There are many silvicultural methods that can be applied to this forest. Although the management recommendations contained in this plan can be implemented literally, they are more intended as guidelines for preparing and implementing forest management activities. In particular, timber harvests may vary in size and location based on current market conditions, revenue needs, logging costs, operational constraints and the recommendations of other forestry and natural resource specialists.
Pierce County Buckley Forestland Preserve Forest Management Plan
# of acres plan covers:
County and state: Pierce County, Washington
Forest certification number:
USDA Farm & Tract #:
Farm:___ Tract:___
Date plan prepared: August 2022
Plan Preparers
Sam Castro Forester
Northwest Natural Resource Group 2701 1st Ave, Suite 240 Seattle, WA 98121
775-848-7718
sam@nnrg.org
Date: 7/14/2023
Signatures
Date:
Sam Castro
Northwest Natural Resource Group
BACKGROUND AND SITE INFORMATION
Legal Description - S16, T19, R06
Nearest City or Town Buckley, Washington
Property Information
Buckley Forestland Preserve
Buckley Forestland Preserve
Date of Land Acquisition 2012
Watershed
Puyallup-White Watershed (WRIA-10)
South Prairie Watershed Administrative Unit (WAU)
INTRODUCTION
Overview/Conservation Significance
The Buckley Forestland Preserve consists of 207 acres of forest land south of the city of Buckley. The terrain is relatively flat with the exception of a steep embankment at the southern end of the forest that rapidly descends to South Prairie Creek. This property, and those that surround it, were all previously industrial timber lands. While the Buckley Forestland Preserve is still entirely forested, many of the smaller surrounding parcels have been converted to large private residences.
The forest is dominated by an even-aged Douglas-fir plantation, but also includes two dense stands of young, naturally regenerated hardwoods. While some previous harvest units were successfully replanted and shaped into conifer plantations, large portions of the more recent cut-over sites have been colonized by red alder. There are scattered pockets of root rot throughout the forest, where Douglas-fir trees are rapidly declining and snags are abundant. Some of these openings support shade tolerant conifers, including western hemlock and western redcedar, and other openings have filled in with alder, black cottonwood, or large thickets of vine maple.
The conservation and continued maintenance of this property will preserve a large swath of native forest for both wildlife habitat and recreation. This management plan proposes actions that will facilitate the restoration of complex forest structure, diverse wildlife habitat, and public recreational opportunities
Desired Future Condition, Priorities, and Objective
Desired Future Condition
The long-term desired future condition is as a later successional forest that is similar in species composition and functional characteristics of the original forests that once occupied this site. It is recognized that the desired future condition will not likely perfectly emulate the past, as climate change and other anthropogenic and environmental factors may not support the historic forest composition. Therefore, this forest will be managed for resilience against climate change, fire, pests and disease by promoting a composition of native hardwoods and conifers of multiple age classes that can be expected to tolerate increasingly drier and warmer summers and wetter winters. This may translate to concentrating production of red alder, western redcedar, western hemlock, grand fir and other drought intolerant species in the lower areas of the property, and favoring Douglas-fir, big leaf maple, Pacific madrone, and other drought tolerant species on drier sites. Periodic timber harvests will adjust the species composition, and the structure of the forest to best maintain the variety of habitat found in the Buckley Forestland Preserve
Priorities
Top Three Priorities for Continued Management of this Forest
1) Maintain and improve wildlife habitat
2) Improve and maintain forest health through active forest management
3) Provide low impact recreation opportunities, such as hiking, horseback riding, and observing nature
Objectives
Short Term
1) Address forest health concerns including root rot, over stocking, and invasive species.
2) Improve roads and trails to allow access for hiking, maintenance, and firefighting access.
3) Evaluate the forest surrounding seasonal streams and improve riparian forest where necessary
Long Term
1) Improve the long-term health and structure of the forest.
2) Maintain and enhance wildlife habitat value.
3) Preserve and enhance the forests recreational value
4) Reduce fire risk.
5) Demonstrate responsible forest management
History & Regional Context
History
This property was managed for industrial timber production up until 2012 when Plum Creek Land Company sold the two parcels comprising the Buckley Forestland Preserve to the Pierce County Department of Parks and Recreation. The forest was managed using an even-age silvicultural system that produced large volumes of Douglas-fir. A large portion of the property was harvested in the mid 1980’s and promptly replanted. The most recent harvest occurred in the late 1990’s when the remainder of the mature forest was harvested. The 1990’s harvest site was replanted but was quickly colonized by fast-growing hardwoods.
Current Management
There has been no active management of the overstory since the property was acquired by Pierce County. The county has cleared brush from many of the forest roads and established a few foot paths that span the property but the forest remains largely unchanged. A commercial thinning is scheduled for 2024-2025.
Regional Landscape
The Buckley Forestland Preserve is situated in a heavily forested landscape that is quickly transitioning from decades of commercial timber management to increasing fragmentation and diversification of land uses, including residential and commercial development, hobby farming, and conservation. While Pierce County has tried to maintain the rural character of the area through zoning practices, larger properties are inevitably being logged and divided into smaller parcels for rural residential sale.
Surrounding Land Use
The area surrounding the Buckley Forestland Preserve is largely private and residential. Most of the lots are 10 to 20 acres in size with single family homes and the occasional attached garage or workshop. The adjacent residences still retain some canopy cover but only a handful of parcels to the east and the south are still managed entirely for timber production. In the greater area, many properties have been cleared to create open spaces for personal recreation or small-scale cultivation.
Climate
The climate of Pierce County is greatly tempered by winds from the Pacific Ocean. Summers are fairly warm, but hot temperatures, while not historically common, are increasing in frequency. During summer, rainfall is extremely light, so crops growing actively during this period need irrigation. During the rest of the year rains are frequent, especially late in fall and in winter. In the western portion of the county, the average winter temperature is 40.5 degrees F, and the average daily minimum is 33.1 degrees. In summer, the average temperature is 62.9 degrees and the average daily maximum is 76.4 degrees.
In most winters, one or two storms bring strong and sometimes damaging winds. In some years the accompanying heavy rains cause serious flooding. Every few years, either in winter or in summer, a large continental air mass invades from the east and causes abnormal temperatures. In winter, several consecutive days have temperatures well below freezing; in summer a week or longer has temperatures above ninety degrees
Climate Change Impacts
As the climate changes in response to anthropogenic global warming, we can expect to see several climatic shifts over the coming decades, well within the lifetime of the trees now growing in this forest Wintertime low temperatures are expected to increase; summertime heat waves are likely to become more extreme, leading to longer periods of severe moisture stress for trees and other vegetation; and droughts are predicted to return more frequently.
The greatest risk to western Washington forest ecosystems, and individual species, is the potential for climate change to exacerbate existing stressors, such as drought, insect and tree disease outbreaks, invasive species competition, wildfires, and habitat loss and fragmentation. Many of these impacts will be driven by water deficits, as greater frequency and intensity of drought conditions increase tree stress and mortality, tree vulnerability to insects, and fuel flammability.
The primary limiting resource for forest productivity will be available soil moisture during the growing season. Reductions in summer water availability can have negative consequences on stand density, drought-sensitive species, seedling establishment and survival, capability to resist pathogens and insects, and potential for invasive species to spread further. Increased temperatures and decreased soil moisture also increase the susceptibility of vegetation to fire.
While data on precipitation patterns is uncertain, warmer oceans and more available moisture in the atmosphere are expected to increase the frequency and intensity of storm events, including heavy precipitation and windstorms. Heavy rainfall associated with atmospheric rivers is anticipated to occur more often, and average snow levels may rise, leading to more rain at higher elevations than historically occurred. These storms also bring with them episodes of high wind, which is a primary natural disturbance agent in western Oregon and Washington. Wind can cause significant tree mortality, particularly in late fall and winter, when windstorms occur in conjunction with heavy rains or wet snow, saturated soils, and ice storms. Although most wind disturbances involve individual trees or small groups of trees, large blow-down events also occur periodically.
Fire is an additional disturbance process that has long shaped forest dynamics in Washington state, even in the wetter forests of Western Washington. Climate change is altering how forests currently burn and forests are increasingly at risk of large-scale high-severity wildfire events. Instead of a couple
of trees intermittently torching and fire consuming understory shrubs and forbs, west-side forests are increasingly prone to running crown fires that destroy thousands of acres of forest. A myriad of factors have contributed to “bigger” and “hotter” fires, but one of the primary causes is drier summer conditions. Drought conditions associated with climate change ultimately creates drier vegetation. A decrease in available water in the soil and lower leaf moisture content increases the likelihood of crown fire ignition, especially coupled with wind events. While the dense lush forest of western Washington that are often cloaked in fog and damp moss seem impervious to wildfire, they too can succumb to fire.
To find out more specific information about the impacts to the site covered in this plan, please refer to the Climate Toolbox [https://climatetoolbox.org/tool/Climate-Mapper] for climatic range predictions under different emissions scenarios.
Vegetation Zone
This forest occurs within the western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) vegetation zone (Franklin & Dyrness). The native vegetation of this area consists mainly of dense stands of coniferous trees and an understory of smaller trees, shrubs, and forbs. Immense conifers were originally common throughout the region. Most of the accessible land was cut over in the last 120 years. In most places the land has either been replanted or has restocked naturally with many of the original species of trees that previously grew in this area. The trees are smaller but equally dense on the steeper and higher slopes and on the doughtier soils. There are some small bogs and open, grassy prairies.
Despite its name, Douglas-fir is the dominant forest species in this zone, and it grows extensively throughout all parts of this area. It often occurs in pure or nearly-pure stands. Douglas-fir grows under many conditions but does best where the subsoil is well drained to excessively drained. It is the principal conifer to restock cutover land. Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) is associated with Douglas-fir in most areas but is much less abundant. Western redcedar (Thuja plicata) and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) commonly grow on sites that are moist in summer. Their presence is a good indicator that there is reliable soil moisture even during the dry summer months.
Of the less merchantable coniferous trees in this vegetation zone, lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) is the most abundant. Although limited in the original old-growth forests, very dense stands have become established on many of the drier logged-off sites across the region. This lodgepole pine impedes the normal restocking of Douglas-fir and has become a problem on the drier sites. Lodgepole pine is most likely to become established where severe burns have killed the seeds of Douglas-fir. The fire-resistant cones of lodgepole pine survive the fire and allow this species to become established with little or no competition. Douglas-fir seedlings grow slowly on such sites. It remains to be seen whether the fir will eventually replace the pine and grow to dominate the forest as it matures. Scattered stands of grand fir (Abies grandis), western white pine (Pinus monticola), and western yew (Taxus brevifolia) are present in this zone but make up a minor component of most forests
Deciduous trees grow in association with the conifers but are most abundant where summer moisture is readily available. The most common deciduous trees are red alder (Alnus rubra); big leaf maple (Acer macrophyllum); vine maple (Acer circinatum); dogwood (Cornus nuttallii); and willow (Salix spp.). These species rapidly invade logged areas, regardless of soil conditions. Oregon crabapple (Malus fusca) grows in bogs that usually dry out in summer. Oregon ash (Fraxinus oregona) grows in very wet areas; quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) can be found on wet areas having a dense subsoil. Black cottonwood (P. trichocarpa) is common along larger streams. Madrona (Arbutus menziesii) is common on well-drained
soils but is seldom far from the influence of salt water. Oregon oak (Quercus garryana) usually grows on the prairies and is an indication of a prairie soil.
The more common shrubs are cascara sagrada (Rhamnus purshiana), the bark of which is valued for medicinal purposes; hazelnut (Corylus cornuta); blue elderberry (Sambuctus cerulea); bitter cherry (Prunus emarginata); red huckleberry (Vaccinium parvifolium) and on the driest soils or prairies, the non-native and highly invasive scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius).
The understory on cutover soils is a luxuriant and dense growth of different plants, many of which grow to heights ranging from 6 to 8 feet. The ground cover consists largely of salal (Gaultheria shallon), oregon-grape (Berberis aquifolium), elderberry (Sambucus spp.), snowberry (Symphoricarpus albus), evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), trailing blackberry (R. ursinus), evergreen blackberry (R. laciniattus), blackcap (R. leucodermis), and devil’s club (Oplopanax horridum).
Mixed with these plants in the ground cover are various ferns and mosses. The most widely distributed and thickest growing is the bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum), which quickly colonizes cutover land and cleared areas. The sword fern is commonly found in moist or very shady sites, especially in older coniferous or deciduous forests. The foliage of the sword fern and the extensively growing blue huckleberry are harvested commercially for use as "green" in floral design. Some salal, which is called lemon leaf on the market, is also harvested. Several bogs of Orcas peat soils contain marketable sphagnum moss, but only a small quantity is harvested.
In addition to the numerous water-tolerant grasses, mosses, reeds, sedges, other water-loving plants growing in wetlands are the hardback or spirea (Spiraea douglasii), wild rose (Rosa gymnocarpa and R. nutkana), and skunk cabbage (Lysichitus americanum). The sphagnum peat bogs contain Labrador-tea, or ledum (Ledum groenlandicum), cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus), and sundew (Drosera rotunifolia).
The Effect of Climate Change on the Vegetation Zone
Climate models project the Tsuga heterophylla zone will expand in size more than other vegetation zone. Across this zone, increased fire disturbance over time may reduce the proportion of area occupied by large diameter, structurally diverse forests. With increased likelihood of fires, there is a greater probability of any single acre burning, and since west side forests have high levels of biomass per acre, there's a greater likelihood of stand replacement. While the literature does not predict an uptick in the frequency of “synoptic wind events,” in which dry east winds increase fire severity and enable wildfire to spread rapidly across the landscape, drier vegetation which is more susceptible to ignition means that those synoptic wind events are more likely to encounter a small fire, causing it to “blow up” into a major event. Mixed fire conditions in riparian areas like the fires that have burned through the Columbia River Gorge in the last 100+ years suggest there will still be larger diameter trees retained, but even some of the giants succumb to fire.
At lower elevations, south-facing aspects, and well drained, glacial outwash soils, some stands could shift to grass and forb (flowering plant) communities that include oak savanna and camas prairies. At these locations, low soil moisture and higher soil temperature is common due to thin organic horizons, coarse soils, and temperature fluctuations.
RESOURCE CATEGORY I - FOREST HEALTH/WILDFIRE/INVASIVE SPECIES
Forest Health
The perceived health of a forest is often based on an appraisal of how various natural disturbance regimes affect standing timber. A forest that has been the subject of wind or ice storms, fungal pathogens, insect infestations, or the desiccating effects of droughty soils, is often perceived as unhealthy. As such, forest health is an often used and misunderstood concept. In terms of timber management, a healthy forest is often defined as having vigorously growing trees that are free of insects and diseases, of good form, composed of desirable (a.k.a. commercially valuable) species, and are grown at a spacing that maximizes growth without compromising timber quality. This definition frames forest health using anthropogenic terms that center harvest volume and the value of wood products over other services a forest may provide. However, forest health can also be defined using an ecological framework that leaves space for natural disturbance regimes that shape the composition and character of forests over time. While this approach may not yield the highest economic returns, it incorporates a wider range of forest characteristics including wildlife habitat, biodiversity, and overall forest resilience. Complex forest ecosystems that, at a landscape level, contain dead, diseased, broken, old, and slowgrowing trees of all species and ages, are considered healthy forests from a biodiversity perspective.
It is important to remember and acknowledge that we are most often discussing forest health in terms of human values. Large, high-quality trees are commonly killed by native disease or pests. This isn’t a problem unless they were intended for use by humans as timber. When viewed through a set of ecological values, the number of reasons to justify timber harvesting decreases noticeably. They might include:
1. Infestation of an exotic, non-native insect or disease whose spread could be prevented or significantly reduced by harvesting.
2. Improving wildlife habitat or maintaining habitat for species that are rare or in decline
3. Responding to significant mortality events including blowdown or fire
4. Addressing years of build-up of fuels due to modern fire suppression.
Ecologically-based silviculture is therefore a practice by which we respectfully remove products from the forest for human use, employing methods which we believe most closely imitate and least impact the "natural" processes occurring there. It is important to acknowledge the distinction between our human and ecological definitions of forest health, and not to use the former to justify creating forests of diminished ecological value.
Forest Health Assessment
Overstocked Stands
Overstocking is prevalent through many portions of the Buckley Forestland Preserve. Most of the conifer forest in the western half of the property exhibits small live crown ratios and abundant snags in the low and mid canopy, indicating intense competition for canopy space. The eastern half of the property supports as many as 600 trees per acre (TPA) where live crowns within dense hardwood stands have reduced to as little as 15 percent of the average tree height. The youngest Douglas-fir plantation is quite overstocked and has been self-thinning for several years, resulting in many small diameter snags and abundant small woody debris.
Young, regenerating stands, whether planted or naturally seeded, can quickly become dense and overstocked for the carrying capacity of the site. As the stand grows, competition for sunlight and limited soil moisture can cause stress in trees at all canopy levels. This leads to increasing mortality across the least dominant, or least suitable trees for the site and reduced vigor in the dominant trees. This process of self-thinning can last decades, diminishing the resilience of the stand and limiting habitat values.
Highly overstocked stands contribute to the following scenarios:
1. Competition mortality: competition for sunlight forces individual trees to grow as quickly as possible to avoid being suppressed in the shade of their neighbors. The most successful trees achieve a dominant or co-dominant position in the canopy and retain a higher live crown ratio (percent of tree height in live green crown). Less vigorous trees are classified as intermediate or suppressed as their crowns are subordinate in the canopy. The dense canopy of an overstocked forest causes a high degree of suppression mortality amongst the intermediate and suppressed trees, resulting in numerous small dead trees in the low canopy and understory.
2. Stand instability: high canopy competition causes all trees to sacrifice diameter growth in favor of height growth as they compete for limited sunlight. This results in a high “height-todiameter-ratio” (HDR), or many tall and skinny trees. Stands with high average HDR’s can be very unstable in high winds or during ice storms, leading to blow down and breakage.
3. Reduced vigor: Extremely high stand density (often derivative of high stocking during replantation) prevents individual trees from optimizing their growth potential as they compete for sunlight, soil moisture and nutrients with neighboring trees. High stand densities can lead to long periods of stagnant growth until some type of disturbance, either storm or manual thinning, relieves the pressure on the forest.
4. Root rot: there are several strains of endemic soil-borne fungi commonly referred to as “root rot” that attack the roots of Douglas-fir, grand fir, and western hemlock inducing their mortality. The most obvious sign of root rot is discrete patches of dead trees. Root rot spreads rapidly through dense, homogenous stands.
5. Droughty soils: Although we don’t think of our forests as moisture limited, recent trends of dry summers are still having an effect. The majority of our areas' soils are glacially derived. Glacial soils tend to be very shallow and built upon a rocky substrate. Coupled with a relatively dry climate, and well-drained hill slopes, soil moisture becomes a severely limiting factor to tree growth and vitality. Competition for soil moisture is exacerbated in extremely dense stands.
6. Fuel for wildfire: excessive fuel build-up throughout the forest comprising a combination of densely regenerating young conifers, fine branches, larger downed logs and standing dead trees. The accumulation of dry woody biomass on the forest floor is conducive to ground-based fires.
Overstocking results in numerous small snags, small live crowns, and a sparse understory.
The dense stands of regenerating conifers serve as “fuel ladders” and can bring a ground-based fire up into the canopy of the forest where it can become catastrophic.
Invasive Plants
Invasive plants found at this property include Himalayan blackberry (Rubus armeniacus), scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius), and English holly (Ilex aquifolium). Scotch broom is not common but can be found along forest roads. Himalayan blackberry is both common and widespread. In areas where hardwoods make up the majority of canopy cover, and in the larger gaps, blackberry makes up a major component of the understory. There are a number of sites where blackberry is excluding many native shrubs under a dense thicket of canes. English holly is the only non-native species at this property that is capable of establishing beneath the dense conifer overstory. For this reason, small patches of holly can be found in almost every forest management unit in small, isolated patches
broom can be found along forest roadways.
Invasive species are a common problem in forests following disturbances like wildfires, landslides, and forest harvesting operations. Many invasive species are spread by birds who eat the fruits of invasive shrubs and by human beings who transport their seeds on clothing, boots, or tires. These seeds can remain dormant for years, waiting for the ideal conditions to sprout and begin establishing in the understory. Species like Himalayan blackberry and scotch broom grow quickly, suppressing native vegetation and planted tree seedlings. Species like Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) and English ivy (Hedera helix) can grow up existing trees and, if left unchecked, can eventually smother the tree under their weight. Invasive species can outcompete their native counterparts with disastrous effects on the diversity of native species and native pollinators.
The Effects of Climate Change on Invasive Plants
The disruption of existing ecosystems that can be expected from climate change may also lead to increased pressure from invasive species. Many exotic and weedy species are already present in the region and are better colonizers of disturbed sites than native species. In the short to medium term, more severe summer droughts and heat waves can be expected to kill some trees and shrubs that make up various layers of the forest canopy, leaving sites that are only partially occupied by vegetation and creating an opening into which invasive species may intrude.
Chemical Use Policy
Forest management will employ silvicultural systems, integrated pest management, and strategies for controlling pests or invasive species that minimize the need for the use of chemicals. Non-chemical control strategies, such as hand-pulling, mowing, weed whacking, etc., will be considered before chemical applications. Maintaining sufficient canopy cover to provide shade-suppression of invasive species will be the dominant management strategy.
Scotch
Chemicals will only be used where less environmentally hazardous techniques have been shown through research or experience to be ineffective. The Pierce County Noxious Weeds Board (http://www.piercecountyweedboard.org/) provides information on invasive species and appropriate management techniques. However, management strategies may need to be adjusted over time to adapt to specific situations. Chemical use may be necessary to control invasive weed species that have the potential for altering forest habitat function and in some cases where invasive or native species are aggressively encroaching on active forest roads. Use of non-native vegetation in developed areas adjacent to the forest, such as landscaping around structures or gardening activities, should be discouraged
Noxious weeds will be identified and treated according to the Washington State Noxious weeds law. Hand or mechanical means of eradicating noxious weeds will be prioritized, and should chemical treatment be necessary, a low impact, short-lived herbicide may be used according to directions and with care to avoid impacting native vegetation or native pollinators. If chemicals are used, proper equipment and training are required to minimize health and environmental risks. The use of herbicides, including the type, brand, concentration, and method of application should be documented each time they are used. Over time these records will help to identify the most effective control methods for this forest.
The following pesticides will be prohibited:
• World Health Organization Type 1A and 1B
• Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides,
Chemical Use Standards
• Chemical pesticides, fungicides, and herbicides will be used only when and where research or empirical experience has demonstrated that less environmentally hazardous, non-chemical pest/disease management practices are ineffective.
• When and where chemicals are applied, the most environmentally safe and efficacious chemicals are used. Chemicals are narrowly targeted, and minimize effects on non-target species.
• Chemicals will be used only when and where they pose no threat to supplies of domestic water, aquatic habitats, or habitats of rare species.
• When chemicals are used, the effects and impacts will be monitored and the results used for adaptive management. Records will be kept of pest occurrences, control measures, and incidences of worker exposure to chemicals.
• Pesticides that are persistent, toxic or whose derivatives remain biologically active and accumulate in the food chain beyond their intended use, and pesticides banned by international agreement.
Disease
There are indications of laminated root rot across the Buckley Forestland Preserve. Many small patches of conifer forest have clumps of snags, including some formerly dominant trees. There are also areas with large irregular gaps where root rot is well established These gaps are filled with snags and fallen trees but are also surrounded by struggling fir that are in the earliest stages of infection. This pathogen primarily targets Douglas-fir, but western hemlock and all true firs are also susceptible. Root rot is almost impossible to eradicate once established in a forest.
Naturally occurring diseases, root and stem funguses, and other pathogens are important agents of stand diversification. When their effect is tree mortality, they contribute snags and downed logs that provide important habitat and nutrient cycling functions, create openings in the forest that allow other tree and shrub species to become established, and overall contribute to a highly heterogeneous and uneven-aged stand composition. Relative to timber production, fungal pathogens can severely decrease the growth rates of infected trees, and lead to excessive mortality that reduces future timber harvest volume. Management of root rot must be consistent with the goals and objectives of the forest owner.
Unless fungal pathogens are demonstrably excessively impacting the growth and productivity of a forest, and if sustained timber production is not a high priority, they should be accepted as part of the ecological processes of the forest and allowed to function as agents of stand diversification. Once a forest has begun to mature, containment and eradication of fungal diseases can require large patch cuts around the last known infected tree, or removal of all known infected trees, in order to isolate the disease. This approach may create large openings or affect the character of the forest in ways that are not compatible with the goals and values of many small woodland owners. Therefore, less intrusive management strategies are recommended. Species diversity is the primary key to limiting the severity of disease impacts in a forest. Given that most common fungal pathogens tend to be species specific, planting the infected site to a non-susceptible species is the least intrusive strategy.
The Effect of Climate Change on Forest Diseases
A diverse spectrum of pathogens from fungi, bacteria, and viruses to parasitic plants, nematodes and other microorganisms can all cause tree diseases, making it hard to generalize about the impact of climate change on forest pathogens. Thus, trends for forest pathogens in a changing climate are difficult to predict. Environmental factors, particularly those related to moisture availability and heat waves, reduce trees’ resistance to disease. Since insects serve as vectors that promote the introduction of disease-causing microorganisms, the factors that increase susceptibility to insect outbreaks will also tend to increase tree infection.
Specific effects of climate change on tree pathology may include:
• Root and canker diseases, such as Armillaria root disease and Cytospora canker, that are favored by warmer, drier summers may increase in presence and severity.
• Foliar and rust diseases favored by warmer and wetter winters, such as sudden oak death and Phytophthora root rot, may also increase.
• Swiss needle cast may also increase in areas where winter and spring temperatures are mild and where there is ample moisture.
Cluster of Douglas-fir snags at the heart of a root rot pocket in the center of the property
Insects
There is no indication that this forest is impacted by any common forest pest.
The Effects of Climate Change on Insects
Some insects will be favored by climate change, but it is not yet known exactly which ones, because many biotic and abiotic factors play into the response of forest insects, their host trees and community associates. Warmer, drier summers and winters with fewer freezes are expected to increase the frequency and extent of insect outbreaks in forests. Summer conditions may exacerbate moisture stress, making more trees more susceptible to insects. Warmer winter temperatures may further assist many insect species, such as pine beetles and spruce budworm, to overwinter and increase overall reproduction that can lead to larger outbreaks.
Insect outbreaks are typically observed the year of drought and the following year. Insect-caused mortality tends to be species specific, so large outbreaks can significantly alter vegetation structure and forest composition. These outbreaks can open up growing space that could be colonized by vegetation and trees in the understory as well as new vegetation.
Wildfire
Fire risk at the Buckley Forestland Preserve is moderate. Most of the forest is composed of tall conifers with high crowns and a low understory of sword fern and native shrubs. Because the overstory is greater than three times the height of the understory, there is little chance that a surface fire will spread to the canopy. Young dense stands are more susceptible to stand replacing fire but within the Buckley Forestland Preserve, these stands are far from the residential properties, and the ignition sources associated with human activity. Additionally, the densest stands are composed primarily of red alder which is usually too moist to burn well. Fire risk is gradually increasing throughout the region as conditions become drier and average summer temperatures increase. Fire danger at this forest can be further reduced by establishing and maintaining fuel breaks around forest roads and thinning dense patches of forest. This will make the forest at this property more defensible, and less prone to catastrophic, stand replacing fire.
For nearly the past 100 years, wildfire outbreaks have been quickly suppressed and the role of fire as an agent of landscape-level forest development has been all but eliminated. This has had the unfortunate effect of increasing the size and intensity of wildfires once they start. Fuels that would have been consumed in frequent, low-intensity fires have built up in the understory. Increased development of rural areas and prolonged droughts in the western United States have further amplified the risk of catastrophic fire in the region.
Although wildfire occurrence and severity in Western Washington is dramatically lower than on the eastern side of the Cascade Mountains, west side forests historically also experienced regular fires, in particular on shallow and glacially derived soils. Historical records show that a single fire that occurred on the Olympic Peninsula circa 1700, burned from near the Elwha River southerly to the Hood Canal as far as Belfair. Wildfires create new forests and contribute to the diversity of plants and habitats.
Fires tend to be most destructive in young, dense stands vulnerable to drought and stands with an abundance of fine woody debris. These are characteristics of ‘fuel loaded’ stands. Given that this region is dominated by young /dense stands (the fuel), while experiencing increasingly drier summers (the
conditions), and increasing populations (the spark), fire risk is a growing concern for this and surrounding forestlands. These young Douglas-fir plantations, with limbs that still reach the ground, (termed ‘ladder-fuels’) run the risk of carrying a surface fire into the canopy of the stand causing a higher severity fire, called a ‘crown fire’.
The Effects of Climate Change on Wildfire
A warming climate can be expected to bring with it an augmented risk of fire. Climate change projections for this region predict an increase in heat waves and summer drought, which will up the level of moisture stress on trees, in turn increasing their susceptibility to wildfire. Warmer, drier conditions in the summer may shift the start of the fire season earlier in the year and extend the duration of the season, thus increasing the probability of ignitions and the spread of fire. Climate-change-induced mortality among drought-intolerant trees combined with increased mortality within overstocked forests and/or under-managed forests may lead to an increase in the volume of dead wood that serves as fuel during a forest fire. The growth of shrubs and other understory vegetation may increase due to heavier spring rains, creating more biomass that is susceptible to drying out during prolonged summer droughts. Dry understory vegetation can serve as a “ladder fuel” that carries ground fires up into the forest canopy. Dry understory vegetation is particularly susceptible to fire where it is adjacent to public roads and urban development.
Fire Prevention Standards
• Pre-commercial thinning and slash abatement in young and overstocked stands.
• Reduction of stand density and small dia. dead wood in older stands.
• Growth and retention of older, larger and more fireresistant trees.
• Maintain low densities of naturally regenerating conifers in the understory.
• Maintain forest road and trail access suitable for firefighting equipment.
The goal of forest fire management is not outright prevention, but rather to reduce the intensity of fires and limit them to surface fires that do not reach catastrophic, standreplacing levels. Managing forest stocking densities, fuels distribution, maintaining fire breaks and buffers are all long-range plans for mitigating the risk of fire. Employing variable density thinning, in particular thinning from below, reduces the potential for a crown fire by increasing the spacing between trees. Thinning from below also creates larger, more vigorous, and fire resistant trees and raises the base of tree crowns, thus reducing ladder fuels.
Fire management goals include:
• Reduce the intensity of fires, making it easier for firefighters to suppress,
• Increase the odds that the forest will survive a fire,
• Reduce the extent of restoration activities (e.g. replanting, erosion control) following a fire.
Management Recommendations
Overstocked Stands
Overstocked conifer and hardwood stands should be thinned to a residual density that is appropriate for the size of the dominant cohort of trees and the conditions of the site (see FMU management
recommendations later in this document). Thinning will improve the growth of residual trees and introduce more sunlight to the forest floor, thereby stimulating understory diversity and natural conifer regeneration. Thinning will also improve the long-term windfirmness of stand, reducing the number of trees lost to blowdown once the forest adjusts to improved growing conditions.
Material thinned from the forest should be dealt with using any of the following methods:
• Removed entirely from the site as either commercial saw or pulp logs,
• Lopped and scattered across the site to aid in soil development,
• Chipped on site using a mobile chipper, with chips distributed back into the forest to aid in soil development,
• Masticated in place using mechanized equipment,
• Piled into discrete piles throughout the forest, with piles located no closer than 50’ apart to minimize potential for surface fires and to provide habitat space
Some slash should be retained in wildlife piles and downed woody debris to provide habitat space for small rodents, reptiles, and amphibians.
Wildfire
The objective of managing fires is not outright prevention, but rather to reduce their intensity and limit them to surface fires that do not reach the canopy and become catastrophic, stand-replacing events. Managing for lower forest stocking densities, minimizing woody fuels in the understory, and maintaining firebreaks and buffers are all strategies for mitigating the risk of fire. Employing variable density thinning, in particular thinning from below (as defined later in this plan), reduces the potential for a surface fire to reach the canopy by increasing the spacing between trees. Thinning from below also creates larger, more vigorous, and fire-resistant trees and raises the base of tree crowns, thus reducing ladder fuels. Further, maintaining a wider spacing on newly regenerating trees in the understory, and minimizing the connectivity between the crowns of low trees and the crowns of dominant canopy trees will further reduce the potential for ground-based fires from reaching the canopy. Additional recommendations include:
• Maintain seasonal forest road access throughout property that is sufficient to allow emergency vehicle access (e.g. 4-wheel drive trucks).
• Prune trees to 3x the height of the dominant shrub layer, in particular along edges of forest and/or forest roads.
• Minimize fine branches and slash on the forest floor. During pruning and both pre-commercial and commercial thinning, avoid contiguous slash mats that exceed 24 inches thick. Slash should be placed on skid trails and incorporated into the soil as equipment runs over it, and/or aggregated and piled in up to five wildlife habitat piles and 10 constructed habitat logs per acre. Habitat structures should be located at least 15 – 20 feet away from any tree.
• Create a 100-foot wide defensible fuel break around all structures and along either side of driveway and/or publicly used roads by removing all downed dead wood and/or dead shrubs and trees, reducing density of understory shrubs, thinning trees to create a 10-foot gap between crowns, and pruning residual trees to at least 8 – 12 feet to eliminate ladder fuels.
Over time, manage for older, larger diameter trees with thicker bark that are more fire resistant. Fire resistant species include: Douglas-fir, big leaf maple, red alder, Oregon white oak and quaking aspen.
Invasive Species
Invasive species treatment is largely species dependent, however, there are some general colonization behaviors to consider when controlling invasive species. Invasive species tend to establish immediately after a disturbance such as a fire or a landslide, or timber harvest. Many invasive species are common around roadways and are introduced to new areas by motorists or recreational travel. Other invasive plant species are introduced by birds who disperse plant seeds to forest interiors. With some exceptions, invasive species do poorly in low light environments. For this reason, consistent canopy cover is an important long-term strategy for controlling invasive plants. Active management is necessary in most situations to control invasive plants. As such, the following recommendations are advised:
• Map the locations of all present invasive species and create a plan for controlling and/or eliminating invasive vegetation. Regularly monitor the forest to detect new species and populations.
• As time and resources allow, remove and destroy invasive plants. Prioritize the control of invasive plants based on the following criteria:
▪ Where they are directly competing with the growth and survival of trees.
▪ Plants that occur on County or State high priority noxious weeds lists.
▪ Plants that are shade intolerant and are likely to diminish as forest canopies close should be of a lesser priority.
• Dispose of plants appropriately so that seeds are not dispersed in the process.
• Maintain closed forest canopies that provide sufficient shade to suppress shade intolerant invasive plants (e.g. scotch broom, Himalayan blackberry).
• Prevent non-native plant introductions during harvest projects by requiring all equipment entering the property be pressure-washed.
The Pierce County Noxious Weed Board website provides copious amounts of information on invasive plants, as well as options for control: http://www.piercecountyweedboard.org/
The Pacific Northwest Weed Management Handbook also contains useful control strategies: https://pnwhandbooks.org/weed
Disease
When laminated root rot is suspected within soils of a young forest, its effects can be mitigated through planting a diversity of hardwood and conifer species, and avoiding reestablishing Douglas-fir, which is its primary host. In natural, mixed species forests, the effects of laminated root rot are greatly diminished by non-host species, which can serve as barriers to the fungus, preventing it from spreading from root to root amongst Douglas-fir. Containment and eradication of laminated root rot can require large patch cuts around infected trees and replanting the site to a non-susceptible species such as red alder, western redcedar, or western white pine.
In larger stands and/or homogeneous plantations, small patch cuts (1-2 acres) may be a desirable and effective strategy for controlling the spread of root rot, while also increasing harvest volumes. However, on smaller parcels, or where management objectives favor conservation, large patch cuts may not be desirable. In these cases, infected trees can be heavily thinned, retaining the most dominant and vigorous looking trees, and the site replanted with non-host species. Given that trees may continue to die during the time between commercial thinning, trees that show signs of infection can be proactively salvage-logged, if the owner wishes to capture their marketable value before they decay, or retained to eventually become snags for wildlife.
RESOURCE CATEGORY II - SOILS
Overview
Climate and living organisms, particularly vegetation, are the active forces in soil formation. Their effect on the parent material is modified by topography and by the length of time the parent material has been in place. The relative importance of each factor differs from place to place. Occasionally one factor dominates and fixes most of the properties of the soil, but normally the interaction of all five factors determines what kind of soil develops in any given place.
Soils affect forestry operations in three main ways: soil moisture, soil compaction, and soil productivity. The following chart provides the most essential information needed to understand site conditions at Buckley Forestland Preserve. Soil type describes the size of soil particles (gravel, sand, silt, and clay) with the understanding that gravelly or sandier soils drain quickly, and silty, and especially clay soils, retain and trap more water. The ability of soils to retain moisture plays a large role in determining which tree species will thrive on a particular site. Smaller silts and clays are also more likely to compress under heavy equipment, causing pooling, rutting, and erosion. The slope helps to determine the risk of erosion on a site. Soil productivity depends both on soil moisture and the level of nutrients in the soil. This is described by the site index (the estimated height in feet of the dominant tree species measured at either 50 or 100 years of age), as well as the site class, which groups soils from highly productive (Site Class I) to least productive (Site Class V). Finally, the soil productivity estimate is used to determine the annual growth potential of a particular soil type in board feet, and the maximum sustainable yield of timber. These latter numbers describe how well suited the site is to timber production.
The following chart provides a summary of the soil types across the subject property. Only the most dominant soil type has been described below.
Soil Types
Kapowsin Gravelly Ashy Loam
This moderately deep, moderately well drained soil is on broad uplands and terraces. It formed in glacial till. Mapped areas range from 5 to more than 300 acres. Native vegetation is conifers and hardwoods.
The elevation ranges from 0 to 300 feet. The average annual precipitation is 30 to 45 inches, the mean annual air temperature is about 50 degrees F, and the average frost-free season is about 180 days.
Typically, the surface layer is dark brown gravelly loam about 5 inches thick. The subsoil is brown and dark yellowish brown gravelly loam about 18 inches thick. The substratum is weakly-silica-cemented, compact, mottled, olive brown, gravelly loam glacial till to a depth of 60 inches. Depth to the hardpan ranges from 20 to 32 inches.
Permeability of this Kapowsin soil is moderate above the hardpan and very slow through the pan. The available water capacity is moderate. The effective rooting depth is 20 to 32 inches. Runoff is slow, and the hazard of water erosion is slight. A perched water table is at a depth of 1 to 2 feet during the rainy season.
This Kapowsin soil is used mainly for woodland, cropland, and urban development. Brush picking for floral arrangements is an important minor industry.
This soil is suited to Douglas-fir, western redcedar, and red alder. Based on a 100-year site curve, the average site index for Douglas-fir is 159 with culmination in mean annual increment (CMAI) of 169 cubic feet per acre. The site index based on a 50-year site curve is 119 with mean annual increment (MAI) of 154 cubic feet per acre at 50 years.
During the rainy season, the soil is saturated. Some windthrow can be expected when the soil is saturated and the winds are strong. Red alder quickly invades clear-cut areas. Hand planting helps to establish a more uniform stand than natural seeding.
Xerochrepts
These very steep soils are moderately well drained to somewhat excessively drained. They border Puget Sound and the Puyallup and White River valleys. These soils mainly formed in glacial till, but some formed in sandy and gravelly outwash. The vegetation is made up of conifers. Elevation ranges from near sea level to 500 feet. The annual precipitation is 35 to 50 inches, mean annual air temperature is about 50 degrees F, and the frost-free season is about 180 days. Areas are long and narrow on the contour. Most slopes are about 65 percent.
Included with these soils in mapping are small areas of Kitsap-Indianola complex, Coastal beaches, and escarpments devoid of vegetation.
No one profile represents this map unit, but one of the most common ones has a mat of undecomposed needles and wood over a dark yellowish brown gravelly sandy loam surface layer. The subsoil is dark brown, brown, and dark yellowish brown gravelly sandy loam about 40 inches thick. The substratum, to a depth of more than 60 inches, is dark grayish brown and grayish brown gravelly sandy loam and gravelly loamy sand that is weakly cemented at a depth of about 50 inches.
The permeability varies. Runoff is very rapid, and the erosion hazard is very severe. These soils are prominent in tree-covered slump areas. These soils are used for watersheds, wildlife habitat, and woodland. A fully stocked stand of Douglas-fir is difficult to maintain because of the very steep slope.
Potentially Unstable Slopes/Landforms
The westernmost portion of Buckley Forestland Preserve includes a portion of a glacial deep-seated landslide that is directly above South Prairie Creek, and the southeasternmost portion of the preserve includes an inner gorge area. Washington Forest Practices Rules (WAC 222-16-050) classifies glacial recharge areas for glacial deep-seated landslides and inner gorge areas as rule-identified landforms (RILs). Therefore, any forest practice activity that includes these areas will need a Class IV Special Forest Practice Application (FPA) administered by the Washington Department of Natural Resources (WA DNR), and will require a geotechnical assessment by a qualified expert per WAC 222-10-030.
Management Recommendations
The main impact these soils will have on long term management of the overstory is their droughtiness. Soils at this site range from moderately well drained to sometime excessively drained. This reduces the amount a soil moisture available during the dry months of summer. Seedlings, whose root systems are not well developed, are at an increased risk of drought mortality. Some common conifer species including western redcedar, grand fir, Sitka spruce, and western hemlock do poorly where soil moisture is limited. It is crucial that the species composition of seedlings incorporate a variety of drought tolerant conifers including Douglas-fir, shore pine, and western white pine. Special care should be taken to match species that are less drought tolerant with appropriate microsites. Additional precautions, such as planting below the shelter of established hardwoods, can be taken as needed.
The Effects of Climate Change on Soils
As the climate warms, the challenges of achieving reforestation are expected to increase, as seedlings lack sufficient root networks to cope with summer drought and the heightened evapotranspiration needs that accompany increasingly common heat waves. Knowing the soils and hydrologic conditions of a forest stand is important for understanding the most suitable sites for less drought-tolerant species such as western hemlock, Sitka spruce, black cottonwood, and red alder. However, these species should not be outright removed from the planting palette. Instead, they should be conserved or planted in local microsites (e.g. wet depressions, riparian areas, or the north-facing side of a legacy old-growth stump) that best support their ecological preferences. Knowing the site’s soil type and its soil moisture capacity will help indicate which species to plant.
General Soil Conservation Guidelines
• Adjusting Species Composition
Tree species should be selected for their suitability to soil conditions. A soil’s depth, composition, water retention capacity, and aspect have a direct bearing on what tree species will both survive and prosper on the site. In particular, a soil’s ability to retain water, and the amount of time it is either saturated or desiccated, is the single greatest limiting factor to species suitability for a site. Ensuring drought-tolerant trees survive on droughty soils, and trees that prefer consistent moisture are retained on wetter soils may reduce the effects of climate change.
• Retention and Recruitment of Hardwoods
Hardwood trees such as red alder, big leaf maple, and cottonwood provide a significant amount of annual leaf litter and woody debris to the forest floor, which quickly rots and is incorporated into the soil. Hardwoods also provide an important role in the nutrient cycle of the forest. Therefore, existing hardwoods should be maintained and favored during forest management activities (e.g. releasing maple in the understory) and the species composition of the forest managed to achieve at least a 25:75 hardwood to conifer mix over.
• Retaining Woody Debris
During forest management operations, woody debris (e.g. limbs, tops, poles, non-merchantable logs, etc.) should be redistributed back into the woods to the extent possible without increasing fire or pest risk, or creating operational hazards to future management operations. Woody debris should be deposited on skid trails during logging operations to minimize soil compaction and incorporate debris into the soil. Otherwise, woody debris should be scattered across the forest floor, avoiding contiguous mats thicker than 24 inches, and left to decompose.
• Conserving Legacy Structures
During forest management operations efforts should be made to protect legacy structures in the forest, including: old-growth stumps, large downed logs, large snags, and old trees from prior generations of the forest. These legacy structures are known to serve as important refugia for mycorrhizal, bacterial, microbial, and other biotic communities that are essential to soil health.
• Seasonal Restrictions
Forest soils can be compacted when they are wet, reducing soil tilth and exacerbating soil-borne diseases. Therefore, heavy equipment use should be limited to periods when soils are dry. Further, frequent passage of equipment across forests soils should be minimized, and activity concentrated on as limited of a trail and/or road network as possible.
• Timber Harvesting and Log Yarding Methods
Commercial thinning entries should be limited on a single site to no frequently than 10-year intervals in order to minimize compaction of soils. No more than 30 percent of the trees in the dominant canopy should be removed at one time to minimize the potential for post-thinning windthrow. Slash should be distributed throughout the site, vs. piled and burned, in order to aid in soil development. Skid trails and yarding corridors should be limited to no longer than 800 – 1,000 feet from harvest unit to roads or landings in order to minimize excessive skidder passes.
RESOURCE CATEGORY III - WATER QUALITY/RIPARIAN AND FISH HABITAT/WETLANDS
Overview
There are no major waterways within the Buckley Forestland Preserve itself, however, South Prairie Creek runs along the southern boundary of the property. This large stream is classified as fish-bearing and a ‘shoreline of the state’ by the Shoreline Management Act of 1971. Shorelines of the state are waterways with high ecological value that require large riparian buffers. There are a handful of seasonal streams that direct surface flow from the majority of the forest to South Prairie Creek, but these streams are small, non-fish-bearing, and only flow during the wettest months of the year. In the westernmost portion of the forest, two such streams cross the primary forest road through 8-inch culverts before descending the steep slope. The westernmost of these culverts is elevated and the flow of water has cut a deep gouge into the hillside below. Both culverts should be replaced to reduce the risk of erosion on the steep slope to the southwest
Forests are essential to maintaining water quality and quantity within a watershed. They moderate stream temperature, control sedimentation and erosion, provide nutrient inputs such as leaf litter and woody debris, and contribute to complex habitat for both aquatic and upland wildlife. In a warming climate, the shade and evaporative cooling provided by riparian forests will become especially important to cold-water aquatic life-forms such as anadromous fish and sensitive amphibians. Streamflow is also affected by forest cover and stand age. Vigorously growing younger forests (less than 40 years old) have substantially higher transpiration rates than older forests, leaving less moisture in the soil and less water in streams and wetlands.
Effects of Climate Change on Watershed Hydrology
Streamflows will be impacted by the growing trends towards warmer temperatures, decreased precipitation in summer months, increased precipitation in winter months, and increased frequency of extreme rain events. In general, hydrological models project that streams will experience greater flashiness, higher runoff and more flooding in fall, winter, and spring. Winter storm intensity is projected to increase, with rainfall and snowmelt concentrated into shorter time periods, leading the region to experience patterns of higher runoff and more flooding. In the summer, higher temperatures and lower soil moisture will increase evaporation rates, resulting in reduced streamflows and warmer water temperatures. Thus, even if total annual precipitation remains the same, summer flows will decline, with cascading effects on the aquatic environment.
Riparian Management Zones
The riparian management zone surrounding South Prairie Creek is in excellent condition. This forest supports a diverse blend of native overstory species and age classes, currently providing all of the key functions described above. The forest surrounding small seasonal streams is less diverse. Where hardwoods make up the majority of the overstory, shade tolerant conifers, such as western redcedar or Sitka spruce, can be planted in the understory to improve the long-term habitat values of the area. Over time, the hardwoods will begin to decline and planted conifers will be promoted to increasingly dominant positions in the canopy.
The Washington State Department of Natural Resources (DNR) regulates timber harvest and other forest management activities on all privately and non-federal publicly owned forestlands in WA State.
The WA DNR enforces a minimum set of riparian, steep slope, and other regulatory protections as established by the WA State Forest Practices Act. Before conducting any forest management activities in proximity to streams and wetlands, the WA DNR should be consulted for any requirements that need to be met. More information can be found online at: https://www.dnr.wa.gov/programs-andservices/forest-practices
Management Recommendations
The desired future condition for riparian forests adjacent to streams and wetlands is a coniferdominated forest type intermixed with a minority of hardwoods. Conifers in riparian areas provide yearround shade, more persistent downed logs on the forest floor, large woody debris in the stream for fish cover, and greater slope stabilization due to their longer lifespan. Some hardwoods should be retained to benefit biodiversity, wildlife forage, and nutrient influx. Forest structure should be of all age classes with moderate and variable stocking that supports natural tree regeneration in the understory and complex herbaceous and shrub layers.
The five key riparian functions that all stream-side forests should be managed to provide include:
1. Shade
2. Bank stability
3. Nutrient input
4. Large woody debris input
5. Sediment filtration
The most important forestland protective measures for conserving sensitive hydrologic features is to manage for complex forest structure and multi-canopy stands, and avoiding the use of heavy equipment in their proximity. Within the first 50 – 200 feet of any shoreline, stream, or wetland, forest management should shift towards uneven-aged practices that utilize individual and small group tree harvest methods. The desired future condition is for a mixed species and multi-age forest that is rich in snags and downed logs.
RESOURCE CATEGORY IV - FOREST INVENTORY/TIMBER/WOOD PRODUCTS
Forest Inventory
During the site assessment in August 2022, randomly located 1/20th-acre plots (26.3-foot radius) were installed, within which a range of timber metrics were collected, including: trees per acre (TPA), diameter at breast height (DBH), live crown ratio (LCR), total tree height, species and age. Additionally, qualitative information was collected both at plots, and between plots, including: forest health, wildlife habitat, understory species, snags and downed logs, and forest structure.
Annual Allowable Harvest
Of a total of 206.6 forested acres, a minimum of 204.4 forested acres are considered accessible and viable for the use of commercial thinning strategies to achieve the long-term conservation goals for this forest. The remaining acres are riparian areas and/or occur on steep slopes, and therefore are not suitable for any activities that require the use of heavy equipment
US Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) soils data predict that a Douglas-fir-dominated forest on the Kapowsin gravelly ashy loam soils that underlay the majority of this land are capable of producing approximately 172 cubic feet (860 board feet) of timber per acre per year when the trees reach approximately 50 years of age. This number is calculated at the age of culmination of mean annual incremental growth (CMAI), which typically occurs between 45 – 60 years of age, and indicates the amount of fiber produced in a fully stocked, even-aged, unmanaged stand. Therefore, this number can be conservative where forests are actively managed for timber production.
Growth rings on Douglas-fir.
As such, the 204.4 acres of available timberland should be capable of growing at least 175 thousand board feet (MBF) of timber per year on a sustained yield basis as the forest begins to mature over the next 15 – 20 years. The thinning strategies proposed in this forest management plan are intended to optimize the growth of larger trees while improving the long-term carbon sequestration potential of the forest. No single thinning will remove more than 25 – 30 percent of the total timber volume. Harvesting at a rate that is far less than annual growth, commonly referred to as sustained yield harvesting, ensures that the forest is continuously adding biomass. Therefore, given a maximum sustained yield of 90 percent of annual growth, with careful management this forest should be capable of producing at least 158 MBF/year. If a commercial thinning is conducted every 10 years, this will yield 1582 MBF of timber per harvest. At a conservative average of $500/MBF, and logging costs of 50%, this would result in a net return to the landowner of $395,514 every 10 years. From this income, other management costs may need to be extracted, such as road building, stream crossings, consulting forester’s fees, planting, etc. The first-entry commercial thinning will yield a lower volume due to the younger age of the stand, and the focus on thinning from below where the least dominant and most defective trees are removed first.
Silvicultural Systems
Buckley Forestland Preserve will adhere to an uneven-aged, structure-based forest management approach to restoring and managing the forest. Structure-based management (SBM) prescribes a mix of active forest management techniques that produce an array of forest stand structures across the landscape - from areas where new trees are being established, to older forest structure featuring late seral, or "old growth", characteristics such as numerous large trees, multi-layered canopies, and substantial numbers of down logs and large snags. Individual stand types may change constantly through management and natural disturbance, but the range of stand types and their relative
abundance across the land base is relatively stable. Because the forest structures are in a dynamic balance across the landscape, the forest provides a steady flow of forest products, habitats, clean air and clean water.
Using an SBM approach, stand density is actively managed to accelerate successional development while simulating natural conditions and disturbance regimes. This is accomplished through a combination of variable density and variable retention harvesting. SBM techniques can be used to produce a variety of results. Some prescriptions will result in fast-growing, well-stocked stands with higher structural homogeneity. Other prescriptions will develop more complex stand structures, with rapid tree diameter growth, enough sunlight on the forest floor to maintain understory plants and natural tree seedling regeneration, and a complex forest canopy. Thinning can also be used to create or maintain other important structural components, such as snags, down wood, legacy trees, gaps in the canopy, and multiple canopy layers.
A diversity of stand types provides for a broad range of ecosystems and biodiversity including a wide range of wildlife habitats. The structural components associated with these diverse stand types benefit long-term forest productivity by maintaining key linkages for nutrient cycling and soil structure and health. The high level of biodiversity and structural heterogeneity should result in a more resilient forest that will be less prone to large-scale disturbances such as fire, wind and ice storms, as well as climatic stresses.
Carey (1998) defines four key structuring processes that contribute to greater habitat diversification:
1. Crown class differentiation: competition among trees of the same age results in dominant, codominant, subordinate, and suppressed trees.
2. Decadence: trees get damaged, infected with fungi, break down, and recycle within the ecosystem.
3. Understory development: variability in light, temperature, and soil moisture promotes structurally-diverse growth on the forest floor.
4. Canopy stratification: trees of different ages and growth habits produce multiple layers of vegetation, including a well-developed midstory.
Providing for these four key processes can lead to two primary levels of structural complexity within a forest - individual and stand level. Examples include:
1. Individual structures
a. Trees of diverse heights, diameters, branch sizes, and bark characteristics
b. Large, dead standing trees (snags)
c. Coarse woody debris (stumps and logs) in various states of decay
2. Stand-level structures
a. Vertical heterogeneity: ever-changing distributions of foliage from the forest floor to the tree tops
b. Horizontal heterogeneity: patchiness in the overstory, midstory, and understory
Additionally, Carey identifies two key processes influencing vegetative species composition that can lead to greater habitat diversification:
1. Development of habitat breadth: patchy canopies produce variability in light, temperature, and soil moisture, leading to patches of different types in the understory.
2. Pre-interactive niche diversification: expansion in forest structure and plant species composition provides diverse niches for animals, plants, and fungi; additional niche diversification occurs after species interact.
Complex forest structure and complex species composition lead to greater complexity in forest function. Primary benefits of more complex forest function include:
1. High carrying capacities for diverse animals
2. High productivity for plants
3. Effective regulation of nutrients and water cycling
4. Healthy, resilient forests
Application of Ecological Forestry
Buckley Forestland Preserve will employ ecological forestry strategies that emphasize maintenance and restoration of physical and ecological processes associated with late seral, or old-growth, forests. Restoration of old-growth structure, composition, and ecological functions (e. g. habitat) in youngmanaged forests has become an increasingly prominent management objective throughout the Pacific Northwest over the past 20 years. The possible role for silvicultural intervention in achieving this objective is now a common theme for scientific research. From this research, a suite of silvicultural tools has been developed to create and maintain diverse, healthy forests. These tools include thinning (manipulation of stand densities and species composition), creation of canopy gaps and undisturbed leave islands (“skips”), creating habitat structures (girdling, topping, and/or dropping of overstory trees), and underplanting shade tolerant tree species below a shade intolerant canopy
The field of ecological forestry and the use of silvicultural tools for improving the ecological functions of forests while balancing needs to produce timber and generate revenue are relatively new concepts, and most research is still in the early stages. The list below highlights key concepts that will be applied to the management of this forest.
1. Retain underrepresented tree species. Increasing the proportion of minor species in the canopy increases biodiversity and prevents species specific pests and pathogens from rapidly spreading throughout the forest. Biodiverse forests are more likely to harbor species that will tolerate future climate conditions, improving the resilience of the forest as a whole.
2. Thin at a variable density and underplant where needed. Increasing the species and age class diversity of the stand will result in a highly variable environment with mature trees and microsites for seedling recruitment. Variable density thinning can be used to progressively create and maintain a range of light conditions and species compositions.
3. Thin to release vigorous dominant trees. Large trees and branches are important components of old-growth habitat; thinning to release dominant trees will likely spur
diameter and branch growth. In addition, single-tree selection can be used to create or enhance desirable habitat traits is likely to increase development of old-growth structures.
4. Create and recruit snags and large woody debris. These are critical ecological components, and if stands are lacking these structures, they can be created as a biproduct of thinning. The number of habitat structures should also be monitored over time. If natural recruitment following thinning is insufficient, efforts should be made to increase the abundance and distribution of these structural features at varying stages of decay on the landscape
5. Protect existing understory vegetation. Understory vegetation, particularly older tall shrubs, should be included in the operational layout to retain the ecological value shrubs provide for wildlife. If poor forest management results in the loss of a diverse community of native shrubs, it may take decades to re-establish.
6. Create large “gaps” or openings. Once a plantation establishes a consistent canopy layer, open or early seral conditions become rare. Because early seral environments are often sites with diverse communities of shrubs and forbs, they are ecologically valuable foraging spaces for a variety of species. Heavy thinning and gap creation can be used to establish and maintain early seral conditions to maximize habitat quality.
7. Protect unstable slopes. Unstable slopes should generally be protected or harvested with minimal ground disturbance and light thinning. Exceptions may arise in areas where intentional creation of large-diameter trees in mass wasting zones is carefully planned. In general, ground-based logging will be limited on slopes greater than 30 percent, and prohibited on slopes greater than 50 percent
8. Leave uncut areas (“skips”) of varying sizes. Some portion of the forest will not be thinned in order to protect sensitive aquatic areas, unstable slopes, structural features (e. g., large shrubs, snags, and other habitat structures), and species that may be dispersal limited or otherwise sensitive to ground disturbance or canopy openings (e. g., lichens, fungi, amphibians). Additionally, the spatial configuration of the leave areas can be designed to assist sensitive species.
Harvest Systems
Silvicultural methods presented here are an overview of various methodologies that may be employed to achieve forest management goals and objectives. In practice, actual prescriptions may use a blend of methods and the stocking and composition targets may vary. The following methods, therefore, should be adapted to both forest conditions and the specific goals and objectives.
The harvest systems described below are designed to achieve the desired future condition of a late successional forest. A combination of pre-commercial thinning, tree planting, variable density thinning, and group tree selection are recommended across all accessible acreage. Inaccessible acreage will be conserved in a passive management regime that is limited to monitoring and invasive species removal.
Thinning
This plan proposes to periodically thin the forest every 10-20 years to reduce competition between trees, adjust species composition, and sustain optimum growth. Using a variety of thinning techniques (described below), stand density is reduced by approximately 30 - 40 percent (~25% of stand volume) during each thinning entry. In general, the majority of the suppressed and damaged trees are selected for removal first, and dominant trees are only selected for removal where they will release vigorous understory trees. Small patch cuts (0.5 – 2.0 acres) may be introduced into the interior of a stand to either ameliorate root rot or to create opportunities for establishing less shade tolerant species such as Douglas-fir or red alder.
Reforestation largely comes from naturally regenerating seedlings. Natural regeneration is stimulated through a combination of logging-based ground disturbance (e.g. creating exposed mineral soil for optimal seed beds) and canopy thinning and/or gap creation (e.g. introducing more sunlight to the forest floor). Manual planting may be necessary to ensure the desired species composition and stocking density and an even distribution of desired seedlings in the understory.
Slash Management and Wildlife Enhancement
Slash (tree-tops, branches, unmerchantable logs) produced during logging operations should be redistributed back into the woods to the extent practical to aid in soil development and minimize soil compaction by logging equipment. If timber is not processed in the woods, then slash from the landing should be moved back onto skids trails and/or the forest floor during return trips by the skidder. Nonmerchantable logs should also be scattered throughout the forest. Further, to the extent prudent, pulp and/or low value trees should be topped and left standing as snags, or cut and stacked into small wildlife habitat piles or constructed downed logs as per wildlife goals later in this document.
The following harvest methods will be used across the property:
Example of pre-commercial thinning, variable density thinning and group selection harvesting. Image courtesy of the Rural Technology Initiative.
Pre-commercial Thinning (PCT)
The term pre-commercial thinning is used throughout this plan to denote stands that will be thinned, but no timber sold. Stands that qualify for PCT typically comprise young plantations less than 30 years old, but may also include older stands that are inaccessible, overstocked or otherwise, will benefit from thinning. The primary objective of thinning is to avoid the competitive exclusion phase of young stand development, and accelerate development of larger trees.
PCT is recommended for both younger stands that exceed approximately 300400 trees per acre (TPA) after canopy closure, as well as areas with high rates of natural regeneration in the understory of older stands Young stands exceeding 300 - 400 TPA typically enter a competitive exclusion phase by age 20, depending on soil productivity. This phase is characterized by a dense canopy with sufficient shade to kill lower branches, suppress understory vegetation, and eventually lead to suppression-based mortality of subordinate trees. The live crowns of trees gradually begin receding across the stand, and once they diminish below 35 - 40 percent, the basal growth of the trees rapidly diminishes. In order to keep these stands in optimum growth and minimize their susceptibility to natural disturbance events (e.g. windthrow, pests), they should be pre-commercially thinned.
Up to 50 percent of individuals may be removed to improve growing conditions in young stands.
Young stands with diameters that average less than 10 inches DBH and exceed 300 - 400 TPA should be thinned to approximately 240 - 300 TPA depending on the shade tolerance of the tree (the less shade tolerant, the lower the residual density). It is crucial that the best trees of each species be retained rather than rigid adherence to an exact spacing requirement. If high quality leave trees occur in close proximity to each other, they may be left as a clump to increase spatial diversity. Leave trees shall be those that have the largest live crown, tallest height, straightest stem, and show no signs of defect, e.g. broken tops, scars, leaning. Thinning in this manner typically results in a variable density spacing amongst retained trees that averages approximately 10 ft – 12 ft.
Trees should be cut within 6 - 12 inches of the ground using either a chainsaw or handheld saw. Cut trees should be brought down so they are not leaning on the retained trees. Care should be taken not to damage the trunk of leave trees during thinning. The resulting slash can be managed in any of the following ways:
1. Lopped and scattered,
2. Piled into wildlife habitat piles measuring a minimum of 10 feet across and 6 feet high,
3. Constructed into downed logs measuring a minimum of 20 feet long and 20 inches in diameter,
4. Cut into firewood and removed,
5. Chipped.
Thinning from Below
Thinning from below is a technique typically used during both the pre-commercial thinning and the first commercial thinning of a stand. The term indicates that trees targeted for removal are typically suppressed trees that are “below” the dominant canopy and will likely naturally die due to inadequate sunlight. Retention trees, therefore, include the most dominant of each species, and may include other criteria such as either timber quality or habitat quality. The percent of trees removed, and the post-thinning density of the stand, depends on the beginning density and the shade tolerances of the remaining tree species. Dense, naturally regenerated stands of less shade tolerant trees (e.g. Douglas-fir or red alder) may require in excess of 60 percent of the trees to be removed to achieve optimal stocking densities. Consult stand density guides for each species to determine proper stocking based on the age and diameter of the trees.
Crown type classes: D=dominant, C=co-dominant, I=intermediate, S=suppressed, W=wolf, M=mortality. Image courtesy of OR State University.
If the stand was previously thinned or has a moderate stocking that does not exceed 300 – 350 TPA, then approximately 30 – 40 percent of the overall trees should be removed, mostly from the suppressed and intermediate canopy classes, in order to promote the continued growth of the co-dominant and dominant trees. Stocking will therefore be reduced to approximately 180 – 240 TPA. Best Tree Selection methods are used similar to pre-commercial thinning. This means that co-dominant or dominant trees may be removed if they have a defect, or will release more desirable species in the understory. Thinning should occur “across the species”, retaining the best quality tree of each species, both hardwood and conifer.
Variable Density Thinning
Variable density thinning techniques are typically employed during subsequent thinning entries of a stand. Variable density thinning involves varying the thinning intensity to produce a mosaic of unthinned, moderately thinned, and heavily thinned patches. Thinning with skips and gaps can also create this mosaic. Variable density thinning helps generate a more complex forest structure by promoting tree growth at different rates. It also encourages the development of a biologically diverse understory with a variety of patch types, and the sustained growth of tree seedlings and saplings. Variable-density thinning can improve forest health by increasing (a) resistance to disturbance, (b) the ability to
Before and after variable density thinning. Image courtesy of Forestnet.com.
recover after disturbance, and (c) biological diversity that allows ecosystems to function well through climatic variation.
Variable density thinning typically occurs across both species and diameters, reducing stand density by no more than one-third of the standing trees per entry. If stand density is approximately 180 – 240 TPA, then the 2nd entry will reduce the density by approximately another one-third to 120 – 160 TPA. During the third entry thinning, stand density will be reduced by another third by thinning to approximately 80 – 100 TPA. The following thinning entry will likely follow variable retention harvesting methods as per below. When selecting trees for harvest, most thinning is still conducted from below. However, dominant overstory trees may be selected for harvest if they will release a vigorous understory tree that has ample live crown. Thinning in this manner produces a more complex forest canopy and stimulates natural regeneration in the understory, thereby minimizing the need for manual planting.
Natural Reforestation
Two of the biggest challenges to reforestation following clear cutting are summer droughts and excessive browse. Replanting plantations that experience high mortality is often necessary to ensure proper long-term stocking. However, naturally regenerating seedlings in the understory of the forest fare much better as they are protected by the shade of the dominant canopy, and native brush limits browse damage. Stimulating and promoting natural regeneration and seedling survival is one of the advantages of using successive thinning and uneven-aged management and the protective shade that canopy trees provide.
Observing natural patterns of understory regeneration provides excellent guidance for developing strategies for enhancing germination of tree seedlings. Most naturally regenerating seedlings throughout a forest can be found along south-facing edges, gaps within the forest, and wetter soils.
Strategies for stimulating natural conifer regeneration:
1. Increase canopy transparency by thinning dominant trees. Reducing the density of dominant canopy trees to below approximately 120 TPA, for instance, will increase sunlight to the forest floor.
2. Heavy logging equipment exposes mineral soil that often serves as an ideal seedbed. Logging disturbance, combined with opening dense canopies, typically results in an increase in natural regeneration.
3. Thin more heavily along southern edges of forest, increasing canopy transparency deeper into the stand.
4. Create small canopy gaps (0.25 – 0.5 acres) throughout fully stocked stands. Canopy gaps, in particular if they are oriented roughly east-west, will allow sunlight to reach the interior of stands, thereby promoting the growth of understory seedlings.
5. Manual planting of seedlings may be necessary in order to create a more even distribution.
6. If animal browse is causing excessive damage, tree cages or browse repellant should be applied until seedlings reach at least 4 - 5 feet
Management Recommendations for All Forest Management Units
Regular forest monitoring is essential in order to respond more promptly to trees or other vegetation affected by climate stressors, and to improve resiliency at various stages. It’s important to be aware of specific risks for the forest and to be observant of forest conditions and how they are changing. This
knowledge can inform decisions about tree species to plant, where to plant them, what stocking density to maintain, and how to plan and prioritize culvert and road work.
Questions specific to climate adaptation monitoring include:
• Is natural seedling regeneration occurring on expected sites?
• Which species are regenerating on their own? Are these seedlings surviving, or dying after they reach a certain age or size?
• Do some trees appear stressed?
• What is the species, size, age, soil type, slope, aspect?
• Which trees show signs of good vigor?
• Are trees dying in the forest? If so, what species and where?
• When do the first blossoms emerge in the forest, and when does bud-break occur for each species? How has that changed over time?
• Are invasive species appearing? Where and in what abundance?
• How do culverts and roads fare after large storm events?
Adjust Planting Strategies Seed Stock
Selection for Future Climates
Use the Seedlot Selection Tool (https://seedlotselectiontool.org/sst/) to identify seed zones whose current climate is akin to the predicted future climate of the site 30 to 60 years hence. Procuring 30 to 40 percent of seedlings to be planted from those more southerly seed zones can serve as a hedge against future reforestation failure.
Planting Seedlings
Knowing the soils and hydrologic conditions of a forest is important for understanding the most suitable sites for particular tree species. When planting on droughty soils, for instance, avoid less droughttolerant species such as western hemlock, Sitka spruce, black cottonwood, and red alder. These species are best relegated to north-facing slopes, drainages, valley bottoms, riparian areas, and otherwise wetter soils Native populations of western redcedar may be similarly drought intolerant, but seedlings sourced from the southern portion may be better suited to future site conditions.
Planting drought-tolerant tree species is an important component of this strategy. There are a variety of native species to choose from, but some species or populations from eastern Washington, Oregon, and California may also be considered.
Native Eastern Washington California/Oregon
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
Western white pine (Pinus monticola)
Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta)
Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii)
Bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum)
Oregon oak (Quercus garryana)
Pacific dogwood (Cornus nuttallii)
Douglas hawthorn (Crataegus douglasii)
Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)
Ponderosa Pine (Pinus ponderosa)
Mountain ash (Sorbus scopulina)
Giant Sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteumi)
CA Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens)
Golden chinquapin (Chrysolepis chrysophylla)
Western redcedar (Thuja plicata)
Planting more robust conifer seedlings, such as “1-1” planting stock which has spent a year in the seedbed and a year in a transplant bed, aids in seedling survival during long, hot summers. Planting in the late fall or winter, vs the spring, gives seedlings more time to develop roots before the high transpiration seasons of late spring and summer arrive. Retaining debris on the forest floor provides a mulching effect that conserves soil moisture. Finally, cutting back competing vegetation around tree seedlings reduces competition for limited soil moisture.
Forest Management Units
The overstory at Buckley Forestland Preserve can be divided into 7 forest management units. Each unit supports a different blend of overstory species, stand conditions, and proposed management strategies. The location of each individual unit is presented in Appendix II and summarized in the table below.
This forest management unit consists of two very similar stands that were established only a few years apart. The first unit was cut in the early 1980s and the second was harvested around 1990. Both were replanted with Douglas-fir at a high density to maximize timber production and to surpress “weedy” trees and shrubs. The long-term plan for this area was almost certainly to conduct a final harvest after 40 to 60 years of growth. The harvest site would then be replanted with Douglas-fir, and the cycle would begin again.
The fir overstory is mottled with irregular gaps resulting from laminated root rot. These areas are marked by patches of snags and fallen trees, many of which were previously dominant trees in the canopy. The largest gaps have been colonized by red alder or bigleaf maple, but others have no live trees.
This stand of 30–40-year-old Douglas-fir is stocked at 200320 TPA with an average of about 240 TPA Fir range from 9-15 inches DBH with an average DBH of 12 inches DBH and an average height of 110 feet. The densest areas of this unit are composed entirely of Douglas-fir, and include numerous small snags in the understory. The live crown ratio is as low as 15 percent in the densest patches of forest, while areas with lower stocking or a greater proportion of hardwoods have live crowns as high as 30 percent. The red alder and bigleaf maple that occur in gaps are significantly smaller than the surrounding conifers, averaging 4 inches DBH. Intermediate or codominant bigleaf maple have large crowns that take up a disproportionate amount of space in the canopy. Hardwoods have an average canopy height of 70 feet.
The understory is dominated by sword fern and is moderately open. Areas with especially high stand densities have no understory vegetation, and large woody shrubs are largely restricted to openings in the canopy, or areas where hardwoods create irregular patches of sunlight on the forest floor. Common woody shrubs include vine maple, elderberry, and small patches of Oregon grape. Trailing blackberries are also common but rarely reach more than four inches in height. English holly is present in the understory but is not widely distributed. Western redcedar has begun to seed into the southern portion of this forest, but seedlings are still uncommon.
Douglas-fir grow at high densities with a moderately open understory.
High stocking and root rot have created numerous small diameter snags and downed logs that are widespread throughout the stand. There are also many large diameter stumps from earlier harvests, some are as large as 36 inches in diameter.
Management Recommendations
The primary management objective in this unit is to increase biodiversity and to create a more complex stand structure. A first entry thinning is recommended to reduce competition, increase the growth rate of residual trees, and promote natural regeneration of shade tolerant conifers. Larger areas affected by root rot can be thinned more heavily and replanted with rot resistant conifer species, including western white pine and shore pine, that will fill spaces in the canopy as the remaining Douglas-fir decline. Western redcedar, especially those that are sourced from drier climates, can be planted in areas with higher soil moisture Where natural regeneration is not present, shade tolerant conifers can be planted to improve biodiversity Periodic thinning of this unit will continue to break up the structure of the canopy and provide opportunities to adjust the species composition of the overstory as conditions change.
2023-2028 Commercial Thinning from Below
An initial thinning from below is recommended as per the guidelines earlier in this plan. Because Douglas-fir makes up over 90 percent of all overstory trees, any underrepresented species should be retained. Thinning should aim to reduce the average spacing between trees to approximately 16 feet (140-200 TPA). Trees within one tree length of existing pockets of root rot should thinned more heavily to optimize resources for the residual trees.
2023-2028 Underplanting
A diverse assortment of other tree species can be planted following thinning. The majority of this unit can be planted with western redcedar, along with a minor component of bigleaf maple, at total stocking of 100 seedlings per acre Western redcedar sourced from drier regions such as eastern Washington or northern California may do better in the dry soils at this site. Heavily thinned areas and existing gaps can be planted with less shade tolerant conifers, such as western white pine and shore pine, at an average of 200 TPA depending on the stocking of the overstory Douglas-fir should not be planted near patches of root rot.
2023-2033 Seedling Maintenance
Browse damage and vegetative competition will be the primary obstacles to seedling establishment Browse deterrents should be utilized and competing vegetation removed as needed for the first 3 - 4 years, or until seedlings reach a free to grow height of approximately two feet above the shrub layer (approximately 8 feet).
Once the seedlings have established a canopy over understory shrubs, begin pruning the lower branches from the white pine. Branches should be removed from the bottom 50 percent of all white pine saplings once they reach a total height of 8 feet until the trees reach a total height of 20 feet in order to reduce the potential effects of white pine blister rust.
2033-2038 Variable Density Thinning
After 10 - 15 years of growth, this unit can be commercially thinned again in order to further reduce competition, release vigorous understory trees, and generate revenue. No more than 30 percent of the canopy trees should be removed at this time, and thinning should occur both “across the diameters” and across species. Dominant trees in the canopy should only be removed if they will release vigorously
growing understory trees, and trees showing susceptibility to climate change should be proactively removed. Gaps ranging from a half-acre to two acres in size can be used to create foraging space for deer and elk. Gaps should be placed to reduce the concentration of fir where root rot is present. The remainder of the stand should be thinned to spread trees out and reduce density. If the starting density is 140 – 200 TPA, the post-thinning density will average 100 - 120 TPA.
2033-2043 Monitor Understory
Following thinning, evaluate the stocking density and species distribution of understory trees. In areas where understory trees are exceeding 240 TPA, proactively thin to no more than this average stocking (12 – 14 feet spacing) and target species that are less suitable for the site (e.g. western hemlock). In areas where there are less than an evenly distributed 100 TPA in the understory (20 x 20 feet), replant with Douglas-fir, cedar, and white pine to achieve that minimum stocking level. Trees may need to be caged to prevent deer browse. In areas that are becoming overstocked, trees should be thinned to 15 –20 feet.
2053-2058 Third Commercial Thinning
This stand should be given more time to grow between the second and third commercial thinning in order to add volume and size to the trees and allow understory seedlings to develop. Once competition begins within the canopy again, the unit can be commercially thinned using the variable density thinning guidelines described above. Remove no more than 30 percent of the dominant trees, reducing canopy density to 70 – 100 TPA. Thin to release vigorous understory trees. Following thinning, cut out any damaged understory trees, replant areas of low density, and/or pre-commercially thin any areas where natural regeneration is leading to excessively high densities of seedlings and understory trees.
FMU 2 – Mature Riparian Forest
The forest included in this management unit is located on the steep south-facing slopes above South Prairie Creek. This forest has not been harvested since the first clearing of this region around 100 years ago. After this initial harvest, a variety of native conifers and hardwoods regenerated naturally, with Douglas-fir attaining dominant positions in the canopy, and shade tolerant conifers growing in the partial shade of the larger fir Western redcedar and western hemlock grew into codominant positions as the initial cohort of fir thinned as it matured Native hardwoods such as bigleaf maple, black cottonwood, and red alder have also grown into gaps in the canopy, especially where the stream has caused erosion, removed forest cover and exposed bare soil. The steep slopes and proximity to a major waterway have limited subsequent harvest activity in this area, resulting in a structurally and biologically diverse riparian forest.
A diverse blend of conifer and hardwood species line the slopes above South Prairie Creek.
This unit is comprised of a mature mixed-species forest that is dominated by tall, large-DBH Douglas-fir that make up approximately 50 TPA. Two thirds of the canopy consists of mature shade tolerant conifers, including western hemlock and western redcedar, as well as a variety of hardwoods. Bigleaf maple is the dominant hardwood in this unit, but black cottonwood and red alder are also scattered throughout the canopy. Douglas-fir range from 14 – 36 inches DBH depending on their position in the canopy with an average of 28 inches. Shade tolerant conifers are somewhat smaller averaging only 20 inches DBH. Bigleaf maple are as large as 24 inches DBH, but other hardwoods are usually 20 inches or less. Overall, the average live crown ratio is 40 percent. The variability in height, density, and diameter creates a mosaic of growing conditions with both high-light and low-light microsites scattered throughout the stand.
The understory consists primarily of sword fern. However, larger shrubs, including salmonberry, vine maple, snowberry, and Oregon grape are common and widely distributed. Western redcedar and hemlock saplings can be found in areas where light is most abundant. Large diameter downed wood and large snags are not common; however, these structures will form naturally as this forest matures and individual trees succumb to environmental stressors.
Management Recommendations
Because this stand is naturally on a trajectory to achieve the desired future condition defined for this forest, and because the topography complicates commercial harvest operations, ongoing management of this unit should consist primarily of monitoring. This area should be assessed at least once a year to both ensure new seedlings are growing into the low canopy and to identify and remove invasive species. If the hardwood component of this stand prevents the recruitment of native conifers in the understory, intervention may be needed to create adequate growing space for planted or naturally regenerating seedlings.
Ongoing: Understory Monitoring and Supplemental planting
The understory should be evaluated every 2 – 4 years to identify invasive species and to assess natural regeneration. Planted areas will be monitored more frequently. Invasive species should be removed before they produce seed. Areas that lack young or intermediate trees should be underplanted with suitable species to replace dominant individuals as they begin to decline. The target seedling density should be between 100 and 150 TPA. Planting should include a variety of species including western hemlock, western redcedar, Sitka spruce, and (where conditions permit) western white pine. Planted seedlings can be treated with browse deterrent, as needed, until they are greater than 8 feet in height. Vegetation should be cut back until seedlings are no longer at any risk of being shaded out by surrounding shrubs.
FMU 3 – Dense Mixed Hardwood/Conifer Forest
This management unit was harvested in 1998 and replanted with Douglas-fir as part of the even-aged silvicultural system utilized across the majority of the property. Where FMU 1 grew into a successful timber plantation, a combination of environmental factors and a lack of seedling maintenance in this unit resulted in natural red alder regeneration across the site. Alder grew rapidly and began to compete with the planted fir, resulting in a mosaic of conifers and hardwoods in the overstory. Where alder thrived, the species was able to surpass the planted Douglas-fir, expanding into the canopy, and gradually suppressing the conifers in their shade. Where conditions were less favorable for alder, Douglas-fir were able to achieve dominance over the naturally recruited alder. The high density of this stand has resulted in reduced growth and a decline in the average live crown ratio of trees in all canopy positions
Approximately half of the area in this unit is occupied by patches of dominant Douglas-fir. Here Douglas-fir make up as many as 300 TPA, and their diameters range from 6 – 12 inches DBH, averaging 9 inches. The average canopy height is 80 feet and live crowns only comprise approximately 25 percent of total tree height. In contrast, the portion of this stand dominated by red alder averages at least 600 TPA, with diameters averaging 4-6 inches Below the alder canopy, suppressed Douglas-fir have succumbed to shade-induced mortality and converted to numerous small diameter dead snags. The few Douglas-fir that have managed to grow through the alder canopy average 12 inches in diameter 75 feet tall, but comprise less than 50 TPA
Patches of Planted Douglas-fir and intermixed with bands of red alder.
Where Douglas-fir is dominant, the understory is open and almost entirely composed of sword fern. In contrast, where alder is dominant and the hardwood canopy more porous, the understory is dense with thickets of salmonberry, Himalayan blackberry, Oregon grape, snowberry, and vine maple.
In the last ten years, a handful of grand fir, redcedar, and Sitka spruce were planted along the trail that loops through the middle of this stand. However, these seedlings are only found within a few feet from this trail
Aside from the abundant small diameter conifer snags, there is very little coarse woody debris in this unit, either in the form of larger diameter snags or downed logs However, large diameter stumps are moderately well distributed throughout this forest as a whole
Management Recommendations
The primary management objective in this unit is to restore a diversity of conifers to areas currently dominated by dense hardwoods. Red alder is short lived and the understory below these young trees already supports small clumps of invasive species. When red alder begins to decline, there is a chance that the dense shrub layer will impede the natural regeneration of new seedlings, leading to the gradual removal of forest cover. The introduction of additional conifers will improve the longevity of the forest while providing additional shade to suppress invasive shrubs in the understory.
An initial pre-commercial thinning is recommended to reduce competition within the dense patches of Douglas-fir, release Douglas-fir from competition with red alder, and release other conifers and hardwoods in the understory. After the stand is allowed to grow for 10-15 years, commercial thinning can be used to further reduce competition across the unit and open to the understory for planting. Once a new cohort of shade tolerant conifers and hardwoods is established in the understory and low canopy, further thinning is recommended to promote vigorous individuals in all canopy levels. Over time, this stand will be managed for approximately a 70/30 mix of conifers to hardwoods
2023-2028 Pre-commercial Thinning
Pre-commercially thin both the dense patches of Douglas-fir and dense stands of red alder Use best tree selection to retain the highest quality individuals of each species. Thin both alder and Douglas-fir to 220-260 TPA. Release conifers wherever possible. Create habitat piles and constructed logs using slash generated from thinning.
2033-2043 Commercial Thinning from Below
Once the average diameters of the fir and alder reach 10 inches and live crowns begin to recede below 40 percent, the unit should be evaluated for its first commercial thinning. If alder is not large enough for commercial thinning, harvest should be delayed until both alder and fir are of a merchantable size. Thinning should occur primarily from below, removing the least dominant and most defective trees first, then for optimal spacing. Approximately 30 percent of the dominant trees should be removed, reducing the stocking density of the overstory to 160-180 TPA. Care should be taken to protect understory trees during logging.
2033-2043 Underplanting
A diverse assortment of other tree species can be planted following thinning. The majority of this unit can be planted with redcedar, along with a minor component of bigleaf maple, at an average stocking of 150 TPA. Redcedar sourced from drier regions such as eastern Washington or northern California may do better in the dry soils at this site. Heavily thinned areas and existing gaps can be planted with less
shade tolerant conifers, such as Douglas-fir, western white pine and shore pine, at an average of 200 TPA.
2033-2043 Seedling Maintenance
Browse damage and vegetative competition will be the primary obstacles to seedling establishment. Browse deterrents should be utilized and competing vegetation removed as needed for the first 3 - 4 years, or until seedlings reach a free to grow height of approximately two feet above the shrub layer (approximately 8 feet).
Once the seedlings have established successfully, begin pruning the lower branches from the white pine. Branches should be removed from the bottom 50 percent of all white pine saplings until the trees reach a total height of 20 feet in order to reduce the effect of white pine blister rust.
2053-2058 Variable Density Commercial Thin
Depending on growth, this unit can be commercially thinned again in about 10-15 years using variable density thinning principles. Wait for live crowns on the firs to once again begin receding to less than 40 percent before considering thinning. Thin across the diameters and species to begin promoting an uneven-aged and mixed species stand. Dominant fir can be harvested where they will release vigorously growing understory trees, in particular new fir. Thin alder along with the fir. Remove approximately 30 percent of the overstory trees, reducing stocking to 100-120 TPA.
2053-2058 Monitor
Understory
Following thinning, evaluate the stocking and condition of understory trees, both planted and naturally regenerating. Proactively cut trees that are not suitable for the site where they are competing with others that are. If there are less than an evenly distributed 100 saplings in the understory (20 x 20 feet), plant Douglas-fir, redcedar and/or white pine to achieve that minimum stocking level. Trees may need to be caged to prevent deer browse. In areas where the understory is becoming overstocked with seedlings, trees should be thinned to 15 – 20 feet.
This unit was harvested in 1998, replanted at the same time as FMU 3, and also experienced a high rate of red alder natural regeneration. However, due to a combination of environmental conditions and poor seedling maintenance, the planted fir quickly languished beneath the abundant alder, leaving behind numerous small diameter dead snags. The high density of the alder is now limiting the growth of dominant individuals and suppressing the least vigorous trees
FMU 4 – Young Alder Forest
Red alder is growing at an average density of 600 TPA with a canopy height of 70 feet and an average DBH of 5 inches. Individuals have been forced to grow as fast as possible to ensure they are not trapped in the shade of their neighbors. This has resulted in a high average height to diameter ratio and declining live crowns. There are a very small number of grand fir, Sitka spruce, and redcedar saplings in this section that appear to have been planted along the trail These saplings are generally about 12 feet in height and 4 inches in diameter. The planted saplings are not present in the majority of the stand.
The understory in this section is dominated by salmonberry, sword fern, and vine maple with Himalayan blackberry winding through much of the native shrub cover. Vine maple in this unit tends to form dense thickets that reach heights of 30 feet. There are very few small snags or downed logs in this unit.
Management Recommendations
Management of this unit should prioritize the transition from an alder overstory to a mixed species forest that is dominated by conifers. To create space for native conifer seedlings, reduce competition, and improve the growth of the most dominant and vigorous trees in the unit, this unit should initially be precommercially thinned by removing the most suppressed trees. A diverse combination of conifer seedlings can then be planted under the shelter of the remaining alder. As these seedlings establish, and the dominant alder reaches a merchantable size, the overstory can be progressively thinned to release the young cohort of planted trees. The composition of the forest will be managed to ultimately achieve a 70/30 ratio of conifers to hardwoods.
2023-2028 Pre-commercial Thinning
Remove the least vigorous alder from the canopy to release dominant individuals from excess competition and to increase the spacing between residual trees. The stand density after thinning should be approximately 280 - 300 TPA. Conifers and underrepresented hardwoods should be released wherever they are found. Cut materials can be used to create wildlife piles and constructed logs throughout this and neighboring management units.
2038-2043 Commercial Thinning
When the alder reaches an average diameter of 10 – 12 inches, this unit should be evaluated for commercial thinning. Approximately 40 percent of the alder should be removed at this time to a density of approximately 160-180 TPA. Care should be taken to minimize damage to the conifers in the low canopy.
As conditions become gradually warmer and drier, this site may become unsuitable for alder production. If alder appears to be declining, a lower residual density will help to relieve drought stress and will accelerate the transition toward conifer dominance.
Small diameter red alder has shaded out planted seedlings in much of the eastern forest.
2038-2043 Underplanting
A diverse assortment of other tree species can be planted following thinning. The majority of this unit can be planted with redcedar, along with a minor component of bigleaf maple, at total stocking of 150 seedlings per acre. Redcedar sourced from drier regions such as eastern Washington or northern California may do better in the dry soils at this site. Heavily thinned areas and any areas with low stocking can be planted with less shade tolerant conifers, such as Douglas-fir, western white pine, and shore pine, at an average of 200 TPA depending on the stocking of the overstory. Douglas-fir should not be planted in or near areas affected by root rot.
2038-2048 Seedling Maintenance
Browse damage and vegetative competition will be the primary obstacles to seedling establishment. Browse deterrents should be utilized and competing vegetation removed as needed for the first 3 - 4 years, or until seedlings reach a free to grow height of approximately two feet above the shrub layer (approximately 8 feet).
Once the seedlings have established successfully, begin pruning the lower branches from the white pine. Branches should be removed from the bottom 50 percent of all white pine saplings until the trees reach a total height of 20 feet in order to reduce the effect of white pine blister rust. Monitor planted or naturally regenerating Douglas-fir for signs of root rot. The pathogen is widely distributed throughout the conifer forests at this site.
2053-2058 Evaluate for Variable Density Thinning
Commercially thin across the diameters and species as per above recommendations by removing 30 - 40 percent of the trees, thereby reducing stocking density of the dominant trees to 80 - 120 TPA. Target highest quality hardwoods for removal, as well as those that will release conifers in the low canopy. Maple may begin achieving a merchantable size by this time and can be thinned for optimal spacing, but otherwise should be left to continue to optimize growth and future timber value Heavy thinning and a few gap cuts can be used to increase foraging space for deer and elk.
If the density of planted and naturally regenerating individuals is greater than 300 TPA, precommercially thin to 240-260 TPA using best tree selection to remove the least vigorous individuals.
This unit is comprised of three areas where root rot caused the widespread decline of dominant Douglas-fir. In FMU 4, red alder was able to out compete planted fir early on, replacing them in the canopy. In this unit, fir achieved the early stages of dominance before rood rot caused the rapid decline of most planted fir after 15 – 20 years of growth. By the time fir began to die back, most shade intolerant hardwoods had been successfully excluded from the stand and were unable to fill the newly opened space in the canopy. The result is patchy tree cover with abundant large snags, downed wood, and scattered clumps of residual trees. The overstory is now dominated by widely spaced black cottonwood and bigleaf maple. These hardwoods grow at low densities interspersed with tall shrubs.
FMU 5 – Sparse Hardwood Forest
Along the southwestern property boundary, western redcedar is beginning to seed into the unit. Across the majority of the unit, there are no overstory conifers.
In the two southern areas of this unit, bigleaf maple makes up 50 TPA, with an average diameter of 10 inches and heights of 60 feet. Black cottonwood is less common, contributing only 20 TPA. Cottonwood are the largest trees in this unit with average diameters of approximately 14 inches DBH and heights of 75 feet. Alder grows in clumps of about 15 TPA, with a DBH of 8 inches and an average height of 50 feet. Redcedar, found only in the southern gaps, are highly clustered can make up as many as 100 TPA along the edge of the unit. These cedar average 10 inches DBH and heights of 45-60 feet. Hardwoods generally retain live crowns around 30 percent but the young intermediate redcedar support crowns on 60 percent of their total tree height. Redcedar are slowly seeding into the openings in this unit.
The northernmost rot pocket is characterized by a greater proportion of alder as well as the absence of black cottonwood and western redcedar. Otherwise, the forest structure is largely the same. Young alder grow at densities ranging from 50 to 150 TPA with scattered clumps of regenerative bigleaf maple (20 TPA), and large gaps with tall thickets of Himalayan blackberry. Maple are the largest trees in this section with diameters of 10 inches and heights of around 50 feet.
The understory is filled with a tall-shrubs including salmonberry, sword fern, and patches of Himalayan blackberry. The invasive blackberry is usually sparse but well distributed with few patches that are growing into dense thickets.
Management Recommendations
The lack of rot resistant, shade tolerant conifers in the forest as a whole decreases the likelihood that this stand will develop into a healthy mixed forest without intervention. Additionally, the abundance of aggressive, invasive shrubs in canopy gaps will complicate the natural reforestation of these open areas. There is a good chance that these invasive shrublands would expand into the hardwood understory and prevent seedlings from replacing overstory trees as the canopy matures. Management should focus on invasive species removal and reforestation. Over time, conifer seedlings will be promoted into increasingly dominant canopy positions, allowing them to replace short lived hardwoods as the stand matures.
2023-2028 Site Preparation
Some open areas will require substantial vegetation treatment to remove invasive Himalayan blackberry before planting. Because blackberry thickets are scattered among native hardwoods and shrubs, a combination of mechanical treatment and hand treatment should be used to create planting sites. Blackberry should be ground to a fine mulch to expose as much of the forest floor as possible. Hand
Declining Douglas-fir have given way to patches of young hardwoods and dense shrubs.
treatment should be used to clear invasives around native vegetation and to create small planting sites where native vegetation is dense enough to inhibit reforestation. Some native shrubs and hardwoods should be left intact in large clumps to add variability to the landscape.
2023-2028 Planting
Following site preparation, this unit should be replanted with a combination of conifer species including western white pine, shore pine and western redcedar. Pine should be planted at densities of 350 to 400 TPA in open areas. Western redcedar can be reserved for areas with more shade cover including the hardwood understory and the edges of existing gaps that receive only partial sun. All seedlings should either be caged or be treated with browse deterrents to minimize damage.
2023-2033 Seedling Maintenance
Over the next 10 years both manually planted and naturally regenerating trees should be monitored for vigor, browse, and density. Competing vegetation should be cut back until the seedlings reach a free-togrow height at least two feet above surrounding vegetation.
Western white pine will require pruning once they reach a height of 8 feet. All branches should be removed annually from the bottom half of the tree until each individual reaches a total height of 20 feet. This will help to reduce the impact of white pine blister rust.
2038-2043 Evaluate for Pre-commercial Thinning
Monitor both planted seedlings and naturally regenerating red alder for competition. Pre-commercially thin if competition between planted conifers becomes excessive, or if red alder forms thickets that exceed 350 TPA (11 x 11). Further, monitor canopy closure on conifer seedlings. PCT should occur before live crowns begin to recede to less than 40%. In order to optimize longer term growth on the unit before the first commercial thinning, this unit should be pre-commercially thinned to approximately 240 – 280 TPA (13 – 15). This thinning should be used as an opportunity to adjust the species composition throughout the unit and to remove defective trees.
2053-2063 Evaluate for Commercial Thinning
Once the average diameter in this unit reaches 10-12 inches and the average live crown ratio falls below 40 %, this unit should be thinned again. Commercially thin across the diameters and species by removing 40 – 50 percent of the existing trees, reducing overall stand density to 120 – 140 TPA. Underrepresented species should be retained to bolster biodiversity. This is also an opportunity to adjust the species composition of the overstory by retaining a higher proportion of drought tolerant trees in dry areas and redcedar or hemlock in wet areas.
This FMU is composed of a small strip of hardwood forest that is surrounded by FMU 1. The large hardwoods that characterize this unit are located in a shallow drainage that transports seasonal rainfall
FMU 6 – Hardwood Riparian Forest
across the property to the South Prairie Creek. This area was likely included in the 1980 harvest along with FMU1 but the site was not suited to Douglas-fir production due to high soil moisture. Black cottonwood and bigleaf maple have thrived, while the planted fir seedlings struggled and died back. There is still a small proportion of fir in the overstory but these individuals make up only 10 to 15 percent of the canopy and are largely confined to the edges of the unit away from the drainage. Western redcedar, uncommon in FMU 1, can be found scattered along the seasonal streambed of this unit. Several cedar have attained intermediate positions in the canopy, and seedlings are not uncommon. The relatively open canopy also supplies sunlight to a diverse understory that is well stocked with native shrubs and patches of invasive blackberry.
Black cottonwood is consistent in the overstory with diameters ranging from 14 to 18 inches with an average DBH of 16 inches. These trees are also quite tall with an average canopy height of 130 feet. Douglas fir make up as many as 20 TPA and range from 10 to 16 inches DBH, with an average of 12 inches, and an average height around 110 feet. Western redcedar makes up only 10 trees per acre on average but is widely distributed throughout this unit. Redcedar range from 3 inches to 10 inches DBH with an average of 6 inches. Bigleaf maple are scattered in clumps and have an average DBH of 10 inches.
The understory is composed of sword fern, salmonberry, elderberry, and trailing blackberry. Himalayan blackberry is fairly widespread and is beginning to dominate the understory in the southernmost portions of this unit. There are few large snags and downed wood is typically small in diameter. Cottonwood makes up the majority of the few existing habitat structures
Management Recommendations:
Like many riparian forests, the primary management objective in this unit should be the introduction and promotion of long lived, native evergreens such as western redcedar, western hemlock, Sitka spruce, and grand fir. These species will add shade to the stream during the winter months and will gradually introduce slow-rotting woody debris to forest. The addition of slow rotting structures will supply ideal nesting sites for reptiles and amphibians on the forest floor while standing snags create nesting structures for birds and small mammals. Underplanting will begin to transition this stand toward increased conifer dominance and additional light thinning will help to establish these planted conifers in the overstory.
2023-2028 Underplanting
Shade tolerant conifers should be planted to improve stocking levels and transition the unit to a more climate resilient forest. Seedlings should be planted on a 12 – 15 foot spacing (200 – 300 TPA) and care should be taken to pair planted seedlings with suitable microsites. Using existing vegetation as a guide,
Tall cottonwood tower above a shallow seasonal streambed.
drought intolerant species including hemlock, western redcedar, and Sitka spruce should be planted where soil moisture is readily available. Drought tolerant species, such as white pine and Douglas-fir, should be reserved for drier areas within this unit. Cages should be installed on cedar to protect them from browse damage and competing vegetation should be cut back around all seedlings for the first 3-5 years, or until they reach a free-to-grow height of at least two feet above the shrub layer Cages should be removed when seedlings reach 4 – 5 tall and are less susceptible to browse damage.
2023-2033
Seedling Maintenance
Over the next 10 years both manually planted and naturally regenerating trees should be monitored for vigor, browse, and density. Competing vegetation should be cut back until the seedlings reach a free-togrow height at least two feet above surrounding vegetation.
2038-2043
Evaluate for Non-commercial Selection Thinning
After 15 -20 years of growth, this unit should be evaluated for variable density thinning. Cottonwood should be targeted for removal where it will release vigorously growing conifers. If natural regeneration of hardwoods has increased the density of the unit to 400 TPA or greater, pre-commercially thin understory trees to 240 – 280 TPA (13 x 13 feet) to minimize competition between residual trees as the stand matures and to minimize the need for additional management.
2053-2063
Optional Second Thinning
Once the conifers in the low canopy reach an average of 10-12 inches in diameter and live crown ratios begin to decline to 30-40 percent, this unit can be thinned in order to further reduce stocking densities, release vigorous trees from competition and generate revenue. No more than 30 percent of the canopy trees should be removed at this time, and thinning should target the least dominant individuals Dominant trees in the canopy should only be removed if they will release vigorously growing understory trees, and trees showing susceptibility to climate change should be proactively removed. The remainder of the stand should be thinned to spread trees out and reduce density. If the starting density is 240 TPA, the post-thinning density will average 180 TPA.
This unit consists of the portion of the 1998 harvest unit that was successfully established as a Douglasfir plantation. Young plantations are often pre-commercially thinned after 15-20 years of growth but this unit was left to mature without active management. As such, competition canopy space became increasingly intense until the least vigorous individuals began to die back. This cohort has been selfthinning for several years resulting in numerous small diameter snags and a low average live crown ratio. Because most of the smaller, suppressed trees have already succumbed to competitive pressure, conditions are already beginning to improve for residual trees in this unit.
FMU 7 – Young Douglas-fir Forest
The current forest consists of Douglas-fir ranging from 60 TPA, in small patches affected by root rot, to 280 TPA with an average of 240 TPA. There are minor components of red alder and bigleaf maple but each species makes up around 10 TPA Conifers range from 812 inches DBH with an average of 10 inches. Red alder and maple are somewhat smaller, with diameters of 6 inches and 8 inches respectively. The average canopy height is 75 feet and live crowns are generally between 15 and 20 percent of the total tree height Hardwoods in the canopy support slightly larger live crown ratios but this is likely because they are typically only found in open areas where fir are less dense.
The understory in the densest portions of this stand has little to no vegetation. However, where sunlight is able to reach the forest floor, sword fern are interspersed with patches of salmonberry, Oregon grape, salmonberry, vine maple and thickets of Himalayan blackberry.
There are no large snags or downed logs in this unit but there are large diameter stumps scattered through this unit.
Management Recommendations
Management of this stand should prioritize the continued maintenance of overstory conifers and the introduction of rot resistant conifer species in the low canopy Because this stand has already undergone an extended period of self-thinning, there is a good chance that additional pre-commercial thinning would have little effect. Instead, an early commercial thinning should be implemented after another 10-15 years of growth. This will continue to improve growing conditions while providing space for the natural regeneration of shade tolerant conifers. After this first entry, periodic variable density thinning can be used to break up the structure of the forest and to release vigorous understory trees from competition. Eventually this unit will merge with FMU 1 as it reaches maturity and the differences between units diminish.
2023-2028 Commercially Thin from below
Commercially thin from below by removing the most suppressed and defective trees first, then thinning to increase spacing to a 15-foot average. Thin across both Douglas-fir and hardwoods. This may result in removal of up to 50 percent of the trees, in particular in the Douglas-fir dominated areas, depending on stand density. Thin to release any vigorously growing conifers in the understory. Overall stand density will be reduced to 150 – 200 TPA.
2023-2028 Underplanting
The majority of this unit can be planted with redcedar, along with a minor component of bigleaf maple, at total stocking of 150 seedlings per acre. Redcedar sourced from drier regions such as eastern Washington or northern California may do better in the dry soils at this site. Heavily thinned areas and existing gaps can be planted with less shade tolerant conifers, such as western white pine and shore
Young Douglas-fir interspersed with red alder and bigleaf maple.
pine, at an average of 200 TPA depending on the stocking of the overstory. Douglas-fir should not be planted near patches of root rot.
2023-2033 Seedling Maintenance
Over the next 10 years both manually planted and naturally regenerating trees should be monitored for vigor, browse, and density. Competing vegetation should be cut back until the seedlings reach a free-togrow height at least two feet above surrounding vegetation.
2043-2058
Evaluate for Commercial Variable Density Thinning
Depending on growth, this unit can be commercially thinned again in about 10-15 years using variable density thinning principles. Wait for live crowns on the firs to once again begin receding to less than 40 percent before considering thinning. Thin across the diameters and species to begin promoting an uneven-aged and mixed species stand. Dominant fir can be harvested where they will release vigorously growing understory trees, in particular new fir. Thin alder along with the Douglas-fir. Remove approximately 30 percent of the overstory trees, reducing stocking to 120 TPA.
RESOURCE CATEGORY V – ROADS AND ACCESS
The primary access route for this property is 134th St. E from Highway 165. This road also provides access for many neighboring residential properties and signs prohibiting trespass/public access are liberally posted. Concrete blocks have been used to obstruct the roadway just west of the property line but forest roads have been maintained for foot and horse traffic. Old, naturally-surfaced, forest roads pass through the majority of both parcels and most are in excellent condition. A handful of overgrown forest roads can be found where access is currently limited. These roads support strips of young hardwoods and will require some moderate clearing before they can be used. The primary forest road passes beyond the property boundary before it enters the southernmost parcel. If no road easement is in place to allow passage through this neighboring parcel, it may be necessary to build a short road to connect the existing road segments
Management Recommendations
Forest roads and skid trails have the potential to negatively impact forest health by compacting soils. Compacted soils are less permeable and often result in seasonal pooling and/or channeling. When compaction occurs on a permanent roadway it can result in substantial damage to the road and surrounding area. Pooling will exacerbate compaction creating deeper and deeper pools. Forest roads on steep slopes are at higher risk of erosion. Steep roads often concentrate stormwater, resulting in channelization As surface erosion becomes worse, the road becomes rutted, unusable, and increasingly at risk of failure. Roads that cross steep slopes may blow out if culverts are too small, not well maintained, or improperly placed. Even where slopes are minimal, pooling will cause drivers to gravitate to the roads edge, widening the road, worsening the compaction, and increasing the damage to the drainage and the surrounding forest.
Climatologists predict that a warming climate will lead to more intense rainstorms, leading to higher peak run-off events. As a result, culverts and other drainage structures on road systems must be reevaluated for their capacity to withstand these higher-flow episodes. This may require the installation of larger culverts at stream crossings, and greater attention to waterbars, crowning, and rolling dips on improved forest roads.
Two well maintained naturally surfaced roads access the majority of the forest.
Management actions to facilitate forest management operations and mitigate erosion:
1. Establish and maintain only the roads needed to access all portions of the property. This can be done in conjunction with commercial logging while equipment and contractors are on site.
2. Take care when establishing log landings for commercial thinning operations. Skidding distances should be limited to no more than 1,000 feet from a landing in order to optimize efficiency of logging operation and to reduce impacts to soils from yarding logs long distances.
3. Annually mow or brush-out forest roads and trails to keep clear of encroaching vegetation.
4. Avoid logging or other heavy equipment on roads during the wet season to avoid damage to road surface.
5. During future timber harvests, identify locations for permanent log landings. Landing can be seeded with grass and used as truck turnarounds and/or picnic and recreation sites between timber harvests.
6. Aside from the permanent forest roads needed to access the property, temporary roads, skid trails, and log landings should be reseeded following timber harvest.
RESOURCE CATEGORY VI - FISH AND WILDLIFE
Current Habitat
Buckley Forestland Preserve hosts a variety of forest types and canopy structures that provide an array of habitats for native wildlife. The conifer forest that dominates the western half of the property is dotted with pockets of root rot which is slowly converting large dominant individuals into ecologically valuable snags and downed logs. Larger pockets of root rot have created irregular patches of native shrubs and invasive forage materials for native ungulates including deer and elk. As this forest continues to mature, the types and the quality of habitat will continue to grow increasing the ecological value of this forest.
Overview
Wildlife habitat is the arrangement of three essential components: food, cover, and water. These resources need to be both available and abundant enough to support the biological needs of one or more species. Generally, for mammals and birds the critical limiting factor is the availability of their preferred food. Shelter or escape cover is of secondary importance. For salmon and other aquatic species, the most harmful factors impacting populations include stream sedimentation caused by erosion, the blocking of stream passage by debris, and various forms of water pollution. Wildlife habitat (food, water, and cover) is increasingly contracting as human developments expand into forested areas, industrial activities impact food and water resources, and land use practices fragment natural areas. Therefore, it is important to consider how forest management operations impact the long-term conditions of wildlife and their habitats. For example, soil properties can directly affect the kind and amount of vegetation that is available to wildlife as food and cover. If soils become compacted or stripped of organic matter through poor forest practices, vegetation that would normally support a plethora of insect, bird, amphibian, and mammal species may not grow. In comparison, soils that have the potential to support wildlife habitat can be enhanced through management strategies that either maintain existing plant cover, or by planting species that can fix nitrogen, grow food, stabilize soils, or provide shelter.
A healthy forest that is well managed can harbor a number of native animals, birds and reptiles. Big game species include deer, elk, black bears, and territorial cougars. Bobcats, coyotes, and raccoons are also common in western Washington and feed on smaller mammals like mink, weasels, opossums, rabbits, mountain beaver, moles, bats, voles and mice. Common reptiles and amphibians in the area include: rough-skinned newts, red back salamanders, pacific tree frogs, northwestern garter snake, and the western toad. Pacific northwestern bird populations prefer a range of forested conditions that include early, intermediate, and mature stands. Different forest types are associated with a range of understory plant populations that uniquely host a plethora of food and habitat options. Pacific wrens can be heard commonly in mature Douglas-fir and hemlock stands, western tanagers and cedar waxwing
A shrub-filled gap in the conifer canopy at Buckley Forestland Preserve.
are commonly perched at the top of intermediate deciduous and conifer forests, and several owl species prefer the shelter of large diameter old-growth trees.
The purpose of wildlife enhancement is to conserve and/or increase the diversity and population of wildlife species native to forest habitats of this region. All wildlife species are products of their environment or habitat, and each species has specific and unique habitat requirements. Properly functioning habitat provides basic life requirements such as food and water, shelter, and protection from the weather and predators. Habitat diversity occurs naturally when natural events like fire, wind and ice storms, and insects and disease affect portions of the forest. These areas usually are revegetated in stages, beginning with shrubs, then seed trees, saplings and mature trees, and finally oldgrowth trees. With each successive stage, different combinations of wildlife species likewise appear, persist, and then decline. The diversity of wildlife species present depends on habitat diversity associated with these stages. Providing a diversity of habitats requires a diversity of areas in different stages of successional development. Timber harvesting can be used to mimic natural disturbances (e.g. windstorm) by opening dense forest stands and introducing a new progression of vegetation stages.
Management Recommendations
Variable density thinning operations that generate canopy gaps, increase downed wood, and leave standing snags can greatly enhance wildlife abundance. Shrubs and forbs that establish in forest gaps host different types of insect populations and edible plant materials that many wildlife and bird populations prefer. Leaving and creating standing snags provide shelter for cavity-nesting birds and other small mammals. Therefore, as timber harvests are designed and logging roads are constructed, management actions need to consider how to minimize erosion, soil compaction and destabilization, invasive species encroachment, and water pollution.
Wildlife Habitat Management Standards
• Retention of existing snags and long-term recruitment snags of varying diameters and height, in particular larger diameter and taller snags.
• Retention of downed logs of varying sizes and decay classes.
• Retention of slash during timber harvests.
• Retention of hardwoods and managing for a 25/75 mix of hardwoods to conifers across the entire forest.
• Utilizing small patch cuts (<6 acres) to establish early seral habitat.
• Managing for variable densities.
• Promoting mixed age and mixed species stands.
• Retaining all trees greater than 36 inches DBH.
• Setting aside no-harvest areas, in particular in proximity to streams and wetlands.
No single forest should be expected to provide the entire breadth of habitat functions necessary to support all wildlife species in a particular region. Rather, the forest should be managed within the context of the larger landscape, and habitat features or functions that are missing or limited in the surrounding landscape can be managed for if there is a desire to improve populations of particular species. In this way, the forest, and the landscape in which it resides, provides a mosaic of habitat types that should create optimal habitat conditions for all wildlife species. Wildlife corridors, in particular along riparian areas and other seasonal migratory routes, should be retained across the landscape, as well as forests of all ages, in particular old growth, which is significantly lacking in lowland and coastal environments.
This forest will be managed to optimize wildlife habitat and plant species diversity. Common management practices will include:
1. Conserving and/or recruiting snags and downed coarse woody debris. Recruitment targets are a minimum of 3-5 snags and downed logs per acre of functional size (12-20+ inches in diameter) Storm damaged trees will be retained to naturally recruit as snags. During commercial harvesting, unmerchantable trees can be cut at 20-foot to manually create snags. Additionally, non-merchantable portions of logs can be scattered throughout the forest floor to augment coarse woody debris.
2. Planting and/or promoting the growth of more diverse conifers, including western redcedar and western hemlock.
3. Creating and maintaining horizontal heterogeneity (e.g. gaps, regenerating young stands, older stands, etc.).
4. Promoting understory shrub and ground cover diversity by managing canopy density.
5. Protecting wetlands and hydric soils by limiting equipment access and maintaining diverse forested buffers.
6. Promoting the growth of berry and nut producing trees and shrubs.
Snags and Downed Logs
West of the Cascades in Oregon and Washington, 39 species of birds and 14 species of mammals depend on cavity trees for their survival. Terrestrial amphibians, small mammals, and birds also depend on large coarse woody debris for protection and foraging for insects, fungi, and seeds.
Snags fall into two primary decay class categories:
a. Hard snags: bark still intact, firm heart and sapwood.
b. Soft snags: may retain some bark, wood beginning to soften.
Downed logs fall into five primary categories based on their decay class:
a. Class 1, bark is still intact and heart and sapwood is still firm.
b. Class 2, log in contact with ground; bark beginning to deteriorate and inner wood is soft.
c. Class 3, log is in contact with ground; bark has completely fallen off and log is beginning to become incorporated into the forest floor.
d. Class 4, log is partially buried and wood is very soft.
e. Class 5, log is barely distinguishable from the surrounding forest floor.
Snag and downed log classes. (Infographic provided by wwww.naturehabitats.org/courses/snags-downed-trees/)
Snag and downed log recruitment targets.
Class 1 16’ x 20” dia. 1-3
Class 2 16’ x 20” dia. 1-3
Class 3 16’ x 20” dia. 1-3
Class 4 16’ x 20” dia. 1-3
Class 5 16’ x 20” dia. 1-3
A short and long-term snag and downed log recruitment program will be initiated. Short-term snag/log recruitment will be achieved by protecting existing snags and logs during harvest activities at levels as close to the listed targets as possible. Long-term snag/log recruitment will be achieved by retaining defective trees at various stages of deterioration during harvesting activities, as well as creating snags using mechanical logging equipment. Root rot and windthrow will naturally recruit snags and logs, and non-merchantable log sections will be redistributed throughout the forest during harvest activities.
In the short term, wildlife habitat piles and constructed downed logs can be created to provide some of the functions of large downed logs. 3-5 habitat piles per five acres, and up to five downed logs per acre can be created if dead wood is deficient in the forest. Wildlife habitat piles are typically built from either undesirable or other small diameter trees removed while thinning overstocked stands. Dimensions of the pile should be approximately 10 feet across the base by 6’ tall. Larger poles are placed on the ground in 2-3 layers laid perpendicular to each other, then branches and finer slash is laid on top. Constructed logs can be built solely from small diameter poles that are laid parallel to create a log with dimensions at least 20 inches in diameter and 20 feet long. Habitat piles should be located within 200 feet of surface water, if possible.
Wildlife piles are created with the largest pieces on the bottom to create cavities for small animals.
RESOURCE CATEGORY VII – AESTHETICS
AND RECREATION
Overview
With 207 acres of forestland and approximately 3 miles of trails, Buckley Forestland Preserve provides non-motorized recreational opportunities for hikers, equestrians, and a variety of other outdoor enthusiasts. These trails were created by adjacent neighbors. The well-maintained, winding trails access almost all portions of the property, including all but the most remote stands. The terrain is relatively flat and the well drained soils are well suited to trail building so additional trails could be established as viewpoints or particularly scenic areas are identified.
Buckley Forestland Preserve is currently owned by Pierce County Parks, with future development plans to increase access to the public. Future plans for Buckley Forestland Preserve are to construct emergency and maintenance access and turnaround, and provide a public access point with a parking lot. There is no current timeline for these projects at the time of this forest management plan. Formal natural surface trail planning and development will occur once these projects are completed, and the intent is to keep Buckley Forestland Preserve as a low-impact recreation site with non-motorized trails for hiking and equestrian usee. There is no current designated public access, and no dedicated parking lot.
Management Recommendations
For enjoyment and ecological value, management activities will emphasize heterogeneous forest structure and composition by encouraging growth of multiple tree and shrub species of varying age and size.
Additional strategies for improving aesthetics and recreational access include:
1. Encouraging diversity of native shrubs and low trees along forest edges.
2. Creating trails that intersect with streams and wetlands.
3. Maintaining a diversity of forest stand types.
4. Enhancing hardwood diversity.
5. Retaining larger, older legacy trees.
6. Pruning young trees to enhance views into forest and of unique forest features (e.g. stumps, streams, views, etc.).
Additional Information
Information on trail design/construction: http://www.myminnesotawoods.umn.edu/2007/04/knowyour-options-recreational-trails/ When determining where to build trails, identify points of interest (e.g. old growth stumps, interesting trees, viewpoints, water features)
Information on proper pruning technique to enhance view and accessibility: http://cru.cahe.wsu.edu/CEPublications/eb1984/EB1984.pdf
RESOURCE CATEGORY VIII - PROTECTION OF SPECIAL RESOURCES
The Pacific Northwest is home to a broad range of native plants and animals. The region is famous for its massive trees and dense wet forests. Large mammals including black bears, elk, and mountain lions, can be found in the expansive forests and mountains that characterize this region. Birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and small mammals all depend on native forests to survive. Unfortunately, a history of intensive land use and development has resulted in the fragmentation of these wildlands and the degradation of habitat quality for many organisms. As biologists, legislators, and land managers have become increasingly aware of the effects human activities have on native ecosystems and the organisms that depend on them, rules and regulations have been adopted at the state and federal level to protect priority species and habitats from further degradation
A search of the WA Department of Fish and Wildlife’s Priority Habitats and Species database (https://wdfw.wa.gov/mapping/phs/) shows a listed occurrence of Rocky Mountain elk, a priority species, but no state or federally listed species at Buckley Forestland Preserve.
South Prairie Creek, just south of the reserve is essential habitat for a variety of priority salmonoid species including chum (Oncorhynchus keta), Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss), pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), Chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), and Coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch), as well as bull trout (Salvelinus confluentius). The mature riparian forests in the southeastern portion of the reserve provide the shade, woody debris, and bank stability that ensure the river below remains suitable for native aquatic species.
The management strategies described above are designed to improve the health and structure of the forest, increasing the ecological value of this property for native wildlife.
Cultural Resources and Historic Sites
After a long history of federal and state appropriation of native lands, many important cultural sites are now located on private or public property. After a forest practices application (FPA) is submitted, the WA DNR may identify harvest areas that have historical or cultural sites, or have a high probability of having such sites. The DNR may require a permit from the Department of Archeology and Historic Preservation (DAHP) as a part of your final FPA along with appropriate measures to avoid destruction of historical sites. More information can be found at https://dahp.wa.gov/project-review/forest-practicesact.
Indicators of historic cultural use include the stripping of western redcedar boles, shell middens, and other signs of historic homesites including human remains. If indicators of historic cultural use are identified during any stage of forest management, all activities that could potentially disturb the site must be halted at once. Additionally, the Washington State Department of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, the county planning office, and the affected Tribe must be contacted immediately to determine the best ways to preserve any and all cultural and historical resources at the site.
The Washington State Department of Natural Resources will conduct a formal review to identify any ecological, cultural or historical resources if and when the landowner proposes to conduct significant forestry activities which require a DNR-approved Forest Practices Application. If any resource concerns are identified, the DNR will decide what measures are necessary to avoid impacting the resource or resources in question.
A review of DAHP’s WISAARD GIS database https://wisaard.dahp.wa.gov/ indicated a mapped historic GLO trail that runs through the northern portion of Buckley Forestland Preserve within FMUs 1, 6, and 7. Tribal consultation and cultural resource identification are ongoing as a part of the forest health thinning project across the preserve in 2024. The Puyallup tribe expressed interest in this project, and Pierce County Parks is working with them and other interested parties to determine appropriate management actions for this resource.
As part of the thinning work, an inadvertent discovery clause in the timber sale contract will be in effect. Any cultural resources that are located once operations have begun will result in an immediate shutdown of operations and consultation with the affected tribes and DAHP. Work will not be able to resume until permission has been granted by the tribes, DAHP, and the sale contract administrator.
RESOURCE
CATEGORY IX
- CARBON SEQUESTRATION & RESILIENCE TO CLIMATE/WEATHER-RELATED INFLUENCES
Forests are the largest terrestrial carbon sinks in the world. As trees grow, they pull carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and convert it into woody biomass that makes up the bulk of the tree. On a landscape scale, this equates to a massive amount of carbon. Young forests generally sequester carbon at the fastest rate because trees grow the fastest in the first few decades of their lives. As the forest matures, the rate of carbon sequestration declines, but the overall quantity of stored carbon continues to grow.
Carbon sequestration at a larger scale depends both on the composition of species and the age of the forest. It was once thought that old-growth forests were wasteful because they were no longer producing volume at an ever-increasing rate. However, a 2008 study (Luyssaert et al., 2008) found that these old forests are environmentally valuable stores of carbon, both aboveground and in the form of roots and organic matter in the soil. The sequestration rate of old growth forests is highly debated (Gunderson et al., 2021), however, forest management strategies have already begun to change. The industry standard had been a 40-year rotation, where forests were harvested once the rate of growth begins to decline, but longer rotations are becoming more and more common. Current growth and yield models show that doubling the rotation length from 40 years to 80 years, can increase carbon storage from 57 tons/acre to as much as 87 tons/acre (Zuckerman, 2021).
The uneven-aged forest management principles proposed in this plan will result in both a high carbon sequestration rate and resilience to climate-based disturbance events within the context of a working forest. The following are key considerations for more climate resilient Westside forests.
Vulnerabilities
1. Drier spring and summer months, with lower soil moisture, increasing stress on trees and causing seedling mortality.
2. Increased moisture stress can result in increased incidence of pests and pathogens.
3. Winters may become wetter, or have periods of more intense rainfall, changing soil and watershed hydrology.
4. Increased severity of natural disturbance events (e.g. fire, wind, rain, etc.), interactions between disturbances may magnify overall effects.
5. Tree species ranges are likely to shift.
6. Riparian forests become more susceptible to changing hydrologic regimes.
Adaptation Strategies
1. Design forest management prescriptions for site-specific conditions (e.g. forest type, soils, local climate) vs. broad-brush.
2. Plan for response to natural disturbances before they happen.
3. Manage for species diversity, including hardwoods. Replant sites with diverse conifers and hardwoods.
4. Shift species composition to more drought tolerant species. On drier sites, emphasize Douglasfir, big leaf maple, and western redcedar. Western hemlock may not do well at the drier end of its current range in the future.
5. Consider sourcing a portion of seedlings that will be planted on site from other seed zones that reflect the anticipated future condition of the site.
6. Reduce fire risk to homes with firewise strategies, including creating defensible space close to structure.
7. Thin dense stands and maintain them at moderate densities to maintain tree vigor and reduce soil moisture composition. Consider planting at wider spacings.
8. Be aware that heavy thinning to reduce crown fire spread can result in increased understory tree and shrub growth, which can cause higher flame lengths in the event of a forest fire.
APPENDIX I. IMPLEMENTATION TIMELINE
Identify and remove invasive species. Plant to increase diversity under hardwood patches.
Clear understory vegetation as described above to prepare for planting.
Thin from below using best tree selection to a residual density of
Underplant using shade tolerant conifers as described above
Thin both Douglas-fir and red alder to improve growing conditions.
Cut back vegetation around seedlings until they are two feet taller than the surrounding vegetation. Monitor for seedling health
Thin across diameters and species to a residual density of 100-120 TPA.
Evaluate stocking and distribution of understory trees. Plant or thin if needed and remove invasive species.
Thin from below using best tree selection to a residual density of 160-180 TPA. 2033-2043
Underplant using shade tolerant conifers to a total of 150 seedlings per acre. 2033-2043
Cut back vegetation around seedlings until they are two feet taller than the surrounding vegetation. Adjust cages and monitor for seedling health.
Underplant using shade tolerant conifers to a total of 150 seedlings per acre.
Once the canopy closes thin from below, retaining underrepresented species and the most vigorous individuals. 2038-2043
Remove dominant cottonwood to release vigorous understory trees. Pre-commercially thin understory conifers as needed.
2038-2058
Cut back vegetation around seedlings until they are two feet taller than the surrounding vegetation. Adjust cages and monitor for seedling health.
Thin across diameters and species to improve growing conditions and create structural diversity. 2053-2058
2053-2058
2053-2058
Thin across diameters and species as described above. Remove no more than 30 percent of overstory trees.
Thin from below using best tree selection as described above.
Evaluate stocking and distribution of understory trees. Plant or thin if needed and remove invasive species.
APPENDIX II. BUCKLEY FORESTLAND PRESERVE MAPS
Aerial Map
Hydrography Map
Forest Management Unit Map
Hillshade Map
Slope Map
GLOSSARY
Age class: All trees in a stand within a given age interval, usually 10 or 20 years.
Board foot: A unit for measuring wood volumes equaling 144 cubic inches, commonly used to measure and express the amount of wood in a tree, sawlog, or individual piece of lumber. For example, a piece of wood measuring 1 foot x 1 foot x 1 inch, or a piece measuring 1 foot x 2 inches x 6 inches, would contain 1 board foot of wood.
Diameter breast height (DBH): Four and one-half (4.5) feet above the ground on the uphill side. Diameter is usually measured and basal area calculated at this point on the tree.
Bank Full Width: The distance across the stream channel, not just the stream itself. The edge of the stream channel can be identified using changes in slope and vegetation.
Browse: Leaves, buds, and woody stems used as food by deer, rabbits, and other animals. Verb: Eating of vegetation.
Buffer: A protective strip of land or timber adjacent to an area requiring attention or protection. For example, a protective strip of unharvested timber along a stream.
Canopy: The uppermost layer in a forest, formed collectively by tree crowns.
Canopy layers: Forests with varying age classes may have several height classes. For example, an overstory canopy layer of trees overtopping a lower canopy of other trees or shrubs.
Clearcut harvest: A harvest and regeneration technique removing all the trees (regardless of size) on an area in one operation. Clearcutting is commonly used with shade-intolerant species such as Douglas-fir or lodgepole pine, which require full sunlight to reproduce and grow well. Clearcutting produces an even-aged stand.
Coarse woody debris (CWD): Organic debris such as treetops, large branches, and bole segments, left on-site to decay. This debris often provides wildlife habitat for small forest floor mammals and amphibians.
Codominant trees: Trees whose crowns form the general level of the stand, receiving full light from above but comparatively little from the sides. See also Crown class.
Commercial cutting: Cutting trees that are merchantable.
Competition: In a forest, the struggle for water and light among neighboring trees having similar requirements.
Conifer: A cone-bearing tree with needles, such as pine, spruce, fir, and larch.
Cover: Vegetation or other natural shelter serving to conceal wildlife from predators. Also refers to the protective shade vegetation provides to wildlife, fish, and the forest floor.
Crook: An abrupt bend in a log a defect.
Crown: The branches and foliage of a tree. The “live crown” refers to the living portion.
Crown class: A relative designation of tree crowns. Dominant trees are those with crowns above the general level of the canopy. Codominant trees are those with crowns forming the general level of the canopy. Intermediate trees are those with crowns below the general level of the canopy. Suppressed trees are those much shorter than the general level of the canopy.
Crown closure: The point when, in a young stand, the crowns of the trees begin to touch each other.
Culmination of Mean Annual Increment: The age in the growth cycle of a tree or stand of trees at which the mean annual increment for height, diameter, or basal area, or volume is at a maximum.
Cutting cycle: The planned time interval between harvesting operations in the same uneven-aged stand. For example, a cutting cycle of 10 years in an uneven-aged stand means that a harvest cutting of trees is made every 10 years.
Deciduous tree: A tree that loses its leaves or needles during the fall and winter.
Defect: That portion of a tree or log that makes it unusable for the intended solid wood product. Defects include rot, crookedness, cavities, and cracks. Severe defects cause the log to be classified as a cull.
Density: A measure of site occupancy. The quantity of trees per unit of area. Usually expressed as trees/acre.
Dominant trees: See Crown class.
Duff: Various stages of decaying organic matter found on the soil surface.
Even-aged management: Stand management designed to remove (harvest) all trees at one time, or over a short period, to produce even-aged stands. Most trees are within 20 years of the same age.
Evergreen tree: A tree that retains some or most of its leaves, or needles, throughout the year.
Firebreak: An existing barrier, or one constructed before a fire occurs, from which all or most flammable materials have been removed.
Forest Management Unit (FMU): A group of tree species which, because of their environmental requirements, commonly grow together. Examples of forest types are the Douglas-fir/hemlock type or the spruce/fir type. Also, a descriptive term used to group stands with similar composition and development characteristics.
Habitat: The local environment in which a plant or animal naturally lives and develops.
Hardwood: A term describing broadleaf trees, usually deciduous, such as oaks, maples, cottonwood, ashes, alders, and elms.
Harvest: Removing trees to obtain an income or usable product.
Slash reduction: The burning, crushing, or scattering of slash to reduce the risk of forest fires or forest fire damage to an area.
Heart rot: A decay in trees, characteristically confined to the heartwood. It usually originates in the living tree.
Herbicide: Chemical labeled by the U.S. EPA for killing or controlling plants.
Intermediate trees: See Crown class.
Invasive species: An insect, plant, or mammal that has expanded its range, often to the detriment of native species.
Live crown ratio (LCR): A measure of the length of a trees live crown relative to total tree height.
Mature forest: In an ecological sense, a mature forest possesses varied biological diversity throughout the ecosystem.
Mature tree: A tree in a managed forest that has reached the size or age for its intended use.
MBF: Abbreviation for thousand board feet.
Mean Annual Increment: The average yearly volume of growth per acre of a stand of trees.
Merchantable: The part of a tree that can be manufactured into a salable wood product. See also Height.
Natural Regeneration: Trees established as a result of natural seeding.
Old growth: A forest ecosystem containing old trees, usually over 150 years old, and associated plants and wildlife characterized by diverse structure including gaps filled by shade-tolerant species.
Overstocked: A stand or forest condition, indicating more trees than desired.
Overstory: That portion of the trees in a stand forming the upper crown cover.
Perennial stream: Stream that flows water throughout the year.
Pioneers: Shade intolerant species that are the first trees to invade freshly disturbed sites, such as red alder or western larch.
Pruning: Removing live or dead branches from standing trees to improve wood quality.
Release cutting: An operation to release young trees from overtopping older trees.
Resilience: The ability of a forest ecosystem to recover from a disturbance.
Riparian: Pertaining to the area along the banks of a river, stream, or lake.
Roots: The portion of a tree, generally underground, which anchors the tree and absorbs water and nutrients from the soil.
Rot: Wood in a state of decay.
Salvage cut: Harvesting damaged or defective trees for their economic value.
Sapling: A small tree, usually between 1 and 3 inches DBH, and 15 to 30 feet in height.
Sapwood: The light-colored, actively growing section of the tree, between the heartwood and the bark.
Second growth: Young forests that originated naturally or were planted on the site of a previous stand that had been removed by cutting, fire, or any other cause.
Shade tolerance: The capacity to develop and grow in the shade of, and in competition with, other trees and shrubs. Examples of highly shade-tolerant tree species are western hemlock, western redcedar, and Pacific yew.
Shrub: A low-growing perennial plant with a woody stem and low branching habit.
Site class: A grouping of similar sites that indicates relative productivity. The common system for the Douglas-fir region includes five site classes, in which Site I is the most productive and Site V is the least productive.
Slash: Non-merchantable residue left on the ground after logging, thinning, or other forest operations. Includes tree tops, broken branches, uprooted stumps, defective logs, and bark. Slash can have certain ecological benefits, such as adding nutrients to the soil or providing wildlife habitat.
Slope: The incline of the terrain usually expressed as the amount of incline in feet over a hundred feet of horizontal distance.
Snag: A standing dead tree.
Soil compaction: The process by which soil particles are squeezed or compressed, reducing air and water spaces.
Soil texture: Proportion of clay, silt, and sand in soil.
Sprout: A stem vegetatively produced from a stump or the roots; sometimes a branch produced after the stem was formed.
Taper: The gradual diameter reduction of a tree or a log from the base to the top.
Wetlands: Marshes, swamps, and other water-saturated soils that offer important habitat for wildlife, significant support of nutrient cycling in ecosystems, and protection against the severity of storms and floods. Wetlands are among the most vulnerable lands to destruction and conversion to other uses.
REFERENCES
Carey, A., B., 1998. Ecological foundations of biodiversity: lessons from natural and managed forests of the Pacific Northwest. Northwest Science. 72(2): 127- 133.
Gundersen, P., Thybring, E. E., Nord-Larsen, T., Vesterdal, L., Nadelhoffer, K. J., & Johannsen, V. K. (2021). Old-growth forest carbon sinks overestimated. Nature, 591(7851). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03266-z
Hall, J., Kane, J., Swedeen, P., Blair, G., Webster, M., Hodgson, S., Ellings, C., Benson, L., Stonington, D., McKane, R., Barnhart, B., Brookes, A., Halama, J., Pettus, P., & Djang, K. (n.d.). Nisqually Community Forest VELMA modeling to evaluate effects of forest management scenarios on streamflow and salmon habitat. Retrieved 2022.
Kelly, L. T., & Brotons, L. (2017). Using fire to promote biodiversity. Science, 355(6331), 1264–1265. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aam7672
Luyssaert, S., Schulze, E.-D., Börner, A., Knohl, A., Hessenmöller, D., Law, B. E., Ciais, P., & Grace, J. (2008). Old-growth forests as global carbon sinks. Nature, 455, 213–215. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07276
Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Franklin, J. F., & Dyrness, C. T., Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington (1973). Portland, OR; Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Forest Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture for sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off., Washington.
USDA Web Soil Survey. (n.d.). Retrieved August 20, 2022, from https://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/
Zuckerman, S. (2021) Longer rotations and carbon. Northwest Natural Resource Group. https://www.nnrg.org/longer-rotations-and-carbon/
Attachment A
Buckley Forest Management Plan
Forestry Activity Timeline Update- November 2024
Identify and remove invasive species. Plant to increase diversity under hardwood patches.
Clear understory vegetation as described above to prepare for planting. 2023-
Thin from below using best tree selection to a residual density of 140-200
Underplant using shade tolerant conifers as described above
Thin both Douglas-fir and red alder to improve growing conditions. 2023-
Cut back vegetation around seedlings until they are two feet taller than the surrounding vegetation. Monitor for seedling health. 2027-
Initial survival plots for underplanted seedlings. 2027-
Rapid assessment for invasives, forest health, insects, disease, tree seedling health. Schedule interplantings as needed
2029-
Rapid assessment for invasives, forest health, insects, disease, tree seedling health. Schedule interplantings as needed.
Forest inventory plots. Update FMP if needed.
Thin across diameters and species to a residual density of 100-120
Evaluate stocking and distribution of understory trees. Plant or thin if needed and remove invasive species. 2033-
Thin from below using best tree selection to a residual density of
2033-
Underplant using shade tolerant conifers to a total of 150 seedlings per acre.
Cut back vegetation around seedlings until they are two feet
taller than the surrounding vegetation. Adjust cages and monitor for seedling health.
2036 Monitoring All Forest inventory plots. Update FMP if needed.
2038-2043
2038-2043
2038-2043
2038-
Evaluate for PreCommercial Thinning
2038-2058 Seedling
Thin across diameters to improve growing conditions.
Underplant using shade tolerant conifers to a total of 150 seedlings per acre.
Once the canopy closes thin from below, retaining underrepresented species and the most vigorous individuals.
Remove dominant cottonwood to release vigorous understory trees. Pre-commercially thin understory conifers as needed.
Cut back vegetation around seedlings until they are two feet taller than the surrounding vegetation. Adjust cages and monitor for seedling health.
Thin across diameters and species to improve growing conditions and create structural diversity. 2053-
2053-2058
2053-2058 Understory Monitoring 3 17
Thin across diameters and species as described above. Remove no more than 30 percent of overstory trees.
Thin from below using best tree selection as described above.
Evaluate stocking and distribution of understory trees. Plant or thin if needed and remove invasive species.
