Energy and Sustainability Africa - January 2025

ENERGY & SUSTAINABILITY AFRICA

Facts & Analysis

In Memory

Honouring the Legacy of our late President Dr. Hage G. Geingob

The Namibian nation mourns the profound loss of a distinguished leader, the late Dr. Hage G. Geingob, whose unwavering commitment to public service has left an incredible mark on the pages of our history. As we come together in solemn reflection, we honour the life and legacy of a late President who served with distinction, integrity, and unwavering commitment.

Dr. Hage G. Geingob was not merely a political figure but a beacon of inspiration, embodying the values of integrity, resilience, and a deep-seated devotion to the principles upon which our great nation stands. Throughout his tenures, his visionary leadership navigated us through challenges and triumphs alike, shaping the course of our collective journey and history.

We thus extend our heartfelt condolences to Madam Monica Geingos and the rest of the bereaved family. The loss is not just felt within the hallowed halls of governance but reverberates throughout the hearts of a grateful nation. Let us take comfort in knowing that Dr Hage G Geingob's contributions have become an important part of our history, inspiring future leaders to serve with compassion

In honouring the memory of the late Dr Hage G Geingob, let us unite in gratitude for the privilege of having shared in his journey May the legacy of the late Dr Hage G Geingob serve as a guiding light, inspiring us to strive for excellence, unity, and compassion in all our endeavours

Rest in peace, dear Dr Geingob, knowing that your indelible mark on this world will forever be cherished and your spirit forever remembered

RDJ Publishing (Pty) Ltd is the publishing home of the Energy and Sustainability Africa, written and authored through the collaboration with RDJ Consulting Services CC (www rdjconsulting co za)

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DearReader,

Welcometo2025!

INSIGHTS TO EMPOWER 2025!: THE HIGHLIGHTS OF 2024

As you envision and realign your “vision board” for the year ahead, we encourage you to make Energy and Sustainability Africa part of your monthlyroutine.Wechallengeyoutoreflecton its impact throughout the year, and to engage with us in December 2025 to share how it has shapedyourjourney

In line with our tradition, this month we are excited to share with you some of our most impactful articles that informed, from 2024, highlighting key developments within Africa’s energy and sustainability sectors These pieces set the tone for an inspiring year ahead as we continuetodrivemeaningfulconversations

Letusalsotaketheopportunitytoremindboth our new and existing readers that what makes EnergyandSustainabilityAfricauniqueisthatit is a specialized publication focusing on energy and sustainability developments across the African continent Published in Namibia by RDJ Publishing Pty Ltd, our mission is to bridge the information gap within the energy sector by deliveringfactual,insightfulcontent Ourgoalis to ensure that our readers stay informed with accurateinformationandareinspiredtofurther engageincriticalconversations.

However,itisimportanttonotethatinlinewith our Facts not News approach, Energy and Sustainability Africa does not report daily “news” Instead, we provider readers with broader insights into the related topics which aresometimesdiscussedinthe“news”,offering adeeperunderstandinggroundedinresearch

Nowthatyouknowmoreaboutwhatwedo,join us in celebrating some of our most impactful workfeaturedinthisedition

As always, we hope you find this edition of Energy and Sustainability Africa informative as weencourageyoutofollowusandengagewith us on all our social media accounts The conversation continues at esa@rdjpublishing.africa.

Yours, editor@rdjpublishing africa

NOTE 1: We welcome letters and articles from readers globally and require that you provide your full details such as name, current address and contact phone/WhatsApp number aswellasemail Wehoweverreservetherightto amend, modify or reject submissions You may also request that your details be withheld from publication.

NOTE2: EnergyandSustainabilityAfricais published monthly and is FREE to Readers The magazine is paid for by advertising and the research support from RDJ Consulting Services CC,Windhoek,Namibia

(DavidA Jarrett) EditorinChief

(GraceKangotue) Editor andexistingliterature

Did You Know?

The Mining and Metals industry plays a crucial role in many socioeconomic systems, supplying essential materials for various economic activities like energy, transportation, and construction. Its transformation has wide-reaching effects on essential industries.

(https://www.weforum.org/communities/mining-and-metals/)

Miningpresentsakeyandunderservedsustainability challengewiththedemandformetalssettoincrease alongwithcertaingreentechnologies-WorldEconomic Forum

(https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2024/04/sustainabl e-mining-uplink-radio-davos-podcast/)

Copperdemandcouldriseby40%in2035,whilesupply fromexistingassetsorcommittedprojectswillonly increaseby20%,meaningnewminingprojectswill

needtobeginconstructioninthecomingyears -World EconomicForum (https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF Mining and Metals 2023.pdf)

Lithiumdemandisexpectedtoincreasefive-foldby 2035,primarilyduetotheelectrificationoflight vehicles.-WorldEconomicForum

(https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF Mining and M etals 2023pdf)

As

Asia Britain Caribbean Southern Africa USA

THE ECONOMY

The Economics of Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage Technology (April 2024)

AUTHOR: Chilombo (Olga) Priscila EconomicResearcher/Statistician@ RDJ Consulting

Courtesy: GlobalCCSInstitute

The process of carbon capture has garnered significant attention lately as a potential solution to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and combat

climate change This is achieved by using Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies - a set of technologies designed to capture CO2 from large emitting sources The approach involves capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from various industrial processes and power generation activities, transporting them to a suitable storage location, and securely storing them underground or permanently in products to prevent them from being released into the atmosphere

Despite the importance of CCS in achieving clean energy transitions, deployment of this technology has been slow to take off, especially in Africa, attributing this to mainly cost of deployment. Other equally important barriers that involve finance include technological readiness, policy frameworks, and infrastructure development

The International Energy Association (IEA) reported that by 2021, there were only around 20 commercial Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) operations worldwide, with plans for 30 additional commercial CCUS facilities to come CCUS in this case refers to an industrial process that makes economically valuable products using CO2 at concentrations above atmospheric levels. Despite the Covid 19 crisis, in 2020 governments and industry committed more than USD 4 5 billion to CCUS This momentum led to the increase of these numbers, and as of July 2023, the Global CCS Institute reported a total of 392 facilities in the pipeline, representing a 102% year-on-year increase. “41 facilities are in operation, with a capacity to capture and store 49 Mtpa and 351 facilities are in development.”

Examining the fundamental cost structures and determinants of CCS technologies is crucial for facilitating investment decisions and informing

policymaking regarding CCS technology adoption Before delving into these aspects, it is important to provide a concise overview of the three primary capture technologies: post-combustion, pre-combustion, and oxyfuel.

1

Post-Combustion Carbon Capture: this technology involves capturing CO2 emissions after combustion, typically from industrial processes or power plants, using chemical solvents or sorbents.

2.

Pre-Combustion Carbon Capture: this entails capturing CO2 from fossil fuels before combustion, often via gasification, and then separating it from the resulting syngas

Oxy-Fuel Combustion: in this process, fossil fuels are burnt in an oxygen-rich environment to produce a flue gas consisting mainly of CO2 and water vapor, which can be easily captured. 3

Cost Determinants for CCS

Africa has vast potential for CCS deployment due to its growing industrial activity and energy demand The cost of CCS technology is multifaceted and depend on various factors including the cost of capture, transportation, and storage, as well as policy incentives and market conditions Costs also vary depending on the CO2 concentration in the emissions stream - meaning; the lower the CO2 concentration in the gas, the higher the energy demand required for separating out the CO2, resulting in higher costs

The IEA also attributes the persistent high costs of CCS to high design complexity and the need for customization that limits the deployment of CCS. Despite being in use commercially for more than 50 years, CCS cost reductions have been slow compared to the experience rates (or the decrease in cost with increased development and deployment) of CCS with other energy technologies, such as solar and wind

The cost of carbon capture

CCUS applications do not all have the same cost Looking specifically at carbon capture, the cost can vary greatly by CO2 source The IEA estimates that industrial processes producing “pure” or highly concentrated CO2 streams (such as ethanol production or natural gas processing) cost USD 15-25/t CO2, while processes with “dilute” gas streams, such as cement production and power generation cost USD 40-120/t CO2 Capturing CO2 directly from the air is currently the most expensive approach but could nonetheless play a unique role in carbon removal In fact, it is reported that postcombustion carbon capture technologies tend to have higher capital costs than pre-combustion technologies.

The cost of transport and storage

Moving on to the cost of transportation and storage, this can also vary greatly on a case-by-case basis, depending mainly on CO2 volumes, transport distances and storage

Courtesy:wwwglobalccsinstitutecom

conditions. In the United States, for example, the cost of onshore pipeline transport is in the range of USD 2-14/t CO2, while the cost of onshore storage shows an even wider spread according to the IEA However, more than half of onshore storage capacity is estimated to be available below USD 10/t CO2 In some cases, storage costs can even be negative if the CO2 is injected into (and permanently stored in) oilfields to enhance production and thus generate more revenue from oil sales - this stand as a great economic opportunity for Africa to pursue, given significant new oil discoveries!

CCUS - A Cost Reduction Opportunity for Industry

Achieving deep emissions reductions in heavy industry (cement, steel and chemicals production) can be challenging, however, CCUS is a relatively advanced and cost-competitive option to significantly cut the CO2 emitted during the production of these essential materials. It can also be more cost-effective to retrofit CCUS to existing facilities than building new capacity with alternative technologies CCUS is currently the cheapest option for reducing emissions in the production of some important chemicals such as ammonia, which is widely

used in fertilisers The estimated costs of CCUS-equipped ammonia and methanol production based on natural gas are estimated to be around 20-40% higher than their unabated counterparts, while the cost of electrolytic hydrogenroutesisestimatedtobe50-115%higher

Conclusion

The global carbon capture market is expected to grow significantly between 2023 and 2027, reaching a value of USD 7.5 billion by 2027 according to the Carbon Capture in Global Market Overview 2023-2027 report. Africa cannot afford to miss out on this. It comes as a great economic opportunity for the continent through innovative financing mechanisms, supportive policies, and international cooperation to stimulate initial investment costs, technological readiness, and sound policy frameworks. The conversation as always continues at esa@rdjpublishing.africa

Readings:

https://www iea org/commentaries/is-carbon-capture-tooexpensive

https://www globalccsinstitute com/resources/ccs-image-library/

https://www reportlinker com/market-report/EnvironmentalServices/7665/Carbon-Capture

Are the Youth in Africa Ready for Artificial Intelligence (AI)? (September 2024)

AUTHOR:GraceKangotue ChiefResearcher/Economist@ RDJ Consulting

Courtesy:https://wwwundporg/ghana/blog/positioning-africas-youth-win-harnessing-ai-development

As cited in our Energy and Sustainability Africa(ESA) - August 2024 edition, the era of Artificial Intelligence (AI) can be classed as

young but advanced in its impact Despite its relatively recent emergence, AI is becoming indispensable in transforming various sectors, reshaping how work is performed, education is delivered, and overall, how development is pursued globally.

In Africa, with its large and rapidly growing youth population (15-39 years), estimated at 592 61 million according to the 2023 statistics from Our World in Data, shows the continent is at a pivotal moment Africa must determine how to leverage the immense potential of AI for economic growth and sustainable development. The critical question arises: Are African youth ready for AI, and how can Africa position itself to harness this transformative technology?

Also in our August 2024 edition, we discussed the skills that the African youth would require to stay relevant in an

AI-driven job market. This article will further explore the progress made in preparing youth for AI adoption across the continent and the economic implications to date

AI in Africa: Current Status

AI has the potential to significantly impact the global economy, with research estimating that AI could contribute up to $15 7 trillion by 2030 For Africa alone, this impact is predicted to generate approximately $1 2 trillion, according to the UN Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). These projections showcase the transformative power AI holds for the continent. However, as Baratanga Miya, Chief Executive of Girlhype Coders Academy, emphasizes, governments must play a central role in regulating and incentivizing the AI value chain to ensure that innovation thrives and access to AI technologies remains equitable particularly for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).

In June 2024, the ‘2nd Extraordinary Session of the Specialized Technical Committee’ on Communication and ICT was held The meeting brought together over 130 African ministers and experts and mainly focused on accelerating Africa's digital transformation, driven by AI's rapidly evolving capabilities. The African ICT and Communications Ministers unanimously approved the landmark Continental Artificial Intelligence (AI) Strategy and African Digital Compact, a framework which will serve as a guide for African countries to harness AI for their developmental goals while ensuring ethical use, minimizing risks, and capitalizing on emerging opportunities.

The strategy highlights key areas for AI implementation, including education and skills development, health, agriculture, infrastructure, peace and security, and good governance. The success of AI in these sectors hinges on the development of human capital, strengthening research and development (R&D) ecosystems, and building AI-ready institutional and regulatory environments Investment in youth, innovators, data scientists, and AI researchers is one of the components that will unlock Africa's success in the global AI arena

Empowering Africa's Youth Through AI

Africa's youth stand at the forefront of this digital revolution. With the potential to drive socio-economic transformation, AI presents unique opportunities for the continent's young population. However, African governments and stakeholders must ensure that the youth are equipped with the necessary skills and knowledge to fully harness these opportunities

During the June 2024 conference, African ministers emphasized the importance of building capacity and transferring knowledge to empower Africa's youth, private sector, and institutions. By fostering ecosystems conducive to innovation, digital education, and skill development, Africa can ensure that its youth are not left behind Moreover, as AI disrupts traditional job markets, job reassignment and upskilling programs will be crucial to maintain employment and competitiveness in an increasingly automated world

One of the critical frameworks supporting this vision is the African Union's Digital Transformation Strategy (2020-2030), which includes both the Continental AI Strategy and the African Digital Compact Both the Continental AI Strategy and the African Digital Compact are planned on other policies and frameworks such as on data management, personal data protection, cybersecurity, and child protection which are positioned to create and promote a digital ecosystem that fosters sustainable development across the continent In addition, these initiatives also aim to promote digital development across the continent, aligned with the broader goals of Agenda 2063

Policy Development and Collaboration

In August 2024, a significant continental meeting titled "Shaping Africa's Artificial Intelligence (AI) Future: Strategies for Inclusive and Collaborative National AI Policy Development" brought together key stakeholders from across Africa. This meeting underscored the importance of developing unified AI policies and strategies tailored to Africa's needs. Such policies are

Courtesy:GettyImages

essential for harnessing AI's potential and driving Africa's socio-economic transformation

One of the critical takeaways from the meeting was the emphasis on training teachers and encouraging youth participation in entrepreneurship, as well as technical and vocational education and training (TVET) programs. These efforts aim to secure a brighter future for Africa's workforce in the AI field Involving youth in AI through education and entrepreneurship will be pivotal in unlocking the continent's potential and ensuring that African countries play an active role in shaping the future of AI.

Africa’s Next Steps: Investing in Youth and AI

The adoption of AI in Africa presents both challenges and opportunities To maximize AI's impact, African countries must foster collaboration across borders and develop policies that are responsive to the continent's unique socio-economic landscape. The importance of drafting Africa-specific AI policies cannot be overstressed These policies must be inclusive, collaborative, and forwardlooking to ensure that the continent can fully benefit from AI technologies

At the heart of this transformation are Africa's youth. Investments in education, digital literacy, and skills development are crucial to preparing them for the AIdriven future African youth must be equipped not only to adopt AI but to create, innovate, and lead in this space This will require a concerted effort from all governments, educational institutions, and the private sector.

The 'AI and the Future of Work in Africa’ White Paper in

2024, emphasizes key recommendations for advancing jobs, skills, and labour markets These include establishing an Africa-led research agenda to explore the impact of generative AI across sectors, fostering AI development that integrates social sciences and community-centred designs, and equipping the workforce with skills to both build and work with AI Additionally, it stresses the importance of engaging youth, community leaders, academics, and businesses in creatinginclusiveAIpoliciestailoredtoAfrica'sneeds.

In conclusion, the African youth have the potential to lead the continent into the AI-driven future, but readiness is key. So while there are challenges, there’s also significant potential among African youth to engage with and leverage AI for development. Governments, industries, and educational systems must collaborate to ensure that the youth are equipped with the right skills and knowledge By doing so, Africa can unlock the full potential of AI and drive sustainable economic growth across the continent AI is not just a tool for the future it is a tool for now, and Africa's youth are poised to take advantageofit

Readings:

https://ourworldindata org/population-growth

https://www un org/africarenewal/magazine/march2024/artificial-intelligence-and-africa

https://au int/en/pressreleases/20240617/african-ministersadopt-landmark-continental-artificial-intelligence-strategy

https://www nepad org/news/shaping-africas-artificialintelligence-ai-strategies

https://www afdb org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/PolicyDocuments/Agenda2063 Popular Version English pdf

https://www microsoft com/enus/research/uploads/prod/2024/06/WhitepaperAIandTheFutureofWorkinAfrica-June24 pdf

Can AfCFTA Drive SME Growth? (November 2024)

AUTHOR:GraceKangotue ChiefResearcher/Economist@ RDJ Consulting

Courtesy:https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/january-2021/afcfta-africa-now-open-business

As we find innovative ways for Africa to grow, trade has long been a fundamental driver of such economic growth, allowing countries to leverage

their comparative advantages. This is achieved through various means such as specializing in the production of goods and services that they can produce more efficiently than others In the push for a globalized world, international trade is critical as no country possesses all the resources it needs to be self-sufficient. At a country level, countries engage in trade not only to exchange goods and services but to reap the benefits of specialization and comparative advantage

However, international trade comes at a price Trade agreements (TAs), including Free Trade Areas (FTAs), are a negotiating affair, essential in reducing barriers to trade like tariffs and import quotas. Such agreements balance flexibility and commitments among member countries to prevent excessive protectionism, encourage cooperation,

and foster a more predictable trading environment. The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), with its ambitious goal to eliminate barriers to trade across the continent, is one such agreement

The AfCFTA represents one of the largest free trade zones in the world, bringing together 55 African Union (AU) countries and eight (8) Regional Economic Communities (RECs) with the aim of establishing a single unified market This trade arrangement has the potential to revolutionize the economic landscape of the continent, particularly for micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs), which form the backbone of Africa's economies. However, like all ambitious economic agreements, the full realization of AfCFTA’s benefits will depend on its successful implementation and addressing the challenges that come with opening up intracontinental markets

As such, the AfCFTA success in driving SME growth across Africa hinges on how well it navigates the challenges and opportunities it presents.

Although there is not a standard definition amongst Trade Ministry’s, MSMEs are fundamental to Africa's economic development According to the African Union, micro enterprises are those with annual turnover of less than USD 1 million, small enterprises fall within the range of USD 1 million to USD 5 million, and medium-sized enterprises range from USD 5 million to USD 20 million These businesses are pivotal in driving job creation, poverty alleviation, and industrialization in Africa

In fact, MSMEs are responsible for creating the majority of jobs on the continent and contribute significantly to economic activity. They often serve as a crucial bridge in Africa’s industrialization process by supplying goods, services, and jobs that larger corporations cannot provide Despite, their significance, MSMEs face significant challenges, including limited access to finance, inadequate infrastructure, and high operating costs.

The AfCFTA, by establishing a single African market, presents several opportunities for SMEs across the continent to thrive If fully implemented, AfCFTA has the potential to significantly boost the African economy and contribute to the growth of MSMEs in the following ways:

Economic Growth and Job Creation: AfCFTA has the potential to invigorate Africa's manufacturing sector, which currently contributes only around 10% to the continent’s overall GDP This growth could open up new opportunities for SMEs involved in manufacturing, allowing them to scale up operations, expand into new markets, and create jobs In turn, this could help reduce unemployment and alleviate poverty.

Reduction in Input Cost: One of the major advantages of AfCFTA is the reduction of tariffs and trade barriers. SMEs often face high input costs due to the importation of raw materials from abroad, particularly from non-African countries AfCFTA promises to simplify the importation of raw materials within the continent by eliminating tariffs and reducing trade barriers between African countries As a result, SMEs can access cheaper inputs, enhancing their profitability and competitiveness.

Increased Efficiency and Access to Technology: With the potential influx of multinational corporations (MNCs) into African markets due to AfCFTA, SMEs stand to benefit from partnerships with these larger players MNCs bring not only capital but also expertise, technology, and efficient business practices. Such collaborations could enhance the capacity of local businesses, allowing SMEs to integrate advanced technologies, improve productivity, and expand their operations

Expanded Market Access: AfCFTA’s promise of a single continental market provides SMEs with access to over 1.3 billion consumers across over 55 countries. This significantly broadens their customer base and presents new opportunities for growth For example, SMEs involved in agriculture can reach new markets for their produce, while those in manufacturing can export goods to neighbouring countries without facing hefty tariffs or trade barriers.

While AfCFTA holds substantial promise for MSME growth, it is not without its challenges. The realities of intraAfrica trade are complex, and if not carefully managed, AfCFTA could also have some negative consequences for smaller businesses

Courtesy:https://nipdbcom/2022/12/12/nipdb-launches-capacity-building-for-msmes//

Increased Competitive Pressure: One of the primary risks of AfCFTA is the intensified competition SMEs will face

Larger economies, such as South Africa, Egypt, Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, may have better access to capital, more efficient production processes, and higher-quality goods. In comparison, small businesses in poorer regions might struggle to compete, particularly in sectors like agriculture and manufacturing where economies of scale give larger players a distinct advantage In the worst case, local businesses could be driven out of business, leading to job losses and economic destabilization

Choking of Local Producers: AfCFTA's reduction of tariffs could also make it easier for foreign companies to flood the African market with cheaper goods Local producers, particularly SMEs, might struggle to compete with the lower-priced imports, leading to a decline in sales and profitability This could harm the growth prospects of many African SMEs, especially in sectors where consumer price sensitivity is high.

Access to Finance: Despite the potential for growth, many African SMEs face challenges in accessing the necessary capital to take advantage of new trade opportunities Limited access to finance remains one of the most significant barriers to SME development on the continent Many SMEs lack the collateral and credit histories required to secure loans from banks or other financial institutions. This financing gap could hinder the ability of SMEs to scale up their operations and participate fully in the AfCFTA

Infrastructure and Logistics: Another significant challenge experienced by African SMEs is the continent’s

underdeveloped infrastructure, which includes poor road networks, limited energy supply, and inefficient logistics systems. These gaps increase operational costs for SMEs and make it challenging for them to meet the demands of larger markets. As a result, staying competitive in a more openmarketbecomesanuphillbattle.

In conclusion, the AfCFTA presents immense potential for Africa’s MSMEs, offering new opportunities for growth, expansion, and collaboration across the continent. Reducing trade barriers, lowering input costs, and expanding market access are crucial elements that will enable MSMEs to thrive in the dynamic and competitive single-market business environment that the AfCFTA aims to create Moreover, African governments and businesses need to work collaboratively to address the identified challenges, ultimately fostering economic growth across thecontinent

Readings:

https://www wto org/english/thewto e/glossary e/free trade ar ea e htm

https://www wto org/english/res e/booksp e/anrep e/wtr092b e pdf

https://au-afcfta org/about/

https://www trade gov/us-free-trade-agreement-partnercountries

https://au int/sites/default/files/documents/44211-docMSME Definitions in Africa Red pdf

https://www weforum org/stories/2018/10/africa-continentalfree-trade-afcfta-sme-business/

https://www macmap org/en/learn/afcfta#headingId Advantages OfMSMEs

https://au-afcfta org/purpose-the-afcfta/

OIL & GAS

How much oil is in Africa? (February 2024)

AUTHOR: David Jarrett Editor@ RDJ Publishing and RDJ Group ChiefExecutiveOfficer

With the point made that oil is a fossil fuel and a “non-renewable” energy source, we are reminded then that 1) oil is depletable and 2)

not available everywhere In respect of Africa, both points are true BUT…… most recent finds have been found in Africa and major explorations are underway both at sea and on land.

Statista notes that as of 2021, Africa’s oil reserves account for 125 3 billion barrels, with Libya having the largest reserves This aligns with a KPMG 2014 Oil and Gas in Africa report which noted a similar figure of proven oil reserves. The top four oil producers, Libya, Nigeria, Algeria and Angola account for as much as 90 percent of

the known reserves Using current oil values at USD 77 59 (WTI Crude), places Africa’s reserves at a potential estimated value of USD 9 7 trillion if fully materialised

What then could be the economic impact for Africa?

Others have noted that Africa’s infrastructure is a challenge for the various African governments to accelerate development for their populace and to attract investors Public infrastructure development from a political perspective is generally catered for from the public purse also known as the fiscus which has derived its funding from taxpayers. It is also pointed out that

infrastructure is a driver of development, requiring around 8 percent of GDP to be effective.

Now here lies the first roadblock, as unless the country has an economic profile that can handle the level of infrastructure development required, there will be a deficiency, growing annually based on deficits The African Development Bank estimates this funding shortfall to be about USD 100 billion per annum, which in fairness should be growing annually as the gap widens and inflation impacts countries

Enter Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs), which by there very nature, combines the resources of the public sector and the private sector to deliver services. Others describe PPPs as innovative approaches to public sector gaps and private sector need for a home for long-term funds.

But why is it a challenge if there are lenders and investors ready to handle the challenge?

However, lenders and investors have identified a lack of bankable projects thus creating a natural roadblock.

These need packaging and feasibility studies, strong legal and policy frameworks which in most cases do not exist This stops fund resource mobilization through lenders at theraterequired

In the light of the value of its oil reserve values and other minerals, African countries could use these as a leverage to attract long-term funds through bartering and collaboration

As always, the conversation continues esa@rdjpublishing.africa

Readings:

https://oilprice com/Energy/Crude-Oil/

https://www statista com/statistics/1178514/main-oil-producingcountries-in-africa

https://www statista com/statistics/reportcontent/statistic/1178147

https://assets.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmg/za/pdf/Oil-and-Gasin-Africa-2014 pdf

https://www cgdev org/blog/bottlenecks-africas-infrastructurefinancing-and-how-overcome-them https://www uneca org/stories/public-private-partnershipsneeded-to-bridge-infrastructure-development-gap-in-africa

Courtesy: RDJ Consulting

Proved crude oil reserves in Africa in 2021, by country (in billion barrels)

ENERGY SECTOR

Green Steel: Production in Africa (May 2024)

AUTHOR: David Jarrett Editor@ RDJ Publishing and RDJ Group ChiefExecutiveOfficer

As the world seeks to mitigate climate change and transition to more sustainable industrial practices, green steel production emerges as a vital inno-

vation Traditional steelmaking is a major source of carbon emissions, contributing significantly to global warming However, green steel, produced using renewable energy and innovative technologies, offers a solution.

Africa, with its abundant renewable energy resources and growing industrial base, presents a promising landscape for green steel production This article explores the potential for green steel processing in Africa and the steps necessary to realize this vision With vast renewable energy resources, including solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, provide a strong foundation for green steel production. Countries like South Africa, Morocco, and Kenya have made significant investments in renewable energy infrastructure, which can be leveraged to power

green steel plants Furthermore, Africa's rich iron ore deposits, essential for steel production, position the continent as a potential hub for sustainable steel manufacturing

Hydrogen-based Direct Reduction (H-DRI) involves using green hydrogen, produced through electrolysis powered by renewable energy, to reduce iron ore to iron

Unlike traditional methods that use carbon-intensive coke, H-DRI significantly reduces CO2 emissions

Electric Arc Furnaces (EAFs) can melt scrap steel or DRI (Direct Reduced Iron) using electricity, ideally sourced from renewables. This process is more energy-efficient and environmentally friendly compared to traditional blast furnaces

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is not exclusive to green steel, integrating this technology can further reduce emissions by capturing CO2 produced during the steelmaking process and storing it underground.

SteelProduction Courtesy:FreepikAI

Building the necessary infrastructure for green steel production, including renewable energy plants and hydrogen production facilities, requires substantial investment Public-private partnerships and international funding can play a crucial role in overcoming these financial barriers To implement this, a skilled workforce trained in new technologies is essential African countries must invest in education and vocational training programs focused on green technologies and sustainable industrial practices.

Creating a market for green steel involves both local and international efforts Promoting the benefits of green steel, such as reduced carbon footprints and compliance with future environmental regulations, can drive demand. Additionally, establishing trade agreements and partnerships with countries committed to sustainability can open new markets for African green steel Strong governmental support through favourable policies and incentives is crucial African governments should enact policies that encourage investment in renewable energy and green steel technologies, including tax incentives, subsidies, and regulatory support.

Case Studies and Examples

South Africa: As one of the continent’s largest steel producers, South Africa is well-positioned to lead in green steel production Initiatives like the Hydrogen South Africa (HySA) program aim to develop a hydrogen economy, which could support hydrogen-based steelmaking

Morocco: With its ambitious renewable energy goals, including large-scale solar and wind projects, Morocco can supply the necessary clean energy for green steel production Collaborations with European countries, which are major steel consumers, can further enhance thispotential

Green steel production in Africa presents a unique opportunity to drive sustainable industrial growth while addressing climate change By harnessing the continent's renewable energy resources and investing in innovative technologies, Africa can become a leader in green steel manufacturing. However, achieving this vision requires coordinated efforts in infrastructure development, workforce training, policy support, and market creation. With the right strategies, Africa can not only meet its own steel needs sustainably but also become a significant playerintheglobalgreensteelmarket.

Readings:

World Steel Association "Sustainable Steel: Indicators 2021 and green steel production methods "

International Energy Agency (IEA) "The Role of Green Hydrogen in Africa's Energy Future "

South African Government "Hydrogen South Africa (HySA) Program Overview " Renewable Energy in Africa "Morocco's Renewable Energy Projects and Their Potential Impact on Industrial Sectors "

African Development Bank "Financing Renewable Energy Projects in Africa: Opportunities and Challenges "

Flooding: Hydro Electricity as a Control Mechanism (June 2024)

AUTHOR: Grace Kangotue ChiefResearcher/Economist@RDJConsulting

Courtesy:https://wwwcpcncepnoaagov/products/international/africa/africa hazardpdf

Courtesy:Getty Images

Flooding, a natural disaster affecting millions globally each year, poses significant risks to lives, infrastructure, and economies With climate

change increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, the need for innovative and sustainable solutions becomes crucial Hydropower, traditionally viewed as a renewable energy source, is now emerging as a dual-purpose tool, not only generating electricity but also serving as a strategic control mechanism to mitigate flooding.

Despite goals for full electricity access in countries like Kenya and Rwanda by 2030, over 600 million Africans from across the continent lacked electricity in 2022, with 80% residing mostly in rural areas where national grid extensions are costly. For these populations, solar electricity via mini-grids and standalone systems are said to be the most viable alternative

However, recurring floods from known waterways prompt the question: “can these be leveraged for electricity generation?” The answer to this question is yes, through hydropower.

Defined by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), hydropower is energy derived from flowing water, which depends on the continuous water cycle to generate electricity In 2022, hydropower globally generated about 4,300 Terawatts hours (TWh) and was a leading renewable energy source. The International Energy Agency (IEA) expects hydropower to dominate until the 2030s

There are different types of hydropower systems which can be used to produce electricity Hydropower plants, particularly those with reservoirs, offer a unique advantage in flood control These reservoirs can store excess water during heavy rainfall and release it gradually, thus preventing downstream flooding. By managing the timing and volume of water release, hydropower facilities can significantly reduce the impact of floods on vulnerable communities while producing clean electricity

As a renewable energy source, the use of hydropower to control floods assist countries to achieve their Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG 7), which aims to achieve “affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy” for everyone Hydropower deployment as a flood control can also aid to reduce soil erosion and prevent the destructions of habitats Additionally, economically, the reduction in flood-related damages can save billions in infrastructure repair, agricultural losses, and disaster response costs.

Case Studies and Success Stories

Several regions have successfully integrated hydropower for flood management In China, the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River, which become the world's largest hydroelectric power station in 2012, is also a critical flood control structure. During periods of heavy rain, the dam's reservoir absorbs surplus water, protecting millions of people living downstream.

In the United States, the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River demonstrates another successful application The dam's ability to generate electricity and control water flow has mitigated the risk of flooding in the lower basin, serving electricity needs of at least 8 million people while safeguarding agricultural lands and urban areas alike.

The IEA recommends that countries adopt "climateresilient hydropower stations" to achieve uninterrupted electricity supply, development, climate goals, and minimized socio-economic costs from climate impacts like flooding Therefore, investing in improved reservoir and generation efficiency can help African utilities reduce recovery costs and losses from underutilized hydropower systems.

Despite its benefits, the use of hydropower for flood control is not without challenges Reservoirs must be carefully managed to balance water storage for flood control and water release for energy production Additionally, the construction of large dams can disrupt local ecosystems and displace communities. Innovative designs, such as multipurpose dams and small-scale hydropower systems, aim to minimize environmental impacts while maximizing benefits

African countries currently experiencing floods, such as Angola, Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, and Zambia, can assess their hydropower stations and implement some of the IEA's highlighted hard measures to maximize their station output while making them climate resilient These measures include strengthening and redesigning hydropower infrastructure, such as increasing dam

height, modifying canals or tunnels, optimizing turbine types, enhancing spillway capacities to flush silted reservoirs, and increasing flood defences to protect power stations Moreover, they can explore strategies and regulations that will enhance hydropower stations' resilience

In conclusion, the strategic integration of flooding and hydropower as a control mechanism presents a promising pathway for sustainable energy management. By harnessing the natural flow of water and employing advanced technologies, we can mitigate the impacts of floods while generating clean, renewable energy. This dual approach not only addresses immediate environmental challenges but also contributes to longterm resilience and sustainability. As we face increasing climatic uncertainties, such innovative solutions will be crucialinshapingasustainableandenergy-securefuture

Readings:

https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/international/africa/afr ica hazard pdf

https://www iea org/reports/africa-energy-outlook-2022/keyfindings

https://www irena org/Energy-Transition/Technology/Hydropower

https://www energy gov/eere/water/how-hydropower-works https://www.iea.org/energy-system/renewables/hydroelectricity https://www iea org/reports/climate-impacts-on-africanhydropower/measures-to-enhance-the-resilience-of-africanhydropower

https://eros usgs gov/earthshots/three-gorges-dam-china https://eros usgs gov/earthshots/big-dam-big-changes

https://powerauthority.org/about-us/history-of-hoover https://sdgs un org/goals/goal7

Courtesy:Canva

AUTHOR:GraceKangotue ChiefResearcher/Economist@ RDJ Consulting

Ecolodges in Africa (December 2024)

Courtesy:https://tripjivecom/eco-lodges-and-resorts-sustainable-getaways/

Accommodation is a top priority for tourists as expected after leaving home, with options ranging from luxury hotels and guesthouses in cities to

lodges on the outskirts The tourist’s accommodation choice is often based on key factors such as access to primary attractions, comfort, quality of services, friendliness of staff, group sizes, and pricing. However, according to the World Bank tourist’s concern for factors like environmentally sensitive practices and sustainable architecture is secondary and only considered once all their primary needs are met

Tourism in Africa has been facing criticism for contributing towards environmental degradation, including greenhouse gas emissions from transportation and energy use. In response, countries started exploring the concept of ecolodges as a solution to sustainable tourism, this gathered traction across the continent By 2004, eco-lodges were thriving in countries such as Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, Malawi, and Botswana

Eco-lodges are accommodations that prioritize three key principles: conservation of neighbouring lands, benefits to local communities, and education for both guests and local populations. By definition, eco-lodges operate in harmony with their environment, preserving natural ecosystems while offering economic and social benefits to nearby communities These establishments are often small to medium enterprises, making them effective tools for sustainable development in rural, biodiverse areas.

Apart from providing accommodation, most ecolodges offers wildlife viewing as the main attraction for ecotourists, whether they are independent travellers or part of organized tours. The "Big Five" animals such as lion, elephant, buffalo, leopard, and rhinoceros are particularly sought after in Africa. However, in areas where these iconic species are absent, other animals such as springboks, zebras, and diverse bird species becomes the centre of attraction for visitors The unique charisma

of Africa’s wildlife makes it a globally appealing destination for eco-tourism

Furthermore, eco-lodges are characterized by employing environmentally friendly practices that emphasize energy and water conservation. Many of the ecolodges in Africa rely on renewable energy sources like solar, hydro, and wind power to minimize carbon emissions For water conservation, these lodges often use advanced water recycling systems, rainwater harvesting, and low flow plumbing fixtures to reduce water usage without compromising guest comfort. Greywater systems are also utilized to recycle water for irrigation, ensuring minimal wastage.

Several African countries have successfully embraced sustainable practices in their tourism industries, showcasing eco-lodges as models of environmental responsibility In Kenya, eco-lodges such as Segera Retreat in Laikipia combine luxury with conservation by utilizing solar energy, grey water and water bottling systems, while the Fairmont Mara Safari Club is another example that employs solar power and advanced water management systems to reduce its environmental footprint In Tanzania, the Mantis Nungwi Resort in Zanzibar is one of the many examples within that country which highlights sustainability through its use of solar energy and reforestation project that includes guest’s contribution and active community engagement.

In conclusion, ecolodges hold a promising pathway and possess the ability to lead Africa’s tourism sector on its sustainability journey By balancing economic growth with environmental preservation and community wellbeing. Additionally, ecolodges can promote sustainable development by the integrating of energy-efficient technologies and water-saving systems, these alternatives not only promote responsible tourism but also contributes to the continent’s decarbonization efforts. They also provide a model that’s suitable for minimizing biodiversity loss and land degradation while unlockingthesector'spotential.

The ecolodges provide an avenue for Africa to promote tourism, boost its economy, reduce carbon emissions, andsafeguarditsenvironment

Readings:

https://documents1 worldbank org/curated/en/9387914683281659 12/pdf/318150Ecolodge1Publication pdf https://www researchgate net/figure/Ecolodge-for-National-parkSkadarsko-jezero fig2 322099297 https://tourismnewsafrica com/embracing-sustainable-practicesin-hospitality/ https://www urbangreenafrica net/home-grey-water-systemnamibia/ https://www segera com/ethos https://www fairmont com/masai-mara-safari/? goto=fiche hotel&code hotel=A5F3&merchantid=seo-maps-KEA5F3&sourceid=awcen&utm medium=seo%20maps&utm source=google%20Maps&ut m campaign=seo%20maps

Author: Ms Silpa Kanghono

Public Lecture: The Intern View of Energy

(Coordinator: Digital Marketing and Events- RDJ Publishing)

RDJ Consulting Services CC (RDJ or RDJ Consulting) in collaboration with the Namibia University of Science and Technology (NUST), successfully hosted a public lecture at the NUST Auditorium 2 on Friday, 20 September 2024, under the theme “The Interns View of Energy”

The event provided a unique platform for our interns to actively engage in thought-provoking discussions with the audience, demonstrating their ability to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world challenges existing in the Namibian energy sector

Among the presentations, Ms Esther Faith Ndimulunde, a Communications student at NUST, highlighted the ‘Use and Benefits of social media in the Energy and Sustainability Sector’, emphasizing the role of digital platforms in raising awareness and driving sustainable practices. Mr. Lesley Mbangu, a student of Economics, also pursuing his studies at NUST, explored ‘The Impact of Energy Prices on the Transport Sector’ , shedding light on the economic implications of fluctuating energy costs.

These were followed by Ms Albertina Shigwedha in absentia, also an Economics student at NUST, delved into ‘Is Energy a Commodity?’, discussing its market dynamics and global significance These were capped off by Mr Matti Iindongo, a Statistics student at University of Namibia (UNAM), presented on ‘Electricity Tariffs and GDP’ , providing an analytical perspective on how energy costs can be associated and correlated to national economic growth.

This opportunity not only allowed the interns to share insights on key energy topics with their peers but also served as a valuable educational experience to refine their public speaking and presentation skills. Through this opportunity, they also gained critical exposure to the complexities of the energy landscape, further preparing them for their future careers The event was treated to a special appearance of RDJ Consulting’s “first” intern from 2016, Miss Chilombo Olga Priscila (former Group Executive, Operations at RDJ) who also spoke to the audience highlighting the benefits of a workplace experience

RDJ Consulting would therefore like to extend our sincere gratitude to Mobile Telecommunications Limited (MTC) for their invaluable joint support of our internship program, which continues to empower and equip young professionals with the skills needed to excel in the energy sector Additionally, we express our continued appreciation to NUST for their ongoing commitment through their Work Integrated Learning (WIL) program to help bridging the gap between academic learning and the job market, ensuring that students are well-prepared for real-world challenges Ultimately, RDJ Consulting is extremely proud of its latest interns and wishes them the best in their endeavours going forward

AUTHOR:NaemiShoopala

ContributingAuthor

Real World- Food Security Challenges: African Countries Case Studies (October

2024)

DataobtainedfromTheGuardian

Courtesy::https://wwwtheguardiancom/news/datablog/2013/jan/10/how-much-water-food-production-waste

We can all agree that water is essential for food production; without it, the agricultural sector would nearly cease to exist According to a

National Association of Water Companies (NAWC), to produce enough food to sustain the planet’s population, 52 8 million gallons of water per second are required Of our total water consumption, food accounts for approximately 66 percent So much of our water footprint is hidden. It’s difficult to visualize, because we don’t see the quantities of water it takes to create the end products.

Water and food security are closely intertwined as both crops and livestock need water to grow Most African countries heavily depend on agriculture, which requires large quantities of high-quality water for irrigation.

Agriculture is not only a vital part of the economy but also a critical source of livelihood for millions of people across the continent However, the reliance on water-intensive farming practices places significant pressure on water.

Africa has 60 percent of the world’s available arable land and agriculture is the source of livelihood for 70 percent of the population, yet the continent generates only 10 percent of global agricultural output These challenges are mostly related to water availability, quality, and equitable distribution, which directly impact its ability to ensure a stable and sufficient food supply for its growing population.

Most water utilised for agricultural purposes across the African continent is primarily obtained from rainfall

Rainfed cultivation accounts for up to 95% these agricultural activities Unfortunately, due to highly sporadic seasonal rainfalls in Africa, rainfall barely sustains crop management requirements. This results in decreased crop yields and food insecurities in most African countries

Ensuring food security as a basic right for people is one of the greatest challenges facing the world community, particularly in low-income and food-deficit countries. Of the 86 countries globally that are defined as low-income and food-deficient, 43 are in Africa. According to the 2022 WHO/UNICEF report on progress on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene in Africa 2000-2020, one in three Africans are affected by water scarcity, 411 million people in Africa still lack basic drinking water service, 779 million lack access to basic sanitation services, and 839 million lack access to basic hygiene. The situation as can be expected, is worse in rural areas relative to cities. Further, nine identified countries (Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda) are home to 80% of the identified underserved people in the region

Africa appears blessed with abundant water resources such as large rivers like Congo, Nile, Zambezi and Niger and Lake Victoria which is the world’s second largest, but Africa is also the second driest continent in the world, after Australia Shortages are often due to problems of uneven distribution - sometimes there is large bodies and quantities of water where there are fewer people Other factors contributing to this water crisis persistence include climate change, water pollution, deforestation, poor water management, limited water resources, and conflict

Water insecurity for Africa

Natural Hazards

Droughts and other climatic extremes are significant drivers of food insecurity in the Horn of Africa, creating a persistent vulnerability for the region’s populations. Unlike other parts of the world, there is rarely a year or season when the entire Horn of Africa experiences normal rainfall without the occurrence of climate-related anomalies such as drought or floods This uncertainty makes food production highly unpredictable, leaving millions at risk of food shortages.

Regional Drought: El Niño

El Niño refers to a natural cycle in Earth’s climate centred on the equatorial Pacific Ocean El Niño brings drought, floods, and food insecurity to Southern Africa. Multiple countries across Southern Africa, including Angola, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe are experiencing El Niño-related impacts, including widespread drought, leading to reduced crop harvests and water shortages Erratic weather shifts induced by the El Niño climatic phenomenon have exacerbated drought conditions in some parts of the region, while bringing tropical cyclones and extensive flooding to other areas.

As a result, four national governments: Malawi, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe have issued drought-related disaster declarations Food security is expected to further decline during the lean season, which typically begins in October in most of the region but may begin as early as July due to severe drought conditions, as 70 percent of smallholder farmers in the region rely on rain-fed agriculture for their livelihood Food prices have risen significantly in many drought-affected areas, with the highest increase recorded in Zimbabwe at 84 percent,

leaving households unable to afford basic items and children without access to a nutritious diet

The implementation of the United Nations (UN) 2023 Water Action Agenda offers promising solutions for addressing Africa’s water challenges. African Union Member States, international development partners, and civil society have outlined priority actions for the Africa Water Investment Action Plan, which will accelerate the implementation of the United Nations (UN) 2023 Water Action Agenda on the continent The plan will guide African states to mobilise US$30 billion per year in additional financing towards water security and sustainable sanitation by 2030.

Already reaping the benefits of these mobilisation actions is Malawi According to United States Agency for International Development (USAID), about 80% of the population of Malawi have access to an improved source of drinking water The country went from food deficiency to supplying the rest of Africa with its surplus as a result of effective water policies.

The Government of Namibia is also drilling boreholes, installing water pipelines, upgrading traditional wells, and rehabilitating boreholes and water points to improve water access, in addition to providing livestock marketing incentives and other agricultural subsidies to assist farmers. In total, the Government of Namibia is allocating approximately $45 million to alleviate drought and food insecurity for at least 318,000 households.

Food needs vary dramatically from region to region and among countries within regions of the world This means that approaches to food security have to be tailored to each situation. Overall, in Africa, however, population growth, poverty and agricultural production capabilities are critical factors when considering food security.

In the face of climate change and increasing water stress, Africa’s ability to manage its water resources wisely will be key to securing its future Through investment in infrastructure and the enforcement of sustainable water management policies, the continent can build resilience

and improve its water security for generations to come.

Food Security can also be improved through Water Harvesting Technologies

The African Union High-Level Panel on Emerging Technologies (APET) encourages African countries to harness smart technologies and innovations to heighten the management of existing water bodies and rainfalls for small-scale farming purposes APET emphasizes the critical need to improve water resource capture techniques as a key strategy to combat water scarcity and build resilience in regions heavily dependent on agriculture With climate change and global warming intensifying extreme weather patterns, the adoption of climate-smart technologies becomes increasingly important to mitigate the risks associated with erratic rainfall and prolonged droughts

Readings:

https://nawc org/

https://au int/en/auc/priorities/food-security

https://africainfact.com/africas-food-and-water-securityare-indivisible/

https://www nepad org/blog/improving-food-securityafrica-through-water-harvesting-technologies

https://www.fao.org/4/w9290e/w9290e01.htm

https://www.unicef.org/media/117726/file/JMP%20Snapsh ot%20on%20Progress%20on%20Drinking%20Water,%20Sa nitation%20and%20Hygiene%20in%20Africa%2020002020 pdf

https://wwfeu.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/waterinafr icaeng pdf

https://www fao org/4/x8406e/X8406e01 htm

https://theconversation com/el-nino-may-have-ended-butits-legacy-is-greater-hunger-in-sub-saharan-africa237160#:~:text=The%202023%2D24%20El%20Ni%C3%B1o, most%20of%20sub%2DSaharan%20Africa

https://www usaid gov/sites/default/files/2024-06/202406-

11 USG Southern Africa Regional Drought Fact Sheet 1 pdf

https://au int/en/pressreleases/20230918/concreteactions-towards-water-security-africa-brought-forwardcontinent

https://www usaid gov/malawi/global-health/wash

https://www fao org/family-farming/detail/en/c/317286/

Courtesy:GettyImagesSignature

AGRICULTURE

Food Security: The Impact of Drought and Floods (June 2024)

AUTHOR:AlbertinaShigwedha ResearchandWritingIntern@RDJConsulting

Courtesy:sdgsscoutorg

There is no question that agriculture is an essential sector that significantly contributes to the global economy and food production However, it is also

a major consumer of water resources According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), agriculture accounts for approximately 70% of global freshwater withdrawals. With increasing water scarcity and the need to ensure food security, there is a growing interest in water-saving irrigation methods One such that has gained widespread popularity is drip irrigation

According to Shareef et al. (2019), drip irrigation is referred to as a technique aimed at distributing water near the roots in small quantities in a concentrated and hesitant manner to maintain the soil moisture needed for

the plants It involves dripping water onto the soil at very low rates (2-20 litres/hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets called emitters or drippers placed at specific intervals to release water slowly and directly to plants

Contrary to popular belief, drip irrigation is not a recent innovation. Its roots can be traced back to ancient China, where the ‘’Fan Shengzhi Shu’’ - an agricultural text created by Fan Shengzhi during the Han Dynasty, described similar method Drip irrigation is suitable for most soils, adaptable to any farmable slope, and can be used for a variety of crops including fruits, vegetables, trees, and vine crops planted along contour lines.

According to the FAO, regions like Tsumeb, Kavango East, Kavango West and Omusati in Namibia have implemented drip irrigation system. This method allows farmers to provide the exact amount of water required for the plants. There have also been other successful examples of drip irrigation implementation, such as at the Mondo farms - an emerging Zambian agribusiness venture owned and operated by Chisha Folotiya Mondo Farm specializes in vegetables but originally started with timber plantation of pine.

Besides saving water, drip irrigation offers several environmental benefits It reduces the leaching of nutrients and contaminants into groundwater by delivering water directly to the root zone It also promotes efficient use of water, up to 80% compared to flood sprinkler and centre pivot systems. Drip irrigation can mitigate many diseases transmitted by contact with vegetation through spray, reducing plant diseases and leading to better growth and health

One of the main drawbacks of drip irrigation can be its cost The equipment and labour required to install the system correctly are expensive, and the system requires more maintenance due to the clogging of emitters primarily from water quality issues.

In summary, the potential water saving with drip irrigation is substantial. Compared to flood irrigation, which can result in water loses of up to 50%, drip irrigation can save up to 30-70% of applied water. In arid regions like the Sub-Saharan Africa where water scarcity is a major concern, this can be a game-changer for sustainable agriculture Drip irrigation results in significant water savings compared to sprinkler or furrow irrigation methods and may be a viable option for resource-poor farmers in many water-scarce African countries

Readings:

https://sdgs scout org/project/low-cost-drip-irrigation-systemssmall-scale-farmers-minimize-hunger-tanzania

https://www fao org/one-health/areas-of-work/water

https://namibianfarming com/drip-irrigation-gaining-momentumin-namibia

https://www modernjournals com/index php/ijma/article/view/656/576 https://www scirp org/journal/paperinformation?

paperid=94955az1392-2016 0 pdf (arizona edu)

https://www aquahubkenya co ke/drip-irrigation-inkenya/#:~:text=Farms%2C%20commercial%20greenhouses%2C%2 0and%20backyard,citrus%2C%20strawberries%2C%20and%20sug arcane

https://www scirp org/pdf/JWARP 2019091015345918 pdf

Mine Lands: A New Beginning (July 2024)

AUTHOR:Chilombo(Olga)Priscila EconomicResearcher/Statistician@ RDJ Consulting

Courtesy:https://wwwlinkedincom/pulse/land-rehabilitation-ina-king-potgieter-/

A combination of Artificial Intelligence viewpoint (ChatGPT) and humans……

So, the mine has come to its end of life, now what?

Closure of mines often result in severe environmental and economic disruptions for

surrounding communities The 2002 report from the Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) project, produced by the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), underscores the extensive environmental damage associated with openpit mining, including landscape alteration, soil contamination, and the abandonment of infrastructure.

Mining companies have a critical responsibility to plan for mine rehabilitation and restoration, ensuring that mining sites are returned to a stable and productive state after the extraction activities conclude Proper planning and implementation of mine rehabilitation not only minimize environmental impacts but also support the long-term sustainability of the surrounding ecosystems and communities

Mine rehabilitation should not be an afterthought but an

integral part of the mine planning process

Integrated mine closure planning involves developing a detailed closure plan early in the project lifecycle. This plan should outline the steps and actions needed to restore the site, including landform design, soil management, revegetation, water management, and monitoring protocols It should also consider the socio-economic impacts on local communities and outline strategies for their involvement and benefit.

Extensive research has explored the potential for converting former mining lands into productive agricultural areas This transformation not only offers new agricultural opportunities for local communities but also contributes to significant environmental restoration for the affected areas To achieve successful reclamation, it is essential to plan for post-mining land use prior to the commencement of mining operations. This involves conducting thorough Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) to identify potential risks and to develop strategies for land reclamation

Rehabilitation efforts should prioritize the use of native plant species and the enhancement of local biodiversity The process of mine land reclamation therefore begins with inspection and planning, examining indicators, soil types, climatic conditions, and fauna and flora to determine the most effective reclamation strategy Native species are better adapted to the local climate and soil conditions, making them more likely to establish and thrive Including a diversity of species in rehabilitation plans can create more resilient ecosystems that provide habitat for wildlife and support broader ecological functions.

Mining activities can significantly alter local hydrology and water quality, so restoration plans must address these issues Next is the revegetation stage consisting of replanting local vegetation or crops to restore the ecosystem. Planting fruit trees is highly recommended due to its ability to attract birds or bats needed for seed dispersal And lastly is the use of microorganisms, such as fungi to aid in soil mineral formation and organic matter decomposition

While ongoing research continues to explore new reclamation techniques, several effective methods have already been implemented globally. These successful practices can serve as valuable models for future mining activities, particularly in developing countries with significant mining potential and rural economies in need of revitalization

CASE STUDIES

Coal Mines in Mpumalanga Province 1

The Mpumalanga province, central to South Africa's power generation, supplies over 80% of the country's coal,

making mining a key economic driver for local communities As South Africa transitions away from coal, a pilot program explored using remediated mine land and water for sustainable livelihoods. Winter wheat, targeted for its potential use by Kellogg's, showed promising results Project director John Cook noted the "astonishing" success of growing wheat with untreated mine water Despite these positive outcomes, the project report highlights the need for further testing to validate this method across other mine sites.

2. The Lavender Farms of Appalachian Botanical Company (ABCO)

In Ashford, West Virginia, the ABCO has transformed retired coal mine sections into lavender farms For former coal miners, the shift to lavender cultivation is remarkable. ABCO’s mission is to restore mining land and grow lavender, a resilient plant that thrives in poor soils and mitigates toxic heavy metals. This initiative symbolizes ecological restoration and new agricultural opportunities amid the Appalachian Mountains

Furthermore, with over 1,500 redundant coal mines in the UK, and over 12,000 abandoned coal mines, 0.6 million m³ of tunnels, and about one billion m³ of civil air defense tunnels in China, the World Economic Forum reports that academics are exploring the use of abandoned mines and other subterranean facilities as alternatives to traditional agricultural land

EFFECTIVE METHODS FOR RECLAMATION

Piling System or Topsoil Management

This method involves adding material such as soil, sand, or stone over the area to be reclaimed Removing and storing topsoil before mining activities begin, to be

Courtesy:Canva

reapplied during rehabilitation, is fundamental. The aim is to increase the land's height for activities like agriculture or plantations while stabilizing the soil to reduce erosion risk This process is followed by adding organic matter, lime, or fertilizers to improve topsoil quality and promote plant growth

Polder System or Hydrological Management

Polder systems focus on effective water resource management, essential for restoring natural hydrological cycles. Small walls or dams are built to capture and store runoff, allowing sediment to settle and reducing downstream erosion This system is especially effective in areas prone to flooding or needing water quality control It also helps restore aquatic ecosystems and improve water quality.

Erosion Control Measures

Erosion control measures are essential to prevent soil loss and maintain land stability Methods include terracing (creating stepped levels on slopes to reduce runoff velocity and soil erosion), contour plowing (plowing along the land's contour lines to slow water flow and reduce soil erosion), and vegetative cover (planting grass, shrubs, or cover crops to protect soil from erosion and improve soil structure).

Sustainable Farming Practices

This method involves crop rotation (rotating different crops in the same field to improve soil structure, reduce pest and disease cycles, and enhance nutrient cycling), conservation tillage (minimizing soil disturbance to preserve soil structure, improve water retention, and reduce erosion), and organic farming (avoiding synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, using natural inputs, and enhancing soil fertility through composting and green manuring)

Additional Techniques and Considerations

Other fundamental techniques for effective mine land reclamation include engaging local communities and

former mineworkers; equipping them with skills needed for successful agricultural activities after mine closure; continuous monitoring and adaptive management to ensure the effectiveness of rehabilitation efforts; removing or neutralizing soil contaminants to restore its health and productivity; and practicing deforestation and afforestationinformerminedlands

These activities can be expensive if no funding mechanisms are put in place upfront Policies and regulations that mandate land reclamation and create funds dedicated to environmental restoration and agricultural development are crucial. For example, in South Africa, mining companies are required by law to rehabilitate land after open cast mining. However, these lawsrequirerigidenforcement.

NextSteps

Mine closure and reclamation should be conducted progressively and planned from the early stages of a mining project to maximize beneficial outcomes following closure. Although mining is an economic booster, its negative ecological impacts are of great concern. In fact, ongoing research indicates promising results from these reclamation techniques, offering a path to sustained economic activity and environmental health Henceforth, reclamation and restoration of derelict mine sites are now extremely necessary for restoring ecological integrity basedonsoundecologicalprinciples

Theconversationcontinues esa@rdjpublishing.africa

Readings:

https://www sucofindo co id/en/articles/what-is-the-reclamationprocess-in-mining-areas/

https://www miningweekly com/article/is-it-possible-to-convertold-coal-mines-into-successful-farms-2022-06-24

https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/12/abandoned-minescould-become-the-farms-of-the-future/

Leveraging AI in Agriculture (September 2024)

AUTHOR:GraceKangotue ChiefResearcher/Economist@ RDJ Consulting

Courtesy:https://intelliascom/artificial-intelligence-in-agriculture/

The global agricultural sector is increasingly being affected by climate change, manifesting in extreme weather conditions and inconsistent

rainfall pattern Drought, a severe consequence of these changes, negatively impacts agricultural yields, reduces farmers’ incomes, and threatens food security globally. For instance, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) reported in 2024 that North Africa experienced a 10% drop in cereal production in 2023, underscoring the need for innovative solutions to address this growing crisis

In its 1996 research, “Rainfall Variability and Drought in Sub-Saharan Africa” , the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) interestingly highlighted that low rainfall does not necessarily cause drought, nor is drought always linked to insufficient rainfall Agricultural

drought, according to the FAO, occurs when water supply is insufficient to cover crop or livestock water requirement. While reduced rainfall is a contributing factor, the FAO emphasized that agricultural drought, often referred to as "invisible, " is also driven by environmental degradation alongside climatic factors This underscores the need to explore alternatives to enhance crop yields in the presence of climate change and other environmental degradation factors.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is one of the emerging technologies being embraced in disaster managementdrought included, to improve predictive performance Enhanced predictions will lead to better drought preparedness and help minimize the effects on farmers and the entire agricultural value chain.

AI applications in Agriculture

Drought-Resistant Crops:Traditional crop breeding can be a lengthy process AI-drive technology has the potential to accelerate crop breeding by analyzing vast datasets of genetic information to identify traits related to drought resistance By doing so, AI enables the faster development of drought-resistant crop varieties. Additionally, AI-driven phenotyping using drones and sensors to monitor crop health allows breeders to make data-informed decisions, while predictive crop models help farmers select planting times and crop varieties suited to drought-prone regions

Smart Irrigation Systems: Efficient water use is critical in drought management. AI-driven smart irrigation systems, combined with sensors and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies, optimize water usage by monitoring soil moisture levels in real time These systems adapt to changing conditions, allowing farmers to conserve water while maintaining crop health Remote monitoring tools further enhance this by enabling farmers to control irrigation systems via mobile applications, ensuring timely adjustments based on the needs of their fields.

Case Studies in Africa

AI-driven platforms such as the Africa Agriculture Watch (AAgWa) provide essential insights into crop yields and production across the continent The AAgWa platform employs cutting-edge machine learning techniques and remotely sensed data to predict agricultural yields and production levels of several crops across Africa to support crisis management, monitoring, and mitigation efforts in local communities. In Rwanda, AI is being used for weeding management, delivering real-time, localized advice to farmers

crop diseases, helping farmers act swiftly to prevent crop losses.

Although AI brings advantages to agriculture, the adoption of AI-driven technologies in the sector encounters several challenges Connectivity issues are particularly prevalent in Africa, where agriculture often occurs in remote areas lacking internet access Additionally, the integration of AI raises new cybersecurity threats for the agricultural sector Trust issues also arise, as many farmers are sceptical about relying on these systems and are hesitant to share data due to concerns over data ownership

Despite this, adopting AI-driven agricultural technologies will be essential for African farmers to enhance drought resilience and ensure food security in an era of climate uncertainty

In summary, AI presents powerful tools to optimize water use, develop drought-resistant crops, and streamline agricultural practices, positioning farmers to overcome the growing threat of drought while sustaining livelihoods andboostingfoodproduction.

Readings:

https://wmo int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionateburden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/d5e8b4 f1-9ec7-4177-addc-c521b2d5ccb5/content

https://atpsnet org/how-ai-can-be-used-to-develop-droughtresistant-crops-and-improve-irrigationsystems/#:~:text=Optimizing%20irrigation%20practices%20is%20a nother,levels%2C%20and%20crop%20water%20needs https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S136481522 1001791

https://akademiya2063 org/press releases/Africa Agriculture Wat ch Brochure.pdf

https://www nepad org/blog/how-artificial-intelligence-aipowered-weeding-transforming-africas-agricultural-future https://www.ajol.info/index.php/jolte/article/view/221694/209209 https://sciencemediahub eu/2021/09/29/ai-in-agriculture-benefitsand-challenges-ahead/

TRANSPORT AND MOBILITY

Transport: Africa’s Informal Sector - A Missed Economic Opportunity? (May 2024)

AUTHOR: Chilombo (Olga) Priscila EconomicResearcher/Statistician@ RDJ Consulting

Courtesy: ssti us and cms uitp org

Informal transport is a ‘global phenomenon’ which plays a major role in the mobility of millions of city inhabitants, particularly in the “Global South” Also

known as paratransit, informal transportation refers to non-regulated, often unlicensed modes of transport that operate outside the formal public transportation systems and include minibuses, shared taxis, motorcycle taxis, and rickshaws The type of vehicle often depends on the geographical and economic context of the area.

For several years, this sector has faced numerous threats of being banned in many countries due to their nature of operating However, their origin emerged because of the lack of transportation systems provided by state organizations The United Nations has revealed that lowincome earners spend more than a fifth of their income on public transport alone.

This therefore pushes low-income earners to grow more dependent on informal means of transportation on a daily basis A similar case has happened in Nairobi, where the ban of Matatus (a popular fleet of privately owned minibuses in Kenya used as shared taxis) only lasted for a day due to commuter chaos that led to immense public outcry for cancellation of the ban in 2018.

Informal transportation has become the main mode of motorized transport in many African cities and holds an important role around the world According to the United Nations, more than 3 2 million people travel in Africa every year! However, it is also true that formal means of transportation are limited to those that can afford it, while leaving behind those that cannot. Consequently, this hinders their access to basic services and markets, promotes marginalization and can deepen social inequities in a country

Today, only 49.5% of urban residents worldwide have convenient access to public transport. With a striking high number of commuters, the informal transport sector plays a significant role in ensuring that people, especially those with low incomes, also afford transportation as needed

The challenge with informal transport is that there are many different providers, and the authorities are not aware of them all. As a result, the sector continuously faces threats from authorities. Safety and reliability is another challenge faced by this sector due to the lack of regulatory oversight; therefore, it tends to accumulate old and poorly maintained vehicles which pose risk to people’s health The mushrooming of informal transportation in densely populated areas also contributes to traffic congestion, making traffic flows more complex and unsafe.

While informal transportation presents safety concerns and issues with service reliability of paratransits brought by the lack of regulation, the same continues to show great socio-economic potential for both the developing and developed world’s transport ecosystem. In developing countries, informal transportation has managed to bridge the affordability gap, making it possible for low-income communities to remain functional and productive at their levels

Despite its informal status, this sector holds significant economic potential due to its flexibility in routes, schedules, and operations, catering to the transportation needs of areas that formal public transit does not adequately cover Let us have a look at the sector’s economic values

Socio-economic Value(s) of Informal Transportaition

In Kenya, the matatu industry has grown into a behemoth, generating revenues of, according to some estimates, $2 billion annually and employing over 350,000 Kenyans Despite Matatus being an informal means of transport which due to its unstable operations, has made Nairobi residents develop a love-hate relationship with its industry overtime, Kenda Mutongi (the author of the book Matatu: A History of Popular Transportation in Nairobi) identifies it as, “the only major business in Kenya that has continued to be almost entirely locally owned and controlled ”

It is therefore not strange that for example in Kayseri (Turkey), the informal transport industry represents 60% of the overall country’s transport supply, while in many African cities this rises up to 90%. Here are a few socioeconomic benefits that this industry holds.

Mobility Solutions, Affordability and Access

The sector supports economic activities by providing fast and affordable transport options, making them accessible to those that cannot afford formal means of transportation. By doing so, they often fill the gap in areas underserved by formal transit systems, especially in developing countries

Employment

The informal transport sector provides significant employment opportunities, especially in developing economies. It offers a livelihood for drivers and operators who might otherwise have limited employment options.

Support for Informal Economies

Informal transport supports the broader informal economy by facilitating the movement of informal sector workers and goods. For example, in Bangladesh, cycle rickshaws and "baby taxis" (three-wheelers) are essential for

transport would lead to many people becoming immobile andlesseconomicallyproductive

In the long-term, informal transport will continue to be part of the mobility landscape To ensure the sector comes out stronger and more resilient, it is key to reflect on a transformation This could mean the coexistence of regulated and informal transport in one efficient mobility system In Latin America and Eastern Europe, informal transport already coexists with formal modes, in subSaharanAfrica,itmaybetheonlymode.

Meanwhile in developed regions, informal transportation finds a niche. In Latin America for example, "colectivos" or shared taxis are common, while in parts of Europe and North America, ride-sharing and carpooling services sometimes operate in a gray area between formal and informal transport. By Properly harnessing the strengths of informal transportation while addressing its weaknesses, more efficient and inclusive urban mobility solutions will certainly arise worldwide. What is your take onthismatter?Talktousat esa@rdjpublishing.africa

Readings:

https://transformative-mobility.org/improving-informaltransport-services-through-the-use-of-data-and-digitalisation/

Bridging the Gap: 5G Networks and Access in African Rural Areas (March, 2024)

AUTHOR: Grace Kangotue ChiefResearcher/Economist@RDJConsulting

Courtesy:https://wwwnexatbe/case-studies/e-learning-in-africa

Since its introduction or one can say, creation, 5G technology has been heralded as the next frontier in wireless communication, promising unparalleled

speeds, reliability, and connectivity. However, while much of the world races ahead with 5G adoption, Africa, particularly its rural areas, still grapples with challenges in accessing what is now standard technology such as 3G, 4G or LTE As the continent seeks to bridge the digital divide therefore, the integration of 5G networks into rural communities emerges as a crucial step towards inclusive development and economic empowerment.

In Namibia, the Communications Regulatory Authority of Namibia (CRAN) defines 5G as the fifth generation of wireless communication technologies, succeeding 2G, 3G, and 4G With its super-fast download speeds, minimal latency, and capacity to connect a multitude of devices, 5G represents a quantum leap in connectivity capabilities. According to GSMA, it offers a 10–100× increase in data rates, a 10× decrease in latency, and a 1,000× increase in mobile data volumes compared to 4G

Globally, 5G adoption has surpassed previous generations, with expectations to reach 2 billion connections by 2025 However, in Africa, widespread readiness for 5G in the mass market remains a distant goal due to various market readiness challenges Despite this, pioneering efforts by companies like Vodacom and MTN have seen the launch of 5G networks in several African countries, laying the foundation for broader adoption.

The rural-urban digital divide based on various challenges persist as a significant obstacle to equitable access to 5G in Africa While urban centres enjoy the benefits of 5G connectivity, rural areas lag behind due to infrastructural limitations and the high cost of deployment. Limited spectrum availability, particularly in low-band frequencies suitable for rural areas, further exacerbates the challenge

To address the disparity, telecom operators are exploring targeted deployment strategies tailored to rural environments. Initiatives in countries like Namibia and Nigeria to allocate low-band frequencies for mobile use demonstrate a commitment to extending 5G access to underserved regions

As Africa navigates its 5G journey, policymakers must prioritize sustainable strategies that ensure equitable

access across all regions. By leveraging low-band spectrum and innovative deployment approaches, such as mmWave Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) networks, rural communities can reap the benefits of 5G connectivity By doing so, Africa can harness the transformative power of 5G to drive inclusive growth and prosperity for all its citizens

In conclusion, 5G networks represent a pivotal opportunity for Africa to leapfrog into the digital age. By extending connectivity to rural areas, the continent can unlock new avenues for development and empower its communities to thrive in the digital era As Africa charts its course towards a connected future, bridging the ruralurban divide in 5G access stands as a cornerstone of its journey towards prosperity and inclusivity.

Readings:

https://www.cran.na/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/IMT2020-5G-Strategy-2022-for-final-approval 310822 pdf https://event-assets gsma com/pdf/5G-in-Africa pdf https://www gsma com/subsaharanafrica/resources/re alising-the-potential-of-5g-in-africa https://www techafricanews com/2023/08/18/closingafricas-rural-urban-5g-divide-with-low-band-spectrumexpansion/ https://airtel.africa/#/pages/media?tab=press releases

Roaming in Africa: A Pathway to Seamless Connectivity

(November 2024)

AUTHOR:GraceKangotue ChiefResearcher/Economist@ RDJ Consulting

Courtesy:https://archiveunecaorg/media-centre/free-roaming-within-cemac-jan-2021-way-go

Telecommunication has become a cornerstone of modern trade, connecting individuals and businesses across borders to facilitate commerce

and collaboration Among its critical services, mobile roaming plays a unique role in ensuring seamless communication when traveling outside one's home country or service area Mobile roaming refers to the ability to use a mobile device for calls, text messaging, internet browsing, and emailing while in a foreign country. It eliminates the need for travellers to acquire new phone numbers or services in every destination Roaming services rely on wholesale agreements between the user's home network operator and operators in countries to be visited, enabling uninterrupted mobile connectivity

Africa’s mobile market is one of the fastest-growing globally, yet its roaming services remain underdeveloped both in terms of geographic reach and service quality in remote areas In 2011, Africa contributed only 5% to the global roaming market Operators integrate roaming into their overall service offerings to attract users, adjusting rates to balance competitiveness and profitability. However, the continent's diverse economic and market

conditions significantly influence roaming rates, shaped by factors such as labour costs, inflation, technology infrastructure, and target demographics.

The growth of Africa's roaming market is hampered by structural and technical barriers Structural barriers include issues such as fraud, double taxation, and the high costs associated with international gateways. On the technical front, challenges include the widespread use of prepaid plans requiring adequate points of sale, interoperability among diverse technology platforms, and limited network coverage in some areas, which restrict access for roaming users

Despite these hurdles, African telecom operators are making strides to enhance their offerings, targeting business travellers and tourists with tailored solutions such as inadvertent and border roaming services. Several operators are leading the charge to improve roaming in Africa Orange for example, offers extensive roaming services, with rates varying by destination; for instance, users traveling to Zambia often experience lower rates compared to countries like Namibia and Zimbabwe.

Courtesy:https://wwworangecobw/en/services-roaming/mobile-roaminghtml

MTC Namibia as another example, provides roaming across 146 countries through partnerships with 334 networks, catering to both prepaid and contract users. While on the other spectrum of approaches, Vodacom features an "Africa Roaming" plan offering reduced rates within its networks in countries such as Lesotho, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Ghana Additionally, its partnership with Kenya’s Safaricom bolsters regional connectivity.

According to the United Nations Economic Commission (2021) some of the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC) like Gabon and Congo initiated the end of charging roam tariffs between the two nations through bilaterals agreements

These initiatives highlight operators’ commitment to expanding coverage and reducing costs, facilitating broader adoption of roaming services Roaming is vital for Africa’s economic integration and growth, enhancing trade, tourism, and regional cooperation To maximize its potential, African telecom operators and policymakers must address the identified barriers by investing in infrastructure to expand network coverage and ensure

reliable connectivity, harmonizing regulations to reduce double taxation and implement standardized roaming policies, and introducing cost-effective packages tailored tothecontinent'sdiversedemographics

Mobileroamingisthereforemorethanaconvenience,itis a catalyst for Africa’s economic growth and connectivity As operators continue to innovate and overcome challenges, roaming will play a pivotal role in bridging borders and fostering a more integrated continent Enhanced roaming services are proving to be more than just a technical achievement as it represent Africa’s drive towardsaunited,prosperousfuture

Readings:

https://europa eu/youreurope/citizens/consumers/internettelecoms/mobile-roaming-costs/index en htm

https://www gsma com/solutions-and-impact/connectivity-forgood/public-policy/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/AfricaInternational-roaming-explained-English pdf

https://www mtc com na/roaming

https://www vodacom co za/vodacom/services/convenience-andsecurity/calling/africa-roaming

https://www orange co bw/en/services-roaming/mobileroaming html

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