World Fertilizer November-December 2024 by PalladianPublications

MAGAZINE | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024 Protect assets with superior service and specialty chemical expertise

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CONTENTS

Comment News Opportunities Amid Challenges

Gordon Cope, Contributing Editor, discusses the future of the fertilizer industry in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), and its challenges in an ever-changing global landscape.

Reducing the Footprint of Fertilizer

Deepak Shetty, Rolf Postma, Mahal Patel and Nikolay Ketov, Stamicarbon, the Netherlands, explore how green ammonia, urea, and nitrate technologies can play a crucial role in supporting global decarbonisation efforts when integrated within an efficient fertilizer complex.

Navigating Green Ammonia Production

Abubakar Sohail, Josie Armstrong and Mitchum Bates, AFRY, navigate the interlinked technical and commercial complexities of green ammonia production and the challenges and opportunities for fertilizer producers entering Power-to-X markets.

Peak Season Readiness

Building a Centralised Inspection Team

Reshaping the Fertilizer Industry

Emissions Monitoring: a Moving Target

Seeing in Colour

Driving Water Sustainability

Material Matters: Damage Identification and Inspection

Craig Peppin, FEECO International, USA, shares critical tips for the maintenance and success of a fertilizer granulation plant. Branden Stucky, CorrSolutions, and Grant Howard, The Equity Engineering Group, Inc. (E2G), USA, explore the key roles that make up an effective centralised inspection team and how their collaboration drives plant reliability. Pratibha Pillalamarri, AspenTech, USA, explains how technology-driven growth and digital innovations are reshaping the fertilizer industry. David Inward, SICK, Germany, describes how a continuous emissions monitoring system can best meet regulatory reporting requirements for nitric acid production. James Cross, AMETEK Land, UK, and Tim Tallon, AMETEK Process Instruments, USA, explore the different ways that the production of blue ammonia can be safely optimised. Alessio Liati, Cannon Artes S.p.A, Italy, discusses enhancing water sustainability in the fertilizer industry through water treatment solutions and addresses the growing water and energy demands of ammonia production.

Matthew Bell and Ana Benz, IRISNDT, Canada, discuss temperature equipment service, damage identification and inspection within the fertilizer industry.

Closing the Precious Metals Loop

Christoph Röhlich and Jens Hesse, Heraeus Precious Metals, Germany, outlines how the precious metals loop can be closed through sludge refining.

MAGAZINE | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024 Protect assets with superior service and specialty chemical expertise

ON THE COVER

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COMMENT

EMILY THOMAS, DEPUTY EDITOR

he holiday season is almost upon us, and despite being an adult, I can’t deny the fizz of childlike excitement I feel as December rolls around each year. Yet, amongst the mince pies and tidings of comfort and joy, the season is often associated with footing hefty bills, and as a result, enduring a rather meagre January. Many of us are guilty of splashing the cash in an attempt to manifest a ‘perfect’ Christmas – stocking up on fancy festive food, drink and all the trimmings, forking out to travel and visit relatives, and treating our nearest and dearest to lavish gifts. However, a survey by Go.Compare has revealed that this year, things could be set to change, as UK households vow to reduce their Christmas spend by one third. Matt Sanders, Go.Compare spokesperson, said the survey results “won’t come as a surprise to many, considering the ongoing effects of the cost of living crisis.”1 It seems that this year, Brits will be more carefully weighing up where their pennies are best spent and budgeting for a more modest Christmas. Wednesday 30 October 2024 saw the UK government mapping out its own spending strategy, albeit it on a larger and more significant scale than cutting back on a gift or two. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, Rachel Reeves, presented her Autumn Budget to Parliament, setting out changes to tax, welfare and public service spending. As part of the announcement, a Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) was confirmed. As of January 2027, therefore, imports considered to be heavy carbon-emitters, including fertilizer, will be subject to tax; the plan hopes to prevent ‘carbon leakage’, where sectors relocate production to countries with less stringent climate policies.2 The UK CBAM has been considered a ‘blow’ to already-struggling British farmers who will face paying even higher prices for fertilizer. For smaller fertilizer producers, the tax also brings about an apprehension that a lack of resources to decarbonise production will push them out of the market. However, the initiative also offers a chance for local production to be scaled up and investments into more sustainable technologies and practices to be propelled. While transitioning to lower-carbon production will be both costly and challenging in many respects, it is certainly an exciting prospect that the UK fertilizer industry could be set to pave the way for a more widespread adoption of green ammonia and carbon capture and storage technologies, as producers exporting to the UK will need to turn to these technologies in order to remain competitive. World Fertilizer’s November/December issue delves deeper into the industry’s journey towards net zero. On p. 15, Stamicarbon details how green ammonia technologies can be integrated into fertilizer complexes to help decrease the industry’s greenhouse gas emissions, while on p. 35, AspenTech describes the role of digital solutions in helping to drive sustainability, optimise energy consumption and reduce waste. The fertilizer industry has spoken, and is ready and willing to contribute to the global decarbonisation agenda. 1. 2.

https://press.gocompare.com/news/jingle-bills-over-a-third-to-cut-christmas-spending-this-year https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/autumn-budget-2024-overview-of-tax-legislation-andrates-ootlar/841ddc37-58e0-4d3f-9b53-123e8903d274

NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024 | WORLD FERTILIZER | 3

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WORLD NEWS PARAGUAY ATOME announces Casale SA as EPC contractor for Villeta Project

TOME has announced its nomination for an engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contractor for its 145 MW Villeta Project in Paraguay, capable of producing approximately 260 000 tpy of calcium ammonium nitrate. After lengthy consultations, ATOME has selected Casale SA (Casale), a specialised engineering and construction firm based in Switzerland, as its sole EPC contractor for Villeta. As an experienced licensors of ammonia technologies in the market, Casale will leverage its suite of technologies in fertilizer production and over 100 years of history in sustainable ammonia and nitrates to deliver ATOME’s facility. Villeta is an important project for Casale, representing the world’s largest dedicated green fertilizer facility upon commencement of operations. Drawing on the expertise and in-country knowledge of ATOME’s own team, Casale will employ specialist sub-contractors with experience in Paraguay and South America to support development of the facility. Project finance for the Villeta Project continues to make good progress, with care being taken as the company is determined that the eventual structure delivers material upside for shareholders. In this regard, the company continues to have positive discussions with equity and debt providers for inclusion in the second round of the negotiations which will lead to the final selection of funding partners and completion of the project financing. The company is pleased to report that indicative project debt costs have come in below original expectations due to the project’s development approach, partnerships, and climate impact. This stands ATOME in good stead in its continuing discussions with the equity providers. The company anticipates that a further announcement on this will be provided during the course of the next month. Olivier Mussat, CEO of ATOME, said: “The positive feedback during our project finance discussions and favourable project debt costs further validate the strength of our commercial proposition for our green fertilizer offering. “Nomination of our EPC contractor is one of the final key milestones for our Villeta Project. With over a century of global experience in the sector, Casale demonstrated its expertise, innovation and commitment to sustainability and will be an important strategic partner to realise our flagship project. “Developing solutions to decarbonise hard-to-abate industries can be a complex and lengthy process. However, as ATOME works to deliver for its shareholders by concentrating on a product for which there is existing demand, reaching important milestones like this are important to delivering on our stated targets.” Federico Zardi, Casale CEO, said: “Being appointed as the EPC contractor for the Villeta project is a significant milestone for Casale.” “This nomination underscores Casale’s position as a trusted partner, capable of delivering turnkey solutions by combining our technologies with comprehensive EPC capabilities.”

MOROCCO QatarEnergy enters 10-year sulfur supply agreement with OCP Nutricrops

atarEnergy has signed a long-term sulfur supply agreement with OCP Nutricrops, a subsidiary of OCP Group – a provider of plant nutrition solutions and phosphate-based fertilizers. Under the terms of the 10-year agreement, QatarEnergy will supply up to 7.5 million t of sulfur to OCP Nutricrops beginning in Q324. OCP Nutricrops is a Morocco-based company responsible for developing soil nutrition solutions to address global challenges in food production and sustainability. Commenting on this occasion, Mr. Saad Sherida Al-Kaabi, the Minister of State for Energy Affairs and President and CEO of QatarEnergy, said: “We are pleased to sign this agreement, solidifying our business relationship both with OCP Nutricrops and the Kingdom of Morocco. This agreement marks a significant step in advancing cooperation between our two companies and fostering mutual growth and value for both sides.” This agreement highlights QatarEnergy’s strategy in establishing enduring relationships with reliable leaders in the fertilizer industry, as well as QatarEnergy’s commitment to support the global agricultural sector and greater food security. Qatar is one of the world’s largest exporters of sulfur, with a total production capacity of around 3.4 million tpy, which will further increase with the commissioning of new gas production projects in the coming years.

NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024 | WORLD FERTILIZER | 5

WORLD NEWS NEWS HIGHLIGHTS

New agricultural facility and partnership at Port of Tyne boosts access for farmers Cimbria powers UMEX’s new grain and fertilizer terminals at the Port of Constanta Yara supplies Cooxupé with Brazil’s first batch of lower carbon fertilizer New research shows US agriculture has potential to be greenhouse gas negative

Visit our website for more news: www.worldfertilizer.com

CHINA Clariant installs catalyst technology in Hengli

nitric acid plant

lariant, a specialty chemical company, has announced the successful installation of its EnviCat N2O-S catalyst at the nitric acid plant of Hengli Petrochemical. The technology was installed as part of the company’s global climate campaign, which offered a free load of the N2O removal catalyst to nitric acid producers with no abatement technology. One of the winners of the campaign is Hengli which operates a 300 000 tpy nitric acid plant in Dalian, China. With the successful installation of the catalyst in June 2024, the plant is projected to reduce its N2O emissions by 690 000 tpy of CO2eq. Xaver Karsunke, Vice President of Specialty Catalysts at Clariant, said: “We are honoured to support Hengli Petrochemical in their drive toward cleaner chemical production. Our catalysts not only help companies, like Hengli, to significantly reduce harmful greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), but also to do so in the most efficient and economical manner possible. Partnerships like this are crucial for accelerating China’s energy transition and meeting the country’s ambitious decarbonisation goals.” Aibo Zhu, Plant Manager at Hengli Petrochemical, stated, “We are committed to sustainable and environmentally responsible operations across all our businesses. We are proud to partner with Clariant on this N2O abatement solution to significantly reduce GHG at our large-scale nitric acid facility in Dalian.”

CANADA Genesis Fertilizers expands partnerships

with CARBONCO and Whitecap to develop a low carbon-intensity fertilizer plant

enesis Fertilizers Ltd Partnership has solidified two strategic partnerships to further its vision of developing a low carbon-intensity fertilizer production facility. In collaboration with CARBONCO Pte Ltd, a provider of decarbonisation technology solutions and a subsidiary of DL E&C, and Whitecap Resources Inc., a Canadian oil and liquids weighted growth company, Genesis Fertilizers, plans to implement a carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) solution at its proposed facility in Belle Plaine, Saskatchewan, Canada. CARBONCO is set to provide post-combustion carbon capture technology capable of capturing up to 1 million tpy of CO2. Whitecap’s new energy division plans to manage the transportation and permanent sequestration of CO2 emissions through its Belle Plaine Carbon Hub. The expanded capacity of the proposed facility expects to produce over 1 128 000 tpy of ammonia and nitrogen-based fertilizers, including urea, urea ammonium sulfate (UAS), and diesel exhaust fluid (DEF) (based on current market mix expectations). The decision to increase capacity from 700 000 tpy to over 1 128 000 tpy aligns with North America’s growing demand for low-carbon fertilizers and aims to enhance economies of scale, benefiting Genesis Fertilizers’ Ltd Partners (LPs) through reduced production costs, improved efficiency, and a broad product portfolio. In addition to environmental benefits, the Genesis Fertilizers project aims to deliver a significant economic impact. The proposed facility is expected to create over 1500 jobs during construction and 180 long-term positions once operational. Furthermore, the project is also projected to inject money into the local economy, providing stable demand for logistics, transportation, and maintenance services. The front-end engineering design (FEED) phase is scheduled to begin in the coming months, with commercial operations targeted to commence by 2029.

6 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

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WORLD NEWS DIARY DATES 15th China International Fertilizer Show (FSHOW) 17 – 19 March 2025 Shanghai, China en.fshow.org

The Fertilizer Show 08 – 10 April 2025 Orlando, Florida, USA www.fertilizershow.com

IFA Annual Conference 2025 12 – 14 May 2025 Monaco www.fertilizer.org/event/ifaannual-conference-2025/

Southwestern Fertilizer Conference 13 – 17 July 2025 Nashville, Tennessee, USA www.swfertilizer.org

69th Annual Safety in Ammonia Plants and Related Facilities Symposium 7 – 11 September 2025 Atlanta, Georgia, USA

www.aiche.org/conferences/ annual-safety-ammonia-plants-andrelated-facilities-symposium/2025

ANNA 2025 12 – 17 October 2025 Omaha, Nebraska USA

www.annawebsite.squarespace. com/2025-conference

MEXICO NEXTCHEM (MAIRE) awarded licensing and process

design package to apply its technology in nitric acid plant

AIRE has announced that NEXTCHEM (Sustainable Technology Solutions), through its subsidiary Stamicarbon, has been awarded a licensing and process design package (PDP) for a tertiary abatement unit to be installed at Soluciones Químicas’ nitric acid plant in Minatitlán, Veracruz, Mexico. Stamicarbon will apply its proprietary tertiary abatement technology, an efficient system designed to reduce emissions from nitric acid plants. This technology not only helps to comply with strict environmental regulations but also contributes to global efforts to mitigate climate change by reducing the carbon footprint of nitric acid production. This technology, which is part of NX STAMI NitratesTM portfolio, will be used to provide a tailor-made solution to remove nitrous oxide (N2O) from the tail gas stream, bringing the plant’s environmental status up to current emission regulations. Alessandro Bernini, CEO of MAIRE, commented: “This award underscores our commitment to providing advanced solutions that drive environmental stewardship in the fertilizer industry.”

BRAZIL Atlas Agro and Casa dos Ventos sign agreement to

develop green fertilizer project in Brazil

asa dos Ventos and Atlas Agro have signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) that aims to use wind and solar projects to supply renewable energy for green fertilizer produced using green hydrogen. Located in Uberaba, Brazil, the project is expected to start commercial operations in 2028 with the capacity to produce approximately 530 000 tpy of fertilizer. The plant will require an average of 300 MW of renewable energy, which will be supplied by Casa dos Ventos, for the production of green ammonium nitrate, considered essential for reducing carbon emissions in agricultural production. The agribusiness sector is expected to account for more than 20% of Brazil’s GDP in 2024 and the country is currently the largest global importer of fertilizer, with 41 million t imported in 2023. The project aims not only to produce a more sustainable input, but also to reduce Brazil’s dependence on imports, mitigating supply risks of an essential good for the economy.

USA Biden-Harris Administration makes investments to

strengthen American farms and businesses

he Biden-Harris Administration is making investments that will strengthen American farms and businesses by expanding innovative domestic fertilizer production and increasing independent meat and poultry processing capacity, which will in turn increase competition and lower fertilizer costs for farmers and food costs for consumers. The department is awarding over US$120 million to fund six fertilizer production projects in Arkansas, California, Illinois, South Dakota, Washington and Wisconsin through the Fertilizer Production Expansion Programme (FPEP), which is funded by the Commodity Credit Corp. and provides funding to independent business owners to help them modernise equipment, adopt new technologies, build production plants and more.

8 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

Opportunities amid challenges

Gordon Cope, Contributing Editor, discusses the future of the fertilizer industry in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), and its challenges in an ever-changing global landscape.

he global fertilizer sector is a vital component of agriculture, enabling farmers around the world to feed 8 billion people. However, it is also under immense strain; the Russia-Ukraine war disrupted major supply chains of potash and potassium, and the goal of net zero emissions by 2050 is causing major upheavals in the ammonia sector. In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), major producers and consumers of fertilizers are scrambling to meet both

domestic and export demands. How they are responding affects each commodity in unique ways.

Potash

Prior to 2022, Russia and Belarus were major suppliers to MENA. The subsequent disorder to international trade as a result of the Russia-Ukraine war highlighted the relative scarcity of potash production in the MENA countries; efforts to create mines within the region are now gaining ground. Emmerson PLC, based in the UK, has been promoting the US$2.5 billion Khemisset Potash Project in northern Morocco, located approximately 80 km east of the capital, Rabat. It is seeking to develop an estimated 537 million t of potash with an average grade of 9.24% potassium oxide (K2O). Output from the mine would average 735 000 tpy of muriate of potash (MOP), and 1 million tpy of de-icing salt. Morocco has been experiencing a multi-year drought; in order to address concerns about water consumption, the company has devised a proprietary production method, the Khemisset multi-mineral process (KMP), which treats brine to remove iron chlorides and magnesium by adding phosphate and ammonia, allowing the brine to be recycled. Eritrea is home to the Colluli Potash Project, considered to be one of the world’s lowest-cost sources of sulfate of potash (SOP), with shallow reserves of over 1 billion t. For over a decade, Australian-based Danakali had been advancing the Colluli potash mining project with Eritrean National Mining Corp. (ENAMCO), but in March 2023, Danakali sold its 50% stake to China-based Sihuan Road and Bridge Group for US$121 million. Development of the deposit is complicated by conflicts with neighbouring Sudan and Ethiopia, as well as internal dissent. Jordan’s Arab Potash Co. (APC) produced almost 2.8 million t of potash in 2023. The country’s potash reserves are estimated to be almost 2 billion t. Using mineral-laden water from the Dead Sea, extensive artificial basins are used to produce carnallite evaporites. APC has plans to invest US$1.7 billion over the next five years in order to expand its capacity to meet growing demand in its traditional markets in Asia and the EU, as well as expand into South America.

Phosphates

Russia is a major source of phosphate; prior to 2022, it accounted for 12% of the world’s exports. Although fertilizers were not included in sanctions after Russia invaded Ukraine, subsequent financial controls against Russian oligarchs impacted fertilizer trade and caused prices to spike. DAP prices have since reduced to pre-war levels, but MENA countries are looking to find permanent alternatives to Russian sources. Morocco holds an estimated 32 billion t of phosphate rock, and after China, it is the world’s second largest producer. OCP, the state-owned mining company responsible for phosphate mining and fertilizer production, produced approximately 12 million t of phosphate and blended fertilizers in 2023. The growth in output is due to the commissioning of two new 1 million tpy granulation units at Jorf Lasfar and the development of a greenfield 12 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

chemical complex in Mzinda with a capacity of 4.2 million tpy. OCP has announced a goal of reaching 20 million tpy total capacity by 2027. Egypt’s Misr Phosphate Co. has broken ground on a new 1 million tpy phosphoric acid plant in Abu Tartur in the New Valley Governorate. The site has an estimated 980 million t of ore, grading 30% phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5). Construction of the US$1 billion facility will be undertaken by a Chinese consortium; China’s Wengfu Group, one of the largest phosphate producers in the world, has signed a long-term contract to take approximately 500 000 tpy of the output.

Ammonia

Conventional ammonia fertilizer is produced by a significant number of MENA countries to meet domestic agricultural needs as well as add value to natural gas assets. In the former category, Egypt has an ammonia capacity of over 6 million tpy in order to serve farms along the fertile Nile Valley and Delta. In the latter category, the UAE’s Fertiglobe (now majority-owned by Abu Dhabi National Oil Co., or ADNOC), has a production capacity of 5 million tpy of urea and 1.5 million tpy of ammonia, from facilities located in Egypt, Algeria and the UAE. Qatar, with vast natural gas reserves, is best known for its LNG exports, but the Qatar Fertilizer Co. (QAFCO), produces 3.8 million tpy of ammonia and 5.6 million tpy of urea, primarily for export. While the demand for nitrogen fertilizer is growing at approximately 2% annually, a much larger market for ammonia is emerging. Currently, total worldwide ammonia fertilizer demand stands at approximately 100 million tpy, and is expected to increase to over 150 million tpy by 2050. Under net zero policies being enacted in North America and Europe, however, an immense new market for green ammonia is emerging; by 2050, marine fuels could add 204 million t of new demand, and a further 70 million tpy for power generation. Sensing opportunity, Egypt has grand plans that will someday eclipse its traditional nitrogen fertilizer sector. The country wants to use its abundant solar and wind power, and key location astride world energy transportation routes, to build a low-carbon hydrogen manufacturing infrastructure that will power marine vessels and supply feedstock for green ammonia. In March 2024, the country announced that it had signed seven agreements to build green hydrogen production facilities and related renewable energy plants in the Suez Canal Economic Zone (SCZone), located 100 km southeast of Cairo on the western shore of the Gulf of Suez. The agreements, which amount to approximately US$29 billion in investments, include a deal between Norway’s fertilizer giant Yara and India’s Acme Cleantech which involves the latter supplying up to 100 000 tpy of renewable ammonia. In July 2024, Yara also announced that it would be receiving up to 150 000 tpy of green ammonia from the Misr Fertilizers Production Co. (MOPCO) complex in Damietta, Egypt. The port, located in the Nile Delta,

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150 km north of Cairo, allows Yara to service a spectrum of customers in Europe. Other MENA countries are following suit. The Omani government established Hydrom in 2020 in order to orchestrate its goal of reaching the country’s commitment to net zero by 2050. With a US$49 billion budget and 2300 km2 of land for renewable energy development, the government agency has been setting the pace for the Middle East. n In early January 2023, Oman’s state-owned energy firm, OQ, launched its new ammonia plant in the Dhofar Governorate. The US$463 million plant is designed to produce 360 000 tpy of liquid ammonia. Output will be exported to international markets through the nearby port of Salalah. n In June 2023, Oman awarded a US$6.7 billion contract to South Korea’s Posco Group and partners to build the world’s largest green hydrogen plant. Construction is set to begin in 2028, in the Arabian Sea port of Duqm. When completed, the facility will use up to 25 GW of wind and solar power to produce an estimated 6.25 million tpy of hydrogen. n In May 2024, Hydrom signed two new green hydrogen agreements worth US$11 billion. France’s EDF Group and partners are committing to a 178 000 tpy green hydrogen plant, with an estimated start-up date in 2030. Output from the plant will be used to produce 1 million tpy of green ammonia in a facility to be built in the Salalah Free Zone. n A consortium led by London-based Actis has committed to a project that will produce up to 200 000 tpy of green hydrogen. The output will also be used to produce green ammonia for export. Dubai-based AMEA Power intends to build a 500 MW electrolyser and ammonia plant in the Suez Canal Zone capable of producing 350 000 tpy of green ammonia. The US$2.3 billion project is currently in pre-FEED stage, with an expected final investment decision (FID) in 2025 and a start-up date in 2028. In Saudi Arabia, construction is underway on a green ammonia plant in the NEOM project, a futuristic greenfield development in the country’s northwest, home to abundant solar and wind resources. The US$5 billion plant would produce up to 240 000 tpy, starting in 2026. Air Products, which has a 30-year takeaway agreement, will then ship the product worldwide for use in marine transportation and heavy industry. The output is expected to eliminate approximately 5 million tpy of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In May 2024, Fertiglobe delivered the world’s first certified bulk commercial shipment of low-carbon ammonia to Japan. The ammonia was produced at Fertiglobe’s facility in Ruwais Industrial City, Abu Dhabi. ADNOC is committing up to US$23 billion to develop low-carbon products, including a 360 000 tpy low-carbon hydrogen plant in Abu Dhabi and a 1 million tpy low-carbon ammonia plant in the TA’ZIZ Industrial Chemicals Zone. Traditional fertilizer companies are also focused on green ammonia as a means to reduce their carbon footprint and increase security of supply. In January 2024, 14 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

OCP announced plans to build a 1 million tpy green ammonia plant in the port of Tarfaya, in southern Morocco. OCP is one of the world’s largest fertilizer producers, exporting millions of tons of phosphate per year, but also needs ammonia to meet its blended fertilizer needs. The country has no natural gas production, and recently lost access to imports during a dispute with neighbouring Algeria, so the US$7 billion plant will provide secure access to ammonia when it is completed in 2027.

Challenges

Without a doubt, the greatest problem facing MENA is the myriad of conflicts gripping the region. Iran’s proxies, including Hezbollah in Lebanon, Hamas in Gaza, and the Houthis in Yemen, foment wars that threaten stability in the region. As a result, jurisdictions must divert significant amounts toward defense; analysts estimate that the Middle East spent US$200 billion in 2023 alone on the military, and North Africa a further US$38 billion. These vast sums are diverted from food, medicine, education, infrastructure and social programmes, resulting in civil unrest and high geopolitical risk, which deters international investment. Indeed, even national oil companies (NOCs) seek less volatile regions to underwrite projects; Qatar Energy has partnered with ExxonMobil to build the Golden Pass LNG project in Texas and ADNOC has invested in NextDecade’s Rio Grande LNG project, also in Texas. The hydrogen economy also faces significant roadblocks. The lack of contractual commitment from European utilities and industrial consumers for low-carbon hydrogen is holding back FIDs on many projects. While the EU is advancing infrastructure and incentivising industries and utilities to switch from fossil fuels to hydrogen, the slow pace is obliging project planners to constantly revise plans. Also, the vast sums being invested by cash-flush countries in the Middle East face potential stranding if European countries can tap into reservoirs of white, or natural hydrogen, beneath their feet.

Conclusion

MENA’s fertilizer sector faces significant prospects within the coming decade, as well as daunting challenges. The Russia-Ukraine war underscored the need for secure supplies of potassium, nitrogen and phosphates, pushing their domestic development to the fore in many jurisdictions, including Egypt and Morocco. The growth in net zero carbon emissions around the world is also creating new opportunities for low-carbon ammonia, and national chemical companies and private enterprises are already promising billions in an effort to promote the production of green ammonia as a fuel, and establish international market dominance. The latter comes with a caveat; low-carbon hydrogen and ammonia projects that exist near refineries and petrochemical plants for instance, are being high-graded over projects primarily designed for exports. In the short-term, the fertilizer sector in the Middle East can expect an increased capacity in nitrogen and phosphate facilities (and the development of potash mines), as a result of increased security concerns. In the longer term, low-carbon ammonia usage as fuel in the marine and utility sectors offers growth. Overall, MENA’s fertilizer sector can expect significant growth over the next decade.

Reducing the footprint of fertilizer Deepak Shetty, Rolf Postma, Mahal Patel and Nikolay Ketov, Stamicarbon, the Netherlands, explore how green ammonia, urea, and nitrate technologies can play a crucial role in supporting global decarbonisation efforts when integrated within an efficient fertilizer complex,

onsidering that the nitrogen fertilizer industry is responsible for a significant portion of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, reducing the carbon footprint of fertilizer production is critical. Addressing this challenge is possible through the adoption of sustainable technologies and integrating the latest developments with established industrial processes. Integrated, renewable electricity-powered, low-emission fertilizer complexes could help revolutionise the sector, transforming how the global demand for food supply is met.

The green ammonia process

Developed in 1913, the Haber-Bosch process for producing ammonia is a well-recognised and established technology. By making specific modifications, this process can be utilised to produce green ammonia, efficiently handling the variable supply of feedstock produced with renewable energy. 15

Given the current state of the industry, including the limited supply of electrolysers and the limited availability and higher costs associated with renewable electricity, small-scale green ammonia plants are emerging as optimal solutions. Unlike conventional ammonia production, which relies on fossil fuels, the economy of scale plays a less significant role in green ammonia production. As a result, modular and scalable production offers a promising pathway for early adopters to meet their decarbonisation goals. Stamicarbon, the nitrogen technology licensor of MAIRE S.p.A., has developed a green ammonia technology that enables ammonia production from renewable energy sources with minimal environmental impact. NX STAMI Green AmmoniaTM technology has been designed to create an effective layout for small to medium-sized plants relying on green feedstock, with capacities ranging between 50 - 500 tpd.

MONO PRESSURE TECHNOLOGY FOR

Figure 1. Green technology THE NITRIC ACIDammonia PRODUCTION PROCESS process diagram.

Low-carbon fertilizer production

TAIL GAS

PROCESS COND.

STEAM EXPORT

STEAM

St.

COND AIR

B.F.W.

TO ATM.

NH3 NOX

AIR ACID LIQUID NH3 NITRIC ACID

A Compressor train

D Waste heat boiler

B Burner

E Absorption column

C Tail gas heater

F Bleaching column

G N2O/NOx abatement reactor

DUAL PRESSURE TECHNOLOGY FOR Figure 2. Mono-pressure nitric acid process. THE NITRIC ACID PRODUCTION PROCESS TAIL GAS

TO ATM.

PROCESS COND.

STEAM EXPORT

STEAM

A COND

B.F.W.

AIR

NH3 NOX AIR NITRIC ACID ACID LIQUID NH3

A Compressor train

D Waste heat boiler

B Burner

Absorption column

C Tail gas heater

Bleaching column

This technology employs a high-pressure ammonia synthesis loop, operating at around 300 bar, which enhances the conversion efficiency while reducing the need for expensive refrigeration systems. The process flow, as shown in Figure 1, starts with the make-up gas, a mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen generated from the upstream electrolyser, and nitrogen generation unit. This gas is then compressed in the electricity-driven multi-service reciprocating compressor to a pressure of over 300 bar. The recycled stream containing the unconverted gas is also recompressed to the same pressure. The ammonia converter used in this process is a single-bed axial-flow converter with a tubular design. The feed is pre-heated using the exothermal reaction on the catalyst side, to a temperature necessary for ammonia synthesis. The start-up heater is integrated into the ammonia converter. The elevated pressure enables a more compact reactor and reduces the required catalyst volume, thereby lowering capital costs. The synthesis loop's high pressure allows for single-stage ammonia condensation using cooling water. This eliminates the need for a refrigerating compressor, leading to about 25 - 30% CAPEX savings. Over 70% of ammonia is recovered in separator 1, and part of the uncondensed ammonia is condensed in separator 2. Ammonia can either be produced at a pressurised condition (i.e., 16 - 18 bar) and ambient temperature to be stored in bullets, or instead, it can be produced at ambient pressure and -33°C, to be stored in atmospheric ammonia storage tanks. It can also be stored at any intermediate pressure level as needed.

G N 2 O/NOx abatement reactor

Figure 3. Dual-pressure nitric acid process. 16 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

Using green ammonia directly in urea production can significantly lower the carbon emissions associated with nitrogen-based fertilizers. However, there are other routes that could be more advantageous for certain areas or uses. Ammonium nitrate and nitric acid are the key components of nitrate-based fertilizers that can offer even greater potential for reducing GHG emissions, making them a feasible and attractive option for sustainable agriculture in areas with the right conditions. Most industrial nitric acid is produced through the high-temperature catalytic oxidation of ammonia, known as the Ostwald process, which involves two primary steps: n The oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to form nitric oxide (NO), which is further oxidised to nitrogen dioxide (NO2). n The absorption of the nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in water (H2O) to form nitric acid (HNO3). The NX STAMI NitratesTM portfolio features mono- or dual-pressure designs. In the mono-pressure process (see Figure 2), oxidation and absorption sections operate at the same pressure level. Different pressure levels are used for the oxidation and absorption sections in the dual-pressure process (see Figure 3). The oxidation section is operated at pressures between 4 - 6 bar, while the absorption section operates between 8 - 12 bar, combining the advantages of medium-pressure combustion with the efficiency of high-pressure absorption.

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A key feature of both processes is a heat exchanger network downstream of ammonia oxidation. This setup has several advantages. The heat exchanging network has specific process conditions selected to prevent corrosion and ensure that no expensive materials are required for equipment manufacturing. The nitric acid technology has high energy efficiency and the process is designed to minimise heat losses and maximise heat recovery from the process streams, decreasing steam consumption and, hence, operational costs. Stamicarbon's technology incorporates measures to minimise GHGs and other pollutants' emissions. The use of proprietary tertiary abatement technology allows for the elimination of nitrogen oxides and nitrous oxide, which can be reduced to almost zero, disposing of an environmentally safe tail gas.

An integrated fertilizer complex

As seen in Figure 4, a green fertilizer complex can integrate several units: green ammonia production, a nitric acid plant, a urea solution plant, and an ammonium nitrate solution plant. The integration of processes at the design stage leads to substantial reductions in both CAPEX and OPEX. For example, the oxygen stream from water electrolysis and the nitrogen generation unit can be incorporated into the nitric acid plant, as illustrated in Figure 5. The oxygen used in the nitric acid process can be sourced from electrolysis, reducing the need for conventional air-supplied oxygen. To maintain safety, the ammonia-oxygen mixture must remain below the explosive limit, requiring additional nitrogen, which can be sourced from recirculating tail gas. This approach provides several benefits: n Reduces NOX and N2O emissions by up to 40% through tail gas recirculation.

n Lowers catalyst usage by up to 40% and cuts costs related to compressors and expanders. n More favourable power balance as compressor power is reduced, while steam production increases by over 30%.

Case studies

The most recent example of the integration of Stamicarbon’s technologies is the FertigHy project in France. Stamicarbon, together with NextChem Tech (MAIRE), has been awarded a feasibility study and pre-FEED contract for FertigHy’s first low-carbon fertilizer plant. The plant, expected to start construction in 2027, will help produce 500 000 tpy of low-carbon nitrogen-based fertilizers, using hydrogen from renewable and low-carbon electricity. The NX STAMI Green Ammonia technology and Stamicarbon's nitric acid technologies will help enable environmentally friendly ammonia production and highly efficient nitric acid processing with minimal GHG emissions. Stamicarbon's technology has also been integrated in the Meadowlark Project in Gothenburg, Nebraska. This facility will be the first to integrate such technologies in urea, nitric acid, and ammonium nitrate. Powered entirely by renewable energy, this plant will produce 450 tpd of green ammonia. Down the line, the nitric acid plant will have a nameplate capacity of 330 tpd and will be integrated with a urea section, neutralisation section, and urea ammonium nitrate (UAN) mixing section. The nitric acid plant will operate at a constant pressure of 8 bar, combining absorption and bleaching operations in a single piece of equipment. Due to the absence of a steam turbine, all high-pressure steam is exported and used in other sections of the fertilizer complex. This facility is projected to produce 365 000 tpy of UAN and 146 000 tpy of ammonium thiosulfate (ATS). In addition, the plant will produce 20 million gal. of diesel exhaust fluid (DEF) annually, to cater to the developed heavy-truck transportation infrastructure in the region. The project represents a fully integrated green fertilizer plant that will supply fertilizers for the local farmers while utilising waste CO2.

Conclusion

Figure 4. Integration of green ammonia and nitric acid technologies.

Figure 5. Oxygen integration with nitric acid technology. 18 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

Stamicarbon’s technology for green ammonia production is a process that offers flexibility in managing the intermittent nature of renewable energy, making it adaptable to various energy supply conditions. When combined with the NX STAMI Nitrates portfolio, NX STAMI Green Ammonia is a component in building low-emission fertilizer value chains. The global fertilizer industry can significantly decrease its GHG emissions and revolutionise agricultural methods by combining green ammonia technology with the production of fertilizers, including urea and nitrates.

Navigating green ammonia production Abubakar Sohail, Josie Armstrong and Mitchum Bates, AFRY, navigate the interlinked technical and commercial complexities of green ammonia production and the challenges and opportunities for fertilizer producers entering Power-to-X markets.

he global push for decarbonisation is reshaping the fertilizer industry, creating both significant challenges and exciting opportunities. Green ammonia (ammonia produced using electrolysis and renewable energy) is a crucial element of the emerging Power-to-X markets, sitting at the heart of this transformation. As fertilizer producers enter this space, they face a complex web of technical and commercial obstacles that require innovative solutions and strategic foresight. This article explores the five critical areas fertilizer producers must navigate in the transition to green ammonia: managing renewable energy variability, selecting and financing electrolyser technologies, addressing carbon dioxide (CO2) loss for urea production, adapting to and entering new energy markets, and bridging the cost gap. By understanding these

challenges and exploring success strategies, producers can position themselves in the evolving green ammonia landscape, paving the way to a more sustainable future.

Renewable power intermittency

One of the main challenges in integrating renewable energy sources (RES) into green ammonia production is managing the variability and intermittency of power supply. Power fluctuations occur not only hourly, but also seasonally, which directly impacts the continuous operation of green ammonia plants. Ensuring stable plant performance in the face of such unpredictable fluctuations is critical. Modern green ammonia plants typically operate at a minimum load of 20 - 40%, depending on the technology licensor. However, frequent load adjustments can cause wear on equipment, catalyst degradation, and inconsistent product quality. To address this, AFRY and other engineering firms have developed solutions to decouple the electrolyser from the ammonia plant, allowing the electrolyser to handle power fluctuations while the ammonia plant runs at a steadier load. To mitigate power supply volatility, hydrogen storage can buffer excess hydrogen generated during peak RES production, supporting ammonia synthesis when renewable inputs are low and/or high cost. Additional production optimisation, including partial integration with grey hydrogen and greater hydrogen demand flexibility, could reduce the levelised cost of ammonia by as much as 75%. However, hydrogen or ammonia storage requires substantial investment and careful management of safety measures. Battery energy storage systems (BESS) offer short-term load balancing, but their high cost and limited cycle life

make them only suitable for short-term fluctuations. Hybrid systems combining multiple renewable sources or grid power offer a more stable power supply, but add complexity to plant design, carbon footprint accounting, and product certification. Flexibility solutions also need to be tailored to each project’s specific end-use requirements, including the type of off-taker and local regulations. For example, from 2030, under the EU’s Renewable Energy Directive (RED) II, renewable hydrogen must meet requirements that affect the viability of sourcing from the grid vs building new captive RES, as well as the plant’s hydrogen storage and flexibility in response to hourly-matching requirements. Compliance with these rules adds another layer of complexity, making it essential for producers to stay informed about evolving regulatory landscapes. All these complexities mean that early-stage technology selection, and plant and storage size optimisation exercises, are critical for mitigating Power-to-X project challenges. AFRY’s modelling approach can minimise initial capital expenditure (CAPEX) by up to 20%, while establishing a robust operational philosophy for long-term success.

Electrolyser technologies

A critical challenge in scaling green ammonia production lies in selecting the appropriate electrolyser technology. The three primary options – proton exchange membrane (PEM), alkaline, and solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOEC) – each offer unique benefits and trade-offs.

PEM electrolysers These types of electrolysers are ideal for integrating renewable energy due to their fast response times and high efficiency at partial loads, making them well-suited for intermittent solar or wind power. However, their high CAPEX, driven by scarce materials such as platinum and iridium, poses a high financial barrier.

Alkaline electrolysers

Picture 1: Zoom-in, and Hydrogen & Ammoniaproduction production profile - Optimised case: Trend showing H2 generation profile on Figure hourly 1. Hydrogen ammonia profile. Optimised case:fluctuating trend showing fluctuating basis with stable Ammonia plant load on daily basis.

H2 generation profile on hourly basis with stable ammonia plant load on daily basis. 1

2023-10-25 | COPYRIGHT AFRY AB | HYDROGEN OPTIMISATION TOOL

INTERNAL

Alkaline electrolysers with a lower CAPEX offer a more affordable option, but slower response times and limited flexibility make them less compatible with variable RES.

SOEC electrolysers

Figure 2. Multiple levers across the green hydrogen production system to optimise costs. Picture 2: Multiple levers across the green hydrogen production system to optimise costs

20 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024 1

2023-10-10 | GO TO HEADER/FOOTER TO CHANGE TEXT

INTERNAL

SOEC electrolysers are still in early development, but operate at high temperatures and use waste heat, significantly boosting efficiency. This makes SOEC promising for large-scale green ammonia

production, particularly where heat integration is possible. However, challenges remain in reducing costs, improving ramp-up times, and managing thermal cycling for broader adoption. The trend is moving from alkaline to PEM systems, with expectations that SOEC will play a larger role as the technology matures. This transition requires skilled technical staff for operation and maintenance, highlighting the need for workforce training. Financing the CAPEX commitments required for green ammonia plants, including integration with ammonia synthesis and other equipment and project implementation costs, is a major hurdle, particularly for projects using less mature technologies or start-up technology suppliers. Developers need to consider the track record and performance guarantees of technology suppliers, with a view to reducing the perceived risk from the perspective of investors and lenders. In future, the overall CAPEX requirements should decline. Recent advancements, such as upscaling electrolyser stacks to 20 MW, reducing reliance on precious materials, and automation, are projected to drive down costs by 44% by 2030. Still, achieving cost-competitive green hydrogen – and by extension green ammonia – requires sustained innovation.

CO2 sourcing

The transition to green ammonia production eliminates a vital by-product – CO2 – which is essential for urea synthesis. Traditional ammonia production using gas or coal generates CO 2, which is captured and used in urea fertilizer production. However, green ammonia relies on renewable energy and no longer produces this by-product, forcing fertilizer manufacturers to source CO2 externally. One solution is biogenic CO2, which is CO2 captured from biomass combustion and decomposition. When used in urea production, this could yield a more sustainable fertilizer, ‘green urea’. Whilst biogenic CO2 is carbon-neutral, its availability and cost varies by region. Competition for biogenic CO2 is set to intensify as e-fuels production grows to meet rising demand for renewable transport fuels, and more biogenic CO2 is permanently stored, generating CO2 removal credits. The EU, for example, mandates biogenic CO2 use or CO2 from direct air capture (DAC) for e-fuels production from 2041. DAC – extracting CO2 directly from the atmosphere – offers another option for CO2 sources, but its high costs limit widespread adoption currently. Both biogenic CO2 and DAC represent higher future CO2 costs for urea production, which may prompt substitution away from urea towards nitrate-based fertilizers.

Adapting to and entering new energy markets

Ammonia’s potential as a global energy carrier poses a significant opportunity for fertilizer producers. Ammonia’s high energy density (12.7 MJ/l) compared to liquid hydrogen’s energy density (8.5 MJ/l), plus its existing worldwide transport infrastructure, make it 22 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

particularly suitable for shipping energy over long distances. AFRY estimates that global ammonia trade is set to quadruple by 2050, as it acts as the primary hydrogen carrier, with ammonia cracked back to produce hydrogen for use in diverse energy and feedstock markets, including power, transport fuel, heating and industry. Global transportation of ammonia will require investment in shipping infrastructure (including specialised vessels and terminals) and logistics chains that ensure the safe and efficient transfer of ammonia. Fertilizer producers with existing ammonia logistics or trading capabilities are well placed to participate in these new markets. Brownfield investments in additional ammonia infrastructure should be lower cost vis-a-vis new entrants. For example, in October 2024, Yara opened its ammonia import terminal in Brunsbüttel, Germany, where it had existing export infrastructure. Strategic partnerships between fertilizer companies, ports, technology suppliers, and energy logistics and trading companies in large ammonia infrastructure projects are important to share the associated costs and risks. Ammonia also shows some potential for use in power generation, but to a greater degree as a fuel in maritime shipping, where it is increasingly viewed as a scalable cleaner alternative to traditional fuels. Fertilizer producers face the challenge of entering new energy sectors, which have different demand drivers compared to traditional fertilizer markets. Some fertilizer producers have existing links to fuel markets, for example via AdBlue sales, but others are more unfamiliar with these new markets. Producers must adapt their production and business processes and develop new skills, whilst building relationships in these new markets. Logistics for storing, importing, and exporting green ammonia will vary based on its end use, necessitating tailored infrastructure and distribution strategies. For instance, power generation requires large-scale storage near plants, but the ammonia volumes delivered may be only small and infrequent if the plant acts as back-up generation, which is only used for a small share of the year. In contrast, maritime applications demand specialised port infrastructure with bunkering capabilities and may require regular ammonia supply to meet fuel demand.

Bridging the cost gap

Achieving profitability in green ammonia production is a significant challenge due to the higher costs compared to conventional grey ammonia. AFRY estimates that green ammonia production costs are currently well over US$1000/t for many projects in Europe, more than double the grey ammonia price of around US$500/t on average to date in November 2024 (Northwest Europe CFR basis), creating substantial barriers to market entry. Production costs could be even higher for some. AFRY’s experience with large-scale green ammonia projects highlights frequent cost overruns, often driven by the integration of novel technologies and scaling up of production. The recent increase in capital costs for electrolyser systems further exacerbates the challenge, due

to supply chain constraints and increased demand. Project developers need solid implementation strategies with strong cost and change controls and front-end engineering. Fluctuating energy prices add another layer of uncertainty. While renewable energy costs are decreasing, electricity price volatility can drive unpredictable production expenses if connected to the grid, making power procurement strategies essential. Solutions such as power purchase agreements (PPAs) bring greater price certainty over long periods (typically 10 - 15 years), but also need to be aligned to regulatory and customer requirements to ensure that the green ammonia produced has the desired green credentials. On the pricing side, whilst some have been successful in securing long-term offtake agreements for green ammonia which cover costs, many green ammonia projects report low willingness to pay for green ammonia, e.g. they cannot pass through the additional costs of green ammonia vs grey ammonia to end-users. In order to bridge the gap, green ammonia producers need to target those countries and end-use sectors where there are either incentives or penalties that can bridge the cost gap. Government incentives, such as the US Inflation Reduction Act’s production tax credits, can improve the economics of green ammonia in the short term. Projects need to pursue a range of subsidy schemes at the local, national, and international level. Regulatory penalties, for example, the EU RED III mandate targets may result in national penalties for non-compliance with

renewable hydrogen targets, whilst carbon pricing adds extra costs to grey ammonia. Green ammonia producers also need to pursue those end users that might be willing to pay for the additional value perceived for a low carbon product – e.g. a ‘green premium’. For fertilizer producers this can often be constrained by the corresponding impact on food prices and security. Green ammonia may have more success used in specialty fertilizer offering additional agronomic benefits, and/or for use in brands with aggressive carbon abatement targets, and where ammonia does not contribute to a large share of product cost. Fertiberia, for example, has signed offtake agreements with Heineken and PepsiCo for its Impact Zero premium fertilizer using green ammonia.

Conclusion

The journey towards green ammonia production presents a complex interplay of technical and commercial challenges that fertilizer producers must navigate to thrive in the evolving Power-to-X landscape. As outlined, managing renewable energy variability, selecting appropriate electrolyser technologies and technical expertise, proactive risk management, and innovation, are critical steps in this transition. With careful engineering and plant optimisation, strategic partnerships, targeted subsidies and offtakers, and a proactive approach to regulatory compliance and market adaptation, fertilizer producers can position themselves at the forefront of the Power-to-X revolution, capitalising on new revenue streams while contributing to the global decarbonisation agenda.

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Peak season readiness

Craig Peppin, FEECO International, USA, shares critical tips for the maintenance and success of a fertilizer granulation plant.

otary drums form the basis of most fertilizer production plants, carrying out critical operations such as granulation, coating, drying, and cooling, among other objectives. Keeping these machines running in optimal condition is essential to making it through the busy season, meeting production goals, and minimising unnecessary downtime and costs. As producers prepare to ramp up for the next busy season, it is pivotal to take advantage of slow times to assess equipment condition and address any maintenance concerns before production picks up. This article describes some best practices for making the most out of slow times when it comes to rotary drums.

The off-season opportunity

While proper maintenance procedures and practices should be a priority all year long, slow times offer a unique opportunity to regroup and assess what has worked and

what has not. Prioritising a proactive approach during slow times can offer significant benefits, many of which can be tied directly to the bottom line. Equipment that is operated and maintained according to best practices minimises downtime and promotes lower maintenance and cost-of-ownership expenses, as well as longer life. It also helps to foster a safe working environment, efficient operating conditions, and maximum product quality and consistency. Worn components and small inefficiencies may seem insignificant, but singularly have the potential to add up to major costs; compounded together, these costs can quickly escalate exponentially. Consider the following example: a plant producing 1000 tpd of fertilizer experiences buildup in key process equipment which results in 5% (50 t) of the day’s product being off-spec. At US$300/t, that equates to US$15 000/d. If the issue persists for just ten days, that is 500 t of unsellable product, or US$150 000 in lost revenue. Given the high tonnages typical of the industry, it is easy to see how managing small inefficiencies can have a major impact on the bottom line.

Top maintenance priorities Equipment evaluation Inspections should be a regular part of plant maintenance and upkeep, with personnel conducting a variety of daily, weekly, and monthly checks. Evaluation should also take lubrication into account. To ensure all necessary components are receiving adequate and timely lubrication, lubrication schedules and guidelines should be revisited as needed. While these routine inspections provide a systematic approach to condition monitoring throughout busy production schedules, slow times offer the opportunity to take equipment evaluation a step further. Seasonal shutdowns or downtimes allow equipment to be more thoroughly assessed. Many plant managers take advantage of these times by bringing in the orginal equipment manufacturer (OEM) or other qualified service providers to conduct annual inspections, during which a trained professional takes a variety of measurements and assesses the mechanical condition of the drum(s) both internally and externally. In addition to catching otherwise-unseen issues, these more thorough evaluations provide valuable benchmark data and can assist in future maintenance planning.

Reviewing safety measures It is essential to assess equipment safety and general safety protocols, replace guards as necessary, and ensure that all safety stops, signs, and safeguards are functioning properly. Existing safety standards should be evaluated to confirm they meet regulatory and plant guidelines. Safety protocols should also be reviewed with staff as needed.

Rotary drum maintenance and repair

Figure 1. Rotary dryer during inspection.

If inspections are already part of the plant’s preventative maintenance programme, personnel have likely already identified issues and concerns to address when production slows down. Resolving any previously identified issues and conducting any necessary repairs will help to ensure rotary drums will remain reliable for the upcoming ramp-up in production. Addressing issues preventatively is critical to avoiding costly unplanned shutdowns during peak season. For example, if component failure resulted in just 12 hours of unplanned downtime, a plant operating 24/7 producing 200 tph of fertilizer would incur a loss of 2400 t. At US$300/t, the cost of that single 12-hour shutdown is US$720 000.

Common rotary drum repairs to carry out during the off-season Addressing corrosion and abrasive wear

Figure 2. Fertilizer granulation plant. 26 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

Any areas experiencing corrosive or abrasive wear should be repaired and potentially upgraded to prevent or reduce future wear. High-wear areas should be reinforced with linings or alternative materials of construction and any worn components should be replaced.

Some operations and process areas are more likely to experience corrosion than others. Plants dealing with phosphoric acid must implement stringent measures for monitoring and addressing corrosive wear. Similarly, potash with a high-moisture content is more corrosive, making areas such as discharge from granulation equipment and the dryer inlet prime for corrosive wear, particularly if the equipment was not designed with the corrosive nature of potash in mind. These areas must be properly protected and regularly monitored.

Removing buildup Buildup can create a host of issues, from inefficiencies, to damaged equipment, and even unexpected shutdowns. When production is down, any buildup should be removed from equipment. The cause of buildup should be assessed, and it should be determined whether there is potential to reduce its occurrence in the future. This might include lining areas with alternative materials of construction, reducing places where material could catch and accumulate, or alternatively, making process adjustments that minimise a material’s likelihood to clump and cause buildup. Flexible rubber liners are common for combatting buildup in granulation and coating drums, while external knockers are commonly employed on rotary dryers to dislodge any buildup that might occur. If a material is prone to clumping, a trommel screen or 'grizzly' can be retrofitted onto the rotary drum to assist in breaking up any clumps that may have formed during processing.

Rotary drum realignment Rotary drums may require routine realignment of the trunnion bases depending on operating conditions. Signs that may indicate misaligned trunnion bases include a chattering or vibration noise, as well as wear on tires and/or trunnions. Realignment should only be conducted by a trained professional, ideally with a laser alignment system, which allows for a faster, more accurate alignment. Realignment will also be required after any major repairs, due to changes in base conditions. If a realignment is necessary, it is critical to first identify the underlying cause of the misalignment. If a drum is simply realigned without correcting the root problem, the drum will immediately begin to fall out of alignment again.

Reconditioning worn load-bearing surfaces If tires and trunnions are worn, it is important to address them through resurfacing/reconditioning. As with alignment, grinding must also be conducted by a trained professional with specialised equipment, but can restore these load-bearing surfaces to a like-new condition. In cases of severe wear or damage, replacement may be the only option. As tires and trunnions can have long lead times, their replacement should be prepared for well in advance to minimise unnecessary downtime. Ideally, replacements will have been ordered well in advance and the replacement process scheduled to coincide with a planned shutdown.

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Training the drum for float

Repairing breeching seals

Most rotary drums are designed to 'float' between thrust rollers, which prevent a drum from drifting along its longitudinal axis. Operators and maintenance personnel should regularly monitor float, observing tire contact with both uphill and downhill thrust rollers, and adjusting as needed. While some contact is permissible, it is ideal for a rotary drum to float between thrust rollers without contact. A rotary drum with a tire riding hard against either thrust roller is often a sign of misalignment and will require ‘training’ at a minimum. Often, this can be achieved with minor bearing adjustments to bring the drum back into proper float. However, this process should only be conducted by an experienced technician, as the potential for significant damage from small incorrect adjustments is high.

It is critical to repair worn or damaged breeching seals, especially when it comes to rotary dryers. These machines are designed to run at a negative pressure, so if breeching seals are worn, there is potential for air ingress. This would increase fuel costs, decrease efficiency, and potentially impact product quality. It is advisable to consider that a dryer with a worn breeching seal could result in increased fuel costs. At a theoretical increase of 5%, a plant with an annual fuel bill already at US$1.5 million would incur an additional US$75 000 in costs.

Repairing or replacing internals (flights, liners, spargers) If inspections of the drum’s interior have revealed worn or damaged internals, these should also be repaired or replaced. This might include changing out worn flights in rotary dryers and coolers, replacing worn rubber liners in granulation drums, and repairing spargers in granulation drums utilising a chemical reaction. Nozzles and spray system components showing any wear or damage should be assessed and repaired.

Addressing shell damage While shell issues are less common, they have the potential to escalate quickly into major problems. Any identified issues with the shell such as warping, thin spots, cracks, or otherwise, should be taken seriously and addressed as quickly as possible.

Implementing retrofits (knockers) Slow times are also a good time to schedule any necessary retrofits, such as knockers on dryers or granulation drums if material is sticking to the inside of the shell.

Skills and safety training

Figure 3. Side-mounted pneumatic hammer knocker retrofitted onto a granulation drum.

Slow times offer the opportunity for staff to brush up on safety procedures, operational skills, maintenance practices, or other certifications and continuing education. Some OEMs offer training programmes designed for maintenance personnel and operators of rotary drums to improve their understanding of operations, enhance maintenance skills, and increase troubleshooting capabilities.

Inventory management When the production plant is humming it can be easy to forget to properly document spare parts use, leaving inventory records messy and inaccurate. The off-season can be used to re-inventory the stock of spare parts and ensure wear-critical parts are on-hand, so no time is wasted in acquiring a replacement. The spare parts vendor should be re-evaluated if needed to ensure timely and reliable delivery of necessary components.

Implementing a preventative maintenance programme Figure 4. Replacement trunnion wheels. 28 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

If the current maintenance programme is lacking, the slow time should be used to identify areas of

improvement, or find a service provider that suits the needs of the plant and can work with the team on a preventative maintenance programme. One especially effective option for fertilizer plants is the use of dynamic inspection programmes, which takes a systematic approach to managing maintenance needs at facilities with multiple rotary drums. An inspection schedule is set based on the plant’s unique operating conditions and the number of drums. At the predefined intervals, each drum receives a ‘dynamic’ inspection, during which the drum remains in operation. At the same time, one pre-selected drum is shut down for a more thorough static inspection. This provides an extremely efficient approach to catching problems early and streamlining maintenance for multi-drum sites.

Considering a process audit If the process is underperforming (unable to reach rated capacity, producing an excessive amount of off-spec product, or otherwise), bringing in an expert to conduct a process audit when production is slow can offer significant benefits. These types of evaluations offer the opportunity to improve efficiency and product quality so that when things pick up, the process is running as efficiently as possible.

Beyond rotary drums

While rotary drums are certainly the focus of most granulation plants, it is important not to overlook ancillary equipment as well. Inspecting and repairing handling

equipment such as belt conveyors and bucket elevators is a beneficial practice. It is important to check for belt or chain wear, assessing tension and confirming alignment. Worn or damaged buckets should be replaced as needed, and proper alignment and tracking of the bucket chain/belt assembly ensured. Proper lubrication in the drive motors and reducers should be verified. If the plant employs pin or pugmill mixers, these should be cleaned out and assessed, replacing any worn or damaged internals (pins or paddles) as necessary. Drive components should be properly aligned and lubricated.

Conclusion

Proactive maintenance during slow times is not just an option but a necessity for fertilizer production plants relying on rotary drums. By thoroughly evaluating equipment, addressing wear and inefficiencies, and implementing preventive measures, producers can safeguard against costly downtime and lost production during the busy season. These efforts extend the life of critical machinery, optimise operational efficiency, and ultimately protect the bottom line. The small improvements made during off-peak periods can yield substantial financial benefits, ensuring that when production ramps up, the plant is ready to meet demand without interruption. The examples provided here demonstrate how avoiding downtime, inefficiencies, and quality issues, along with extending equipment life and improving energy efficiency, can lead to significant financial benefits in an increasingly competitive market.

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Branden Stucky, CorrSolutions, and Grant Howard, The Equity Engineering Group, Inc. (E2G), USA, explore the key roles that make up an effective centralised inspection team and how their collaboration drives plant reliability.

lant reliability is an operational goal across the fertilizer industry. With a sophisticated network of machinery, corrosive environments, and safety standards, owner-operators must ensure that all assets are functioning at peak efficiency. To achieve these optimal levels of reliability and efficiency, plants need a centralised inspection team. This indispensable group will catch issues before they escalate and ensure the continuous and safe operation of the plant. Long term success is dependent upon a team that understands the

nuance, limitations and overall capabilities of their equipment. This article will explore the key roles that make up an effective centralised inspection team and how their collaboration drives plant reliability. It will also discuss how external expertise can supplement these efforts, without overshadowing the essential need for a strong on-site team.

The importance of a well-rounded on-site team The foundation of any successful inspection programme is the team. A centralised, well-rounded group of professionals ensures that all aspects of plant reliability, from corrosion monitoring to regulatory compliance, are handled with expertise and precision. Having an on-site team also ensures continuity. While external experts can offer valuable perspectives, they often lack context and historical knowledge of the plant’s operations. This embedded understanding, gained from working in the plant day in and

day out, allows an in-house team to maintain its focus on long-term goals, even while managing short-term inspections and maintenance demands.

Key roles in a centralised inspection team

A well-functioning inspection team is a blend of specialised expertise, collaboration, and strategic oversight. The following describes how key roles within a team can interact to create a comprehensive asset management strategy.

Inspection coordinator: the strategic planner The inspection coordinator is the team’s anchor, responsible for ensuring that every inspection is scheduled and aligned with the plant’s broader operational and regulatory goals. This role goes beyond logistics to encompass strategic planning. The coordinator works closely with corrosion engineers, non-destructive testing (NDT) technicians, and data analysts to create inspection plans that are forward-thinking and adaptable. Importantly, the inspection coordinator gathers and organises information from all team members to ensure that high-risk equipment is prioritised. By keeping an open line of communication across all plant operations, the inspection coordinator will ensure that inspections cause minimal disruption to production schedules. Additionally, the inspection coordinator manages the entry and organisation of all inspection data within the inspection data management system (IDMS) or asset integrity management system (AIMS) and keeps a comprehensive record for future planning and regulatory compliance.

Figure 1. An efficiently operated ammonia and nitrogen fertilizer plant will be a safer and more reliable facility.

Figure 2. A well-rounded on-site team is comprised of individuals with expertise in plant reliability, corrosion monitoring, inspection and maintenance programmes and data analysis.

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Corrosion engineer: the technical expert Within a fertilizer plant, equipment is constantly exposed to chemicals and extreme temperatures which increases the risk of corrosion and other damage mechanisms. The corrosion engineer is the team’s technical expert, who is responsible for identifying damage mechanisms, assessing their impact, and recommending practical mitigation or prevention strategies. By collaborating with NDT technicians who gather data and the inspection coordinator who ensures timing aligns with

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operations, the corrosion engineer can pinpoint areas of concern. These findings are key for creating repair schedules, developing long-term equipment maintenance strategies, and predicting where future issues may arise based on current trends. Corrosion engineers also play a pivotal role in risk-based inspection (RBI) programmes, helping to optimise inspection intervals and focus efforts on equipment with the highest risk of failure. Their input ensures that resources are deployed where they will have the greatest impact on reliability. Often, there are only a few fertilizer plants that employ on-site corrosion engineers. As a result, many owner-operators rely on the expertise of third-party contractors to fill this gap. External corrosion engineers provide the benefit of supporting many facilities and bringing tribal knowledge from many different locations. A strong on-site team will integrate these recommendations into their plant reliability strategy.

NDT technicians: the data gatherers NDT technicians are experts who conduct physical inspections of equipment and other components. Using methods like ultrasonic testing (UT) and radiographic testing (RT), they will assess the integrity of materials without causing damage. Their work is the foundation for all subsequent analyses, as the raw data they gather is used to make informed decisions about equipment health. NDT technicians are critical to the on-site team’s success because they can focus inspections on the high-risk areas identified by corrosion engineers. They work closely with the corrosion engineer to ensure that the data collection is targeted, efficient, and effective. Prior to conducting inspections, NDT technicians must coordinate with plant operations to ensure inspection activities do not disrupt production or cause unexpected downtime. Upon completion, the NDT technician enters the data into the IDMS or AIMS, where it becomes part of the plant’s long-term asset management strategy.

Mechanical integrity specialist: the systems integrator The mechanical integrity specialist takes a holistic view of the plant’s assets. They ensure that all equipment, including pressure vessels, piping, or mechanical components, meets industry standards for safety and performance. As a deeply interconnected resource, the mechanical integrity specialist relies on the data from NDT technicians and corrosion engineers to assess the overall health of plant equipment. In addition, the mechanical integrity specialist ensures that inspection plans align with regulatory standards (e.g., API 510, ‘pressure vessel inspection code: in-service inspection, rating, repair, and alteration’ or API 570, ‘piping inspection code: in-service inspection, rating, repair, and alteration’) and provides strategic oversight when it comes to balancing short-repairs with long-term reliability.

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Data analyst: the insight generator The data analyst transforms raw inspection data into actionable recommendations that help to guide the team’s decision-making process. By applying statistical techniques and predictive modelling, they can identify trends and patterns that are often overlooked. This data driven approach allows the team to move from reactive maintenance to proactive, predictive maintenance strategies. Another important aspect in the data analyst’s role is managing the IDMS or AIMS and ensuring that all inspection data is organised, accessible, and ready for future analysis. Their work allows the inspection team to anticipate future issues before they occur, thereby reducing the risk of unplanned downtime and optimising inspection intervals.

Plant operations liaison: the bridge between teams The plant operations liaison coordinates inspection and maintenance activities to minimise disruption, such as scheduling inspections during downtime or low demand periods. By facilitating communication between the inspection team and plant operators, the liaison helps ensure that safety protocols are followed and that any inspection findings impacting production are addressed quickly. The liaison is also responsible for relaying operational priorities back to the inspection team, which helps to tailor inspections to satisfy the plant’s immediate needs without compromising any long-term goals.

The role of external support

Even with a fully staffed and competent in-house team, there will be times when external support is needed. Contractors bring specialised knowledge or additional personnel to support large-scale inspection projects. External companies can offer expertise in a multitude of areas, such as advanced corrosion modelling, risk-based inspection techniques or expertise in advanced engineering like fitness for service, that may not be available in-house. However, it is important to view external support as a complement, not a replacement, for the core inspection team. External experts bring fresh perspectives and specialised knowledge, but they cannot replicate the intimate understanding of a plant’s unique environment that an in-house team provides. Therefore, the greatest value external support offers, is its ability to enhance, rather than replace, the work of the on-site team.

Conclusion

A centralised inspection team, working collaboratively with plant operations, is the foundation of fertilizer plant reliability. Each team member, from the inspection coordinator to the data analyst, plays an important role in ensuring the safety, performance, and longevity of plant assets. While external support can augment the team’s efforts, the real strength lies in the collaboration and expertise of a well-rounded on-site team. With the right team in place, companies can achieve compliance and long-term operational success.

Pratibha Pillalamarri, AspenTech, USA, explains how technology-driven growth and digital innovations are reshaping the fertilizer industry.

Reshaping The Fertilizer Industry I

n the world of agriculture, fertilizers are indispensable. As the global population surges, and the demand for food rises, we will see a growing need for more efficient and sustainable fertilizer production. According to the market research firm Technavio, the fertilizer market is estimated to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 2.52% between 2022 and 2027, with the market forecast to increase by US$27.19 billion during that timeframe.1 Despite the positive prognosis of market growth, companies operating across the fertilizer market are faced with a number of significant challenges that have the potential to hold their progress back.

The challenges

Supply chain efficiency is an ongoing concern. Droughts, floods, and extreme weather events can significantly impact crop yields and fertilizer demand. Reduced crop yields can lead to lower demand for fertilizers, while floods can disrupt transportation infrastructure and impede fertilizer distribution. Added to this, political conflicts and trade disruptions can impact the supply of raw materials for fertilizer production. For instance, conflicts in major fertilizer-producing regions can restrict access to essential resources like natural gas and potash. 35

Labour shortages in the agricultural and manufacturing sectors can hinder fertilizer production and distribution, negatively impacting supply chain efficiency. Scarcity of skilled labour can delay fertilizer production processes and limit the availability of workers for transportation and logistics. Fertilizer quality is another continuing concern. Low-quality fertilizers can reduce crop yields and increase the risk of nutrient deficiencies. Additionally, the use of contaminated fertilizers can introduce harmful substances into the food supply. Ensuring safety is another major challenge across the sector. Fertilizer production and use both involve hazardous materials and processes. The production of ammonia, for example, involves the use of high-pressure hydrogen and nitrogen. Additionally, fertilizer storage and transportation can pose risks if not properly managed. Finally, there is a range of environmental challenges that fertilizer companies are aware of and are actively looking to address. These companies are at the forefront of addressing the pressing environmental challenges associated with fertilizer use. Nutrient runoff from agricultural fields can lead to eutrophication, threatening aquatic ecosystems and diminishing water quality. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from fertilizer production contribute to climate change, exacerbating extreme weather events and disrupting crop yields. Soil degradation, fuelled by excessive fertilizer application, reduces soil fertility, compromising crop productivity and long-term land sustainability.

The advent of digital

In addressing these challenges, fertilizer companies are increasingly turning to digital technologies. Digitalisation, once a buzzword, is now a cornerstone in the modernisation of fertilizer manufacturing. This transformative journey is not just about adopting new technologies; it is about reshaping the entire ecosystem of production to meet the dual demands of efficiency and sustainability. As the digital revolution becomes a reality, technology is reinventing one of the world's most essential industries in multiple ways. The integration of digital technologies in fertilizer manufacturing marks a significant departure from traditional practices. Central to this transformation is the Internet of Things (IoT), which connects physical assets to digital networks, enabling real-time monitoring and data-driven decision-making. IoT's impact is profound. According to a report by Future Market Insights, the IoT in the manufacturing market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 14.7% during the forecast period. The market is anticipated to attain a value of US$948.6 billion by 2033.2 Digital technologies, particularly digital analytics and advanced process control are proving to be game changers in addressing the myriad of challenges faced by the fertilizer industry. By adopting these technologies, companies are not only enhancing their operational efficiency, but are also tackling critical issues ranging from supply chain disruptions to environmental concerns.

Gaining value from the data

There is a growing focus on gathering and utilising data insights in the fertilizer industry. For example, Nutrien, a large fertilizer company, recently used AspenTech Inmation in collaboration with AWS to extract data from equipment across its facilities. This data was then centralised in a data lake on AWS, enabling access across the organisation for advanced analytics use cases. This approach 36 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

helps improve throughput and productivity, predict equipment failures, and fosters a new level of analytical insights.

Leveraging digital analytics for enhanced supply chain management

Supply chain disruptions, whether caused by natural disasters or geopolitical issues, can have a cascading effect on the fertilizer industry. Digital analytics offer a robust solution to this problem. By harnessing the power of big data and predictive analytics, companies can gain valuable insights into supply chain dynamics, anticipate potential disruptions, and develop strategies to mitigate them. For instance, predictive analytics can help in forecasting demand fluctuations caused by environmental factors, enabling companies to adjust their production and distribution strategies accordingly.

Advanced process control for quality assurance and safety

The quality and safety of fertilizers is paramount. Advanced process control (APC) systems play a critical role in maintaining these standards. Through real-time monitoring and control of production processes, APC ensures consistent quality and optimises the use of raw materials, thereby reducing the risk of producing low-quality or contaminated fertilizers. Furthermore, the safety aspect, especially in the handling of hazardous materials like ammonia, is significantly enhanced through APC systems, which can monitor process parameters and provide early warnings to prevent accidents.

Digital solutions for environmental challenges

Addressing environmental challenges is a key priority for the fertilizer industry. Digital technologies, including IoT and AI, enable companies to monitor and manage their environmental impact effectively. For example, digital tools can be used to track nutrient runoff and implement precision agriculture techniques, thereby reducing the risk of eutrophication. Additionally, digital solutions can optimise the use of fertilizers, minimising soil degradation and preserving soil health over the long term.

The key role of asset performance management

Asset performance management (APM) systems are increasingly recognised as vital tools for addressing the different challenges facing the fertilizer industry today. APM solutions empower maintenance, reliability, process engineers, and operations teams by delivering real-time visibility into process and equipment health, along with early and actionable insights for faster decision making to prevent disruptions. They closely monitor multiple operating parameters, detect behavioural changes among these variables, and identify leading indicators to predict process or equipment risks. Such solutions ensure assets stay available, meet quality targets, and estimate the financial impact of risks for cost clarity. By integrating APM into their operations, companies can significantly enhance efficiency, manage risks, and optimise performance, overcoming many of the hurdles that impede their progress. One of the most pressing challenges in the fertilizer industry is the optimisation of supply chain operations. APM systems can play a crucial role here by utilising predictive analytics. These systems analyse data from various points in the supply chain to forecast potential disruptions, such as those caused by extreme weather

events or political conflicts. This foresight allows companies to implement contingency plans, minimise disruptions, and maintain a steady supply of raw materials and finished products. For instance, predictive analytics can forecast the impact of a drought on crop yields and subsequently on fertilizer demand, allowing companies to adjust production and distribution plans accordingly. APM also contributes significantly to maintaining and enhancing fertilizer quality. Real-time monitoring of production processes ensures that the final product meets the required standards. This is crucial for maximising crop yields and profitability. APM systems can detect anomalies in the manufacturing process that may lead to quality degradation, allowing for immediate corrective actions. This capability is vital for avoiding the production of low-quality or contaminated fertilizers, which can have detrimental effects on crops and, ultimately, the food supply. The manufacturing of fertilizers involves handling hazardous materials and high-risk processes, making safety a paramount concern. APM systems enhance safety by continuously monitoring equipment and associated operating and process conditions, identifying potential equipment risks before they lead to accidents. For example, in the production of ammonia, APM can monitor pressure and temperature conditions, ensuring they remain within safe limits to prevent hazardous situations. APM can also detect and provide alerts on potential equipment issues weeks or even months in advance, prescribing corrective action to prevent unplanned equipment outages.

How digital solutions drive sustainability

Sustainability in fertilizer production is not just an environmental imperative; it is a business necessity. Digital technologies are at the

forefront of this sustainable transformation. By leveraging advanced simulation technologies, manufacturers can create more efficient production processes that conserve resources and reduce waste. Energy management systems, another key digital tool, help to optimise energy consumption, a critical factor in the high-energy process of fertilizer production. The integration of digital technologies in waste management ensures that the fertilizer manufacturing process is not only efficient but also environmentally responsible. APM systems also contribute to environmental sustainability, a significant concern for fertilizer companies. By optimising production processes, APM reduces resource consumption and waste generation. Advanced simulation technologies within APM systems enable manufacturers to model and refine processes for maximum efficiency, leading to significant reductions in energy use and GHG emissions. For instance, by optimising energy consumption in high-energy processes, companies can significantly reduce their carbon footprint. APM's role in waste management is also critical. By monitoring and optimising waste treatment processes, these systems ensure that waste is managed efficiently and sustainably, contributing to the overall environmental responsibility of the fertilizer industry. An APM solution collectively provides extensive coverage of asset and process health management, contributing to sustainability by reducing downtime, product loss, resource and energy inefficiencies, and excess inventory. It stands as a comprehensive solution for optimising operations and ensuring long-term profitability.

Future trends and innovations in digital fertilizer manufacturing

As we look to the future, the digital transformation of the fertilizer industry is poised to accelerate, with several emerging trends and innovations shaping its trajectory. These innovations and trends collectively point towards a more efficient, sustainable, and productive future for the fertilizer industry, driven by digital transformation and technological advancements. AI and machine learning are set to revolutionise fertilizer manufacturing by enhancing resource allocation, decision-making, and supply chain management, while continuously refining production processes with real time data. IoT technology, with sensors and connected devices, will streamline the fertilizer manufacturing process by providing data from raw material input to final product quality. This extensive data collection will enable more precise control over production variables, leading to higher quality products and more efficient use of resources. Digital twins (virtual replicas of manufacturing processes) will enable enhanced simulation and analysis, improving production efficiency. Advancements in predictive maintenance, real-time monitoring, and enhanced safety and risk management, will likely become key in strategic decision-making. The integration of APM with emerging IoT technologies and sophisticated big data analytics will revolutionise real time operational monitoring and analysis. This synergy is expected to foster more insightful and data-driven decision-making, streamlining operations for heightened efficiency. APM's role in process optimisation and resource conservation will also be critical in minimising the environmental

footprint of fertilizer production, ensuring adherence to stringent emission standards and judicious use of raw materials. Additionally, safety and risk management will see transformative changes through APM. The fertilizer industry, known for its handling of hazardous materials and complex processes, will benefit from APM's enhanced monitoring capabilities. These advancements will proactively identify potential safety hazards, significantly mitigating the risk of accidents and safeguarding both personnel and the environment. Operational excellence, another cornerstone of APM's future role, will witness a surge in production line efficiency, product quality enhancement, and optimisation of operational levels to bolster output and profitability. Strategically, APM will evolve into an indispensable tool for strategic decision-making. Fertilizer companies will increasingly rely on the data analytics from the technology to identify market trends, predict demand changes, and adapt strategies in order to stay competitive.

Conclusion

The digital transformation of the fertilizer industry, driven by AI, machine learning, IoT, and APM, marks a fundamental shift towards more efficient, sustainable, and safer manufacturing processes. These technologies are addressing current challenges and are shaping a future of enhanced productivity, environmental sustainability, and operational excellence. As a central player in global agriculture, the fertilizer industry is poised for a new era of digital-driven innovation and transformation.

References 1. 2.

www.technavio.com/report/fertilizers-market-analysis www.futuremarketinsights.com/reports/iot-in-manufacturing-market

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EmissionS Monitoring: A Moving Target David Inward, SICK, Germany, describes how a continuous emissions monitoring system can best meet regulatory reporting requirements for nitric acid production.

he current focus on greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction to mitigate the effects of global heating and climate change is driving radical changes in what, until recently, could be considered stable, long-standing fertilizer production processes. Fundamental ammonia production changes are based around utilising renewable energy sources to produce hydrogen (H2) from water or adding a carbon capture unit as a means to substantially reduce the carbon footprint compared to conventional ammonia (NH3) production from natural gas. Nitric acid (HNO3) is another vital feedstock in the nitrogenous fertilizer value chain, which produces the unwanted GHG nitrous oxide (N2O). N2O has a global warming potential (GWP) 273 times stronger than carbon dioxide (CO2). HNO3 production is already benefitting from the successful implementation of process optimsations and

abatement technologies which combine to significantly reduce its environmental impact. These innovations, coupled with ongoing developments in reporting requirements, are placing additional demands on the continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS) used as the basis for reporting pollutant emissions to air.

Historically, the environmental focus for HNO3 production has been the need to measure and report NOX emissions to atmosphere i.e. the combined sum of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The advent of selective catalytic reactor (SCR) DeNOx technologies, based on dosing NH3, has brought about an additional need to measure NH3 slip.

Therefore, the N2O concentration measurement must be combined with a volumetric flow measurement to express the N2O mass emission in units of kg/h. For a single continuous emissions monitoring system to facilitate reporting of both ELVs for NOX (NO + NO2) and NH3 together with the N2O mass emission, the following characteristics are needed: n Continuous measurement of the pollutant target gases NO, NO2, NH3 and N2O under raw/wet conditions as the basis for expressing a mass emission. n Continuous measurement of reference parameters O2 and water vapour to express pollutant values according to emission limit values. n Inclusion of a volumetric flow measurement as part of the mass emission requirement.

Emissions limit values

Application overview

Emissions monitoring regulations

Global legislation typically sets prescribed ‘normalised’ emission limit values (ELVs) for these components, in units 'mg/Nm3', which should not be exceeded. To prove compliance with ELVs, the raw measured concentration values must be re-calculated with respect to standard values for temperature (273.15 K) and pressure (1013 mbar), expressed dry basis (0 vol.% H2O) and according to a defined oxygen (O2) concentration, in the case of HNO3, 3 vol.% O2. This implies that in addition to the pollutant concentrations of NO, NO2 and NH3, both O2 and water vapour must also be continuously measured, unless water is removed before analysis.

GHG gas reporting

In contrast, reporting GHGs such as N2O is based upon a mass emission.

Based on the combustion of NH3 in air, the tail gas composition resulting from HNO3 production is quite unique. It follows, therefore, that applying a conventional emissions monitoring technology may not be the best fit. NOX generated from combustion of NH3 in air come directly from the NH3 feedstock. This explains why the NO:NO2 ratio in the tail gas contains an unusually high proportion of NO2 (40 - 50%). Such a high proportion makes the NO2 measurement every bit as important as the NO measurement and demands a technique where both NO and NO2 are measured directly. The use of NOX converters is therefore not recommended, firstly since the NOX converter catalyst charge would need regular replacement, and secondly as any residual NH3 in the background gas can be oxidised to produce NO, causing the NOX analyser to read high. NO2 gas is readily water soluble. Any analytical method that removes water vapour prior to analysis to measure a dry sample gas should be avoided, since a truly representative measurement of NO2 will not be possible. Finally, the potential presence of NH3 in the sample gas, either due to incomplete combustion in the primary furnace during start-up, or due to the dosing of NH3 as the basis for an upstream SCR/DeNOX unit, means that allowing the sample gas to cool (below 150°C) can result in the formation and deposition of ammonium nitrate salts. Salt formation in the sample system creates severe problems in the form of blockages.

The influence of abatement systems

Figure 1. An ultrasonic flowmeter.

40 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

The advent of DeNOX and DeN2O abatement systems has added complexitX to the continuous emission monitoring task. Their desired impact is to significantly reduce concentrations of N2O, NO and NO2 down to very low concentrations (N2O, NOX < 10 ppm) which demands very high measurement sensitivity. However, the monitoring system must retain flexibility to continue to measure much higher target gas concentrations for circumstances when the plant is in start-up condition or if the NOX/N2O abatement unit is in bypass.

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Furthermore, the abatement systems result in a need to measure further components. SCR DeNOX abatement systems dosing NH3 need to measure the NH3 slip, in case excess NH3 is being dosed. NH3 is extremely water soluble, so again, any analytical method which removes water to measure a dry sample gas is incompatible with measuring NH3. NH3 is also a very reactive gas with a ‘sticky’ nature. This causes it to adsorb on the inner surfaces of sample systems and on the inner walls of analyser measuring cells. Special care is needed to ensure that a representative measurement can be achieved. Modern HNO3 process abatement systems not only target a reduction of NO/NOX emissions, but look to minimise the N2O mass emission. One N2O abatement technology doses natural gas to chemically reduce N2O to nitrogen (N2). However, one of the implications is that dosing natural gas leaves residual concentrations of methane (CH4), carbon monoxide (CO)and CO2 in the tail gas. Each of these are of relevance themselves as GHGs, so including their measurement within the emissions monitoring scope is needed. A fitting design is needed to fulfil the continuous emissions monitoring task for a modern HNO3 plant, which: n Avoids solubility issues relevant to NH 3 and NO 2. n Avoids cooling the gas to avoid (ammonium nitrate [NH4NO3]) salt formation. n Has the capability to capture additional components (CO, CO 2 and CH 4). n Has the flexibility to measure target species NO, NO2, and N 2O with a wide dynamic range according to steady-state and process start-up/upset condition. n Includes a volumetric flow measurement.

Hot extractive analysis system

The design base of a hot extractive analysis system is to maintain the sample gas at an elevated temperature (typically 200°C/390°F) above its dew point temperature to keep the sample gas in the vapour phase and avoid the potential for corrosion and blockage problems in the sample lines or analyser. The hot extractive analysis system does not remove water vapour to dry the gas prior to analysis. One major benefit this offers is the capability to measure water-soluble gas components such as NH3 and NO2. The sample is drawn from stack to analyser by means of an ejector pump mounted within the hot extractive analyser. Vital to the integrity of the hot extractive sample system is the absence of any single unheated point or ‘cold spot’, such as the interconnection between two heated sampling elements. The hot extractive analysis system is therefore kept as simple as possible, with only three principle elements, namely a sample probe with a heated filter element, a heated sample line, and hot extractive gas analyser with integral ejector pump. 42 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

One major benefit of this simple system design is a very low maintenance requirement and minimal cost of ownership.

Hot extractive multi-component infra-red analyser

Like the sampling system, the hot extractive infra-red (IR) analyser is also maintained at the same elevated temperature (typically 200°C/390°F). The hot extractive IR analyser design has a powerful multi-component capability; a single analyser is able to measure all the components of relevance for the HNO3 emission monitoring task. Since water vapour is not removed prior to the analysis, but is retained in the sample gas, it must be measured for two reasons. Water vapour is itself an IR active gas and should be measured to dynamically cross-compensate any interfering influence on the measurement of target gas species. Secondly, the measurement of the water vapour concentration is needed so that target gas concentrations can be re-calculated and expressed on a dry basis to refer to normalised emission limit values.

Analyser zero/span validation

One important regular task to be performed on any emissions monitoring analyser is a regular measurement validation check. This is usually done by means of applying zero (N2) and span (known concentration of target gas in N2) calibration gases. Regularly performing the calibration check with multiple calibration gas bottles becomes increasingly complex and costly, especially when some are difficult to handle, such as NH3 due to its ‘sticky’, hygroscopic nature. The SICK MCS200HW hot extractive analyser features an alternative zero/span validation method which does not rely on calibration gases. Instead, with zero gas (clean, dry instrument air) flowing through the analyser, optical calibration filters can be moved into the optical path between the light source and detector. The calibration filters simulate the presence of a known concentration of any measured component being in the measuring cell. This alternative to the use of calibration gases greatly simplifies the zero/span validation check. This method is part of the analyser approval (EN 15267).

The ultrasonic flowmeter

Reporting GHGs as a mass emission (units kg N2O/hr) requires the N2O concentration measurement to be combined with a volumetric flow measurement. An ultrasonic flowmeter is ideally suited to the task of providing a reliable, precise measurement of volumetric flowrate. A pair of sender/receiver units are mounted on either side of the emission stack at a precisely defined angle to the flow. Flow velocity is measured based on the difference in transit times for the ultrasonic signals to cross the duct, since one set of signals is accelerated by travelling with the flow of gas, whereas the converse is true of the ultrasonic signals travelling against the gas flow.

The cross-duct design measures representatively across the entire flow profile in the stack, yet has minimal direct contact with the flowing medium, resulting in the ideal combination of a high-performance technology, but one that needs negligible maintenance support. Stack diammeter and cross-dimensional area allow the flow velocity to be converted into a volumetric flow-rate, corrected for temperature and pressure.

Current market drivers: GHG reporting

The use of fiscal carbon trading schemes strongly influences expectations of the continuous emission monitoring system used as the basis for reporting the N2O mass emission. Within the European Union (EU) Emission Trading Scheme (ETS) directive, one significant requirement with regards to the reporting of the N2O mass emission, was that the reporting concept has to be based on measurement. A vital element of EU GHG reporting requirements is the need to reach a pre-defined level of measurement uncertainty. In order to attain the uncertainty performance of 5% for reporting an N2O mass emission, the uncertainty performance of the gas analysis system measuring the N2O concentration and the volumetric flow meter need to be combined together. The final N2O mass emission measurement uncertainty is defined by the ‘QAL 2’ procedure, when a certified third-party laboratory performs the on-site calibration of the CEMS in comparison with standard reference methods. The uncertainty performance of gas analysers for measuring N2O coupled with volumetric flow meters is of increasing relevance. Within the EU, a key market driver of N2O mass emission has been the rapid increase in the traded price of CO2e/t over the past two years. This has resulted in an increasingly fiscal mindset being applied to the technology used to report the N2O mass emission. The lowest certified N2O measuring range and best in class uncertainty performance for N2O and flow measurement offer direct fiscal benefits.

Conclusion

The use of highly efficient abatement systems to reduce emissions of NO, NO2 and N2O from HNO3 production is a positive example of the fertilizer industry significantly reducing its impact on the environment. The rapid increase in the CO2e price in the EU carbon trading scheme has resulted in N2O abatement projects and mass emission reporting taking on increasing financial relevance for HNO3 producers. Beyond fundamental performance parameters, it is vitally important that continuous emissions monitoring technologies are of a design base which provides high reliability to reach availability requirements and of a design simplicity, requiring minimal maintenance support to drive down cost of ownership.

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Seeing in colour ptimising combustion and ensuring tube integrity in steam methane reformers (SMRs), the predominant hydrogen production route for ammonia synthesis, can help to maximise efficiency and safety and play an important role in the global movement towards decarbonisation. Increasingly, governments and corporations around the world are evaluating their role in protecting the climate by reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions – particularly carbon dioxide (CO2). Nevertheless, combustion, one of the main sources of CO2 emissions, will remain essential for power and heat across many industries. The steel, cement, fertilizer, and chemical industries, for example, are especially challenging to decarbonise, as are mobility solutions including ships, airplanes, and automotive vehicles. Recognising that combustion processes will remain important in our future, large-scale decarbonisation initiatives have developed a number of solutions. For example, carbon capture methods allow carbon to be removed from the flue gas emissions generated by combustion. Alternative methods of heat production are also being investigated. Electrification is just one way to generate heat in place of combustion, though this is not suitable where very high temperatures are required. Additionally, hydrogen fuels can generate heat without creating CO2 emissions. Much of the industrial energy transition is focused on migrating to hydrogen fuels and their production, so a huge investment in new hydrogen infrastructure has been seen. Hydrogen-based fuels have been positioned as the low/zero-carbon fuel of the future driving this transition, and partnerships for blue hydrogen production (where CO2 is captured and stored) and green hydrogen production (where there is a net zero emission of CO2) will bring down costs for blue/green ammonia fertilizer producers. Throughout this transition, SMRs provide the essential backbone of modern-day hydrogen and ammonia production, manufacturing

James Cross, AMETEK Land, UK, and Tim Tallon, AMETEK Process Instruments, USA, explore the different ways that the production of blue ammonia can be safely optimised.

more than 95% of the world’s hydrogen, 55% of which is consumed by the ammonia industry. However, much of this installed base is looking to reduce its CO2 footprint and optimise its processes for near-term emission targets – with safety in mind. Increasing the efficiency of both new and existing SMRs is now an essential consideration in decarbonisation. This article will focus particularly on existing assets, looking at ways to increase efficiency, and maintain flexibility and safety. Existing SMRs can achieve efficiency gains to safely decarbonise. One way to accomplish this is by lowering oxygen levels to reduce emissions, though this does create safety margin risks. While carbon capture systems offer a long-term emissions Figure 1. Overlay of the efficiency losses caused by excess oxygen and reduction strategy, efficiency gained by the SMR by combustibles, which reveals an optimal combustion control point. can reduce near-term emissions within the operator’s control.

SMR combustion safety and efficiency

SMRs are widely used in hydrocarbon processing applications. The process requires combustion to heat the reaction tubes, converting methane and steam – via a catalyst – into hydrogen. Combustion is critical to delivering the temperatures required. A range of burner configurations exist, including down-fired, side-fired, terrace-fired, top-fired, and bottom-fired, but the same principles apply in each case. For further elaboration, this article will highlight two key principles for SMR combustion safety and efficiency: combustion optimisation, and tube wall temperature (TWT) monitoring.

Combustion optimisation

Figure 2. Single point handheld pyrometers are used to measure TWTs across a range of fired heaters.

Figure 3. Low tube metal temperatures observed near to the floor of the reformer.

46 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

Based on the ‘fire triangle’, combustion requires three things: oxygen (usually from the air), fuel, and heat. Remove any one of these, and a flame cannot be created. Any combustion process will be incomplete to some extent, and this creates combustibles (typically in the form of carbon monoxide [CO] and hydrogen). Incomplete combustion may be a result of poor mixing of the air and fuel, changing load conditions, malfunctioning burners, or variable fuels. When it comes to operating fired processes, the theoretically perfect combustion reaction is known as stoichiometric combustion. This is when the air-fuel mixture is at the ideal level for the fuel and oxygen to react and create CO2 and water with perfect efficiency. In SMR applications, it allows the maximum useful heat to be transferred to the tubes. In the process of stoichiometric combustion, there is no excess oxygen to be measured, as all the available oxygen is fully consumed in the reaction. However, in reality, operations are usually performed in conditions of slight excess oxygen in the flue gas – typically 2% – as a safety margin. This inevitably leads to the generation of low-level combustibles. On the other hand, oxygen-deficient (or fuel-rich) conditions produce

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high levels of combustibles and can be very dangerous, as well as being much less efficient. Therefore, measuring excess oxygen by itself becomes very important in ensuring a safe operating set point for combustion. However, when it comes to optimising combustion, additional information is needed. If excess oxygen levels are too high, more fuel is also consumed, causing greater levels of CO2 and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions. This is where measuring combustibles provides a critical secondary reference point for optimisation. Combustibles are very high when there is little excess oxygen but eventually stabilise after a certain ‘breakthrough’ point (Figure 1). Above the breakthrough point, combustibles are too high for safe operating conditions and pose a safety concern. However, below the breakthrough point, the combustibles gradually decrease with added amounts of excess oxygen. By measuring excess oxygen and combustibles together with a combustion analyser, operators can lower their excess oxygen levels while also monitoring to ensure that they are safely below the combustibles breakthrough point. The result is optimised combustion – a lower, more optimal excess oxygen set point that drives lower fuel consumption at the burner and fewer emissions at the stack.

TWT and the effect on tube lifespan

When excess oxygen in the combustion reaction is reduced, the level of combustibles increases. However, this also increases the TWT in the SMRs, so lowering the excess oxygen too much can result in damage to the tubes themselves. An accurate measurement of TWT is very important for optimised operation, safety, and maximising infrastructure assets. Typically, the operating window for TWTs is between 300 - 1300°C (572 - 2372°F). Exceeding this temperature is above the design limit of the tube and will shorten its lifespan. Falling below this range, on the other hand, will lead to a loss of production. Measurement accuracy, through proper data correction, is key: reading inaccurately high can lead to high methane slip (inside of the tubes from the SMR reaction), as the process is not running at the expected temperature and the catalytic reaction is lower than it should be. This will increase unwanted emissions. There will also be a margin loss, via low plant load/yield, as the methane is not used optimally in the reaction. An inaccurate high temperature reading can also lead to operators chasing false alarms, investing time and resources into fixing issues which do not exist. Conversely, an inaccurate measurement that is lower than the real temperature will create safety and reliability issues, as the tubes may become damaged or ruptured. This loss of reliability will damage margins again. If the measurement is off by 20 - 30°C, it can affect tube lifespan by as much as 10 years.

Carbon formation in SMR tubes

One of the major causes of overheating tubes, and ultimately inefficiency, is carbon. Carbon formation on the inside of the tube can be caused by a number of factors, 48 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

including a low steam-to-carbon ratio (i.e. a rich process gas), heavy hydrocarbons in the feedstock (which occurs more often as gas wells approach the end of their useful life), issues with the catalyst or loading, insufficient purging of residual hydrocarbons prior to restart, or a complete loss of steam. Additionally, when catalyst activity drops, the tube inside wall and process gas temperature both increase, so the carbon formation rate exceeds the carbon gasification rate. Carbon formation inside the tube is normally visible as hot bands on the reformer tubes. Once carbon is formed, it reduces the inside tube wall heat transfer coefficient and the inter-pellet heat transfer coefficient. As the active nickel sites are covered by carbon, reducing their temperature, catalyst activity is reduced. Carbon formation also leads to an increase in resistance to flow through the affected tube – a pressure drop. This decreases the heat sink available and further increases the TWT. When a single tube overheats, it can lead to a runaway reaction where its higher temperature radiates onto nearby tubes, often leading to batches or banks of multiple overheated tubes. To counter this, producers will reduce firing around these tubes but, in order to maintain productivity, will increase the general level of firing, resulting in reduced overall efficiency and a higher risk of overheating tubes elsewhere in the SMR. To remove the carbon formed on the interior of the tubes, producers will reduce temperatures and steam the tubes. This carbon gasification process produces significant volumes of CO2. Reducing the severity of coking and hot bands can therefore have a significant impact on general efficiency.

Optimising TWTs

The cost of replacing damaged tubes is significant. One customer reported a 12-fold return on investment (ROI) when overheated tubes were identified. The cost to replace the tubes would have been US$80 000, along with US$300 000 lost opportunity avoidance (hydrogen available for hydrotreaters). Additionally, 22% of equipment failures in the ammonia industry causing shutdowns have been identified as involving the primary syngas reformer, and more than half of those failures involve TWT excursions. By optimising TWT, hydrogen producers have reported a 2% increase in production, all while continuing to operate under safe conditions within their integrity operating window. For spot temperature measurements of the tube wall, a handheld pyrometer can be used effectively (Figure 2). This is an infrared pyrometry-based instrument operating at multiple wavelengths and is usually used manually, though values can also be recorded wirelessly. The small spot size means that a lot of the furnace can be covered with a single instrument, with readings typically taken at an emissivity of one and adjusted during analysis to find the corrected temperature. The peep-door cooling effect must be understood prior to measurements being taken with a pyrometer fixed on multiple tubes. It can lead to a huge variety in reported results, from negligible effect to 40°C differences and 45 minute recovery times, depending on furnace and ambient conditions. Another instrument which can form part of the suite of tools for understanding how an SMR is operating is a thermal

imager, developed both as fixed solutions to automate TWTs and as portables to enable surveys and inspections while drawing on the wide-angle field of view benefits of borescope technology. The portable system uses an air-cooled lens to keep the tip temperature below 80°C and a range of lengths, lenses, wavelengths, and accessory options are available to support specific applications. For example, a narrower lens provides more resolution on tubes further away from the peep door, while a wider-angle lens allows more tubes to be viewed in a single scene. Once the data has been collected, operators and inspectors can use corrected data from thermal images, supported by gold cup and portable pyrometer information, to create a thermal profile of the fired heater. This helps to identify the hottest and coldest tubes, allowing operators to improve balance and efficiency, and reduce the risk of tube failure. It can also support monitoring for air leaks in the tubes. Fixed thermal imaging cameras can be installed on the furnaces – with water or air-cooling – to provide continuous, full or partial coverage of the reformer. The number of cameras required depends on the SMR design. Data from these cameras allows real-time TWT monitoring and alarming, for continuous optimisation.

the bottom of the reformer tubes due to air ingress caused by poor insulation, therefore bringing the tube temperatures within the range of metal dusting (Figure 3). The phenomenon is well understood but difficult to predict, although it may be more common in methanol plants where the CO content at the outlet of the reformer is high. By creating a single ROI on a tube where flame impingement was suspected, a temperature deviation in the region of 30°C was observed. An online burner inspection could then be performed that rectified the issue before the tube could overheat any further. In the second, air ingress at the reformer tube inlet is proven by data that shows tube temperatures way below what should be seen.

Conclusion

Combustion remains important to industry, despite global efforts to reduce carbon emissions. Hydrogen offers a low-emissions fuel alternative, and much of its production is driven by existing SMR facilities. Combustion optimisation in furnaces reduces excess oxygen levels in the flue gas, lowering fuel consumption and reducing CO2 emissions, while also monitoring for safety. Accurate thermal imaging of TWTs helps to ensure there are no hot spots in the tubes, further supporting uptime and safety. Overall, a combined understanding of flue gas analysis and TWT temperature data allows SMR operators to improve balance, efficiency, and combustion safety.

Use cases

When using the portable furnace thermal imaging system in 2023, a large steam methane reformer operator measured low tube wall temperatures at

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Driving water sustainability Alessio Liati, Cannon Artes S.p.A, Italy, discusses enhancing water sustainability in the fertilizer industry through water treatment solutions and addresses the growing water and energy demands of ammonia production.

ith a world population that exceeded 8 billion people in 2023 and a food chain that relies on fertilizers for more than 50% of its global production, the fertilizer industry is placing a growing burden on the natural resources it relies upon, now and for the future. For decades, the manufacturing of fertilizers, particularly ammonia – a key component of nitrogen-based fertilizers – has been highly energy-intensive. Over 90% of ammonia is produced

from fossil fuels, consuming 3 - 5% of the natural gas employed for ammonia synthesis. Ammonia production is also one of the most water-intensive processes, although this issue is less debated. Water plays a crucial role at every stage of the fertilizer production process. The primary method for ammonia synthesis involves reacting nitrogen and hydrogen at high temperatures and pressures in the presence of iron-based catalysers (the Haber Bosch process): N2 + 3H2 → 2 NH3.

While nitrogen originates from air distillation (air is 78% nitrogen), hydrogen production is undoubtedly the most water-intensive process. Over 90% of hydrogen produced for ammonia synthesis is still produced from fossil fuels. The primary feedstock is natural gas, which is converted into hydrogen through the steam methane reforming (SMR) process: n Steam reforming: CH4 + H2O → CO + 3H2. n Water gas shift: CO + H2O → CO2 + H2. n Overall: CH4 + 2 H2O → CO2 + 4H2.

The stoichiometric ratio of the reforming process is 4.5 t of water per ton of hydrogen. However, water is not just a feedstock in these chemical reactions; it also generates steam and serves as a cooling medium. Steam generated from water often powers turbines in manufacturing plants. It is estimated that water consumption ranges from 6 - 13 t of water per ton of hydrogen just for hydrogen generation, resulting in a net water consumption of 2 - 3 t of water per ton of ammonia.

Water consumption increases significantly when the hydrogen generation process is adjusted to remove the reaction's most important byproduct – carbon dioxide (CO2) released into the atmosphere. The two primary options to mitigate the release of CO2 are electrolysis or coupling SMR with a carbon capture and storage (CCS) process to separate, sequester, and store the CO2. The importance of water management in this industry cannot be overstated. Ammonia is not just the main building block of the fertilizer industry but is becoming one of the major energy carriers, given the difficulties of shipping liquefied or compressed hydrogen worldwide. Efficient water use helps reduce the environmental footprint of fertilizer plants, lowering their consumption of natural resources and minimising waste discharge, which is harmful to local ecosystems. Controlling water quality and availability is equally vital for operational efficiency, as water purity directly affects the performance and longevity of plant equipment, such as boilers, reactors, and heat exchangers. Cannon Artes has developed a range of solutions to meet the specific demands of the fertilizer sector, including desalination systems, demineralisation processes, and condensate recovery technologies. These systems are designed to optimise water reuse, reduce wastewater generation, and ensure a reliable supply of ultra-pure water for critical production processes. Fertilizer manufacturers can enhance their operational efficiency and align with sustainability goals by minimising their environmental impact.

Mexico's new ammonia plant

One of the latest projects in the fertilizer sector involved collaborating with a global leader in natural gas-derived products. The project scope included constructing a 2200 tpd anhydrous ammonia plant in Mexico. Cannon Artes worked closely with the

ammonia process licensor and the engineering contractor to meet the project's technical requirements. Three key packages were supplied for the facility: n A demineralisation system featuring two treatment lines that processed desalinated seawater, each with a capacity of 90 m3/h. n The key unit in the water recovery philosophy: a condensate polishing system arranged on six trains of mixed-bed exchangers, allowing full recovery of contaminated process condensate, and mixed with demineralised water through advanced ion exchange technology. The polishing unit produces ultra-pure water for the critical ammonia synthesis processes. The system’s capacity is 12000 m3/day, achieving an 82% saving in demineralised water consumption. n A thermophysical deaerator with a capacity of 499 tph, designed to remove dissolved gases from process water to ensure optimal boiler performance. These components contribute to the plant's long-term operational efficiency and support the client’s sustainability objectives. The new project in Mexico comes just months after the successful start-up of a Turkmenistan integrated water and wastewater treatment system.

The largest fertilizer plant in Turkmenistan

The largest fertilizer production facility in Turkmenistan symbolises the country’s ambition to leverage its vast natural gas resources for global agricultural needs and exemplifies the scale and complexity of modern fertilizer production. Situated in the northwest of Turkmenistan on the shores of the Caspian Sea, the plant addresses the country's growing demand for fertilizer and solidifies its position as a key player in the global agricultural market.

Leveraging natural resources for fertilizer production

Figure 1. River water treatment plant for a fertilizer production complex.

Figure 2. Thermophysical deaerators. 52 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

Following the economic boom, the Turkmen government is implementing a plan to enhance the value of natural gas by converting it into nitrogen-based fertilizers. The installation of a fertilizer plant is in line with the strategy of giving extra value to the area. The plant, employing at least 700 people, will allow a relevant increase in the export of fertilizers in response to the growing demand for agricultural food. Designed and realised by Cannon Artes’ engineers and technicians, the water treatment plant is part of the vast complex, installed in a 10 000 m2 building (170 m long and 60 m wide, 1.5 times a football field), and it includes multiple stages: pretreatment, desalination, demineralisation, condensate polishing, and wastewater treatment. High-salinity seawater is transformed into ultra-pure demineralised water, suitable for feeding high-pressure boilers. The desalination system is fed with Caspian Sea water to produce demineralised water through several steps. When seawater is used as feedstock, the plant’s capacity is 300 m3/h; when the return steam condensate from the process is used, it is 230 m3/h. Such a plant is crucial in the complex, as fresh water is unavailable, and the water necessary for the process and utilities is sourced exclusively from the Caspian Sea. Desalination is achieved using reverse osmosis (RO) technology, where water is pumped across membranes that are permeable to salt-free water, while a concentrated stream containing all the salts is then returned to the sea.

Challenges of seawater desalination

The system’s design also had to account for the fact that seawater is a ‘live’ environment, rich with algae and microorganisms. A key element in seawater desalination is the pretreatment, designed to prevent the fouling of the RO membranes. In the pretreatment section, seawater (after being mixed with coagulant and hypochlorite) is sent to dual media filters, arranged on a double pass with different filtration rates. Filtered water is then mixed with an antiscalant and dechlorination agent and fed to cartridge filters before the RO system. Due to seawater's high salinity, it has to be pumped at high pressure to overcome the osmotic pressure and achieve an acceptable water recovery rate.

Advanced water polishing and ion exchange

Medium-voltage electrical motors and variable frequency drivers (VFDs) are implemented to manage the high pressure (around 70 bar-g), the large capacity, and the need to optimise the operational efficiency with the actual required flow. On the other hand, the desalinated water from the RO section proceeds to the demineralisation system for the removal of residual ions. The system is arranged in two trains, one cationic and one anionic vessel. Polishing is the final step for the water treatment system. Before feeding the boilers, the demineralised water from the demineralisation section is mixed with the recovered steam condensate coming from the process. It undergoes a further treatment with mixed bed exchangers to remove traces of ions and reach an electrical conductivity close to that of theoretically pure water. Dissolved silica is also reduced to parts per billion. By recovering the full flow of contaminated steam condensate, the polishing section saves freshwater consumption significantly, which otherwise could only be obtained through desalination. Another key factor considered during the design stage was the accurate selection of materials. Seawater, particularly its chloride content, creates a highly corrosive environment.

Wastewater treatment and environmental impact

The supply also included a wastewater treatment plant composed of a de-oiling system based on a corrugated plate interceptor to remove oil and suspended solids from the contaminated rainwater. A neutralisation system capable of adjusting the pH before discharge was also used. Cannon Artes combined these water treatment technologies into a single, integrated, cohesive system. Moreover, the company was able to adapt the plant during construction in response to emerging environmental requirements.

Conclusion

The projects in Mexico and Turkmenistan add to deliveries to the fertilizer industry, which have spanned from Qatar to Egypt, the US to Argentina, Bangladesh to Nigeria, and from Turkey to Pakistan in the last 10 years. Cannon Artes’ recent projects have boosted their presence in the fertilizer industry. The work on the projects in Mexico and Turkmenistan demonstrates how advanced water treatment can boost efficiency while reducing environmental impact. By optimising water use and minimising waste, companies can help their clients achieve their sustainability goals without compromising production performance.

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Matthew Bell and Ana Benz, IRISNDT, Canada, discuss temperature equipment service, damage identification and inspection within the fertilizer industry.

igh temperature alloys are essential for fertilizer facilities. They resist the high temperatures and corrosive fluids demanded by the service and are carefully fabricated with specifications and recommended practices. Therefore, they can provide the high temperature strength and corrosion resistance combinations required for long term reliable service. Despite these precautions, the industry still has challenges. The fertilizer industry involves many components operating at high temperatures. Alloys of all kinds are used to resist high temperature damage.

Material matters: damage identification and inspection 55

However, these services cause specific damage mechanisms, and they can alter the materials in long-term service. The following case studies illustrate the problems that develop due to various material deficiencies, improper fabrication, high temperature changes to the materials, and high temperature damage mechanisms. In most cases, these issues can be detected with inspection or prevented with proper operating procedures. The case studies and learnings herein are applicable to any facility that operates piping and equipment at high temperatures and pressures.

Fabrication defects found by hydrotest

A system of small diameter, thin walled, seamless UNS S31603 austenitic stainless steel tubing failed during a pneumatic test after construction but before service as the pneumatic test did not reach the intended test pressure. Visual examination found axial splits on the outside diameter (OD) surfaces of some tubes. The tubes were examined with penetrant testing (PT) and then sectioned in half to examine the inside diameter (ID) surfaces. The tube ID surfaces had multiple instances of rippled flakes of metal, like a warped skin, near the axial splits found on the OD surfaces, as shown in Figure 1. A metallographic cross section was prepared through the warped skin feature. The feature is a seam in the tube wall. The seam is not through-wall in this plane. The austenite grains on either side of the seam do not match and this area did not rupture. The tube never had an intact wall after fabrication. The warped skin – sometimes termed inward folding – on the ID surfaces can be Figure 1. Red arrows indicate the rippled, folded metal found on the associated with imperfections in the casted ID surface coincident with axial splits. tube blank or improper tube piercing procedures. The folds reduced the effective wall thickness so that the pneumatic test pressure caused a ductile rupture. Eddy current (ET) and internal rotary inspection systems (IRIS) can identify these seams but may require special calibration and test probes. Pneumatic or hydrostatic testing can also identify whether these seams would develop a rupture at service pressure. Finally, these seams could act as stress concentration or crevice corrosion points for in-service failures.

Figure 2. Cross section through a mostly intact portion of the losses.

Heavy sections of UNS S34709

Red arrows point to the fusion line; the damage is entirely within the DWM, (347H) stainless alloys no etchant. Heavy sections of Alloy 347H have had many reports of heat affected zone (HAZ) damage after a short operational time (1 - 2 years). Within the 300 series stainless steel grades (including 316, 304, 321, and 347), Alloy 347 is the most susceptible to stress relaxation cracking (SRC) and 347H SRC failures have been reported in heavy wall hydrogen service piping. The alloy has been assessed as having a shorter high-temperature fatigue service life than the 304H parts it has replaced. In laboratory examinations, it is prone to grain-boundary liquation in the HAZ. Liquation cracks have been identified in 347H fitting welds with large grains as they were welded before commissioning. Heavy wall 347H piping requires detailed fabrication measures to reduce the chances of failure. The measures include optimising welding Figure 3. Shroud outer surface exhibiting clean, scale-free pits. Some pits processes, removing external reinforcement, using designs minimising secondary stresses, optimising form general wastage, while others are isolated with undamaged metal in between. the post-weld heat treatment (PWHT), and others. 56 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

Users should consider the industry’s findings when using heavy sections of 347H.

Monitoring the movement of piping subjected to significant thermal stresses

hardness values exceeding the 235 HV API 934-C recommended maximum. The ID of the bottom channel and the OD of the top and bottom channels had hardness values below 235 HV. The PWHT of the top channel’s ID had not been rigorous. The Welding Research Council (WRC) Bulletin 452 (‘Recommended practices for local heating of welds in pressure vessels’) should be followed to prevent damage.

The thermal stresses of piping systems are complex. They depend upon support movement and design, transient loads, constraints, and other variables. Monitoring the movement is of utmost importance, especially in reformer piping. Today, metrology-based laser scans give quick and reliable maintenance information. When a newly commissioned plant was started for the ﬁrst time, an NPS 12 pipe expanded, pushing an NPS 2 drain into an I-Beam. An operator noted that the NPS 2 drain had deﬂected, so operations immediately shut down the plant to investigate whether the NPS 12 and NPS 2 pipes were plastically or elastically deformed. The NPS 12 piping did not appear to have local deformation, such as dents or bulges. The ovality was within the manufacturer’s +/- 1%OD tolerance based on the measurements extracted from the laser scans; it had not deformed. Laser scanning showed the NPS 2 drain was at an angle of approximately 88° (instead of 90°) to the normal axis of the NPS 12 piping. The customer developed a repair plan for the Figure 4. Advanced creep damage in a 50-year old UNS J94204 NPS 2 drain using the laser data and other supporting reformer tube, Vilella’s Reagent etch. information. Further measurements were not required after the plant continued to operate. The NPS 12 line did not require repair. Ideally, laser scans before (though not in this instance) and after operating newly commissioned high-temperature piping can ease piping management.

Monitoring field PWHT of Cr-Mo vessels

Local PWHT is now commonly used instead of furnace PWHT as it is economical and efficient. However, it requires more diligence than furnace PWHT. The importance of such diligence is illustrated through a case study in which a small leak occurred from the top tubesheet to the channel weld of a 1¼Cr – ½ Mo [UNS K11789] ammonia converter boiler feed water exchanger. The 2.125 in. thick-walled heat exchanger operated at 700°F. Only the areas around the vessel welds were subject to field PWHT. The vessel developed cracks after seven years of service. The top channel to the tubesheet butt weld cracked, whilst the bottom one did not. The previous exchanger had operated for 15 years without developing these cracks. Based on the fracture surface, metallography, and service conditions, it was deduced that cracking was due to temper embrittlement. This was verified with chemical analyses detailed in API RP 934-C. Both the top and bottom tubesheet were susceptible to temper embrittlement. Neither the top nor bottom tubesheet met the required impact properties at -20°F. So why did the top fail but not the bottom? Field portable ultrasonic contact impedance (UCI) hardness tests on meticulously prepared surfaces solved the puzzle. The HAZ of the top channel’s ID had

Figure 5. Incipient HTHA damage in a 55-year old non-PWHT carbon steel in reform gas. 2% Nital etch.

Figure 6. Stress relaxation cracks typical of all the examined valve stem and taper pin main and secondary fractures. The filament is nickel rich; the scale is chromium, oxygen, and iron rich and nickel poor, 10% oxalic acid etch.

NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024 | WORLD FERTILIZER | 57

Losses due to metal dusting

Weldability challenges due to nitriding

Losses due to cyclic oxidation and carburisation

Creep damage

A dissimilar metal weld in a high pressure steam superheater developed localised losses at a dissimilar metal weld; the base metals were undamaged. The shell side had hot syngas with a high mol% of steam. Notably, the location of the tube bundle baffles made this location difficult to access and inspect. The base materials included a UNS S34700 tube, a UNS K21590 [2 ¼ Cr – 1 Mo] tube, and a UNS N06600 [ERNiCr-3] deposited weld metal (DWM). A cross section through a less affected area is shown in Figure 2. The damage was contained entirely within the DWM and follows the fusion line. The base materials were undamaged. The recessed areas of the DWM contained a carbon-rich scale with entrained metallic compounds, consistent with metal dusting. The DWM had a pale layer and cross hatching visible after etching; targeted microhardness measured the hardness of these areas at over 750 HV and 550 HV, respectively, compared to 210 HV in the unaffected area. This is consistent with the metallurgical changes caused by carburisation. The nickel-rich DWM was particularly susceptible to metal dusting damage, especially in a system with high steam content. Details surrounding this failure, repairs, and potential solutions were previously reported.

A carbon steel flange of a refractory filled plug was observed glowing red in service. The system was taken offline to investigate, and it was found that the refractory inside the plug was missing. The UNS N08810 [Alloy 800HT] shroud containing the refractory had failed, the shroud had pits, and the weld affixing the refractory support in place had also failed. The piping carried high temperature ammonia syngas and the process had alternated between carburising and oxidising conditions within a 20-year service life. The pitted shroud is shown in Figure 3. The pits were round, hemispherical, and joined to form general wastage and were clean with no visible scale. Delta-ferrite readings on the shroud ranged from one away from the pits to over 130 near the pits. The shroud was examined metallographically. The pits had layers of bright white material and dark material. In some areas, grains had fallen out of the structure. Detailed energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis shows areas of decarburised material and carburised material. In the examined DWM, the material also has thick oxide scales. The shroud suffered from cyclic carburisation-oxidation damage. The carburisation cycles can cause metal dusting damage; the oxidation cycles develop oxide scales. The oxide scales spall and expose fresh material for carburisation. The carburisation can also develop high internal stresses that can promote cracking. Higher nickel alloys such as UNS N06601 [Alloy 601] may have better resistance, however, no alloy is immune to metal dusting conditions. Therefore, the process must be carefully controlled. 58 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

Successful weld tie-ins on NPS 10 SCH 120 UNS S34700 stainless steel piping were frustrated by severe porosity forming in the weld root. The piping was from an ammonia converter operating at high temperature for many decades. Field hardness testing indicated a substantially higher hardness value on the ID surface than on the OD surface. A test coupon was extracted to characterise the stainless steel for nitriding. The piping was examined metallographically. A detailed hardness traverse showed values of 680 HV - 824 HV in the first 600 µm from the ID surface. The hardness values decrease to 175 - 190 HV at 700 µm - 2000 µm from the ID surface. A sample of the pipe was submitted for detailed wt% nitrogen analysis by LECO. The ID material was milled out in 400 µm thick bands for testing. The LECO results showed the nitrogen concentration is over 5 wt.% at the ID surface to 0.4 mm, drops to about 0.6 wt% at the 0.8 - 1.2 mm zone, and was as low as about 0.06 wt% at a depth of 1.6 - 2 mm; EDX line scans confirmed this relationship. The depth of the affected material was consistent in all examined samples. To solve this problem, the weld repair was completed successfully by milling the ID to remove the nitrided material.

Creep damage must be mentioned since it is a prevalent damage mode in the ammonia industry’s high temperature equipment. An image of advanced creep load from a 50-year-old UNS J94204 reformer tube is shown in Figure 4. The tube did not fail; the damage was flagged by inspection with a combination of ultrasonic testing (UT) and eddy current. In the worst area, more than two thirds of the tube wall thickness had macrocracks. In a previous ammonia symposium, creep was defined as “a process whereby the material slowly and progressively deforms with time under the action of stress, for steels usually at elevated temperatures (400°C).” The proceedings have detailed information from design, non-destructive testing (NDT), operation and life prediction to repair practices. The subjects cover overall creep failures to those of methanators, tubes, and many other reformer components.

New developments in monitoring and predicting HTHA

Monitoring HTHA continues to be challenging. The non-destructive testing (NDT) guidelines in API RP 941 are routinely used. Previously in 2016, new curves for non-PWHT carbon steels were added. This development necessitated re-evaluating existing piping for the possibility of damage. An image of incipient HTHA damage, including fissuring and decarburisation, is shown in Figure 5. This HTHA damage was found in the weld root of 55-year old non-PWHT carbon steel piping in reform gas service. Inspecting previously ignored piping was triggered by the published advances in API RP 941. The damage was not

widespread, but piping replacement with UNS K11789 was scheduled. New advances in predictive assessments are developing time-dependent Nelson Curves for carbon steels and C-½Mo steels. These new time-dependent curves may appear in future versions of API RP 941.

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Stress relaxation cracking in valve stem and pins

A UNS N07750 (Alloy X-750) ammonia syngas control valve stem failed in service; the valve could not be closed. The valve plug is secured to the stem with taper pins; the taper pins also failed. The valve stem separated at the taper pin holes. The failed stem and pins were in service for over 45 years at a typical operating temperature of 1100°F (590 °C). The stem and the pin fracture surfaces have a rock-candy macroscopic appearance. The stem fractures initiated in multiple locations within the pin bore and progressed through the diameter. The taper pin fractures initiated in multiple locations around the entire circumference and progressed through the diameter. Fractography by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed intergranular fracture in all locations. Metallography on the failed parts confirmed the intergranular crack modes. An image of the intergranular cracks is shown in Figure 6; the cracks are typical for all the examined parts. The intergranular cracks have a filament of metal down the centre of the crack. EDX analysis of the filament shows it is almost pure nickel and the scale is iron, chromium, and oxygen rich and nickel poor. The hardness values of the stem and pins range from 300 - 330 HV. The valve components failed due to SRC. The intergranular cracks, a nickel-rich filament, and a chromium rich oxide scale are all consistent with SRC. Precipitation-hardened alloys, such as UNS N07750, are susceptible to SRC, especially after long-term high-temperature service causing ageing of precipitates. The stress causing the failure may be from operating stresses and internal stresses. The pins likely failed first, followed by the stem, since the pins would not be loaded if the stem had broken first. The long service life may be sufficient, and pre-emptive replacement may prevent reoccurrence. SRC can also occur in austenitic piping components. Proper design, heat treatments, and material selection can address the mechanism.

Summary

The fertilizer industry requires materials with long-term reliability to prevent incidents. These materials require careful fabrication, consistent operation, and detailed inspections to prevent failures. New industry learnings should be incorporated into asset integrity programmes. After failure occurs, failure investigation is useful to characterise the damage and contributing factors.

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Notes

This article is adapted from the piece published in: 68th Annual Safety in Ammonia Plants and Related Facilities Symposium, Volume 64. San Diego, CA 09 - 12 September 2024, where you can find a full list of references.

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Sizing Up Results

Closing the precious metals loop

Christoph Röhlich and Jens Hesse, Heraeus Precious Metals, Germany, outline how the precious metals loop can be closed through sludge refining.

ome businesses work to close the loop of precious metals handling, from precious metal purchases and production of precious metal-based catalysts, to the refining of these catalysts and a variety of other sources. A well-known example for this kind of loop business in the fertilizer industry is the production and refining of gauze catalysts for nitric acid producers. To close this loop entirely, the refining of plant cleaning sludges and the purchase of precious metals should be considered. Another example of a precious metal loop business is the production and refining of carbon dioxide (CO2) purification catalysts for urea producers. For such precious metal loop businesses, it is vital to have a strong and trusted partner with a good track record, combining expertise and industry experience to provide customers with cost-effective, one-stop solutions.

Securing precious metal sourcing

To check the quality of precious metal sourcing, the LPPM Good Delivery list1 is a starting point. Future market demands can only be covered by a combination of freshly mined metals and recycled metals; precious metal circularity is an indispensable part of a sustainable future. Recycled precious metals have a potential 98% lower carbon footprint than newly mined ones. To fully exploit this, a wet chemical process can be used, which offers the lowest CO2 footprint of the recycling processes for platinum group metals. Recycled metals based on a TÜV SÜD certified mass balance approach can also be purchased, which can help lower Scope 3 carbon footprints.

Considering the total cost of ownership

The nitric acid industry needs flexible answers to run plants according to quick-changing market requirements, such as

volatile raw material prices, as well as tighter environmental targets. Heraeus Precious Metals focuses its activities on providing products and services for the nitric acid industry. The company's gauze catalysts are based on varying physical parameters and metal alloys in different gauze layers. Each gauze catalyst design has to be tailored to the operating conditions of the specific plant and customer requirements. The gauze catalyst concept not only takes into account the plant operation conditions, but also the

Figure 1. Prepared fine powder for the final sampling stage (Source: Heraeus Precious Metals).

Figure 2. Representative sample splitting for PGM assay (Source: Heraeus Precious Metals).

Figure 3. The combined expertise of trading, products and recycling keep valuable customer assets in a closed loop, lowering total cost of ownership and CO2 footprint.

62 | WORLD FERTILIZER | NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024

cost factors from the market conditions to provide the gauze catalyst design with the best economic benefits for nitric acid plants.

Catalyst refiners

The recycling of precious metals is an important area for Heraeus, and the company is reflecting this by running a global investment programme. In the recycling processes, the precious metals are recovered by pyro- and/or hydrometallurgical processes down to the atomic level, to metals with at least 99.90% purity. In addition to the recovery rate, other important criteria for the selection of a refining partner are transparent and auditable processes, sufficient capacities, and the ability to provide the precious metals in the region where they will be needed after refining. The cross-border transport of waste containing precious metals presents its own challenges due to environmental regulations and customs requirements. Capacities are also important because the partner must be able to supply the replacement quantities of precious metals reliably and in line with market requirements, whilst meeting compliance criteria and the necessary certification. In the fertilizer industry, platinum, palladium and rhodium are utilised most often. The following deep dive into precious metals recovery will focus on the platinum group metals, which are needed most in the fertilizer industry. These three platinum group metals (PGMs) originate from and remain mainly in the gauze layers applied in the ammonia oxidation process, but, through side reactions with the reaction medium, will volatilise to some extent. The PGMs deposit again at cooler spots downstream of the gauzes, for example on heat exchangers or piping side walls. From there, they will end up in sludges and residues once plant cleaning is undertaken. It is highly dependent on the plant's operating parameters, as well as the cleaning technique applied, how much of the PGMs will be found in the plant cleaning sludge, and what content in weight-percentage (w%) they represent in the accumulated material. The recovery of these PGMs is, of course, desirable, but also needs to be economically feasible for their owner. In other words, the costs for the recycling overall should not exceed the value of the recovered and returned PGMs. Heraeus evaluates samples from such materials through various analysis methods, ranging from PGM content analyses from a few hundred ppm to high w%, to full component analyses. The data will not only help evaluate the economic feasibility of a refining job, but will also help in declaring a full composition and developing a classification for fulfilling all transport regulations (waste regulations, dangerous goods legislation, etc.). The company also has expertise in these legislations and can support with all documentation regarding notifications for international hazardous waste transports. Once received, a full refining order of any material will be prepared, sampled and assayed, to determine the exact PGM content of any one delivery upfront before any actual PGM recovery takes place. A guaranteed return of a certain

percentage of the PGM amount determined will be credited back to the customer for further use after the recycling process is finished. It is, therefore, imperative that this value determination is as precise and accurate as possible, given the high value of the content to be recovered. The risk of loss of value both for the recycler and the customer needs to be mitigated to the highest degree. The company therefore employs a 100% sampling of all incoming materials after as-few-as-possible necessary preparation and processing steps are taken and uses only new equipment and processes according to sampling theory and good sampling practice. As one example, sludges from plant cleaning would, after a thermal preparation to dry the material, be milled to a particle size significantly below 1 mm. The thermal preparation is performed with minimal-to-no disturbances and in chamber furnaces with off-gas emission abatement systems, ensuring environmental conformity. The milled fine powder, after a period of vigorous blending, will be passed through a representative sample splitter, taking at least 30 - 100 increments over the complete material stream to arrive at a combined raw sample of 2 - 5 kg. After determining the loss on drying of this material, to correct for a stable mass basis, the raw sample is further milled to <200 µm and split into up to eight samples for assays (Figures 1 and 2). The assay methods remain precise, accurate and up to par with and above industry standards. Only developed and validated analysis methods with high precision, including ICP-OES spectrometry after representative aliquot splitting,

full dissolution, dilution by mass and measurement including bracketing methods against standards, are employed. Heraeus regularly measures its analytical performance against standard materials and takes part in round robin analysis studies. The company also continuously invests in new equipment and in optimisation of these vital process steps. In most cases, the sampling process can be witnessed, either by the customer themselves or by a certified supervision company in their name. Transparency is welcomed, as is a four eyes principle to create long-lasting trust with customers. Only after the sampling process has been performed, the material will enter the actual recovery and refining processes. In these processes, the material can now be combined with other streams of similar materials coming in, to ensure that capacities are fully employed and the cost-saving effect of an economy of scale is felt. The company’s processes, though elaborate, are robust against the plethora of incoming materials to be processed.

Resilience in an ever-changing market environment

The procurement strategy of many companies is aimed to make their supply chains more robust. Nevertheless, care should be taken to ensure that suppliers can cover the whole precious metal cycle of procurement, use and recovery (Figure 3).

Reference 1.

www.lppm.com/good-delivery

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