly asymmetric relationship. The apprentice should not parrot the master's statements, he should not be doing exactly what the master says. As Palágyi said, the master is unique in his field, and this is exactly what the apprentice has to learn. To summarize: the apprentice should not accept the master's path, nor should he reject it, but this torturous neither-nor, where is my path, this is what trains the apprentice and makes him a master.

Date of birth: Tel-Aviv, 1934. Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences: 2002 for his work in prospect theory (Kahnemann is the only prize recipient who is not an economist) Alma mater: Hebrew University of Jerusalem (psychology, mathematics); Berkeley (Ph.D. in Psychology) Universities where he taught: University of Michigan, Cambridge, Harvard Stanford, Princeton Other Honors and Awards: APA Lifetime Achievement Award

CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION IN HAUTE CUISINE One of Dörfler's studies examined top-quality gastronomy (haute cuisine), more precisely what star chefs draw on, where they get their intuitions from. The research showed that while these areas of gastronomy are normally described in accordance with the rule of process-management, these are not even close to the expectations and experiences of Michelin-star chefs with regard to intuition and creativity. Quite the contrary. As Dörfler demonstrated, "personal creativity" and own experiences guided by intuitions, as well as "social evolution" all played a great role in the creation of innovation. As a conclusion of his research Dörfler points out that the results may be different in the work and knowledge organization of non-Western societies.

Quotations: "I would have liked to be a philosopher. I became interested in psychology as a complement to philosophy, where answers to the questions of human existence were provided based upon the examination of empirical facts and not textual interpretation." "The word happiness has lost its meaning nowadays, as we use it to express far too many things."

György Oláh Date of birth: May 22, 1927, Budapest Nobel Prize: Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1994 for his contribution to carbocation chemistry. Alma mater: Piarist Gymnasium of Budapest, Budapest University of Technology and Economics Mentor: Géza Zemplény Universities where he taught and worked: Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Central Research Institute for Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, University of Southern California. Other awards and honors: Corvin Chain Award for Merit (2001), Széchenyi Grand Prize (2011) Quotations: "If one day chemistry ceases to give me joy and satisfaction, or my abilities decrease to the point where I am unable to meaningfully contribute to the science's advancement (or to mentoring younger colleagues' and their attempts), I shall retire without hesitation." "When we think about the role of science in humanity's quest for knowledge and self expression, we see with astonishment how closely our various intellectual activities are intertwined."

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Kenneth Arrow Date of birth: 23 August 1921, New York Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences: 1972, for his work in the fields of general equilibrium analysis and welfare economics. (To this day Arrow is the youngest Nobel laureate. He received the recognition when he was 51 years old.) Alma mater: City University of New York (BA Mathematics), Columbia (MA and Ph.D. in Economics) Mentor: Harold Hotelling Universities, where he taught and worked: University of Chicago, Stanford, Santa Fe Institute A founding member of the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences. Other awards and honors, memberships: Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Recipient of the National Medal of Science Quotations: "I was an excellent student, but I doubted that I could do truly original work." "To this day the majority of people get jobs via references. The movement of financial markets take place on the basis of rumors and gossip." “I am a man interested in science. I have learned one useful thing. I readily acknowledge that I know very little.” 131

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AN URBANIZATION CRISIS IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD? Author: RĂĄhel CzirjĂĄk

From Ancient times up to the first half of the 20th century urbanization was a standard measure of development: the more urbanized a country, the more GDP per capita. However, from the 1960s-70s onwards, urbanization and economic growth parted ways in ex-colonies that gained their independence. Here, as population in cities suddenly exploded, infrastructure development and economic growth could not keep the pace. This situation resulted in an urbanization crisis in the region. Its most spectacular phenomenon is the emergence of slums. But what is the difference between the urbanization in the countries of the global North and South? Why did slums emerge? This study intends to answer these questions.

In the 21st century we are living in an urbanized world. According to the UN, in 2007-8 the number of those living in urban agglomeration (then more than 3.3 billion people) had for the first time surpassed the number of those living in villages. This process seems to be pressing forward unstoppably: In 2015 nearly 4 billion people lived in cities, according to forecasts their numbers might surpass 6.3 billion by 2050. On this basis, we can claim with certainty that urbanization, or cities themselves play an ever more determining role in the life of humanity. However, taking a closer look at the cities of the developing world we see significant issues. Here population growth is so fast, that neither economic nor infrastructural development is able to keep up the pace. Thus, a significant portion of people living there are forced to dwell in slums. It is true that the cities of the developed world also do not operate faultlessly â&#x20AC;&#x201C; after all, sustainability is not realized in either a social or a natural sense, thus here too we encounter segregation, urban poverty, environmental pollution etc. Moreover, if we think about the beginning phases of modern urbanization, for instance in London or Paris, we also see that numerous workers there lived

in slums. Yet their size cannot be compared to the problems that urban regions in developing countries face, where we can indeed speak of a crisis. THE RELEVANCE OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Although cities existed already in the millennia before our time, the proportion of urban population globally remained limited up to the 19th century. According to some estimates, in 1780 there were fewer than 100 cities with a population larger than 100,000 worldwide. Starting from the Industrial Revolution, there was a steep rise in both the number of cities and the size of their population. Industrialization started such processes and created the preconditions for urbanization that made the much faster growth of cities possible. Basically, we distinguish four such factors, or processes. Migration: The Industrial Revolution had a great effect on the social division of labor. The emancipated serfdom shifted from the agricultural into the industrial sector, which in terms of spatial distribution meant a pronounced migration from the villages into the cities. At the border of India and Nepal

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retrospection and the recognition of regularities possible in a more clarified manner. On the whole, we can say that, owing to the processes discussed above, the first phase happened at the end of the 18th century and at the beginning of the 19th century in developed countries and lasted well into the 1960s-70s (in the case of developing countries, however, we may only speak of the explosion of cities starting from the 1960s). The spatial clustering of labor happened simultaneously with the large scale and rapid concentration of population, as a result of which construction of typically low quality living space began on a mass scale, and the size of built-up areas increased. Owing to overcrowding and the increasing degree of pollution, a poor quality work- and living environment emerged, which in turn resulted in serious health issues: the densely populated city quarters were rife with epidemics. Moreover, significant social tensions as well as serious problems emerged: the living quarters of the poor and the rich were sharply delineated from

Delhi, India

The emergence of great population concentrations: As a consequence of the Industrial Revolution, machine production slowly marginalized artisanal manufacturing. Owing to industrial development, the average size of factories grew. Thus, workers arriving in the city were employed in ever larger-sized factories. Near these, ever more people aggregated. The demographic explosion: The Industrial Revolution brought about developments in nearly all spheres of life (agriculture, nutrition, medical sciences, health care), and so the chance to survive increased substantially. Thus, mortality rate decreased while the number of births remained high, the demographic gap began to widen, and a population explosion followed. Technical development: Technical development ushered in by the industrial age made metropolitan infrastructure possible (for instance, drinking water and sewer systems etc.), thus it became technically possible to sustain and create larger cities than earlier.

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It is important to understand that these processes depended upon and developed in interaction with one another. Owing to its engine, an innovationbased, tremendous economic growth, the ever more forcefully appearing tendencies (ever larger urban populations) did not collapse, as the growing economy was in a position to absorb the labor force supply arriving in the city, and the technological developments were largely able to serve the ever more significant population. THE PHASES OF URBANIZATION: "THE EXPLOSION OF THE CITY" Modern urbanization that started with the Industrial Revolution is divided into four phases by Hungarian researchers: the explosion of cities, suburbanization, de-urbanization, re-urbanization. No complete agreement exists with regards to the characteristics of each phase. One tends to agree, however, with regards to the first phase of urbanization, as all countries of the world already have this phase behind them, and the passing of time has made objective

"... starting from the Industrial Revolution a steep rise started in both the number of cities as well as their population count." one another due to segregation, and the poor living quality sketched above primarily affected the lowerstatus social strata. Lรกszlรณ Lackรณ explains the links between the quantitative and the qualitative factors or urbanization as follows: "The rapid increase of the city-dwelling population, or quantitative urbanization was normally only followed belatedly by rising quality of supplies, the spread of a more civilized lifestyle, in other words: by qualitative urbanization. It remains an important question, however, which phase is characterized by the shift from a quantitative into qualitative urbanization, and it is not an ancillary factor, either, how large the gap between the two phases or two groups of factors is." In other words, the problems that arose out of the urban explosion and the supply of large population concentrations led to the belated appearance of public services: for instance, water supply, sewer construction, trash removal.

Thus, in the case of urbanization we can speak in terms of gap, and we can distinguish between a quantitative and qualitative phase. In the beginning phase of urbanization in the Western world (urban explosion), the gap widened slightly, as a result of which many slums emerged in European metropolises. However, the gap was successfully closed, thus the slum-issue was basically solved. For while we can speak of segregation and social inequality in the cities of the developed world, we do not encounter such slums anywhere that would aggregate a significant portion of the urban population. URBANIZATION TRENDS TODAY While earlier (from ancient times to the first half of the 20th century) urbanization was a privilege and the measure of development in the world's developed regions (the more urbanized a country, the higher its GDP/capita). Starting from the 1960s-70s, urbanization's center of gravity shifted into developing nations that were recently decolonized, where economic growth and urbanization gradually parted ways. In 1950 only 42% of the world's urban population lived in smaller and medium income countries, in 2015, nearly 75% and in 2050 roughly 80% is expected to live there. On the basis of growth rate, the continent with the fastest urbanization is Africa, where the urban population grew fourteenfold between 1950 and 2010: from 33 million to 476 million. By 2050 this number is expected to reach 1.3 billion people. The growth trend is so rapid that "public services, housing, and public transportation are unable to keep pace with growing demands, just as the formal labor market is unable to absorb the crowds flowing into the city". Thus, in absence of the necessary infrastructure, a segment of the population is forced to live in slums. Although, when viewed in terms of the percentage rate of urban population, developing countries seem to be growing according to the historical tendencies observed in developed nations, in terms of absolute numbers their growth is unprecedented. For this reason, while there were problems related to urbanization in European metropolises that grew steeply after the Industrial Revolution, today we can speak of an urbanization crisis happening in developed nations. "The urbanization crisis is a complex phenomenon that contains economic and social loss of efficiencies resulting from urban overcrowding as well as environmental issues, which have

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serious consequences in both the short and the long term, as well as on the micro- and the macro level with regard to a broadly interpreted progress." Slums are one phenomenon of the urbanization crisis. UN-HABITAT defines slums as follows: A slum household is one where a group of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area lack one or more of the following: 1) durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against extreme climate conditions; 2) s ufficient living space which means not more than three people sharing the same room; 3) e asy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an affordable price; 4) a ccess to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or public toilet shared by a reasonable number of people; 5) security of tenure that prevents forced evictions. Today the more than 800 million slum-dwellers make up almost one quarter of the world's urban population. In sub-Saharan Africa the situation is even graver, as there almost 62% of urban populations live in slums. Regrettably, the forecasts are also not encouraging. According to the UN, by 2050 the population of slums might reach 2 billion people.

"... starting from the 1960s-70s urbanization's center of gravity shifted into developing nations that were recently decolonized..." Destitution in slums means a great deal more than mere lack of money. People living here are vulnerable to, on the one hand, the dangers of urban living (dangerous waste disposal sites, highways, railways near their dwellings), on the other hand they have no protection against natural catastrophes (for instance floods, landslides etc.). Owing to the unhealthy environment, these factors contribute to frequent occurrence of disease.

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Living circumstances characteristic of slums can be summed up well by the following data: At least 1 million people still die of such diseases that directly relate to inappropriate quality of drinking water and hygienic provisions. Out of 10 children, 1 dies before his/her fifth birthday in the cities of poor countries. Slums of the developing world face similar difficulties today as Victorian London at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution: typhoid fever, cholera, tuberculosis. However, the situation is even more grave due to so-called modern diseases like asthma, heart disease, cancer etc. Thus, these people are forced to bear a double burden. How could this situation come to be? How does this region's urbanization differ or coincide with the urbanization of the developed region? THE (DIVERGENT?) URBANIZATION OF THE DEVELOPED WORLD We find many divergent views in specialized literature in relation to the question of whether the urbanization trends are influenced by the same set of factors in both developing and developed nations. György Enyedi writes in his study entitled "Urban World" that the fundamental difference between urbanization in the developed and in the developing world originates in divergent timing. In the case of the urbanization of developing nations, "belatedness [...] has several characteristics as its consequences, but fundamentally the same city growing mechanism is at work, which substantially increased the cities of developed Europe from the first half of the 20th century [...] onward." (Enyedi Gy. 2003, p. 13). In other words, the "two worlds" find themselves in a different phase of modern urbanization (Enyedi Gy. 2003). Enyedi supposes that "urbanization cycles that emerged in the developed world continue worldwide with modifications that originate in belatedness, the historically developed network of cities and cultural differences" (Enyedi Gy. 2003, p. 14). Viktória Szirmai shares this view, according to whom "the historical paths of urbanization cannot be avoided: the less developed countries tread the same path as those that came before them, as the main regularities of urbanization continue to exist" (Szirmai V. 2011, p. 37). However, since the end of the 19th and the beginning of he 20th century "the urbanization processes and their effects have changed radically, among others due to the dynamization of globalization processes" (Szirmai V. 2011, p. 23).

Judit Ricz sees the most important urbanization differences in the following elements: • • • • • •

different temporal course, different pace, different order of magnitude, different spatial patterns, different global context, quantitative and qualitative differences in urban problems (Ricz J. 2009).

In my opinion, if we sum up the points of view listed above, the following cause-effect link can be sketched: the developed and developing nations are fundamentally characterized by a different historical background. As a result, timing, i.e. the onset of modern urbanization, will be different. Between the two points of onset global context has changed, and this is what causes all further differences (different pace, order of magnitude, spatial pattern, and as a result the differences in urban problems etc.) Thus, the "main regularities in urbanization" themselves (Szirmai V. 2011), the factors that started modern urbanization are the same today as they were at the end of the 18th century. However, factors influencing

urban growth have changed in the meantime, and this causes the differences in urbanization in the two worlds of different development levels. Different historical background, different timing The Industrial Revolution created the basis of modern urbanization. This happened first in England, then in the rest of Europe. However, it could not take place in the colonies up to the point these became independent from their colonizers, as the colonies operated largely as suppliers of raw material and markets for ready-made products. The developments only happened in order to increase the efficiency of exploitation. The Industrial Revolution had no foothold in the third world, and as a result modern urbanization could not commence, either, until the third world was emancipated from colonialism. Thus, while the phase characterized by urban population explosion began in the case of the developed world at the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, and had progressed at its rapidest in the first half of the 20th century, the first phase of modern urbanization in developing countries started in the second half of the 20th century and lasts to our days.

A market in India

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Different global context During the 150-200 years that lie between the two events – the onset of Industrial Revolution, the independence of the Third World – significant changes occurred in the factors influencing the world's development. Within this time interval, the last fifty years stand out: there we see several processes with global influence, but their effects are different depending on the development of countries. Two such processes are globalization and the turning point in world economy. The onset of this latter process began with the oil crisis in the 1970s, when heavy industry – earlier regarded as an economic engine and economic, industrial centers experienced hard times as well. Therefore, the roles of the center and periphery shifted, transforming the economy's earlier spatial structure: production shifted to the periphery, to environments with a cheap workforce, whereas the center's role now became direction, research and development. Instead of the heavy industry, high-tech industry branches (microelectronics, computer science) and service became the engine of the economy. The value of peripheral spheres appreciated, as due to the decline of the conventional heavy industry, capital and population flowed to the periphery, thus starting developing countries on the path of modern urbanization. In other words, a result of post-Fordian transition is that urbanization's center of gravity shifted to the developing world, where rapid city growth began, while the urbanization of developed nations slowed.

ously. As a result, the four conditions have emerged that, in the case of the Industrial Revolution, form the basis of modern urbanization (large population concentrations, migration, demographic explosion, technology), but in the absence of economic growth there is no inner potential that would ensure the balanced growth of the settlement network, the proper operation of the emerging mega-metropolises.

Diverging characteristics of urbanization

In his interview with HuG, Arjun Appadurai – an Indian cultural anthropologist, who researches urbanization among other things – called attention to the fact that in the case of the urbanization crisis, we can speak of a globally universal mechanism, but equally it is important to examine single regions, for local factors may significantly modify the picture. (The interview can be found in this section in its entirety.)

Among the diverging characteristics in the urbanization processes that took place in developing and developed nations, we may mention different timing and different order of magnitude. In developed countries, the first phase of urbanization, the explosion of cities, happened over a longer period of time and affected fewer people. The urbanization tendencies in developing countries resemble the values of developed nations at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. The divergences appear if one considers absolute numbers. While today the urban population in the developed world is about 985 million people, and this value is expected to grow to 1.05 billion by 2030, there are

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already 2.9 billion urban dwellers in the developing world now, and their numbers will surpass 4 billion by 2030. The reason is that in countries that were emancipated from colonization, industrialization and urbanization happened simultaneously with population explosion. While in Europe and in other regions of the developed world we see that as a result of the Industrial Revolution social shifts took place (demographic explosion, professional restratification), and these led to modified use of space and the onset of modern urbanization, developing nations must face the fact that these processes are not the result of an inner development, causing one another, but occurred as a kind of "heritage" of the colonizers, simultane-

"Slums of the developing world face similar difficulties today as Victorian London at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution."

The solution of the developing world's urbanization crisis is therefore an enormous challenge, which consists not only of the appropriate economic performance of the states involved, but a political establishment that listens to the poor and takes their interests into consideration when making its decisions.

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San Francisco: COHABITING WITH CREATIVITY Author: Sára Farkas

Silicon Valley, the center of high-tech industry and startup companies, has become one of the fastest growing regions of the United States. This means at once the intensification of its economic performance and population growth. According to estimates its population will approach one million by 2035. However, the innovative region’s rapid growth of the innovative region started a number of social processes, including gentrification, which meet with resistance among the original local population. In 2016, I had the opportunity to participate in the Annual Meeting of the American Geographers’ Association held in San Francisco, and thus I had a chance to observe the phenomenon on site. Here I present the manifold social challenges brought about by gentrification as well as a few of the solutions developed by the world’s various urban centers.

CULTURAL CIVIL WAR Our experiences and impulses gathered over our seven-day stay supported San Francisco’s reputation as a diverse city distinguished by its rhapsodic rhythm and characteristic dynamics. However, the field trips after the busy conference days shed new light on quite a few phenomena. Although the "techies" that moved to San Francisco recently and the “locals” really do not care much for one another, the locals’ prejudices seem to play a significant role in this conflict. Namely, the locals regard those employed in the technological sector as the root cause of negative processes fueled by gentrification. However, when we met these entrepreneurs it quickly turned out that their attitudes do not correspond to the socially insensitive stereotype described by the locals. Within their own individual possibilities, they have created several grassroots initiatives to support the local

citizens and aid them in securing employment. Some entrusted the unemployed nearby with basic service tasks in his restaurant, and within the framework of another interesting project we heard about a Basic Coding course for the homeless. In addition to the technological sector, there is significant demand for the material culture of artisanal objects and the industrial products of design. The city is equally known for its ceramics factory (Heath Ceramics) and its pottery workshops. Microbreweries, which appeared during the gold fever but operate in significant numbers even today make up an interesting part of local industrial culture, as well as the newly appearing artisanal coffee roasting companies. Anchor Steam Beer, founded in 1896 by Bavarian immigrants is one of the city's most famous breweries that developed steam beer crafting technology. This region also lacks the wellorganized public services so characteristic of the rest of the United States.

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GENTRIFICATION PROCESS: The cities’ economic and social structure is transformed. A more pronounced, income-based fluctuation of various social groups commences in relation to the growth of creative industrial and knowledge-based branches, which leads to ever sharper income inequality and a rapid rise of price levels. In the course of gentrification processes, the population groups of the involved city districts shift. Typically, a younger, better-educated, more creative and entrepreneurial generation replaces social groups possessing lower income and less education. There is an increase in the price level of services and goods produced in the region. A positive effect of this trend is that the district's human resources, intellectual capital, and economic value producing ability are greatly enhanced. However, the earlier inhabitants are not able to enjoy the advantages of growth due to the increasing price level. Ultimately, they are forced to leave the area, which leads to a sharp incomebased isolation by area, segregation. A further characteristic of gentrification is its exponential dynamics: after a small scale and hesitant start, social and economic changes begin to resemble an explosion, and become extraordinarily fast-paced. In this new chapter of urbanization, where urban population rates and the demand for higher-quality housing are on the rise, urban populations need such regulations and investments that prioritize social sustainability.

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According to the local citizens, private sector services, in particular health care, can only be accessed at relatively high prices. For instance, a dentist's appointment typically costs about 100 USD, which means serious financial burden even for those whose employers do provide health care coverage. FRISCO AND THE BUS WARS From the early 2000s sharp social and economic changes began in San Francisco. Silicon Valley became one of the fastest growing regions in the United States, and according to the city government's expectations, the city's population will reach 969,000 inhabitants by 2035. However, San Francisco's area can no longer expand due to its topographic attributes, thus population density and real estate prices steadily increase. AirBnB's alternative service that enabled people to rent or list properties short term provided further impetus to the increase of rental prices. An extreme example of this process is the HaightAshbury district, where in 2011 real estate prices rose on the average by half a million dollars over a six month period. According to John Garrard Stehlin, a lecturer at the Department of Geography, UC Berkeley, the underlying mechanism of this price rise is primarily small scale real estate development carried out by owners or renters, rather than infrastructural investments in holding structures of external players or developers entering as third parties. From the 1960s onwards, the Victorian homes of this district provided housing for artistic creative communities and intellectuals, who made innumerable small scale architectural changes and investments individually ("do it yourself") in order to improve the living conditions these houses offered. In the 2000s, the technological sector's employees began arriving (the locals only call these groups "techies"), and who provoke strong negative sentiments among the original inhabitants. It is these "techies" that the locals primarily blame for having destroyed the kind and creative milieu of the city, and for having pushed out earlier lower-income groups. These conflicts intensified at the end of 2013, when the original inhabitants blocked the routes traveled by Google buses to prevent workers from getting to work.

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As the Google buses used the public transport stops, they caused delays in the schedules of local lines, what’s more, they further increased the price of real estate nearby. Based on preliminary surveys, the municipal government claims that the operation of these lines reaches a necessary limit of economy of scale. On an average workday, the number of passengers transported on private buses owned by Google, Facebook, and Apple reaches 17,000. In the wake of the conflicts the city – following the environmental impact assessment in August 2014 – started an experimental program, in which the routes of private buses were limited and a fee for the use of public transportation stops was levied. Gentrification starts a process that is difficult to bring to a halt, as it offers extraordinarily fast growth and profit opportunities for the city. However, to exploit these opportunities and bring economic interests to fruition, regulation constraints need to be decreased. In the case of San Francisco, it is unique that grassroots initiatives could stop couple of undesirable developments and real estate investments. For instance, a redevelopment proposal featuring high-rise construction was halted, as it would have led to significant alteration in wind tunnels. The question remains, however, given relatively loose

coordination of market conditions, whether the municipal government is in a position to coordinate gentrification, and two what extent newly settling inhabitants, the “techies”, determine gentrification processes.

"... when the original inhabitants blocked the routes traveled by Google buses..." GENTRIFICATION PROCESSES IN METROPOLISES OF THE WORLD Outside of the United States, the emergence of gentrification processes is most often caused by central government targets. Frankfurt, Germany and Vancouver, Canada illustrate this well. In the case of Vancouver, the municipal government launched a large scale social rental apartment redevelopment program in the mid-2000s, aiming to interest a mixed income population. In the program’s framework, 200 apartments were demolished. Then, by situating buildings more densely in the area, 1,400

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new real estate units were created. As the demolitions provoked considerable opposition in 2007, the city privatized the area and outsourced its real estate development and renovation to private investors. As a result, however, lower income inhabitants found themselves facing a difficult situation. In contrast to the Vancouver model, in Frankfurt's Ostend city quarter the city achieved sustainability with greater municipal involvement. Roughly 80% of the local population, about 740,000 people rent apartments here, however, the rental prices increased by 30% 2009-2014. The central regulations intended to respond to the situation were based on four pillars: renovation support was provided for inhabitants and owners; noisy, polluting industrial branches were evicted from the territory; the state secured itself a more significant share in the local real estate; finally, the seat of the European Central Bank was moved into this city quarter, which contributed to its positive image, and imbued its atmosphere with the spirit of development. THE LESSON OF TORONTO Since the 1970s several projects attempted to renovate the Canadian metropolis' waterfront areas, however, so far most developments proved to be unsuccessful. The country's Prime Minister, Justin Trudeau, who was sworn in in November 2015, launched a fresh attempt to fill the area with life and creative people. Thus, the port was destined to become an area with mixed functions. 40,000 new real estate units were built, and large service and trade areas, parks have also been created. In the framework of the development they focused on creating pedestrian and bicycle paths, and aimed to limit vehicle traffic. Moreover, the city districts were connected with the freeway located in its direct vicinity.

"... cities, city districts are not products..." However, despite previous development goals and expectations, the new freeway has further isolated the port city district from further, more centrally located parts of the city fabric. The unsuccessful rehabilitation attempts were not caused by the insufficient infrastructure, but rather the fact that the port

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YAHOO BRIDGE: A POOR CITY'S RICH COMPANIES The drawn-out renovation of the lighting of San Franciscoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s second bridge, Bay Bridge provide a good example for the fact that city sustainability is plagued by financial insufficiency. Due to the absence of resources the renovation lasted more than a year, and its solution was started by a coincidence: the apartment of one of Yahoo's CEOs had a view on this area of the city, and finally, having had enough of the situation, he provided significant support for the completion of the project. In absence of state or municipal resources, it is an interesting San Francisco experience that the individual renovation of properties can be aided by Airbnb. Through this portal, private persons can collect resources for a multi-stage renovation of their apartments.

"The development of cultural and creative industry branches in itself attracts a creative workforce..." In contrast to the country-wide trends, the city of Tokyo is growing, however, this is largely due to the migration surplus. In certain segments of its suburban areas, a serious population decline can be observed. This phenomenon is not only characteristic of Tokyo, but also of Osaka and Kyoto, where more than 25% of suburban flats are empty. Simultaneously the demand for inner city real estate is on the rise (a new phenomenon in Japan). As a result, the city structure comes to resemble a patchwork. As the cities' zoning plans and construction regulations have changed since the 2011 earthquake, higher residential density has become possible in certain districts of the inner city. The most profitable areas quickly distinguished themselves from a physical point of view, and as a result a marked verticalization process has started in the city structure. THE PROTECTION OF PLACES

is located at quite a distance from the city center. The developers created only one road designed specifically for motor traffic for the districtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 40,000 inhabitants, and created no further links between the inner city and the port district. International investors purchased the majority of the residential towers, primarily with an investment purpose, and thus the development still does not fulfill its goal of providing higher quality, easily accessible housing opportunities for local residents. HIDDEN DESTRUCTION Since 2010, Japan's population has been steadily declining, the rate of which will reach 4% by 2045. Parallel to this, the size of empty housing stock is increasing, and its rate is extraordinarily high even at present: almost every third flat is empty. One of the most important tasks of cities is to preserve the value of real estate, however, depopulation goes hand in hand with the value decrease of real estate located there.

Stephen Pritchard, a PhD researcher at Northumbria University, England, called attention to six measures among direct anti-gentrification action: "Community, not commodity": in other words, cities, city quarters are not for sale. While cities as a whole may be treated as a product and characterized with brands, when shaping the spirit of social groups and settlements, the regularities and systems view applied in the economic sphere is less decisive, rather it is intervention practices that motivate with more dynamic, artistic, and cultural tools that eventually help reach the goal. One such intervention tool is street art. Physical transformations in the built-up environment only provide superficial and partial solutions for urban rejuvenation, as the human skills, abilities, and community cultures that form the basis of urban development are not enhanced. The value of rejuvenated areas appreciates. While lower income and

less educated inhabitants are forced to leave the area, taking along with themselves the (public administrative) task of social inclusion and integration into another area. Simultaneously, certain simpler public area interventions are in a position to effect significant, positive social change. A good example of such interventions is green area development. Social capital is best mobilized by the non-profit sector. The development of cultural and creative industry branches in itself attracts a creative workforce. If, however, these social changes are also driven by economic speculations (such as real estate price), capital movements or the social goals of the municipal government, these social processes not only gain momentum but also become larger. Gradually, a gentrification wave might build up. According to David Harvey, growing recognition of human rights brought about significant changes in urban processes. Its effects are palpable in the growing number of social movements, occupation of

ETHNIC DIVERSITY, HOMOGENOUS AGE GROUP San Francisco owes its creative milieu to its characteristic cultural and ethnic diversity, and not in the least to its geographic and natural environment. It is an interesting fact that San Francisco's population consists of only 37.7% Californian-born citizens, and more than a third of its inhabitants were born outside of the United States. In contrast to this cultural diversity, the city's dominant age groups are relatively homogeneous. One of the effects of rising price level is that families are pushed out of the city: among all the metropolitan areas of the United States, San Francisco has the lowest rate of children population. The population's average age is 38.5 years.

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SUPERFOOD CULTURE While the ensemble of Silicon Valley cities is slowly melting together form a single region. San Francisco, as the centrally located city, will remain the region's heart owing to its vitality and cosmopolitan lifestyle. Palo Alto, the seat of Stanford University and with countless startup headquarters is one the most interesting cities in this ensemble. Among others Facebook, Tesla, Pinterest, Waze, and PayPal all have their headquarters here, and Hewlett-Packard, a renowned company also started out here. The knowledgeintensive and high markup cost activities led to a characteristic "superfood culture" in local gastronomic practices, privileging foods and salads that are made of fresh, high-quality, exclusively natural ingredients. Typical ingredients include chia seeds, soba noodles imported from Japanese culture, salmon, plant germs of various kinds, and high-quality cheeses (superfood basics), as well as fresh fruits, primarily fresh berries. Visiting even an average restaurant in Palo Alto, we will find such entries on the menu as an organic "Facebook Shake" (made out of frozen peaches, blueberries, vanilla yogurt, full fat milk, peanut butter, and ice) or an item named "Google Gulp", a refreshing drink also made exclusively of organic ingredients (black tea, soy milk, orange juice, bananas, frozen strawberries, honey). Another California specialty is Verve Coffee Roasters, which is a mini vertical enterprise that emerged from a cooperation of coffee farmers, roasters, and baristas in Santa Cruz. Their activity spans the entire lifespan of the coffee bean: from planting and nurturing coffee plants, harvesting and roasting beans up to the preparation of the refreshing drink.

residential space, and political activism (for instance, occupation of houses, squatters’ movements, permanent camping events), as well as the fact that arts take up current social issues and that they appear in public spaces ever more often (social art, street art). Finally, to encourage urban development and to aid and serve the social inclusion of underprivileged groups, Pritchard advocates an approach that builds on an area's unique characteristics, individual opportunities and internal resources rather than incentivizing gentrification processes.

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RECOMMENDED BOOKS: - David Harvey: The Ways of the World (Oxford University Press; First edition, 2016) - Eric Walberg: Postmodern Imperialism – Geopolitics and the Great Games (Clarity Press, 2011) - Nicholas Clifford, Meghan Cope, Thomas Gilles, Shaun French: Key Methods in Geography (SAGE, Third edition, 2016) - Mark Gottdiener, Leslie Budd, Panu Lehtovuori (edit.): Key Concepts in Urban Studies (SAGE, Second Edition, 2015) - Peter Roberts, Hugh Sykes, Rachel Granger: Urban Regeneration, (SAGE, Second Edition, 2016) - Nancy A. Naples, Jennifer Bickham Mendez (edit.): Border Politics – Social Movements, Collective Identities, and Globalization (New York University Press 2014) - Erik Brynjolfsson, Andrew McAfee: The Second Machine Age – Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies (W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., First edition, 2016)

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INDIA, A COUNTRY OF CHANGE

Author: Lรกszlรณ Gere

As a result of the population explosion that has happened in the last decades, India is now the second most populous country in the world. A significant portion of the country's total population, which surpasses one billion, lives in the country's metropolises. Their size, development, and crowdedness takes on unimaginable proportions when compared with Europe. A solution has yet to be found to ensure appropriate living conditions for those arriving in cities, as these are unable to keep pace with the population growth, and thus face such enormous challenges as the elimination of slums cropping up near city boundaries or supplying basic public service infrastructure. In 2014, the Indian government announced and launched its Smart Cities Mission, the results of which are beginning to come to light. However, even the Smart Cities Mission does not provide a satisfactory answer to the question whether India is in a position to adequately address the social and environmental problems prevalent in metropolises.

URBANIZATION IN 20th CENTURY INDIA Urban development in India reaches back all the way to 2300 B.C. The first Indian cities emerged on the northwestern half of the Indian subcontinent in Indus and Ganges River Valleys, and on the subcontinent's southern half. This is not surprising, as rivers played a serious strategic role in the emergence of the first settlements and towns. This led to the fact that the area between the two rivers boasted no significant population aggregations in India, either. By the 16th-17th centuries, India became one of the most urbanized regions of the world, but in the wake of English colonization its cities regressed, and in time, as the English influence became more muscular, a European-style urban development commenced. In this era, India's three most significant ports, Kolkata, Mumbai (Bombay), and Chennai (Madras) became metropolises. Moreover, different industrial cities emerged owing to the appearance of modern factory industry and the construction of a railway network, such as Jamshedpur. The 20th century brought further significant changes for India. In 1941, in the last census conducted

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before the declaration of India's independence, the population of 49 cities surpassed 100,000, and roughly 2,500 settlements possessed the title of a city. After 1947, following independence, however, an unprecedented urban explosion commenced, which constitutes the "golden era" of Indian urban development (1951-2011). In less than 60 years the urban population grew six-fold, but in terms of ratio only about 1.5fold. The number of cities with a population larger than 1 million people grew from 4 to 45, among them the world's three most populated metropolises (Delhi, Mumbai, and Kolkata). The pace of growth is not expected to slow, and four more cities (Ahmadabad, Bangalore, Chennai, and Hyderabad) will surpass the magic 10 million count. As a result, 7 megalopolises will be situated in the country's territory. Despite megalopolises, the level of urbanization is relatively low (30%), but this is expected to grow to 40% by 2030. However, even with such lowlevel urbanization, the fact remains that every third urban dweller in the world comes from India. If we

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consider global trends as a comparison, the rate of urban dwellers reached 50% in 2007 worldwide, and this value has since increased, which aptly shows how much India is lagging behind in urbanization. When we list the engines of India's 20th century urbanization, then we witness the following decisive events and processes, which helped create today's urbanization levels: • Immediately after India's declaration of independence, masses of refugees arrived in India from the territory of today's Pakistan and Bangladesh, who primarily settled in the country's northern urban parts (in the Delhi or Kolkata metro areas, in Punjab etc.). Oftentimes housing was created for them in certain parts of the cities, but it was not rare, either, that an entire new city was erected for them. • Following English colonization an industrialization program was launched, owing to which steel, petrochemical, fertilizer and aluminum production industrial centers were created or reconstructed. • One of urbanization's side effects, a competition between cities, could also be felt. As winners emerged, metropolises counting one hundred thousand and millions of inhabitants, the losers were stagnating or declining small- and medium-sized towns. • The difference between metropolises and the countryside intensifies, and it becomes an ever greater challenge to manage the uncoordinated spread of urban outskirts (urban sprawl) • The spontaneously emerging slums that spread at an ever greater pace represent India's most urgent problem today, as the metropolises counting millions of inhabitants are unable to provide housing for the incoming population. HOW DO WE DESIGN AN INDIAN CITY? TRENDS FROM 1990s TO OUR DAY Up to the 1970s, Indian urban development was centralized, which was gradually replaced by a decentralized idea and approach. This meant, on the one hand, that different non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and community based organizations (CBOs) participated instead of the state, on the other hand local governments and the private sphere became the decisive actors in urban development. Decentralization only became forceful enough to the 1990s such that the private sphere could play an ever greater role in the realization of large scale urban development projects. This process intensified from the 2000s onwards.

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The issue with the spread of the private sphere is that players do not pay sufficient attention to fulfilling social demands. However, the issue is much more complex, as not only privatization is responsible for the unsuccessful urban development directions. Rather, it is the complicated network between the state, the private sector, the elderly local citizens, the migrant workers, and the newly emerging groups that can be blamed for the present situation. In the near future, even more Indians will flow from rural areas into the cities. Several hundred, perhaps several thousand new cities will develop India-wide, therefore it is indispensable that the new issues come in front of an ever greater public, and that special attention is paid to their solution. At present the main challenge is population influx. In many cases a hostile relationship develops between locals and those migrating into the city looking for new jobs. India is in essence living through an urban paradox. City quarters consisting of luxury skyscrapers emerging out of nothing face the world of slums.

Two faces of urbanization The best counterexample to India's urbanization is China, which has been successful since the 1980s. After all, China managed to lift hundreds of millions of people out of deep poverty thanks to urban development. This was an important element in Prime Minister Deng Xiaoping's politics. Africa serves as a negative counterexample. Here, no actual progress can be seen, as the focus was on the development of rural areas, and thus kept millions of people in rural poverty. The existence of effective agriculture is the precondition of successful urbanization, as the development of urban and rural regions mutually influence on another. However, as history is our witness, it's not agriculture, but urban culture that is the true engine of human development.

Individual cities may apply to participate in the program by applying for the opportunity based on governmental guidance. The cities with best applications receive support (in the first round so far 20 cities received support in the Smart City Program, but actual results can only be reported in the coming years). The cities' tenders are evaluated according to the following criteria: • the state and quality of existing public services (based on the changes that have happened since the 2011 census, and the municipal budget in the past two years) • institutional framework and capacities (and its development in the past three years); • ability to self-finance (based on the running costs and municipal payments received by local organizations); • developmental path (based on the results and projects realized in the framework of an earlier urban development program [JNNURM]).

While in historical perspective the state typically appeared as the "benefactor of the poor", the state leadership has recently become a "patron of development", and later on a "patron of growth". SMART VS SLUM: A TURNING POINT IN INDIAN URBAN DEVELOPMENT The goal of the Smart City Mission launched in 2014 by the Indian government is to eliminate problems that originate in uncontrolled urban growth. Moreover, it has close ties to the Indian Prime Minister's, Narendra Modi's, "Digital India" initiative. "In the past, cities were built on riverbanks. Today, they emerge next to highways. In the future, the most important consideration will be access to optical cables and next generation infrastructure." There is a connection between Smart City Mission and Digital India in reality as well. After all, one of the program's goals is to create industrial corridors (Delhi-Mumbai, Chennai-Bangalore, Bangalore-Mumbai), which create connections between Indian metropolises. Moreover, in the framework of smart cities a more livable and greener city that commands a more efficient public service management would be built. A smart city is a settlement where existing technological opportunities (primarily info-communication technology) are used in an innovative way, helping to create a better, more diverse and more sustainable

urban environment. A smart city is a city with a high rate in green areas, efficient municipal management, and well-organized public transportation; it is environmentally friendly and safe; it has accessible quality education, a cost-effective social and health care system, and convenient and attractive tourism services.

"The spontaneously emerging slums spreading at an ever greater pace represent India's most urgent problem today..." According to the Indian government's vision, 100 selected cities will be rehabilitated to the tune of 15 billion USD through the introduction of the newest information and communication tools. The largest metropolises will largely be unaffected by this program. It focuses instead on the satellite-cities that can be found around them, as, due to large scale population influx and the large number of jobs, the largest slums emerged here.

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The expression satellite town or city refers to such cities, that have been created in a planned manner around metropolises, and whose primary function is to provide relief to the central city. The majority of such cities are created around an industrial center in order to supply the industrial function. CRITICAL MASS Despite the fact that the program's effects on urban development are not yet known, several critical evaluations have been published about it and its expected consequences. According to some opinions, development would remain the privilege of a few, and its price will be paid by millions in the lower social strata. The critics claim that closed cities will develop, where the interests of large corporations override the legal and governmental interests. They believe it is almost certain that the poorer strata will be excluded from this world. As India is not attempting to build on an existing foundation, but rather is attempting to create smart cities out of nothing, this enforced planning from above will pay less attention to urban inhabitants and their actual needs due to its very manner of operation. There is a danger that large scale social segregation might emerge due to smart cities, or that the contradictions between the rich and poor would further solidify, which would result in an essentially dual social structure for the country as a whole. THE FAILURE OF SMART CITIES IN DEVELOPING NATIONS Henrik Valeur, a Danish-born architect-urbanist offered a comprehensive critique. His book on this theme came out in 2014 and is entitled India: The Urban Transition. The book does not employ a traditional academic approach, but rather introduces Indian urban development and its effects from the point of view of a layman, which he illustrates richly with personal experiences gained during long years spent in India. In his book Valeur lists five elements which he regards as decisive in relation to urban quality of life, and which are richly illustrated with local examples: air, water, food, housing, and mobility. These are simultaneously the needs whose fulfillment presents a particularly large challenge for Indian cities, and in relation to which, according to the author, it would be particularly necessary to rephrase questions,

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What does development urbanism mean? According to the author, we must differentiate between developed and developing countries when attempting to solve problems occurring in the course of urban development paradigms. He argues that in developing nations various solutions must be interpreted and applied in a different fashion than in developed nations, therefore a wholly new viewpoint and perspective is necessary to find possible final solutions.

or to seek creative solutions. Valeur does not only criticize, rather, he also offers solutions to remedy viewpoints he regards as problematic. Valeur formulated the concept of and launched the school of development urbanism. Its point of departure is that the framework of the Smart City Mission announced by the Indian government was not developed by practicing urban developers and the scientific era, but rather a handful of multinational corporations, who would like to sell their own information and technological solutions to the cities involved. It is not surprising therefore that Valeur came to the conclusion that the Smart Cities Mission is doomed to fail in the metropolises of the developing world, and that it is necessary to offer a different solution to them. Therefore, development urbanism advocates the elimination of poverty and environmentalism under the aegis of urban development.

According to the UN's prediction, the Earth's population will grow by about 2 billion people in the next twenty years, a significant portion of which will be located in the developing world's metropolises. The expected population growth in the developing world's metropolises will cause significant cultural, economic, political, scientific, and technological changes, which have to be acknowledged and remedied in times. After all, they might constitute the roots of serious problems. Metropolises here, naturally, not only possess problems to be solved but also numerous opportunities. If we fail to exploit these positive energies, that would mean lost potential for society as a whole. Therefore, a new kind of developmental approach is necessary for cities, which according to Valeur could be provided by development urbanism. This concept privileges on the one hand human connections, which had hitherto been pushed to the background, as well as cooperation; on the other hand, it emphasizes that cities are not only physical constructions, but rather complex ecosystems, where people live, develop and adjust together to their changing environment. Quality urban living cannot be determined in advance, instead, an environment must be created where everyone can find the most ideal circumstances corresponding to his demands and opportunities. This is the true essence of the urbanism concept, which, according to the author, might contribute to the reversal of urbanization trends currently transpiring in Indian cities.

SUMMARY The Indian population has grown substantially in the past decades. Migration from the rural areas to the cities has becomes more significant among the population. According to predictions, these processes are expected to continue. Consequently, we may conclude that the urban population will increase substantially both in numbers and in rate.

"... the Smart City Mission is doomed to fail in the developed world's metropolises..." This degree of metropolitan "explosion" means that the country is facing significant challenges, which the government is attempting to manage with large scale urban development programs. According to the newest conceptions, intelligent city planning and organizing technologies will solve occurring problems, however, some critics already question whether these can ever be efficient. It is certain that unique solutions need to be developed in order to respond to the urbanization challenges of the developing world, that the import of tried and true Western methods do not in all cases lead to results, that special attention needs to be paid to local circumstances, needs, and demands, and that locally existing experiences need to be mined and built upon.

WHAT SHOULD WE DEVELOP? Despite the fact that Valeur set clear developmental goals with his own conception, he does pose the theoretical question is his book: what actually counts as appropriate development from the point of view of developing nations? At the end, he reaches the conclusion that everything is equally important. Whether it is the reduction of poverty and social inequality, the development of health care, or the protection of human rights, the protection of environmental and natural resources, after all, problems and challenges are concentrated primarily in these areas.

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THE HEART OF MUMBAI Author: Zita Vajda

Owing to the success of Slumdog Millionaire, many people are familiar with Dharavi, one of the largest slums of Mumbai. However, people who dwell here took their fate into their own hands: they created one-room apartment/workshops, and with their forces united, Dharavi has succeeded in becoming an industrial center. The district's diversity as well as the many industrial branches represented here distinguish Dharavi from the other slums. Today, owing to large scale government reconstruction program, the district has become a tourist attraction, which we may regard as the first sign of complete regeneration.

DHARAVI Roughly 60% of the city's population dwells in the slums of Mumbai. According to government estimates, their number surpasses 6,475,000 people. Dharavi, one of Mumbai's slums, is the largest slum in Asia. Its area corresponds to roughly 2,165 square kilometers, houses more than a million people and encompasses four of Mumbai's suburbs: Sion, Bandra, Kurla and Kalina. The Maharashtra local government declared the area a slum in 1971. The district expands between the two busiest railway lines (Western and Central Railway) next to a newly created business center. Travelers arriving in Mumbai may view the slum as their plane descends into the city. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW Dharavi means "loose mud" in Tamil, and the area received this name back in the 18th century, when it was covered by a mangrove swamp. From the 19th century onwards it was inhabited by Koli fishermen. Their settlement was called Koliwada. After the swamps were drained, the fishing industry ceased to exist, and thus new communities could move onto the newly created dry land. Migrant workers arriving from Gujarat created the first pottery settlement, while tanners arriving from Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra

created the first tanneries. Afterwards predominantly Muslim artisans arriving from Uttar Pradesh settled in Dharavi. In time, Dharavi provided a refuge to immigrants and the Mumbai underworld. Later on, trash collection and trash recycling companies arrived in the region. Families moving into Dharavi from poor rural areas chose the slum because they could get cheap housing in the heart of Mumbai (then Bombay), the city of opportunities. As a result, one of the world's most colorful, most diversified slums emerged.

"...families moving into Dharavi from poor rural areas chose the slum because they could get cheap housing in the heart of Mumbai (then Bombay), the city of opportunities." Woman in Dharavi, Mumbai, India

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very clean on the inside and is furnished beautifully. The inhabitants attempt to spice up and make their homes more comfortable by installing beautiful curtains, flowers and plants. Even the tiniest hut has a stove and electricity. A large portion of the inhabitants has color TV and some even have video recorders. Dharavi's first school opened in 1924 (a tamil school), and for four decades it remained the sole educational institution. Today more than ten schools operate in the region, among these Englishlanguage elementary and middle schools. Those aged fifty and above in the population received no education of any kind, however, many of the middleaged inhabitants received elementary-school education. Children today can study in the schools operated by the local government nearby. The illiteracy rate is substantially higher than in other parts of the city. Only about 60% of the slum's population is able to read and write. Many people know Dharavi as several Bollywood, Tollywood, and even Hollywood movies were made

here. The best-known among these is Slumdog Millionaire, which won eight Academy Awards. Dharavi today is also a popular attraction for tourists visiting Mumbai. Tourists may take a look at the slum by joining organized tours, in the course of which they get to know the bitter lives of Dharavi's inhabitants and see how they overcome their situation and emerge as the winners of this bizarre situation. What we encounter here is not a mass of beggars and loafers, but rather a multitude of people who work very hard to achieve their dreams. DHARAVI AS AN ECONOMIC â&#x20AC;&#x153;MIRACLEâ&#x20AC;? The size of the settlement, the diversity of its inhabitants and the many industrial branches represented here distinguish Dharavi from the rest of Mumbaiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s slums. The economic activity of the region is extraordinarily diverse, in almost every second little "chawl" (typical slum dwelling) there is an artisanal workshop.

piac, Mumbai, India

PARALLEL CULTURES Dharavi's population consisted primarily of dalits ("untouchables"). Only about 1% of the population belonged to the Brahmins (the highest caste). The population composition is heterogeneous from the point of view of religion and ethnicity: Muslims, Christians, Neo-Buddhists, Melangs, Dhars, and Tamils. However, the fact that they inhabit and work in the same place does not mean that they belong to a single community. Segregated districts based on religion, caste, ethnic belonging and profession emerged. Dharavi can be divided into 80 districts, so-called "nagars", which were built by various ethnic groups and which are dominated by these ethnic groups to this day. LIFE IN THE SLUM Dharavi today does not resemble at all the fisher village it once was. In our times, roughly 5,000 entrepreneurs - about 15,000 one-room mini-factoriesoperate in Dharavi, which predominantly prepare hand-crafted products. Surprisingly, Dharavi's total annual yield varies from 650 million USD to about 1 billion USD. However, 90% of all trade units operate illegally.

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Dharavi faces serious issues in public health, the hygienic conditions are catastrophic. A research conducted in 2006 showed that there is one latrine per 1,440 inhabitants. There are very few public lavatories, thus many inhabitants used Mahim Creek instead. Dharavi faces serious water shortage as well, there is one water tap per every 15 households. As we progress along the main road leading into Dharavi, a miserable view expands in front of our eyes. This is partially due to the fact that right next to Dharavi there are tall buildings, and the brand new Bandra-Kurla business center and shopping mall was erected in its immediate proximity. The contrast of luxury and destitution is shocking. Continually crowded alleys are a regular sight in the district, which is not surprising, given that 18,000 people aggregate on 0,004 square kilometers. 28 square meters are populated by 15 people, and innumerable mice (Jacobson). However, many are content to live here, as the rental prices are extraordinarily low (185 rupee/month, or 4 USD/month), and they can easily get to their workplace from here. When we take a closer look at the lives of Dharavi's inhabitants, what we see is a great deal less disheartening. Almost every little "chawl" (a type of residential building typical of Mumbai slums) is

Workshop in the Dharabi district, Mumbai, India

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DHARAVIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S INVISIBLE HEROES

According to the Otto-von-Guericke University, Marburg 1. Glove manufacturing A small glove manufacturing unit typically employs five people who belong to various castes and religious sects. Despite the fact that they have worked here 3-4 years, they have no contracts, which is typical of the informal sector. They make about 300 pairs of gloves daily. Their working time is 12 hours per day. The workplace is situated under a roof; therefore, it gets very hot. Ventilation is poor, light conditions are unsuited to the work. 2. Jeans production In a jeans workshop three men and four women work, they make about 100-200 pairs of jeans per day. The production process extends from purchasing raw material to selling the product. One pair of jeans is sold at 90 rupees (USD 1.35), which then is sold on for 150-250 rupee (USD 2.25-3.75). Jeans production takes place in a room of about 50 square meters, the working conditions are relatively good. 3. Leather manufacturing Leather manufacturing is one the oldest professions in the quarter. Tanners arriving from Tamil Nadu imported the trade over the course of the 19th century. One such leather manufacturing workshop was established 15 years ago, and members of the Charmakar family (tanners belonging to dalits, or "untouchables") work here. In their case, knowledge is passed from generation to generation and is tied to a particular caste. The small "factory" is in the courtyard. The production process extends from processing raw material to making leather belts, leather purses and leather bags. Those working here work 75 hours weekly, have a 1.5 hour lunch break every day, and get Sundays off. One leather purse costs about USD 4.

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4. Papadum makers In Dharavi, roughly 100-150 women make papadums (a popular, crisp Indian bread-like food product). The women learn the trade from one another, and it takes quite a long time before they have perfectly learned its tricks. Papadum preparation is hard work, but one cannot tell this from the outside. We merely see women sitting on the ground kneading dough. Working 7-8 hours every day, women make up to 250-300 rupee (USD 3.75-4.50), for every 100 papads they earn 25 rupees (USD 0.375). 5. Recyclers If we stop for a moment amidst the great commotion and chaos, we might notice that there is order. Men, women, and children collect and classify waste arriving from the city. According to some estimates, Mumbai's inhabitants produce 11,209 tons of waste daily, the majority of which is processed and classified in Dharavi. Generally, every waste collector processes about 8.5 tons of waste daily. A kilo of various plastic types is worth between 5-60 rupees (USD 0.11-1.29/kg). The recyclers are truly ingenious, as they are able to distinguish between at least 50 types of plastic. The waste collectors earn USD 1 daily and they often work nights. Were the Dharavi waste collectors to stop working, the city would drown in waste.

Workshop in the Dharabi district, Mumbai, India 161

Owing to its size and economic significance, Dharavi is classified as a megaslum. Aneesh Shankar said about Dharavi that: "Just as Mumbai is the heart of India, Dharavi is the heart of Mumbai." Several researchers (Dr. Amita Bhide & Martina Spies 2013) believe that Dharavi has made the transition to become an industrial center.

"... in the framework of the free residential space construction program 60,000 families will be moved into 33 square meter apartments." Residents in Dharavi may choose from numerous industrial activities. The average monthly earning is about 2,978 rupees (USD 61). One of the most popular trades is recycling. Women often work as maids in the surrounding neighborhoods, but they also often aid men working in construction. However, here they earn less than men do (Neelima Risbud). In the following we introduce five characteristic production units:

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DHARAVI REDEVELOPMENT PROJECT Since declaring Dharavi a slum in 1971, several redevelopment projects have seen the light of day, but none of them was successful. These projects failed mainly because they did not take into consideration the interests of Dharavi's inhabitants, and they did not count on the fact that, to this day, the majority of Indians prefer a traditional way of life. For them, moving into a multi-story building is a completely alien notion. By now, and owing to its excellent location in the heart of Mumbai, several domestic and foreign investors are interested in Asia's largest slum. The government's projects also include the area's development and reconstruction and improving its inhabitants' living quality. The Dharavi redevelopment project was approved in March 2016. This means that in the framework of the free residential space construction program 60,000 families will be moved into 33 square meter apartments. As for the future, a further 40-50 thousand apartments are planned. In order to ease redevelopment, Dharavi has been divided into five sectors. Redevelopment has already commenced in the fifth sector (the contractor is Maharashtra Housing and Area Development Authority), the other four sectors will be redeveloped under public-private construction partnerships. At this time 16 investors are interested in the project, among them Tata Realty and Infrastructure Ltd. and PwC. Redevelopment will take about 7 years (according to a report published in Times of India). However, the redevelopment program can only succeed if people in the slum are involved in its realization, and if their interests are also taken into consideration.

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THE POLITICS OF HOPE An interview with Arjun Appadurai. Author: Ráhel Czirják

Arjun Appadurai, a world-famous anthropologist researching globalization, the development of civilization, and humanity, professor of Yale University and New York University, gave a lecture at PAGEO’s invitation at Corvinus University of Budapest. In his interview with HuG he spoke of his hometown, Mumbai, and the creative and active inner liquidation of the slums. Mr Appadurai’s best-known study is entitled "Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy". There, he argues that in his view the entire world has become complex overlapping order, which can further be differentiated into complex subsystems. He opposes theories that define globalization as cultural imperialism. His latest volume appeared in 2013, entitled The Future as a Cultural Fact: Essays on the Global Condition, encompassing ten years of scientific research that Appadurai carried out in the area of globalization. Here, too, Appadurai situates India at the heart of his work. His writing is based on firsthand research among urban slum dwellers in Mumbai. He examines their struggle to achieve equity, recognition, and self-governance in bleak conditions. Perhaps it was this struggle that led Appadurai to embrace the "politics of hope" and he lays the foundations for a revitalized, and urgent, anthropology of the future.

Mr. Appadurai! Your scientific work is extraordinarily diverse. What drew you to to research urbanization and questions related to it? Urbanization as a field of interest appeared relatively late in my career. Up to the 2000s I was occupied with other topics, for instance with various matters relating to India, media, migration, globalization. However, around that time I began studying the conflict between Muslims and Hindus, as it was very current then. This problem has roots that can be traced back far into the past, but it has become a serious national issue from the 1990s onwards,

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which manifested itself in rebellions and conflicts degrading into violence, in particular in the cities. Mumbai, formerly known as Bombay, where I was born, was also affected. As a result, I was forced to realize I have no idea at all about the city where I grew up, where I lived until I was 18. Then I moved to the United States. So, I started researching the communities and the activists of the Mumbai slums, the destitution there, political life in the slums, and similar themes. Through this single city, I finally got to the topic of urbanization, which, as a research theme, was entirely new for me. This was around the turn of the millennium.

The globalization that began fifty years ago progresses at an unprecedented speed in the postcolonial arena, one never experienced in Western world before. Can we, however, say that there is an urbanization crisis in the developing world? We can claim with certainty that this is the case. Especially when we examine Asia and Africa, we can say that the metropolises of these regions have similar characteristics, namely, they lack the appropriate infrastructure. In these metropolises, we normally find the infrastructural elements of the colonial era, which were not designed to bear population growth of this dimension. In the absence of appropriate infrastructure, enormous masses of people are forced to live in slums, where they have no access to proper quality city services. Thus, in these cities social inequality has grown to an unprecedented scale, which results in ever intensifying tension within the local population. The defenseless, embittered slum-dwellers can in many cases be easily mobilized for any kind of political goal.

Is it a single mechanism worldwide that "creates" these slums, or do the causes differ regionally? Each country is affected by different causes, which can influence and shape the local characteristics of slums on a regional basis. However, we can detect global universal pattern. We should not fail to take account of the fact, however, that there were cities in the developing world prior to colonization which possessed very long histories. In other words, countries in the developing world were not wholly rural, rather, a number of premodern, preindustrial cities could be found there. After decolonization and with the spread of industrial capitalism an entirely new quality of urbanization started. Thus, processes that happened one after another, causing one another in the developed world, these processes took place in the developing world parallel to one another. As a result, sporadically dual urban patterns emerged, for instance in Delhi - and many other Indian cities -, where we can find the several centuries old, ancient Delhi, and right nearby the young, new Delhi side by side.

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Emperor Humayunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tomb, New Delhi, India

"... where we can find the several centuries old, ancient Delhi, and right nearby the young, new Delhi side by side..." In general, we can say that the fact of these two cities living side by side complicates matters a great deal. If, for instance, we take a look at the sectarian strife in Indian cities, the most serious conflicts happen in the old parts of the city. The strifes forcefully contribute to the ever-growing division between the old and the new cities. This duality does not exist in the metropolises of the Western world. In the case of Africa, we can observe significant economic problems, which in turn lead to enormous unemployment. In other words, were we to build houses for these people, this would not yet solve their problem, as they would remain unemployed, and thus without income that they would need to sustain their new apartments or houses. What about India? In India, we encounter a very different situation than in Sub-Saharan Africa. After all, India is a very dynamically developing economy, which, in terms of GDP-increase, is almost on par with China. Technology, industry, and infrastructure are all very well developed, much more so, than in any African country. Therefore, here we have significant economic development, only it is very unevenly distributed in society. In contrast, in most African countries, not counting South Africa and perhaps Nigeria, there is no economic growth to speak of, there is no appropriate infrastructure or processing industry. Thus, while in India the main issue is income distribution, in Africa it is economic growth itself. We can find several different operations and organizations in, for instance, African and Indian slums, which were founded by the slum-dwellers to improve their own circumstances. What causes this intensified activity in contrast to other regions? Poor people in the developing world, in particular those who live in cities, tend not to be apathetic, bur rather strive to exploit whatever limited capacities

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they might have: they continually improvise, innovate, and they strive to solve problems related to housing, employment and city services with all sorts of creative ideas. In Mumbai, for instance, a large portion of the economy originates in the small business operations located in slums. Here the fashion industry deserves a special mention. This appears in the global market, too: In Mumbai's slums luxury handbags, for instance Gucci handbags are manufactured, which are then sold, among other places, in New York. In other words, we find enormous energy and capacity in these locations. The difference does not originate from a difference in people's heads (that they are more creative, talented on one continent than on the other), rather, there is a fundamental difference in opportunity. The opportunity to exercise themselves in innovation. This is very similar to physical exercise. If you don't train, you will not be muscular. We meet the apathetic elements in the culture of the destitute primarily in agrarian societies, both in the Western and the developing world, where the opportunities for economic growth are limited. As they adjust, people must develop the "survival techniques" characteristics of the culture of poverty. Is this why in Europe apathy has become characteristic? Because there is not enough opportunity to exercise and try themselves out in creative enterprises? Yes! For instance, the European Roma are one of the most stigmatized, most discriminated against groups, whether we consider education, employment, or really any area of life. The majority of them lack appropriate housing and appropriate social support. The media paints a very negative picture of them, the majority of society stigmatizes them. The Roma are victims of active discrimination from Southern Europe all the way to Ireland. And then we act surprised why they happen to be so hopeless and apathetic. The fact that today they live in such bleak conditions has no genetic causes. If we remember how they lived before they were settled, there we could speak of a very creative and active group. After all, it required a lot of energy and inventiveness to organize and arrange their travels, doing business, maintaining connections, and so forth.

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However, by the modern age society has stigmatized them, just as Afro-Americans were stigmatized in the United States, or the "untouchables" in India. The root cause of their apathy is their exclusion from society. In your study entitled "Deep Democracy" we read about SDI (Shack/Slum Dwellers International, an international network of slum-dwellers), and about Mahila Milan, a decentralized network of poor women's collectives which was founded by slumdwellers. What are the origins of such an organization? How did it come to be? SDI is an organization that operates worldwide and has lots of African members, too. If I remember correctly, there are about 30 African members, and it is very active in Nairobi, for instance. SDI also has an Indian member, the Alliance, which consists of three parts: on the one hand Mahila Milan, which was founded by women living in the Mumbai slums, among whom there are many aging sex workers.

"... for the whole to run, personal ties and trust are necessary." The second groups are the National Slum Dwellers Federation, which operates in entire India. The third is an NGO founded by middle-class citizens, who speak English fluently, are educated, and are interested in the problems of the slums. In the 1990s, as a consequence of many serendipities these three organizations met one another, and thus the Alliance could be formed. In the framework of this cooperation the slum-dwellers are active in many areas: improving housing conditions, building latrines and toilets, establish common savings groups, etc. In other words, they are not waiting for the state to solve their problems, but rather they push forward and they attempt to effect positive change out of their own power. Among other reasons, SDI is very good because it provides a very broad learning opportunities for organizations operating in different countries, so that experiences of local developments can be shared with one another. Thus, on the global level they are continually exchanging experiences. The organization boasts significant results in India's metropolises, in particular improvements in housing and sanitation, employment, and in the struggle for various rights.

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How does an organization like Mahila Mihan come to be? What is the first step? People meet one another. This is actually a true story. Persons who would like to do something meet one another and recognize that they have common interests. In the course of their meetings they come to trust one another, and they try to do something together. They are the key figures who lead organizations, who encourage others to join. Thus, for the whole to run, personal ties and trust are necessary. Without this, these people would not take on any risk for someone else, and the emerging ideas could not be put into practice. Roughly how many slums does Mumbai have? Depending on which statistics you consult, you will find that Mumbai's entire population is about 15 million people. Out of these at least 50%, about 7-8 million people, live without adequate housing. This means that these people either live in slums (3-4 million people), or a smaller portion on the street, i.e. they have no roof whatsoever over their heads. If you pass over Mumbai in a plane, we can see that a sea of blue-roofed slums covers a large chunk of the city. A shocking number of people live there.

could happen in China. If anyone tried to something similar in India, there would be massive demonstrations, large scale resistance. In other words, it would be impossible to evict masses of people. The third factor is an issue that renders helping the poor even more difficult for state bodies. This factor is the real estate market. The capitalist market is very forcefully represented on the real estate market. In practice, this means that for investors it is most profitable to build skyscrapers for the middle class. Thus, real negotiations in the slums must be carried out by organizations operating in the slums, it is after all they who negotiate with the investors. What is the best result that the slum organizations are able to achieve? Are they in a position to eliminate urban poverty? No. The elimination of poverty is an extraordinarily long process, which requires the support of many actors, including the state, politicians, and the

business sector. However, what these organizations can do, and are doing very efficiently is raising consciousness about rights and dignity and creating a new level of consciousness amongst slum-dwellers. Thus, they develop the abilities of poor women and men, who are then in a position to speak for themselves when speaking with investors, politicians, or whomever else. This is an enormous achievement, when one sees that, for instance, a woman who worked in the sex industry before, gains some self-confidence after joining such organizations, becomes conscious of her rights, and stands up for herself, for instance by speaking with Kofi Annan. This actually really happened. This consciousness also led to tangible results, such as the realization of many infrastructural developments, for instance the construction of latrines, which is a cardinal issue in the slums. In other words, the greatest change such organizations can affect is raising consciousness, and this is an enormous result.

"No, they don't close their eyes, they acknowledge the problem and try to manage it.â&#x20AC;?

How does the Mumbai city government see the slum problem? Do they make any effort to find a solution, or do they simply close their eyes, as the Nairobi city government has done for a long time? No, they don't close their eyes, they acknowledge the problem and attempt to manage it. From 1947 onwards, from India's independence onwards, there has been a very forceful political will to compensate for colonial oppression, that is, for the mitigation of all kinds of discrimination. As a result, they do not regard destitution as an acceptable condition in the country. There are numerous state-run organizations whose task it is to manage the problems of poverty, slums, and housing. However, in a city like Mumbai they must face enormous difficulties. The first problem for a large portion of urban inhabitants is the absence of appropriate infrastructure. Here we must think of masses counting millions who are involved in the problem. This is not an issue that can be solved overnight. On the other hand, India is a democratic state, thus here it is unimaginable that the population would simply be moved to another location, as

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FIVEDIMENSIONAL SPACE

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THE GEOPOLITICS OF FIVE-DIMENSIONAL SPACE Author: Szilรกgyi Istvรกn

CHARACTERISTICS OF ORBITAL SYSTEMS

Classical geopolitical analysis examined international political relations in terms of an interactive power network and in the context of a three-dimensional spatial structure that consisted of dry land, sea, and air. From the last third of the twentieth century onwards, however, the dominant view in geopolitical thought uses as its analytical framework the coordinates of the concept of five-dimensional space.

The traditional three-pronged approach has been expanded to include aerospace, as well as a cyberspace, which belongs to the broadly defined information sphere or Infosphere. Due to a large scale, rapid technological and technical development that defies even our wildest fantasies, aerospace has not only become an organic part in our everyday lives, but also an organic part of the power struggle between the actors in international relations. Aerospace, therefore, makes up an independent field of geopolitical research under the name "astropolitics". Everett Dolman, widely regarded as an indispensable thinker in this field, regards himself as a modern-day representative of political realism, as well as the intellectual heir of the classical geopolitical thinkers - primarily Alfred Thayer Mahan, Sir Halford Mackinder and Nicholas Spykman - whose work he further develops in his own. His book, published under the title Astropolitics, bears the subtitle Classical Geopolitics in the Space Age. Dolman adapted Mackinder's sentence about the heartlands, widely regarded as scientific adage, to our days. He emphasizes the significance of aerospace when he writes: "Who controls Low-Earth Orbit controls Near-Earth Space. Who controls Near-Earth Space dominates

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determined and laid the field's scientific groundwork. Dolman takes his point of departure from the observation that a power struggle, which is conducted at present primarily between individual states, takes place just as much in aerospace as it does in geopolitical three-dimensional space. Aerospace, however, also has its individual traits, which necessitate the adaption of the classical conceptual system, and, parallel to this, the introduction of a new category of system.

Elements of orbital space have been precisely defined and categorized in the physical sciences a long time ago. Geopolitical analysis, however, requires the reinterpretation of certain concepts and their introduction into the thought pattern. Aerospace has become another terrain for power struggle and, similar to other systems, it is made up of various spatial elements that are organically connected to one another. On the basis of their characteristic traits, these spatial elements may be suitable for accommodating and operating space tools that

either serve military, civil, scientific, health care, and meteorological etc. purposes, or, for sketching future alternative possibilities, as well as solutions for humankind's survival and power strategies in their relation to one another. An orbit is defined by altitude, eccentricity, the length of the major axis. The various spaceships, satellites and spacecrafts all follow orbits around the Earth. A fundamental property of the orbit is whether constant or variable altitude may be associated to it. From an orbit's highest point, called apogee, we get a comprehensive view of our planet. The near-Earth altitude or the orbit's lowest point, called perigee, serves for mapping details. Spaceships travel on an elliptic shaped orbit. Relative divergences from this path express the relation to north and south latitude in numeric form. The highest altitude point measured from Earth's poles belongs to the equatorial plane. Inclination stands for divergence from the elliptic-shaped orbit, the ascending node stands for the location where the higher path is entered. On the basis of the above, the structure of aerospace can be defined and shown the following way:

Terra. Who dominates Terra determines the destiny of humankind." A significant group of American geopoliticians regards Dolman as a representative of the so-called Neo-Classicist geopolitics on account of his having adapted Mackinder's, Haushofer's, and Spykman's theories to the Space Age, and criticizes his scholarship on this basis.

"Who controls NearEarth Space dominates Terra. Who dominates Terra determines the destiny of humankind." Toward a Theory of Spacepower: Selected Essays, a volume published in 2013, tackles similar issues and questions, as well as CiberElcano, a monthly periodical published by the Elcano Institute in Madrid. Despite the criticisms expressed about neoclassical geopolitical thinkers, the fact remains that Everett Dolman's book and his studies on aerospace

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Earth orbits can be clustered into the following categories based on altitude of orbiting spacecraft: the first encompasses low-altitude orbits, between 150 to 800 km above the surface of the Earth; medium-altitude orbits between 800-35,000 km, and finally high altitude orbits that surpass an altitude of 35,000 km. We may speak of a geostationary orbit that has a 24-hour period, orbits on the equatorial plane at a 36,000 km distance from the surface of the Earth and rotates simultaneously with Earth. REGIONAL SPACES IN OUTER SPACE Based on these orbits and orbital systems, and using an adaptation of the Mackinder classification, aerospace can be divided into four geopolitical regions according to geopolitical scales and levels. One is Terra or Earth, which we can regard as humankind's general living space. In the interpretation of Everett Dolman, this sphere corresponds to Eastern-Central

Europe in MacKinder's equation. The next one is Terran or Earth space, the geostationary zone that includes Earth space up to 36,000 thousand kilometer altitude. This is the terrain of space armament and of long range ballistic missiles. Moving further away from our center, the Earth, the next region is Lunar or Moon Space. Finally, adapting Mackinder's conception the next region is the Solar Space or the space of the Solar system. Dolman also borrows from Mahan's theory on control and choke points. On this basis, he names five specific points in space where the gravitational effects of the Earth and Moon would cancel each other out if a power were to gain control over them. It would become possible for powers opposing one another in space to liquidate the spacecraft of a nonfriendly party. To adapt and define chokepoints and bottlenecks for use in aerospace, Dolman also takes

Van Allen radiation belts into consideration. From a geopolitical viewpoint, these radiation belts are significant in that they signal the limits and opportunities of the deployment of various purpose spacecraft.

"Britain's radar, Germany's ballistic rocket, the United States' electronic computer, and the atomic bomb fundamentally changed the view [...] about space, about spatial extension." The inner belt starting from 400 kilometers to 10,000 kilometers would still protect the spacecraft and the astronaut from damages and dangers. The outer belt, according to our current knowledge, is not capable of providing this protection. According to Walter McDougall, the change in traditional perception of space, the possession of outer space, the birth of space programs can be linked to four big technical discoveries that were developed in war. Britain's radar, Germany's ballistic rocket, the United States' electronic computer, and the atomic bomb fundamentally changed the perception of space, spatial extension, dimension and the analysis of international relations from a geopolitical viewpoint up to the 1940s. At the same time, we should not forget that once the war concluded triumphantly and its urgency of its conclusion was no longer present, the practical application and further development of said innovations suffered a delay. The faster and widespread deployment of said technical innovations came to the forefront in the international relations of the Cold War, which from certain viewpoints could be described as having ossified into two poles, when the Soviet Union developed the hydrogen bomb in 1949, launched Sputnik 1 into low orbit in 1957, and in 1960 shot down an American U2 spy plane over Sverdlovsk. From that moment onward, the deadly struggle between the two superpowers intensified to extend their spheres of influence. In this rivalry, the now fivedimensional geopolitical space gained an ever more important role.

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Among other actors of the interstate and international relations system, as well as the international society, the struggle started for taking control over air and, in our days, aerospace. In terms of international law, the territory of outer space - similarly to Antarctica - can either be regarded as res nullius (no man's land, a territory belonging to no one), or res communis (everyone's matter, a territory that everyone can make use of) and its neither mere long term nor only peaceful use still brings up numerous issues not easily solved. The difference between res nullius and res communis is enormous, both theoretically and in principle. If a thing does not belong to anyone, does not form the possession of anyone, then, according to the traditional interpretation of international law the person taking possession of it first secures right of possession or disposition over it. This typically colonial mentality is untenable in our days. Outer space is a common treasure and heritage of humankind. Nonetheless, we cannot deny that superpowers and economically, politically, and militarily leading states have secured themselves a privileged position in both air and aerospace. Satellites on an Earth orbit do not only serve scientific, meteorological, and commercial purposes. The AEW (Airborne Early Warning), the AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control System), the C4IS (Command, Control, Communication, Intelligence, Consultation and Informatic System), the GPALS (Global Protection Against Limited Strikes), a GPS (Global Positioning System), the SDS (Strategic Defense System), the SEAD (Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses), the SHORAD (Short Range Air Defense), the THAAD (Theater High-Altitude Area Defense System), the TMD (Theater Missile Defense), just as the Strategic Defense Initiative, nicknamed "Star Wars", announced by US President Ronald Reagan and which now forms part of the near past's history, also serve military and strategic purposes. DESERT STORM We had a chance to observe the effects of aerospace, outer space, info sphere, and cyberspace on military strategy and warfare among others in Desert Storm in 1991, a military operation to defend Kuwait, and in the war launched against Iraq in 2003.

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We find a theoretical analysis of the above facts and circumstances, their effect on the character and nature of war, as well as their new strategic and geopolitical analysis in the studies of John Warden and Robert Pape. John Warden's name became a household name worldwide in the course of the Desert Storm military operation in 1991. The colonel was among organizer and responsible parties for the air attacks against Iraq. He theorized his experiences in his works entitled The Enemy as a System and The Air Campaign - Planning for Combat. In the course of planning and implementing the operation, Warden attributed fundamental importance to harmonizing national political goals as well as military strategic goals, using air force, as well as using and exploiting the advantages secured by outer space and cyberspace. The North-American geopolitician distinguishes between traditional and strategic war, and redefines the concept of enemy as well. In this view, the definition of enemy does not simply include the concrete soldiers in combat, but rather, enemy should be seen as a characteristic Q system consisting of concentric circles. From the point of view of victory, John Warden regards it as indispensable to lame the opponent's centers of gravity as well as its decision centers. Aside from weapon force, decision centers may be attacked from three spheres. The information supply may be interrupted, a state of indecision can be generated, and the external and internal, physical and intellectual communication systems can be destroyed. In the possession of appropriate air, cyber, and information superiority it is possible to achieve total overview over the opponent's activities and movements. The decisive point is the strategic laming of the opponent. Its essence consists of five concentric rings - fielded military, population, national infrastructure, system essentials, political leadership -, that relies on blocking enemy, now understood to be a comprehensive system relying on centers of gravity. Warden regarded taking out the center ring, political leadership, as the most important element of this novel warfare. He described this center ring, using a simile from biology, as the system's brain. This is what makes the system move. This is the main center of gravity. Putting it under constant attack and laming it is therefore a key task of the attackers who wish to

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achieve victory. In order to achieve military, political, or economic victory, simultaneous or parallel attacks can also be launched against the concentric rings. This view is reminiscent of Clausewitzâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s views on ideal war, as well as Napoleon Bonaparte's views on the concentration of forces, gaining control over decisive points and applying dominant force there. According to Warden, knocking out an enemy means simultaneously implementing various complementary methods. These include gaining control over aerospace and outer space, strategic bombing, air strikes against non-military targets, which may result in breaking moral resistance. This theory and warfare conducted on its basis, however, bring up numerous questions regarding human rights and humaneness. These however also take a viewpoint that includes another dimension into consideration. FASTER, HIGHER! Similar to John Warden, Robert Anthony Pape, Professor of the University of Chicago attributes great significance to air force in warfare. In 1996, he published Bombing to Win: Air Power and Coercion in War he introduces and analyzes a number of historical examples to illustrate and examine the advantages and disadvantages of air force in war, as well as its non-desirable consequences.

"... we live in a Space Age, our operations take place in the "Space Era"..."

orbital instruments. Information gained in outer space has a fundamental importance in establishing and securing air superiority, as well as achieving victory in war. As General Thomas D. White observes, "air and space are not isolated from one another, the two categories are not separated by a firm boundary; in fact, they make up a unified and indivisible space for military operations." Outer space can be regarded as the natural and logical extension of air; control over outer space can only be understood as a cumulative result of air's ever growing development... More precisely, we live in a Space Age, our military operations are conducted in a "Space Era"... According to Thomas D. White, the objectives of the air force changed depending on level. The basis is permanent and unchanging: greater speed, greater distance and ever greater altitude. This we can read in other words in one of Stephen Rothstein's scientific studies prepared on Alabama Air Force Base, Air Force Academy: "... integration of air and space is a natural and logical step for the development of air power." THE GEOGRAPHY OF CYBERSPACE The fifth dimension in the changing conception of geopolitics is Cyberspace. The world of electronic phenomena and flows, which form part of information sphere, are inseparable from it, denote the computer networks of online communication and the system forwarded, made alive, and taking shape in various forms of virtuality.

The state, after all, is one of the most important representatives of territoriality, the political world based on the application of the territorial principle. This is not merely integration tendencies that go hand in hand with globality prevailing. The change is a great deal more cardinal, radical and deeper. We have entered an age where politics has moved into virtual reality. In the era of chronopolitics, politics departs from and becomes independent of real space. In the twenty-first century, post-Cold War geopolitical thinking must find and discover among never before experienced spatial relations the laws of power struggle in various arenas of the international system. Research institutes and groups, as well as decision preparations and decision making organizations and bodies of the United States assign high priority to the problems of cyberspace. A document of the United States Department of Defense (DOD) from September 2008 addresses the question of cyberspace in great detail and gave the following systematic definition of the concept: "Cyberspace is a global domain within the information environment consisting of the interdependent network of information technology infrastructures, including the Internet, telecommunications networks, computer systems, and embedded processors and controllers." Referring to the strategic relevance of cyberspace, Colin Gray also uses the more broadly defined word environment to explain and shed a light on its characteristics: "land, sea, air, and space environments and the electronic empire of cyberspace have in common that we may regard them all as war zones. Cyberspace is a "geographical" zone of strategic relevance."

Robert Pape is a social scientist and not a military strategist. In his analyses, he turned to the strategic questions of implementing air force, aerospace, and cyberspace in order to establish political objectives and to come up with political alternatives. The attack against the Twin Towers in New York on September 11, 2001 prompted him to study the problems of asymmetric warfare. For this reason, in 2005 he published his book Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism, which focused on a branch of international terrorism, and in 2010, he organized the Chicago Project on Security and Terrorism - CPOST, an institute belonging to the University of Chicago.

Cyberspace has fundamentally changed the relationship of space, time, politics and political powers to one another. We have now entered an era where space and time are simultaneous and identical. In the world of chronopolitics that concept of space which can be tied to a determined, concrete physical reality is disappearing and losing ever more ground. "Traditional" spaces are replaced by "spacelessness", a space lacking any concrete form, a physically undetectable "extensionlessness". Colin Gray in his book Modern Strategy calls space appearing in this fashion anti-geography, that is, a space quasi against geography.

Merna Hsu, in his dissertation entitled Gaining and Maintaining Cyberspace Superiority: Quest for a Holy Grail?, which, similarly to Rothstein, he defended at the Maxwell US Air Force Base Air University, attempted to sketch and grasp the characteristic traits, attributes of the fifth dimension. "Although cyberspace is an artificially created domain, it nonetheless is derived from, and governed by, physical laws associated with the electromagnetic spectrum. As such, cyberspace is not wholly subject to human will and whim."

In their analyses, John Warden and Robert Pape write about modern air war, and they also take into account data transmitted and forwarded by Earth-orbiting

These factors have an effect on the behavior of the state, on the kinds of roles it assumes, on the state's functions, and the concept of sovereignty, as well.

"If a state endeavors to be a great power, presence in and influence over cyberspace are an indispensable task."

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"If a state endeavors to be a great power, presence in and influence over cyberspace are an indispensable task." What, therefore, characterizes this domain? We can list at least six characteristics. One of its attributes is its multidimensionality. Cyberspace has non-geographical, post-geographical, and even anti-geographical traits. For its use, and in order to enter this domain, a hard- and software infrastructure are necessary. However, their connection and activities in cyberspace can be carried out on land, sea, air, and space. It is not constrained by political and geographical boundaries. It exists simultaneously in numerous countries and geographical locations. Cyberspace realizes the interconnected network of hardware and software. Cyberspace is simultaneously an artificial construct dependent on technology, a dynamic and self-regenerating phenomenon. Physical boundaries cannot delimit its movements and activities. Cyberspace is simultaneously intransparent and opaque. As it is an artificial creation, it can be operated, controlled according to specific rules, and, as a consequence, may constitute the subject of international and global "business transactions". As we may regard it as a relatively new domain of military history, there is an ongoing struggle to establish "spheres of influence". If a state endeavors to be a great power, presence in and influence over cyberspace are an indispensable task. As General Keith Alexander, a retired four-star general of the US Army claims with reference to the historical situation in 1823: "I think we need to develop a cyber Monroe Doctrine." BLITZKRIEG ON THE NETWORKS In his study published in 2008, General William T. Lord, the commander of the United States Cybers Command unit emphasizes that attacks are also launched at the United States from the electronic domain. In addition to destroying the Twin Towers, the secondary objective of the terror attacks of September 11, 2001 was to destroy the financial system on which, among other things, the United States economy significantly depends. Up to September 11,

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2001, Al-Qaeda and similar actors in international relations were not regarded as a serious danger factor from the point of view of American national interest and survival. Following the attacks, this changed. Another reason for the change was a cyberspace attack launched at Estonia with Chinese support in 2007. Not only great powers, but also individual state must prepare for the ever more serious and ever more threatening dangers internationally. "This is a war that knows no constraints, where there are no rules and no prohibitions" - as General William T. Lord writes in his article.

cable connections. Thus, for instance, a widespread connection form for stationary systems is broadband. Within this category, optical cables are gaining ever more ground. Accordingly, the definition above must also be extended to such networks whose elements are connected not via radio channels, but rather by cable (copper cable, optical cable). Beyond this, the electromagnetic spectrum must be regarded only as part of cyberspace, as cyberspace must be extended to other domains of the spectrum of frequencies, which includes, for instance, the physical domain of mechanical vibrations and particle radiation.

It is relatively easy and inexpensive to wrest cyber-

A multitude of instruments serve the purpose of

space capabilities from the enemy. Therefore, one must defend oneself appropriately. Air Force Cyber Command - AFCYBER, set up by the United States in the fall of 2008, serves precisely this goal. "Make no mistake" - I am quoting General William T. Lord - "if we cannot dominate in cyberspace, we place air and space dominance at risk. For example, if an adversary is able to inject malicious software into the F-22 fleet, we may not be able to fly the Raptor when it is needed in battle."

mapping seismic and acoustic vibrations, as well as particle radiation (sonars, acoustic sensors deployed on battlefields, artillery measurement devices, specialized microphones, radiation detectors etc.), and in the struggle against them electronic warfare must be implemented. Directed energy weapons, a large portion of which (for instance sonic weapons based on infrasound, sonic shockwave generators, high energy particle radiators etc.) also operate in physical domains. Accordingly, instead of the electromagnetic spectrum, it is more correct to speak of and interpret the entire frequency spectrum."

Zsolt Haig and István Várhegyi, similarly to William T. Lord, speak of cyberspace as a new domain of warfare in their writings and studies. In accordance with American authors and strategists, they too attribute a great importance to gaining information superiority in the course of the struggles taking place in the fifth dimension. As their analyses focus on changes that have happened in the character of warfare, they highlight the importance of emphasizing the difference between civil and military applications with regards to cyberspace. "According to civil terminology, cyberspace is a generic name for electronic communication tools and systems (computer networks, phone lines, satellite systems etc.) and services carried by them, the virtual space or world made up by information", they write. [...] The interpretation of the term cyberspace used by the military diverges from the civil term: it is a great deal broader.

Thus, it is not only extraordinarily important to obtain and maintain information superiority, but also an exceptionally complex and difficult task. According to Zsolt Haig and István Várhegyi, this means a new

kind of military philosophy called "Network Centric Warfare" (NCW), or alternatively, using NATO terminology, Network Enabled Capacity. According to this, the exploitation of resources is more efficient if systems are interconnected, share certain resources, than if they were to exist independently, in isolation from one another. The concept's essence is that those participating in military operations must be able to access all important information necessary to carry out their task in real time, in the appropriate content and in usable form. This new form of warfare increases battle force and ability by integrating the communication and information systems of the sensor systems, commanders, and executers into the same system." Based on the five-dimensional geopolitical view of space, cyberspace is tightly connected to the domains of land, air, and sea, the "classical" domains, as well as the space embodying astropolitics. Zsolt Haig's and István Szilágyi's study is perfectly appropriate for their representation from a military viewpoint, and to introduce and characterize their system of relations. This means that obtaining and maintaining cyber superiority in the course of cyber warfare includes physical destruction by kinetic energy, various forms of consciousness and psychological warfare from the cognitive sphere, as well as network procedures and activities from the information sphere.

According to the document National Military Strategy for Cyberspace Operations, cyberspace is a domain where electronic tools operating in networked systems and the electromagnetic spectrum are used to store, modify, and exchange data. However, it should be noted that various electronic devices in a network may connect to one another by different

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The task is therefore extraordinarily difficult, complex, and intricate, because cyber-attacks themselves are extraordinarily complex, being a form of activity and a complex of phenomena that appear in mass and network form. In order to avoid getting lost in the military political, technical, technological details of gaining cyberspace superiority and making an attempt to analyze them, we must call attention to Zsolt Haig's study published in 2011. In this, the author regards securing information supremacy as one of the basic conditions of gaining cyberspace superiority. From the point of view of breaking the opponent's virtual and actual power - similarly to General William T. Lord, whom we have already cited - he regards the build-up and the organization of successful and efficient defense systems against exterior enemy attacks equally important to attack operations. These two objectives complement one another. Without an efficient defense of one’s own information sphere and information capabilities, countering exterior and interior attacks launched against it and securing the usability of one’s own information capacities there is no chance to constrain, weaken, deactivate the capacities of the opponent's information system, to "immobilize' it, so to say. Information superiority is based on organizing and operating the two networks in one unified system.

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In order to gain information superiority that secures cyberspace domination, success in the electronic domain and the success of electronic warfare is imperative. FROM MACHIAVELLI TO THE AGE OF ELECTRONIC PRINCES In the twenty-first century, electronics have made their way into the public realm and politics. Indeed, it rewrites and reinterprets our conceptual apparatus and our point of view. The new technology alters the management of public affairs and res publica not merely on a technical level, but on the level of content as well. Elevating the role of electronics to a general political theory will effect a paradigm shift in political theory. A new Prince appears on the scene. The electronic Prince. As Octavio Janni puts it in the introductory sentence of his study published in 1999: "In the history of politics there are numerous ‘princes’ from the theoretical and practical points of view." Taking the brilliant insight of the well-known Latin American social scientist as our point of departure and mentioning the most famous and best known examples, we may speak of Niccolo Macchiavelli's The Prince, written in 1513. This prince had been a flesh and blood person, a historical figure. In the writing of the book, Lorenzo Magnifico of Florence, as well as the ruling

couple of Ferdinand the II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castille, served as examples. Luck (fortuna), virtue, and courage (virtu) are necessary but not sufficient conditions of political success. Next to force, intellectual influence, as well as the validation and enforcement of hegemony are indispensable. Four hundred and twenty-four years later, in 1937 Antonio Gramsci wrote about the importance and indispensability of a New Prince embodied and personified by the party, by a political organization, reflecting the circumstances of a new historical era, the twentieth century. Sovereignty and hegemony are inseparably intertwined with the activities of these two princes. According to Octavio Jannie, the Electronic Prince of cyberspace "is neither a condottieri, nor a political party, but at the same time recreates, surpasses, and makes us forget the activities of these two classical political figures. The Electronic Prince is an opaque, active, present, invisible, reigning, omnipresent entity that permeates every level of society, local, national, regional, and world levels. He is present on the level of structures, power blocks, and on the national, regional, and word level; he is a reigning, collective and organic intellectual, which always appears on the world's political map according to various social and political-economic circumstances. It goes without saying that the Electronic Prince is neither homogenous nor monolithic on either the national or the world level. Generally, the Electronic Prince is primarily a conventional expression of the national, regional, worldwide vision enforce by power blocks reigning in the world." Octavio Ianni's argument in our view creates a new paradigm, a new intellectual framework for the analysis, point of view, and interpretation of cyberspace. Above all, they create he twenty-first century's world that is mediated on a world scale. In this network, organized and operated space influenced by transnational actors and the manipulation industry, the boundaries disappear in the sphere of hegemonic relations and public awareness. Information becomes uncontrollable with traditional methods and modes, knowledge, behaviors,

lifestyles, and behavior cultures from international media gain decisive influence. Boundaries between civilizations cease to exist. The mass of information flowing from the virtual realm gains a reigning position in defining the hegemony relations of international society. Owing to the culture industry, the contact and meeting of civilizations becomes an everyday matter. The borders of countries dissolve and disappear. Lies are exposed and at the same time transformed. New convictions, new beliefs, new world views, new directions, new global solutions appear and take root. The Electronic Prince renders humanity a homebody, and forces it to remain in front of a screen. The state of mass solitude (multidao solitaria) appears.

"Owing to the culture industry, the contact and meeting of civilizations becomes an everyday matter." The widespread deployment and use of electronics and its part Internet become part of operating the economy, finance, the state entities and institutions etc. It contributes to the spread of democracy based on direct participation, to the modernization and simplification of electoral systems, as for instance Rodrigo Araya Dujisin predicted in his 2005 study. As a result of these facts, the significance of cyberspace far surpasses the military framework of gaining information superiority. We may not forget the circumstance that the Electronic Prince, operating in the direct sphere of virtuality, coexists with its classical predecessors in the traditional space, with the princes and political organizations of previous eras. This constitutes the examination and analysis of spatial international power relations in the twenty-first century.

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A NEW ERA OF COMMERCIAL SATELLITES Author: Anton Bendarzsevszkij

In the past years, in order to satisfy increasing consumer demand, new commercial companies specializing in remote imaging appeared on the market with new technologies and creative ideas to respond to current or newly emerging demands. Market competition made the creation of high quality services necessary while operating at low development costs. Among the newcomers, "Skybox Imaging", established in 2009, stands out. Up to 2015 it put two surveillance satellites into Earth orbit, and it is the first company in the world to provide real-time HD videos, a service they secured on the basis of an entirely new data processing system. In 2014, Google bought the startup company for 500 million dollars. The startup's main goal is to efficiently integrate data processing mechanisms and satellite images into its own online services.

In the past five years, entirely new tendencies emerged in Earth observation. Next to state actors an increasing number of commercial and marketbased enterprises appeared, which have been able to cut their costs significantly, while the satellites they produced and launched into orbit are capable of providing more efficient and better quality observation. Among others, Skybox, Urthecast and Planet Labs are such startup companies. All three specialize in remote imaging, and the development of Cubesat satellites served as the precondition for their emergence. Since their launch in 2005 more than ten years ago, Google Earth and Google Maps have done a great deal for the mass dissemination and the everyday use of satellite images. However, both applications have their limitations, and on the whole, they are unable to keep pace with the rapidly changing and ever more complex user demand. It is reasonable and indeed banal to expect that an application of this kind show

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the location of businesses, lodging, or tourist attractions that we, consumers, seek on a map. As Google's satellite images encompass the entire Earth, it takes a year or indeed a couple years for the images to refresh. Thus, it is often the case that GoogleMaps is does not display current conditions. As GoogleMaps is outdated, it is not competitive in market segments that demand increasingly fresh information. Update frequency is only one among many consumer demands. Another cardinally important factor is image quality. As digital tools develop, consumers prefer ever higher quality and higher resolution images. So far, consumer demand has been strictly constrained by technology and regulations. Due to high costs, higher resolution satellite images were not available to the general public, as technical preconditions simply did not exist earlier. In terms of regulation, until 2014 the United States prohibited the commercial distribution of higher resolution satellite images: a pixel on an image could not cover

an area less than 50 centimeters. In July 2014, this regulation was lifted. Up until then, high resolution satellite images were typically only available for military purposes due to legislation constraints. Ordinary citizens could only access low-resolution satellite images, which in turn were available free of charge. The company Digital Globe, situated between the two actors, as it were, provided higher quality images on a commercial basis but only up to the limit that was specified by US legislation. Among Digital Globe's customers we find the United States Department of Defense and Google, which used satellite images provided by Digital Globe to create Google Earth. RECONCEPTUALIZED: URTHECAST, PLANET LABS AND SKYBOX In the past five years, several new companies appeared on the scene offering new commercial services in remote imaging. Among these it is worth highlighting three startup companies: Urthecast, Planet Labs and Skybox. Despite the fact that all three companies attempted to respond to increasing consumer demand, each has developed a different approach. Urthecast came up with an original concept. Rather than invest money in the development and production of its own satellites, it instead created a device that was capable of taking high quality images and video recordings. The device was then mounted on the International Space Station. One of its cameras was suitable for recording medium-quality images, while the other is capable of recording a 4K quality video recording in 1m distance. The data is transmitted to Earth via the antennas of the Russian Roskosmos. In contrast, Planet Labs focused on quantity. In 2014 it launched twenty-eight satellites into Earth orbit in order to provide users with more and more upto-date data. At present, the company has more than a hundred satellites in orbit. According to its plans, this year a sufficient number of satellites will be in space that the company is able provide fresh images and data from any point of the Earth every day. Skybox chose an approach that differed from both of these. They aimed to deliver high or even premium quality images and videos, the most important consideration being that these were backed up by data analysis. By the end of 2015, they launched two satellites into

Earth orbit. These provided such premium quality images that Skybox was the first company in 2013 who could shoot an HD quality video recording of the Earth's surface from space. Despite this achievement, Skybox did not turn its back on data collection and data analysis, which continued to shape and determine the company's profile, but brought it more to the fore. Skybox collected satellite images that became publicly available in the past few years, and they became able to prepare astonishing analyses on the basis of their own satellite images and data gleaned from them. At this point, Google became interested, and in August 2014 bought up Skybox for 500 million USD.

What is CubeSat? CubeSat is a type of miniaturized satellite, which in essence is a 10cm cube that only weighs about 2.86 pounds on Earth. It can be assembled from generally available off-the-shelf materials, which makes it extremely cost effective. Its reference design was proposed in 1999 by Stanford University and California Polytechnic Institute. The first CubeSats with this specification were launched in 2003. CubeSat satellites move on a low-earth orbit (LEO) and has an orbital period of about 90 minutes. This orbit is accessible with low energy investment and thus it is the most cost effective as well. As the orbit is closer to the Earth's surface, a lower-performance, inexpensive optics suffice to shoot images and signal transmission is also easier due to the shorter distance. Another advantage of CubeSats is their small size and shape: they can be put next to one another, they can be transported with relative ease and several can be launched into space at once. For instance, in 2013 27 CubeSat satellites were launched into space simultaneously.

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A REPOSITORY OF POSSIBIILITIES: NEW DIMENSIONS OF SATELLITES

Why is Skybox dangerous? In 2014, at the time when Apple was about to present its new iPhone, Skybox directed its satellites on Foxconn's trucks, Apple's main logistics partner. Once a complete analysis of truck traffic was prepared and compared with the previous months' traffic, they deduced that Foxconn's activity had increased greatly in the past few days. On this basis, they predicted the new Apple product's launch and store availability. • November 21, 2013: Skybox launches its first satellite, SkySat1, and became the first company to shoot HD quality video of Earth's surface from space. • July 8, 2014: Skybox's second satellite, SkySat2 is launched into space, and a further 24 launches are planned for the two coming years. • August 1, 2014: Google buys up Skybox for 500 million USD, its integration into Google has been underway since then. At the time this article was written, the company's website, Twitter account, and Facebook profile were not accessible online, and the YouTube Skybox-channel only displayed "Coming Soon" to its visitors.

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The satellites used by Skybox and Planet Labs only cost a fragment of what previous satellites used to costs. This is the reason why a garage startup company could appear out of nothing on a market that was previously dominated by companies of large capital and states. CubeSta ventured precisely into this territory and revolutionized the industry. Up until then, typically a large satellite with a long development history was launched into the atmosphere. This process was costly both in terms of time and in production costs: the price tag of a single satellite could reach several million USD. CubeSat satellites reduced this price to a fraction. The low cost was ensured by low Earth orbit (LEO), the satellites' light weight, and the relative ease with which they could be launched into space. As costs were reduced, more sources could be diverted to new technical developments and experiments. Thus, the outdated satellite stock could also be reformed. If we make a guess regarding the future of CubeSat, then we see that the standards it created might soon make satellite mass production possible, which will lead to a further cost reduction in space industry markets. SKYBOX' BASIC CONCEPT In 2009, four students of Stanford University (Dan Berken Stock, Julian Mann, Ching Yu- Hu and John Fenwick), founded their own company, Skybox, after having taken an entrepreneurial course. Their basic idea was to regard the Earth as a giant, continuous data set. In order to process and understand it, high quality images were needed, which were, however, worthless on their own, as in order to understand them it was necessary to interpret, combine and process data mined from them.

Skybox therefore creates 1 terabyte of data every day, which it continually compares with the data in its database and analyzes them. Enormous software capacity is needed to keep this process running, software which is capable of extracting on the basis of a port's image how many and what sorts of ships are moored a a harbor, or to establish the number of building plots in a city, or the level of preparedness of its buildings. Moreover, on the basis of Skybox' images it is possible to successfully examine patterns of human behavior (for instance: mass demonstrations, festivals or even armed conflicts) and to make deductions about their mechanisms. Skybox services are useful to the following sectors: - agricultural situation analysis, surveillance of fields, etc. - humanitarian aid - insurance monitoring (risk factor models) - provision of aids in the event of natural catastrophes - commercial sphere, trade, finance (for instance, extracting the number and make of cars in parked in given city or district) - mining - monitoring sea traffic It is easy to see that Skybox provides unmatched new services and opens new doors for its users. This, however, is not always positive. After all, it is possible to abuse the services provided by Skybox at any time. The ensemble of satellites and analysis capacity backing them is also in a position to provide a multitude of sensitive information for the government, companies, and their competitors. From this point of view, Google's role is quite worrisome: a multinational corporation, which has practically secured an exclusive monopoly over a large portion of the data of the world's Internet users, now also possesses Skybox, thus dangerous combinations have become possible.

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AFTER MASAT, RADCUBE REVOLUTIONIZES SPACE INDUSTRY Author: László Körtvélyesi

MaSat's engineers and researchers of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA) collaborate to show the world Hungarian innovation's true potential. Three instruments, a satellite, a space-weather measurement instrument for satellite use, and a database which processes and makes the satellite's data accessible for the world are simultaneously under development. With the aid of the three new systems, it has become possible to examine the Earth and outer space radiation environment with a degree of accuracy and efficiency hitherto impossible. On this depends, among other things, satellite security, earth systems, and astronaut security.

KFKI (Central Research Center for Physics), the legal predecessor of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences Center Energy Centre (MTA EC) has been an active participant in space research since 1970 by developing various radiation measuring and detecting instruments. Their best-known instrument, PILLE, measured the effects of cosmic radiation in the able hands of Bertalan Farkas and Charles Simonyi at the International Space Station. The instrument RadMag has high ambitions. It is only one part of a complete system that aims to provide the foundation for human health in space research and a new era for radiation detection. RadMag is an unequaled cosmic radiation measuring instrument, which examines the Earth's magnetic field. This instrument will enter Earth orbit on board the RADCUBE satellite. Complemented with the CROSS space weather database and information system, Hungary may be the first in the world to provide a full picture about the radiation environment surrounding Earth. The development of the three components has been made possible by the work of Hungarian companies and researchers, and with the support of the European Space Agency.

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C3S Ltd., a space industry entrepreneur, which is responsible for the development and the production of the satellite platform, was founded by developers of the first Hungarian satellite, MaSat-1. Beyond supporting the RadMag cosmic radiation measuring instrument, the platform's development contributes to the European Union objective that the European Union should become a world leader in the production of small size satellites (CubeSats, nanosatellites). We conducted an interview with Gyula Horváth (C3S, MaSat) and Károly Balázs Solymár (MTA EC) about the future of CubeSats. How are the European Union and Hungary doing today in the space research competition? Gyula Horváth (GYH): The European Vega launch vehicle was a great success - and incidentally, MaSat also traveled on a Vega back in the day -, but unfortunately, Europe lags far behind among launcher producers. In terms of satellites that weigh several hundred kilos or even a couple of tons, Europe is competitive in both the domain of remote imaging and communication satellites. However, we are lagging behind on numerous fields. It suffices to

mention geolocation here. Even a small country like ours is in a position to create something of worldwide significance for missions with a scientific purposes and eventual commercial services based on these missions. Károly Balázs Solymár (KBS): In scientific research, even a small team of scientists is capable of producing world class results. From this point of view there really is no competition among various regions of the world. Usually, there are a couple of research teams and development locations that have historically been significant, and where a given area's outstanding results are born. Such areas can be identified in the case of our homeland, too. Perhaps one of the most significant of these is the examination of cosmic radiation and space weather. What does a country gain by possessing a satellite? What might it gain by an entire fleet? (GYH): A country that possesses a satellite can demonstrate its capabilities, its technological independence. It might even become a provider if it possesses an entire fleet. Whether the potential applications are located in the domestic market or abroad. These small size satellites have potential applications in remote imaging, where the decisive factor is not field resolution, but rather an extraordinarily short

response time. Here we might mention catastrophe management or certain agricultural issues: droughts, inland inundations, or some specialized solutions that fall outside of the scope of regular imaging provided by large satellites (Sentinel, SPOT etc.). Typically, the result would be broader user demand. Further applications include various tracking tasks, such as tracing ship or plane fleets, collecting data about the trajectory of migratory birds, ocean buoys or sensors placed on large areas. Last but not least, the examination of space weather also happens to be a particularly suitable application for little satellites organized in fleets to show off all that they are capable of doing. For this reason, we have been building the RADCUBE satellite and the CROSS network. (KBS): In our country, knowledge and technology is available to develop and build a fleet consisting of RADCUBE satellites. Both the space industry and space research evince tremendous interest in such systems. Technological civilization in our days depends on several services used every day under regular circumstances, such as telecommunication, energetics or flight management systems. These services might respond very sensitively to the effects of space weather, thus establishing a forecast network is fundamentally necessary. The number of satellites launched into space increases year by year. While a significant portion of these systems

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is seriously overequipped to provide them with protection against radiation, after all, we do not know the cosmic radiation and magnetic environments accurately enough. This overequipping leads to significant additional costs, which we are ultimately paying for in the prices of services provided by commercial satellites. A space weather forecast system such as CROSS would be in a position to provide vital information for space industry participants, so that they could take actual forecasts of the cosmic radiation environment as the basis for satellite design. This could eventually lead to a significant reduction of production costs, and thus also a reduction in service prices, which then would affect everyday people as well. Not long ago connection was lost to a Japanese research satellite, Hitomi, over South America. Then, it turned out that the experimental instrument costing 350 million USD broke into bits. Today we suspect this was due to human error, but several people suspected that the South-Atlantic anomaly was to blame. What is this anomaly? What is the invisible topography of space like? (GYH): It is worth knowing that for a satellite to fall to bits a lot more is needed than a mere magnetic anomaly. These are caused by internal error or collision; however, such events are fortunately rare. The anomaly mentioned earlier is an "anomalous weakness" of the magnetic field that surrounds Earth. On this area, earlier measurements detected an increased flux of energetic particles higher by order of magnitude. It is vital to know more about our atmosphere and about the Earth's magnetic field, for we owe life on Earth to these factors: they protect us from harmful radiation from Space and from our Sun. This magnetic field changes cyclically. Right now, it is becoming weaker, therefore it is vital, that we get an accurate picture of the change, so that we can examine the process and prepare appropriately for difficulties that go hand in hand with this change. (KBS): To this day, we have no sufficient understanding of Earth's magnetic field. All we have are supposed models for its description and with regards to its source. There are still many open questions, the first of which is the change of magnetic field over time. The South Atlantic Anomaly is an area in the magnetic field where the field's shadowing effect is substantially weaker, thus cosmic particles arriving from space may get significantly close to the surface and cause a greater than average radiation dose. 188

This phenomenon causes cyclically increasing doses that can be measured very well at the International Space Station. When we depart on a space journey and leave the atmosphere and magnetic field protecting our planet behind, then we step into a region of outer space where there is no protection against the destructive effects of cosmic radiation. This cosmic radiation has two main sources: our Sun and all other sources in the Universe. This complex radiation has an entirely different nature than we can encounter in circumstances experienced on Earth (for instance, in reactors), and it represents a great danger for living organisms and for technology used in outer space as well. This may be one of the main reasons that so far, we have not attempted a manned Mars mission or that we have yet to establish a Lunar base. What does a solar flare cause? What is the chance of a significant disturbance? (GYH): Extremely large solar flares cause disturbances in telecommunications, in power plants, and in energy distribution networks, but they may harm our satellites as well, and they represent a serious source of danger for human presence in space. We are speaking of events that occur rarely, but they do occur. (KBS): We have seen examples of such events in the recent past, when energetic networks stopped operating or a flight management system broke down due to a solar flare. It is worth highlighting its effects on and its role as a risk factor for astronauts, for an astronaut on a spacewalk or astronauts traveling on a spaceship on an interplanetary mission may get a significant dose of radiation from such a solar flare. The RadMag experiment takes up one third of the RADCUBE satellite. How much free space is left on it? (GYH): As the RadMag experiment requires active situation stabilization, too, the basic systems of the satellite take up a little more than half of the satellite. Thus, there is not much space left for other instruments, but this is not an issue. The purpose of the mission is the RadMag experiment. Of course, if there is a little space left, we will not leave it empty, but this lies far off in the future. Who are the competitors of the CROSS system? How great is our chance to become a market leader or at least very important players?

(GYH): Today several research laboratories are occupied with examining cosmic radiation, but none of them can look back on a past like that of the MTA EC, nor have they achieved such successes as the MTA EC did with its PILLE or TriTel instruments. Furthermore, a comprehensive concept such as CROSS network is a mere future plan even for the European Space Agency. Thus, we have a good chance of landing and remaining at the forefront, if we manage to finance the first mini-fleet of CROSS after RADCUBE. This is not a far-fetched idea. The necessary funds constitute less than the cost of a couple of miles of highway, and we are speaking of an area of space activities that is uniquely and entirely available, that is, it is independent of technology in Hungary. (KBS): There are other research teams in the world that carry out similar research, however, in this area Hungary occupies a leading position in the world. The CROSS network represents a unique concept of its kind, after all, no one in the world disposes over such a measuring instrumentation, while at the same time the demand is enormous. A larger satellite mission carries out measurements, however, it is not sufficient to describe a complex environment changing over time and in space. It is important to realize the satellite fleet for this reason especially, for which bringing together RadMag and CubeSat technologies provides a perfect opportunity. The end result is indeed a network that, at the moment, has no competitor. What kind of international legal/space legal matters have you encountered? Up to 2014, the USA, for instance, prohibited making HD satellite images, however, by now the ban has been lifted. Who may shoot images from outer space, and whose permission is needed?

Fortunately, we have built up a routine on these fields with the MaSat1 mission, thus now we are in a much better position. Who will launch the satellite and when? (GYH): We will only select the launcher later, after all, we need to examine first which space orbits are most exciting from the point of view of the RadMag instrument. Our choice will be based upon this in the coming months. At present, if we are considering non-manned missions, several countries and organizations are capable of launching instruments into space. In addition, we need to take two new factors into consideration: on the one hand the civil sector has joined the "space race", on the other hand, large numbers of and ever lighter satellites and ever smaller launchers are appearing on the market, which means space for new players as well. For these reasons, there is a large-scale transformation taking place on the launcher market. Would you say that there is future in space research distant from Earth in the short and medium term? (GYH): Well, the question is what you would call short and medium term. Many have made claims that these areas would be accessible to research in the next few years. My bet would be on the next few decades. It is certain that before we can create a Lunar base or send human beings to Mars we must map both celestial bodies very carefully. As neither of them has a protection system such as Earth does, there the radiation from the Sun and space must be measures, so that we can provide people arriving there with protection. The CROSS network would, for instance, also be capable of these measurements and their analysis.

(GYH): For satellite images, the crucial factor is not resolution, but rather the size of the area covered by a single pixel. In the case of MaSat-1 this was not an issue, after all, even in a best-case scenario the socalled field resolution was only about 1 km.

Elon Musk with his space launcher sees the future in recycling, the spread of nanosatellites and CubeSats suggest the triumph of quantity, SkyBox and other centers primarily focus on developing data analysis. In your views, what will decide space race in the 21st century? Which method would you vote for if you needed to choose?

(KBS): Naturally, if someone reaches an order of magnitude of a couple meters or couple feet, then it is certainly worth consulting the competent authorities carefully. Here I am only broaching relevant space legal issues concerning remote imaging. We should not forget about spectrum management and space trash which concern us as well.

(GYH): Small satellites have indeed gained a great deal of relevance in the past few years and they also have great potential for the future. They provide solutions for "niche" areas due to their cost efficiency, where giant satellites provided no opportunity before. However, large satellites will not disappear: quite the opposite will be the case. 189

There will always be tasks that cannot be accommodated by small satellites, for instance, high resolution "cameras" with wide angle zooms such as the Sentinel that provide the backbone of remote imaging or large capacity telecommunication satellites. I think I would be delighted if a "win-win" situation emerged and for each task we could select the optimal size satellite or satellite fleet. Thus, we could also reduce space garbage. After all, these satellites do finish their careers at some point. MaSat, for instance, was built and designed by Hungarian university students. Do you also involve university students in this new project, for instance for practical training? (GYH): Naturally, recruitment is of vital importance for us, particularly in this field, partially because it has the greatest added value out of all technologically demanding branches of industry, and partially

because we recently joined the European Space Agency, which could lead to a significant upswing in the industry in the coming years. After all several large space industry companies see great potential in the Hungarian knowledge basis. Our earlier practice was to involve the students relatively early with practice-oriented tasks. Thus, by the time they have their diplomas in their hands they can efficiently join teamwork. Several of our employees have come to us this way and they will be the ones developing the next RADCUBE generations. (KBS): Recruitment is a vitally important area for future space research. Moreover, as there is no education targeted at this area in our country, at present there is a serious lack of engineers and experts who are well-versed in space research. In the coming years, this is likely to get worse, as our country begins ever closer cooperation with the European Space Agency.

GEOCACHING

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Geocaching unites hiking with GPS-technology and disseminating knowledge. In 2000, Dave Ulmer hid a cache in the United States. This is where it all started. Playful tasks that could only be solved knowing relevant, famous geographical points existed even 150 years ago. Geocaching merges this genre of games with an intensive use of GPS receivers. A hidden cache must be found on the basis of geographical coordinates with GPS receivers. As GPS receivers for civilian use are not very accurate, seeking out a particular geocache means a serious challenge even when players do have a GPS device. The first cache in Hungary was hidden in 2011. Today, more than

4,000 geocaches can be found all over the country. So far, nearly 90 thousand players have found 1,341,734 caches, and the game's popularity is growing. Once a cache has been found, anyone can share the personal experiences they had. Thus, the registration homepage becomes a continually growing online guidebook.

4,000th geocache

Source: www.geocaching.hu

Latitude N 47Â° 23,662' Longitude E 16Â° 28,444' Altitude 628 m County/Country: Vas County, Hungary

The game's representative in Hungary is the Hungarian Geocaching Association (MGKE), which runs Hungary's official geocaching website. www.geocaching.hu

Seeking out a geocache is not only about seeking treasures. Rather, we can learn a lot from the descriptions connected to the particular cache. The ancient passion of treasure seekers lies buried in all of our hearts, and it is really fun and exciting to take part in such a game, whether hiding or finding a cache! Adventure awaits!

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CURATING A DIGITAL REPOSITORY WITH THE EDITOR OF WIRED MAGAZINE Author: László Gere

On the occasion of PAGEO Club’s March 10, 2016 event, the chief editor of WIRED magazine's British edition spoke about the kind of future we must prepare for, as well as the most important traits we need to posses when thinking about the future, so that we may successfully orient ourselves in our world that is becoming ever faster. Summarizing his dynamic talk, he claimed that the future cannot be rejected, we must count on change and be able to live with it, even if a large portion of it seems incomprehensible to us. David Rowan is Editor-at-large of WIRED magazine’s, the world's number one technology magazine, UK edition. Under his leadership, WIRED has broken out of traditional publication's constraints and it has been complemented with an ecosystem of conferences and applications, and what's more, with several consulting threads. David Rowan gets invited to personal consultation from London to Shenzhen, China. He is in touch with the most innovative people on an everyday basis, such as the founders of WhatsApp, LinkedIn, BuzzFeed, Spotify and Nest. David is a firm believer that our future is not inscrutable: although the Internet, big data, 3D printing and mobile phones provide inconceivably large opportunities and tremendous risks for us, these can all be analyzed. Technology forces all branches of the industry to continuous renewal. Owing to this pattern, our social and consumption habits are transformed as well. What kind of effects do these technology-led social changes have on us and our place in the world? In addition to WIRED, David also edits GQ's column "Digital Life", and writes under the pseudonym "Tech Traveller" for Condé Nast's business magazine. In the past, he served as the editor of The Guardian, but he also conquered the columns on The Sunday Times,

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The Observer, The Telegraph, and Time Magazine. His influence and professional expertise are underscored by the fact that the British government commissioned David from among tech opinion leaders to act as the curator of the exhibition "British Creative Talent". In his talk, David Rowan spoke about we may form a mental image of the future already in the present day. As WIRED magazine, where he acts as Editor-at-large writes primarily about research institutes that themselves pursue future-oriented research, he shared a few thoughts with the audience about these experiences. First of all, it is vital that we do not regard the future as technological development, but using a different approach: things will become accessible to us that will help us develop our personalities, simplify carrying out our tasks, and connecting us to people who matter to us. Rowan believes that things spread ever quicker and it is this quickened pace that we are increasingly unable to keep up. As an example, he mentioned drones which 10 years ago we regarded as some kind of military weapon (assuming we heard of drones), today anyone can access them, or even own a drone. Amazon is developing its courier drones ever more dynamically, and individual firms attempt to realize self-driving vehicles as an application field for drones. It is nearly incredible what a fast journey the development

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of self-driving vehicles have traveled from idea to implementation. Robotics is also developing at an astonishing speed. Normally a bit of time has to pass before new innovations become widely accessible. The Apple II computer is an excellent example, as are the spread of Internet browsers, which took at least 4-5 years from the first experimental phase to commercialization. This period is getting shorter. Today, in the age of the Internet a good idea can spread more easily and speedily than ever before. DAVID ROWAN SUMMARIZED IN 10 POINTS THE CHANGES WE MUST COUNT ON IN THE FUTURE 1. The world will never move as slowly as again, it will only change faster. From the age of linear changes we enter into an age of exponential changes. (For instance, processors with a unit performance are becoming cheaper; DNA-sequencing is becoming cheaper, and in both cases, the price drop is exponential). This speed may even be dangerous if we are not aware of it - and if we wish to run a successful business. 2. The world of marketing is transformed: the role of users grows when "advertising" products, or artificial intelligence plays an increasingly significant

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role. Artificially created "individuals" send us offers tailored to our personal needs on the basis of our browsing (or online purchasing) history, or ever more companies "employ" artificial intelligence to run their customer service (via chat programs). 3. It becomes ever more difficult to maintain a separation between online and offline worlds. Owing to the widespread use of "smart" products our everyday lives become converted into data. "The Internet of things" is only in a beta phase today, but soon billions of sensors will surround us sending data to the network. 4. Every business will employ artificial intelligence. With artificial intelligence, it becomes possible to execute simulations at a minimal cost that had never before been possible (eg. in city control, traffic control). 5. Today we must think in networks and not in hierarchies. The opinion and agreement of the "crowd" counts, crowdsourcing projects based on community contributions flourish, or sharing economy (today for instance Airbnb accommodates a lot more guests than the Hilton hotel chain, and this without having to change as much as a single bedsheet.)

6. New companies emerge out of nothing wherever we look. New market players appear who can significantly reshape our view about individual industry branches. 7. Design triumphs, everything becomes ever simpler. Those companies survive that satisfy real human demands at the simplest way possible. (For instance, Uber works in a completely automatized way at the most convenient way possible for the customer instead of circumstantial taxicab trips.) This is not only true for companies, there are forward thinking examples of e-governance as well (for instance, there was an effort to make the online public administration portal of the United Kingdom as user friendly as possible and this approach has become fairly popular.) 8. In the future, we will not be using our devices via keyboards, and not through Google glass, but rather through an interface that does not yet exist today. The development of virtual reality is one of the most important innovations today.

9. Security becomes an ever more pressing concern. Everything can be hacked, there are news of hacker attacks every day. 10. The startup company approach will triumph in the future. Companies must be capable of trying something new, failing, and then trying again. Several large companies reorganize their operations, for instance GE operates ever more like a startup company, it is open to new ideas, and if a new innovation comes rushing in the door that seems useful then it is realized. The companies are ever more open to the public telling them what innovation would be attractive to them and they realize the most popular ideas. The presenter summarized his talk by asking us to be prepared, as a new device that will change our way of thinking about the future is sure to arrive, as the iPhone did in 2007. In order to understand the future, it is important to recognize what this new device can change, and we should not judge it on the basis of its physical appearance (or even reject it, as did Steve Ballmer, the ex CEO of Microsoft, for instance, with the iPhone when it came out).

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Referrals From the big world: Book, film, music

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BOOKS WE RECOMMEND put together by: András Hettyei, Ákos Vajas

“THE FUTURE OF CHINA - THE CHINA OF THE FUTURE” William Callahan: China Dreams: 20 Visions of the Future At the end of a thirty-year period, in which breathtaking growth took place in China, William Callahan seeks an answer to what China will be like in the coming decades. This question is all the more current as the President of the People’s Republic of China, Xi Jinping declared in November of 2012 that the "Chinese dream" would consist of the "renewal of the Chinese people". The British expert's book does not focus on Chinese politicians' or wellknown oppositional figures' views, but rather highlights a third group, China's intellectuals. Callahan's volume provides an exciting overview about today's Chinese zeitgeist, the hopes and fears of China's intellectuals. The book also sheds light on how China's youth sees the Chinese model, its sustainability and its future. The author predicts that a collision between the democratic West and China is not at all necessary, as many people think.

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"RUSSIA'S MISSION"

Alexander Dugin: Last War of the World-Island: The Geopolitics of Contemporary Russia President Vladimir Putin's advisor, Alexander Dugin takes a close look at Russia's geopolitical development from the Kievan Rus' up to today's Russian Federation. According to the author, Russia will forever remain the main pole of land powers, which forever damns it to carry on a conflict with sea powers. The current conflict between Russia and the West not only has a geopolitical tinge, but also an ideological one: according to Dugin, today's Russia represents traditional values as opposed to the West's liberal and market-based ideology. Dugin believes that his home country must remains faithful to its Eurasian traditions, and it must prevent that liberalism and globalization undermine the country, otherwise Russia shall forever remain and second rate power, and liberal thought will triumph all over the world.

"THE FUTURE OF THE CHINESE ARMY" Joe McReynolds (Szerk.): China's Evolving Military Strategy Every thirty years the Chinese Liberation Army publishes a strategic document entitled "Science of Military Strategy" (SMS). This comprehensive and detailed work describes how the Chinese army aims to respond to the strategic challenges it sees itself facing, and therefore has great significance for all interested parties. Despite this, in the West only a few know and use this work. It is exactly for this reason that Joe McReynolds's US security expert's work is so important, which describes the foreseeable reforms of the Chinese Army and its future makeup on the basis of the SMS. An internationally renowned expert prepared a comprehensive study about each sector, studies that aid the reader in getting current information about the actual trends of the world's greatest standing army, while at the same time provide a novel insight into Chinese strategic thinking.

"THE PRESENT AND FUTURE OF DEMOCRACY" Ted Piccone: Five Rising Democracies and the Fate of the International Liberal Order The spread of democracy and human rights has been the decisive geopolitical trend of the past thirty years: in 1989, the population of the world's 69 democratic countries reached 2 billion people. By 2015, this number reached 4 billion people in 125 countries. Simultaneously, in the past few years we can observe growing apathy, disappointment and increasing nationalism. Ted Piccone, researcher at the US Brookings Institution, focuses on five countries of the world - India, Indonesia, Turkey, Brazil and South Africa -, where one quarter of the world's population lives. These states have been able to significantly increase their living standards parallel to democratizaton processes, their foreign policy, however, oscillates between and interest-dominated and value-dominated direction. According to his conclusion, events in these five countries will have a key influence on whether the triumph of democracy worldwide continues.

"THE CHANGING INSTITUTIONS OF AFRICA" John James Quinn: Global Geopolitical Power and African Political and Economic Institutions: When Elephants Fight In his volume published in 2015 John James Quinn examines the political and economic institutional structure of African countries focusing on two periods. Before 1990 Africa was characterized by authoritarian or dictatorial rule of the political elite, and their economies were often state-dominated. After 1990, however, a cautious democratization began in most African countries, in the economic sphere privatization and open borders have taken hold. The trends observed in these two periods are inseparable from then dominant international system: from the Cold War and the American-Soviet collision, then US dominance post1990. According to Quinn, both international constellations largely influence African political and economic institutional structures and forced African elites to adapt.

"CHINESE EVERYDAY: THE WORLD OF CHINESE CHARACTERS" CHINEASY EVERYDAY: THE WORLD OF CHINEASY CHARACTERS In March 2014 ShaoLan Hsueh published his book Chineasy: The New Way to Read Chineasy. Since then, the book has been translated into 15 languages, and it has received various design and innovation prices by Wallpaper Magazine, Design Museum, Fast Company and WIRED Japan. The book, which was inspired by the author's child, intends to bridge the differences between East and West through a groundbreaking visual communication method, thereby rendering Chinese character memorization easy and entertaining, for the pictograms are a great deal more enduring and memorable than single words. A sequel to this bestseller came out in March 2016 under the title Chineasy Everyday: The World of Chineasy Characters, which, in addition to the four hundred basic characters found in the first volume makes the learning of a further 400 Chinese characters fun and playful for all age groups interested in the Chinese language.

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FILMS WE RECOMMEND Author: Ákos Vajas

THE SALT OF THE EARTH / LE SEL DE LA TERRE (2015) directed by Wim Wenders, Juliano Ribeiro Salgado In the main roles: Sebastiao Salgado, Wim Wenders, Juliano Ribeiro Salgado, Lélia Warnick Salgado, Hugo Barbier

In the course of the past forty years, the Brazilian born photographer, Sebastio Salgado travelled the continents following the traces of an ever-changing humankind. Salgado originally got his diploma in Economics and started his professional career as an economist. Only later did he become a professional photographer, and started gradually capturing Earth's image in various photo documentation projects: for instance, the Other Americas, and Sahell'Homme en Détresse (1986), An Uncertain Grace (1990), Workers (1993), Terra (1997), Migrations and Portraits (2000) and Africa (2007). During his travels he witnessed the more important historical events and international conflicts of the recent past, and experienced the harrowing effects of starvation and migration via direct contact. After his journey that lasted many many years and proved to be a serious burden on his soul he returned to his homeland Brazil where he started a project

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under the name Genesis, the goal of which was to salute Planet Earth's beauty through the discovery of untouched territories, plants and animals living in the wild. His son, Juliano Salgado and the world-famous director Wim Wenders accompanied him on his last "journeys". The photographer himself presents the details of his last project to the viewers. The film combines film and photography in an exceptional way, reflecting the talent and ingeniousness of Wim Wenders, a star director, a seasoned documentary director (Buena Vista Social Club, Pina). Thus Sebastio Salgado's photos have an incredibly harrowing effect and manage to draw the viewers in even via movie or television screens. It is not surprising that the film has been nominated for an Academy Award in Best Documentary, that it received the Special Prize in Cannes, and that it took home the César for best documentary feature.

Runtime: 110 minutes

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films we recommend

WHICH WAY HOME (2009) directed by Rebecca Cammisa Runtime: 90 minutes

The United States of America is in the process of building a wall between itself and Mexico, which would physically block illegal border transgressions from Mexico into its territory. The film presents immigration not from the point of view of the classical migrant smuggler, or from that of the grownup immigrant, but rather from the point of view of children, who face frightening dangers with astounding courage and inventiveness, so that they can reach the land of opportunities, the United States. In the course of the film its director Rebecca Camissa accompanies children traveling alone, without adult supervision (Kevin, Fito, Yurico, Jairo, Jose, Olga,

Freddy, and Juan Carlos) on the Mexican stretch of a several thousand kilometer journey, where the migrants arrive at the US border with the aid of a freight train nicknamed "Monster". The director not only documents the hardships of the journey, but also provides an insight into the personal motivations of the children, their family backgrounds and their environments via conversations with the children themselves. The story of Honduran born Olga and Freddy unfolds before our eyes, who were trying to get to Minnesota in the US to find their parents. We get to know the ten year old JosĂŠ from El Salvador, who is ultimately abandoned by human smugglers at the

border and ends up in a Mexican detention center, or the tribulations of the sly and adroit 14 year old Honduran-born Kevin, whom his mother let embark on the journey hoping that he son might make it to New York and can send money home from his earnings there. The film sheds light upon the social side of migration (an ever more present current issue) from an exceptional perspective and it does so well. The social issues are presented from a perspective otherwise rarely seen, from the childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s point of view. It is interesting and thought-provoking that the American

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Dream still thrives in people's heads, and that it draws people from the whole of the Southern and Central American continents with such superhuman power. Naturally, we cannot get a full picture of the continent's migration situation through the film, but this was also not the director's intention. Rather, she calls attention to a segment of migration that is rarely focused on: the motivation and the dreams that live in the hearts and heads of the youngest generation, the children. These stories yield many points for deep reflection, and have resulted in a rich harvest of awards and nominations for the film.

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THE STORY OF HUNGARIAN FOLK MUSIC - BÉLA SZILÁRD JÁVORSZKY Author: PAGEO

at once a cultural history, a book for specialists and a great read. On the book's nearly 300 pages, richly illustrated with photographs and punctuated with moving reminiscences, the author's ambition is to guide the reader in getting to know the role, place and values of Hungarian folk and world music by providing an introduction to its socio-cultural roots and background, its various directions, by evaluating the career and works of outstanding performers. The full span of Hungarian folk music is accommodated from the Duo Halmos-Sebő to Csík Band, from Muzsikás to Ghymes, from the Szászcsávás Ensemble to Félix Lajkó. THE AUTHOR OF THE BOOK, JÁVORSZKY, REMEMBERS THE EVENTS AS FOLLOWS: (extract from the Foreword) "When in the summer of 2011 I resolved to write the musical history of the táncház movement that was slowly approaching its fortieth anniversary, I could not know that half a year later the relevant intergovernmental committee of the UN would include the Hungarian táncház method in its list of Intangible Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding. With this move the once narrow, urban intellectual initiative starting from Liszt Ferenc Square, Budapest can be said to have reached its due place which today still attracts hundreds of thousand worldwide. From Toronto to Budapest to Tokyo.

The Story of Hungarian Folk was published by Lajos Kossuth Publishing with the support of PAGEO just in time for the World Music Expo (WOMEX) Budapest, where its book launch took place. Simon Broughton, the editor-in-chief of Songlines magazine payed an important role in preparing the publication's English-language version. It is perhaps not surprising, then, that the renowned magazine reviewed the volume. Published in the February 2016 issue of the leading British world-music magazine, the review accords the book maximum recognition. The appreciative words were penned by one of the great pioneers of the music industry, Joe Boyd. Joe Boyd, the founder of Hannibal Records, released the albums of the Hungarian folk ensemble Muzsikás, with which the ensemble's successful international career began. Boyd was there when Bob Dylan dis-

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covered Pink Floyd in his first electronic concert, and he was also the producer of the R.E.M. album, Fables of The Reconstruction. The first táncház [casual Hungarian folkdance event] was founded May 6, 1972 on the Liszt Ferenc Square book club, and today, this initiative once intended for a narrow circle of professionals attracts hundreds of thousands of people worldwide. Many people have declared the movement anachronistic, reminiscent and simply dead, yet today it is alive and well, and an eminently exportable Hungarian product to boot. Not long ago it was included on the UNESCO's List of Intangible Heritage of in Need of Urgent Safeguarding as the Hungarian model of preserving intangible cultural heritage. The táncház movement’s 40th Anniversary provided the occasion for the publication of the first book that, at last, takes a comprehensive look at the history of Hungarian folk music and world dance, and which is

I discussed the idea with László Kelemen, the director of Hungarian Heritage House - incidentally, I had met him fifteen years ago at the Last Hour Folk Music Collection initiative -, and with "Lujó", aka József Lukács, the founder and owner of Fonó Budai Zeneház. Both of them encouraged me and supported me. As I was progressing with the work, many others came forward to do the same. From Béla Halmos to Ferenc Sebő, from István Berán to Ferenc Kiss, from Gábor Eredics to Péter Éri, from Péter Korniss to Béla Kása. All this encouragement and help gave me the strength to embark upon this daunting adventure. Thus, at last a volume could be created that I had already gravely missed when I had first fallen in love with the movement thirty years ago. My book presents the comprehensive story of Hungarian folk music and world music. Its ambition is to guide the reader as he or she gets to know the role, place and values of Hungarian folk and world music by provid-

ing an introduction to its socio-cultural roots and background, its various directions, by evaluating the career and works of outstanding performers. In the birth and development of "New Wave folk music" Ferenc Sebő and Béla Halmos have doubtlessly played a pioneering role, while the broader world audience got to know Hungarian folk music via Muzsikás. Muzsikás brought Hungarian folk to such impressive concert venues as the Queen Elisabeth Hall in London, Théâtre de la Ville in Paris, or Carnegie Hall in New York. Following their example countless new ensembles formed devoted to conveying authentic folk music, which had discovered more and more new authentic areas of peasant music, such as Téka, Méta, Kalamajka, Ökrös, Buda Folk Band and Tatros. In the meantime, ethnic groups living in Hungary, primarily Southern Slavic groups, also reinterpreted their own folk music roots: Sirtos, Vujicsics, Zsarátnok, Sündörgő and Vizin. Of course, there are those truly authentic peasant musicians, who have themselves become active participants in the Hungarian folk- and world music scene, for instance the Magyarpalatkai Banda, the Szászcsávási Ensemble, János Zerkula, "Netti" Sándor Fodor, and I could go on for days. For some, authentic performance of ancient melodies was not enough. They borrowed and waved in elements of jazz, rock, in accordance with the demands of modern age. As did for instance Vízöntő, a Hungarian band also popular in Italy; Kolinda, which became successful in France and the Netherlands; Makám, that approached folk music from contemporary experimental music and of course, the best representative of folk-rock in the country: Barbaro. Mihály Dresch and like-minded colleagues mixed Hungarian folk and jazz with Afro-American roots. In past decades, this genre has also brought forth its well-recognized soloists, including Márta Sebestyén, Irén Lovász, Kati Szvorák, Bea Pálya, Ági Herczku or Ági Szalóki. In addition to Hungarian and South Slavic folk music, Roma folk music has become well represented (KalyiJag, Ando Drom, Romano Drom, Kálmán Balogh). By the mid-nineties a world music arena emerged which cannot be clearly separated from folk music, continually mixing with it, bringing interesting performers and formations to the fore (Besh o droM,

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Félix Lajkó, Mitsoura). Here we have not even mentioned the newer wave, young people bravely mixing authentic traditions with blues, rock, jazz and electronics, from Buda Folk Band and to Tárkány Works. It is often said each philosophy or ideology is only worth as much as it is practiced. From the point of view of our topic we can interpret this as: each tradition is only worth as much as it is used. So that what was custom long ago and now belongs to the past is not only respectfully and politely copied but rather is reinterpreted according to the current era's demands, pace, temper and aesthetics.

These performers and formations, I really cannot emphasize this enough, all have their place and role in this revival movement, which is now over forty years old. This includes Csík band, which is much derided (and of course much envied) these days in táncház circles, and which, incidentally, concerns me very little. Its present, breathtaking series of successes puts pop stars in its shadow. Their songs are not only up to snuff in táncház environment or on noisy rock concerts, but also at urban teenager's parties and at retired people's club nights. Let us not forget that their bridging role makes them a great deal more important than what and how they actually play. Under their influence tens of thousands turned (if only a little) towards authentic Hungarian folk music. What is more, it is an eminently exportable Hungarian product. It is the Hungarian model of transmitting our intangible cultural heritage that has earned worldwide recognition."

fotó: TEDxDanubia

Let me however also mention an example that is also acceptable to the more orthodox táncház movement members: here is Poros, in my opinion the most promising formation of today's folk music scene. It draws on the past but it always points forward. It simultaneously carries the wisdom of the old and the vitality of the youth. The way these four young musicians play music from the Mezőség or from Szatmár is really almost rock and roll. So, this is why I had decided to write the now forty-year-old Táncház movement's musical story as an outside, but appreciative, spectator sees it. So that not only a narrow circle of experts, but also a broader audience can come to un-

derstand why a once narrowly professional initiative succeeds in attracting hundreds of thousands today. As generation after generation discovers it, only very few leave it behind. Many people have declared the movement anachronistic, backward-looking or, quite simply dead, yet today it is alive and well.

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REFERENCES BRUNO GIUSSANI

EDUCATION REFORM IN INDIA

The interview was conducted on the occasion of Mr. Giussani's lecture in the May 2016 event of PAGEO Club.

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CREDITS EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Norbert Csizmadia

KIADÁS DÁTUMA June 2016.

AUTHORS Appadurai, Arjun Lilla Balogh Alber-László Barabási Zoltán Baracskai Anton Bendarzsevszkij Ráhel Czirják Mihály Csíkszentmihályi Norbert Csizmadia Viktor Dörfler Yaniv Erlich Viktor Eszterhai Sára Farkas Roberto Feldmann László Gere Bruno Giussani Júlia Gutpintér Anna Győrffy András Hettyey Gyula Horváth Péter Klemensits László Körtvélyesi Csaba Mányai Fanni Maráczi Sugata Mitra Eszter Polyák David Rowan Géza Salamin Fruzsina Simigh Károly Balázs Solymár Sandy Speicher István Szilágyi Ákos Vajas Zita Vajda

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With respect to the discovery of gravitation, Isaac Newton was once asked how he could see further than anyone else. He replied: because I was sitting on the shoulders of giants. We should realise that no matter how far we see, how deeply we understand something, all this we can do because we are standing on the shoulders of the previous generations. Mihály Csíkszentmihályi