ZOONOOZ November 2020

ZOONOOZ

®

SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL

NOVEMBER 2020

New Territory for Hyenas Amur Leopard Conservation Stem Cell Breakthrough Community Aid for Iguanas Saving the Torrey Pine

THANK YOU FOR STANDING WITH US TO SAVE WILDLIFE

San Diego Zoo Global would like to thank our 2020 partners for their support of our worldwide conservation efforts.

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I N T E R E S T E D I N L E A R N I N G M O R E A B O U T PA R T N E R S H I P O P P O R T U N I T I E S F O R Y O U R B U S I N E S S ?

C O N TA C T O U R PA R T N E R S H I P M A R K E T I N G D E PA R T M E N T AT PA R T N E R S H I P @ S A N D I E G O Z O O . O R G .

November 2020 VOL. XCIII–NO. 6

Features 6

Vanishing Beauty The numbers may not seem to favor Amur leopards in their conservation fight, but they have new allies— both two- and four-legged—to help them.

BY PEGGY SCOTT

10

Into the Lion’s Den For striped hyena brothers Tuli and Puru, life just got a little more interesting.

BY DONNA PARHAM

Conservation 14

Stem Cells to the Rescue For the northern white rhino, ordinary skin cells may help change the trajectory of species extinction.

BY OLIVER A. RYDER, PH.D.

18 It Takes a Community to Save a Species

Turks and Caicos rock iguanas were downlisted from Critically Endangered to Endangered, thanks to decades of committed, cooperative conservation work.

BY GLENN GERBER, PH.D.

22 The Torrey Pine

Saving a botanical icon.

BY STEPHANIE STEELE AND CHRISTA HORN

More

26 Graphically Speaking 28 San Diego Zoo Kids ON THE COVER:

Amur leopard cub Panthera pardus orientalis THIS PAGE:

Striped hyena Hyaena hyaena PHOTOS BY:

Ken Bohn, SDZG Photographer

By the Numbers

Within the Animal Kingdom, there is a broad range in the number of offspring born at one time and how much care the parent gives. In general, the more babies produced at once, the less the amount of care the parent(s) provide to ensure survival.

When it comes to playing the odds, some animals take more risk than others.

3– 4

100

Number of eggs, in millions, produced by an African driver ant every 25 days.

Number of eggs a reticulated python can lay in one clutch.

32

300

The largest number of babies witnessed in a single tailess tenrec litter.

Average litter size is 15.

Number of eggs, in millions, a single mola-mola fish releases in one spawning season.

ZOONOOZ

50 The largest number of meerkats that may gather in family groups to form a community.

®

A note to our members:

PUBLISHED SINCE 1926

As we mentioned in September, because of some exciting changes that will be coming for 2021, this November issue is not our yearly calendar issue. Instead, the calendar will be in the January 2021 issue.

Look for that to arrive in early January!

NOVEMBER 2020 VOL. XCIII–NO. 06 MANAGING EDITOR

KAREN E. WORLEY

ASSOCIATE EDITOR

PEGGY SCOTT

STAFF WRITERS

WENDY PERKINS KARYL CARMIGNANI DONNA PARHAM COPY EDITOR

ESTON ELLIS DESIGNER

KERRI ABRAMS SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL PHOTOGRAPHERS

KEN BOHN TAMMY SPRATT

SR. IMAGING SPECIALIST

TAMMY SPRATT

DESIGN AND PRODUCTION

KIM TURNER LISA BISSI AMY BLANDFORD ALLISON BRITTAIN JENNIFER MACEWEN

The Zoological Society of San Diego was founded in Octo­ber 1916 by Harry M. Wegeforth, M.D., as a private, nonprofit corporation, which does business as San Diego Zoo Global.

The printed ZOONOOZ magazine (ISSN 0044-5282) is published bimonthly, in January, March, May, July, September, and November. Publisher is San Diego Zoo Global, located at 2920 Zoo Drive, San Diego, CA 92103. Periodicals postage paid at San Diego, California, USA, and at additional mailing offices.

Copyright© 2020 San Diego Zoo Global. All rights reserved. All column and program titles are trademarks of San Diego Zoo Global.

If your mailing address has changed: please contact the Membership Department—by mail at P.O. Box 120271, San Diego, CA 92112, or by phone at 619-231-0251 or 1-877-3MEMBER. For information about becoming a member of San Diego Zoo Global, please visit our website at ZooMember.org for a complete list of membership levels, offers, and benefits.

Subscriptions to ZOONOOZ magazine are $25 per year, $65 for 3 years. Foreign, including Canada and Mexico, $30 per year, $81 for 3 years. Contact Membership Department for subscription information.

PREPRESS AND PRINTING

QUAD GRAPHICS

2 / ZOONOOZ / NOVEMBER 2020

As part of San Diego Zoo Global’s commitment to conservation, this magazine is printed on recycled paper that is at least 10% post-consumer waste, chlorine free, and is Forest Stewardship Council® (FSC®) certified.FSC® is not responsible for any calculations on saving resources by choosing this paper.

SAN DIEGO ZOO AND SAFARI PARK HOURS Because of circumstances due to COVID-19, hours of operation are subject to change. But we are open!

Please check the information page on our website for the latest updates about starting and closing times and requirements for visiting.

sandiegozoo.org/reopen SAN DIEGO ZOO HOURS Please check sandiegozoo.org/hours for the most up-to-date times.

SAFARI PARK HOURS November 1–26, 30: 9 a.m. to 5 p.m.

November 27–29: 9 a.m. to 8 p.m.

December 1–4, 7–11, 14–18, 24–25: 9 a.m. to 5 p.m.

December 5–6, 12–13, 19–23, 26–31: 9 a.m. to 8 p.m.

WEBSITE sandiegozoo.org PHONE 619-231-1515

PRESIDENT/CEO’S NOTE PAUL A. BARIBAULT

SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL OFFICERS

Challenge and Change

T

his has been a year full of change, and San Diego Zoo Global continues to rise up and meet the moment, highlighting the true talent and commitment of our teams. Our ability to adapt has made us all stronger and more resilient. We have discovered new ways of doing things, new ways to engage our audiences, and new ways of supporting our wildlife conservation partners here in San Diego and abroad.

Many of you may have participated in our first-ever virtual R*I*T*Z gala—held online and streamed live on Facebook and YouTube. The remarkable evening had audiences tuning in from over 20 countries on 6 continents and from 35 states. It’s a true first for an organization that has achieved many firsts!

And to keep audiences engaged around our conservation work, we experimented with holding several livestreaming “Wildlife Wednesday” events, where our teams and part-

ners shared updates on our conservation work. We can’t wait to do more of these.

We recently announced the significant birth of a Przewalski’s horse clone.

The successful birth was the result of a long collaboration between SDZG, Revive & Restore, and ViaGen Equine, utilizing genetic tissue stored in our Frozen Zoo® more than 40 years ago by Dr. Kurt Benirschke. This colt, named “Kurt” in honor of Dr. Benirschke, represents genetic diversity that had been lost to the world. In a

Let’s Talk

Steven G. Tappan, Chairman Javade Chaudhri, Vice Chairman Linda Lowenstine, DVM, Ph.D., Secretary Ryan Sullivan, Ph.D., Treasurer BOARD OF TRUSTEES

Rolf Benirschke Joye D. Blount Kathleen Cain Richard B. Gulley Clifford W. Hague Robert B. Horsman Steven S. Simpson Judith A. Wheatley TRUSTEES EMERITI

Berit N. Durler Thompson Fetter Frederick A. Frye, M.D. George L. Gildred Yvonne W. Larsen John M. Thornton A. Eugene Trepte Betty Jo F. Williams

Follow @sandiegozoo & @sdzsafaripark.

Share your #SanDiegoZoo & #SDZSafariPark memories on Twitter & Instagram.

GENERAL COUNSEL TO THE BOARD

James Lauth

year full of challenges, this little foal reminds us of the importance of hope.

Thank you to all of you.

We are in this together and appreciate your support.

Paul A. Baribault, President/CEO Douglas G. Myers, President/CEO Emeritus Charles L. Bieler, Executive Director Emeritus THE FOUNDATION OF SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL OFFICERS

Joye D. Blount, Chair U. Bertram Ellis, Jr., Vice Chair Barry Munitz, Secretary Susan N. McClellan, Treasurer Mary Ruth Carleton, Interim President Amy B. Parrott, Vice President Paul A. Baribault, Ex officio Steven G. Tappan, Ex officio

PHOTO BY: KEN BOHN/SDZG

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Todd Beck Sophie W. Bryan David Crane Berit N. Durler Chris L. Eddy Nikita Kahn Ellison Arthur E. Engel JJ Fetter Susan Guinn Murray Hutchison Lynelle Lynch Susan B. Major Susan F. McCarthy Diane McKernan Joshua A. Pack Maryanne C. Pfister Philip C. Seeger Elizabeth W. Shoemaker Rosa Sinnott Carter Skeath David M. Tehle Kathryn J. Vaughn, Esq. Tony Yousif

SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL / SANDIEGOZOO.ORG / 3

DECEMBER 4-6; 11-23; 25-JANUARY 3 ’Tis the season to ring in holiday merriment at the San Diego Zoo! Join us for family fun and holiday cheer! The Zoo will be all decked out for the season, with festive lights and decorations, music filling the air, joyful roaming entertainers, and special meals and sweets to choose from. Happy holidays from our family to yours!

NOVEMBER 27–29; DECEMBER 5, 6, 12, 13, 19-23, 26-31, 2020; JANUARY 1–3, 2021 See the Safari Park in in a whole new light!

Go on a holiday expedition of light and travel through places that glow and twinkle with holiday cheer.

Holiday tunes set the mood, and seasonal food treats tempt you throughout your journey. Join us for a joyful celebration of the season!

Proudly Supported by

Vanishing

6 / ZOONOOZ / NOVEMBER 2020

Beauty

The Fight to Save the Amur Leopard

W

BY PEGGY SCOTT | ASSOCIATE EDITOR

PHOTOS BY KEN BOHN | SDZG PHOTOGRAPHER

ith fewer than 100 individuals left outside of managed care and only 300 in zoological protection around the world, the Amur leopard Panthera pardus orientalis is believed to be the most critically endangered big cat on the planet. As with many species, habitat loss is a huge factor. It’s estimated that in parts of its range, the Amur leopard’s territory has been reduced by almost 80 percent. Add in poachers’ desire for the cats’ thick, spotted coats, and it’s not hard to see that the numbers appear to be working against the Amur leopard in its fight against extinction.

Fortunately, this isn’t a battle being fought alone.

ROOM TO ROAM— AND HUNT Native to the rocky, mountainous woodlands in the Primorye region of southeastern Russia and the Jilin Province of northeast China, Amur leopards are on the smaller side for a big cat, with males topping out at approximately 110 pounds, with females smaller (African leopards, in comparison, can reach 130 pounds). Despite its relatively petite size, an Amur leopard can take down prey three times its size. With a tongue equipped with tiny rasps perfect for scraping meat off bones, the Amur leopard is a quintessential carnivore. These nocturnal cats are excellent climbers, and often drag their prey up into trees to protect it from other animals. Not surprisingly, all these behaviors require more than a little elbow room. “These leopards have a complicated lifestyle, because they need a large area in

which to hunt and live,” explains Todd Speis, a senior wildlife care specialist at the Zoo. “And they’re solitary, so there simply needs to be more places for the individual animals to go.”

Like the Amur tiger that inhabits its range, Amur leopards make their way through forests in search of prey, including roe deer, sika, wild boars, rabbits, and badgers. Capable of running up to 35 miles per hour, an Amur leopard can easily chase down its meal.

Unfortunately for the leopards, their hunting preferences can make it difficult to coexist with humans. Villagers in the region raise sika deer for their antlers.

Big cats happening upon such livestock can easily make their way into enclosures (their vertical leap can reach 10 feet; horizontally, twice that). Leopards that threaten a family’s livelihood are marked for extermination. But

that’s not the only reason Amur leopards might find themselves targeted. With its dense, creamcolor fur, this charismatic cat is well adapted to the frigid temperatures of its home range.

Its coat pattern—widely spaced thick, black rosettes with dark centers—may help it blend in with snow-dusted mountains and shadows, but it is also beautiful and highly prized for the illegal fur trade. With threats from more than one direction, it’s clear these cats need help from the outside.

GET WITH THE PROGRAM San Diego Zoo Global and other zoological organizations around the world have joined together in efforts to conserve this species. More than 94 institutions take part in the Global Species Management Program (GSMP)— an international conservation

BY THE NUMBERS

2.75

The length, in inches, of an Amur leopard's winter coat.

10

Amur leopards' vertical leaping ability, in feet.

94+

Number of organizations working together to help save Amur leopards.

<100

Number of Amur leopards left outside of managed care.

2018

The year of our first Amur leopard cub births.

SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL / SANDIEGOZOO.ORG / 7

On the Prowl.

Previous page: Satka is a proven good mother. This spread: (clockwise from top left): Enigmatic Mystique; Tuman and Lev at play; charismatic Charlie, whose future may include pairing with Maryanne; Maryanne and Dorothy share a quiet moment.

effort, in which scientists work to increase regional animal populations. The hope is that the population will slowly grow in numbers, specifically in the

8 / ZOONOOZ / NOVEMBER 2020

trans-border region of Russia and China. In conjunction with habitat preservation and restoration efforts, the breeding program in zoos is designed to support the

sustainability of the Amur species by building a baseline population, which will then produce offspring that could help bolster the dwindling population in the wild.

Along with work in the Amur leopardâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s native range, San Diego Zoo Global enlists the assistance of Zoo visitors to spread the word about the situation these cats face. In 2011, the arrival of a trio of Amur leopards, a female and two males, gave SDZG a chance to share the beauty of these animals with their guests and also allowed us to participate in the program to help bolster the Amur population. As part of the Association of Zoos and Aquariumsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Species Survival Plan (SSP) for Amur leopards, these cats are vital to the world population. Once they

reached maturity at three to four years of age, they were eligible to be carefully paired with unrelated leopards for the program.

AMURS AT THE ZOO In 2018, the Zoo reached a milestone—two, actually—with the birth of our first Amur cubs.

First-time mother Satka stepped into her maternal role and proved to be an attentive, nurturing, and, it turned out, vocal parent. “One of the most amazing things to witness is the amount of verbal communication Satka does with her cubs,” Todd said in 2018.

“Yowls, grunts, rumbles, chirps,

whines—sometimes you can even tell by their responding behavior what she was saying.” The cubs, Dorothy and Maryanne, have grown to be healthy, confident adult leopards.

Satka and mate Oskar weren’t finished contributing to their species, however. In April of 2020, the pair produced another pair of cubs—Lev and Tuman. Satka once again took motherhood in stride.

“Satka allowed them the opportunity to explore, but was still protective—it’s a good balance,” says Kelly Murphy, senior wildlife care specialist at the Zoo. Charlie, a non-related male Amur leopard, also lives at the Zoo; he might be a future mate for Maryanne. Many Zoo regulars are big fans of our other Amur leopard—melanistic Mystique, whose beauty has made her a social media favorite. Each cat is, of course, unique in his or her own way, but all are involved in helping their species prevail. “The Amurs at the Zoo give our guests a rare opportunity to see the most endangered cat species there is,” Kelly explains. “Knowledge is power—by connecting to this species, people in turn can make informed decisions that might have an impact on their survival, hopefully in a positive way.”

Kelly adds that these cats are helping boost numbers. “By supporting breeding recommendations, we ensure that we have a healthy, genetically diverse population in our care,” she says.

“This can help move forward with rewilding efforts back into their range.”

Amur leopards can be seen in habitats in Africa Rocks, and at Asian Leopards and the Kopje.

DID YOU KNOW? Much like our unique fingerprints, the spot pattern on an Amur leopard's coat is individual to that animal.

SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL / SANDIEGOZOO.ORG / 9

INTO THE

LION’S DEN Former ambassador animals get a new home, a new lifestyle, and new opportunities.

A

BY DONNA PARHAM | STAFF WRITER

PHOTOS BY KEN BOHN | SDZG PHOTOGRAPHER

mbassador animals since they were six months old, striped hyena brothers Tuli and Puru have delighted and educated thousands of visitors at the San Diego Zoo and Safari Park. Now 15, they are discovering different places and novel experiences, as they settle into their new home—a large, open-air habitat adjacent to the Safari Park’s Sylvia G. Straton Lion Camp.

10 / ZOONOOZ / NOVEMBER 2020

IT TAKES A TEAM Animal care specialists from both the animal behavior department—which cares for and interacts with the ambassador animals—and the Lion Camp team applied their expertise to make the transition positive and rewarding for the hyenas.

Mary Weber-Evans, senior animal care specialist at the Safari Park, says that the

Band of Brothers Thanks to piloerector muscles associated with their hair follicles, Tuli and Puru can make themselves look bigger and more intimidating than they really are.

first step was to familiarize the hyenas with their new caregivers and the scent of their new home. “Before the hyenas moved over here, we gave them some used lion bedding. At first, they didn’t seem to like the smell, but now they like to roll in it,” she says. During and after the move, animal behavior specialists participated in their care at the lion

habitat, gradually lessening the amount of time they spent with the hyenas as the animals became more comfortable with their new caregivers. “We really worked together, and we had great teamwork between the two departments,” says Mary.

Along the way, Mary and the rest of the team at Lion Camp have had the

opportunity to get to know the hyenas.

“Tuli is more easygoing, and Puru is more cautious.” Mary says, comparing their behavior and personalities. “Tuli is curious, and he’s willing to explore.”

Puru, on the other hand, “likes to think things through first,” she says. “You can see the wheels turning in his head, as he’s figuring out what’s going on.”

SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL / SANDIEGOZOO.ORG / 11

New Sights—New Smells The behavior of the hyenas in the expansive Lion Camp reveals their sharp distance vision. Also, “Their hearing is fantastic,” says Mary. At close distances, they use their noses to explore and forage.

NOVEL EXPERIENCES ENCOURAGE NATURAL BEHAVIORS

DID YOU KNOW? Although there is a resemblance, hyenas are not dogs. In fact, these carnivores are more closely related to cats and mongooses.

Puru and Tuli may no longer participate in the animal ambassador program, but their new habitat comes with different opportunities. “Mud and rain were new to them,” says Mary. And with less daytime activity surrounding their new home, she notes, “They’ve reverted back to being mostly nocturnal.”

Video of their habitat shows that “starting around 11 p.m., they are up for three to six hours a night,” much like their counterparts in Africa.

Wildlife care specialists are focusing on enrichment experiences that provide opportunities for the hyenas to use their natural behaviors. Instead of interacting with people, the brothers are practicing their hyena skills as they explore their habitat, solve problems, and address challenges. Whole rabbits and cow femur

12 / ZOONOOZ / NOVEMBER 2020

bones encourage the kind of chewing and cracking that hyenas are known for—as do frozen blocks of chicken baby food, a hyena favorite. “They can crunch right through an ice block—that’s how strong their jaws are,” says Mary. “Today, we gave them live crayfish in a tray of water. The first time, they caught and ate the crayfish, but now they are catching them and rolling on them, which is another typical hyena behavior.” Elephant and rhino feces and leftover okapi browse provide enrichment, too— encouraging behaviors like sniffing, rolling, and scent marking.

To encourage and reinforce natural hyena behavior, animal care specialists present tidbits—like mealworms and bits of carrots, zucchini, apples, and melons—in unusual ways. Mealworms scattered throughout their habitat encourage the hyenas to forage. Carrots (or crayfish) in a tray of water encourage a different type of foraging behavior. Food items wrapped in a card-

board package or layered under paper in a box encourage yet another important hyena behavior: ripping stuff apart. “Enrichment is super important, because it stimulates their mind,” says Mary. “We can take one item and use it 10 different ways.”

EXPLORING NEW TERRITORY Greg Vicino, head of Applied Animal Welfare for San Diego Zoo Global, spends a lot of time thinking about the opportunities, choices, and experiences we offer the wildlife in our care. “We find ourselves shifting away from traditional enrichment, toward developing meaningful experiences,” he says. “By creating a natural rhythm to their days, complete with problems to solve and challenges to overcome, we find the wildlife in our care develop skills more in line with their wild counterparts.”

That kind of thinking is what led wildlife care specialists to offer the hyenas the opportunity to investigate the expansive Lion Camp area. With the door between the lion’s vast outdoor territory and the hyenas’ area propped open (and the lions safely and contentedly tucked away in their indoor habitat) the brothers took their first uncertain steps into the Lion Camp habitat. “They didn’t go very far at first, but we expected that,” says Mary. Adventurous Tuli explored about halfway across the exhibit, but in keeping with his more circumspect personality, Puru took just a few cautious steps out onto the grassy lawn.

Mary notes that one way to gauge how uncertain or comfortable a hyena is feeling is by how erect and fluffy its hair is. Piloerector muscles at the base of hair follicles cause a hyena’s long shaggy hair to stand on end, an adaptation for making the animal look larger and more intimidating when it feels alarmed or uncertain. “When Tuli and Puru first entered Lion Camp, their hair was ‘full-floof’—as big as it could possibly be,” she says. “They are already becoming more comfortable out there—their hair is more of a ‘half-floof,’ as we call it.” Mary notes that hyenas also piloerect when they are excited or curious—like when Tuli discovered lion feces. “To him, it was the grand prize,” says Mary. When Tuli proudly brought his prize “home,” Puru got excited about it, too.

BIG, WIDE WORLD What’s next for the hyena brothers? “The animal care philosophy at the Zoo and Safari Park emphasizes the animals’ choice and control, so their behavior dictates to us what’s going to happen,” says Mary. She talks about what wildlife care specialists expect to see as the brothers get more comfortable in Lion Camp. “Eventually, we hope to see them both demonstrate curiosity, to explore the entire habitat, and to scent-mark there.”

Greg explains: “Our intention is to provide them with opportunities to express a complex behavioral repertoire, which allows them to be more responsible for seeking things they want and avoiding things they don’t.” For Tuli and Puru, that means the future likely holds opportunities for romping, foraging, and discovering the entire Lion Camp area, as well as nighttime access to the sprawling habitat and new experiences there. As Greg says, “By focusing on the natural patterns appropriate to Tuli and Puru, we’re seeing them become more skilled at navigating a rich, experience-filled world.”

BY THE NUMBERS

3

Species of hyenas: striped hyenas, spotted hyenas, and brown hyenas

0

Leftovers!

Hyenas eat all parts of their prey. They regurgitate horns, hoofs, and hair.

<10,000 Global population of striped hyenas.

This species is designated as Near Threatened.

Scavenging Scattered carrots provide an opportunity for foraging.

Striped hyenas are scavengers that eat fruits and insects as well as carrion and, sometimes, live prey.

SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL / SANDIEGOZOO.ORG / 13

STEM CELLS TO THE RESCUE By transforming skin cells into stem cells, San Diego Zoo Global is making important contributions to animal health, sustainable populations, and genetic rescue.

BY OLIVER A. RYDER, PH.D. | KLEBERG ENDOWED DIRECTOR OF CONSERVATION GENETICS, SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL

14 / ZOONOOZ / NOVEMBER 2020

Stem cells of northern white rhinoceros produced in our laboratory are capable of producing all the cell types in the body. Here, an immature neuron was produced by differentiating stem cells.

I PHOTO BY: (OPPOSITE PAGE) IÑIGO VALIENTE ALANDI; (THIS PAGE) KEN BOHN/SDZG ( 2).

still want to pinch myself when I think that in our laboratory at the Beckman Center, adjacent to the Safari Park, we have made and are using stem cells to change the trajectory of species extinction.

Cells are life. They are the fundamental living unit, and only a cell can make another cell. Every living organism begins its life as a single cell or lives its entire life as one cell. DNA molecules in each cell of a plant or animal provide the program for its functions, including growth and development of all its tissues and parts. But DNA can only do this within a cell; it cannot make a cell on its own.

When I first learned about cells in school, I was amazed and wanted to know how it all worked. I am still amazed and still wondering to this day. Long ago now, I grew bacterial cells, initially for a science fair project, and then in my graduate studies. When I joined the conservation team at San Diego Zoo Global, I was excited to learn how to grow animal cells for the Frozen Zoo®, which was still in its infancy. Since then, conservation specialists have grown cells of literally thousands of animals of a multitude of species, and in doing so, learned a lot, honing their skills and bolstered by many important discoveries in the field.

Proof of the capabilities of these cells in the Frozen Zoo came dramatically to the fore when the 1996 birth of Dolly, the cloned sheep, came to light. An entire animal had been produced from a single adult cell, going through all the stages of development from embryo to lamb. The world was astounded, and no one more than I. The potential of the Frozen Zoo had been forever changed.

Yet another amazing discovery expanded the potential even further.

By triggering the action of a small number of master genes, adult cells derived from a skin sample, such as those cryobanked in the Frozen Zoo, can be reprogrammed—rebooted,

if you will—in the laboratory, to produce DNA samples derived from stem cells that are capable of becoming all cells grown in the cell types of the body. This capacity, the Frozen Zoo— called pluripotency, is a characteristic of including DNA from Angalifu (pictured every successful embryo of a multicellular below)—are used organism. The discovery of the method to for genomic studies induce or reboot cells to become pluripoand facilitate crucial research for the tent is one of the most important developnorthern white ments in the history of biological research. rhino genetic We are poised to use that discovery in rescue initiative. ways that benefit wildlife through medical applications and genetic rescue. Recognizing the potential of stem cells for regenerative medicine and animal health, our veterinarians are exploring treatments with stem cell technologies to improve the quality of life of wildlife in our care.

We also hope to use this technology to prevent the extinction of species when all other methods fail.

In the Stem Cell Laboratory, tucked away in a small corner of the Beckman Center, our scientists have taken cells from northern white rhinos, grown from skin samples collected and cryobanked in the Frozen Zoo more than 30 years

SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL / SANDIEGOZOO.ORG / 15

ago, and produced induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). We have characterized them in detail, and have demonstrated their ability to produce multiple cell types, such as neurons (brain cells) and cardiomyocytes (heart muscle cells).

The full potential of stem cells is a very active area of study, almost exclusively using model species such as the laboratory mouseâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;not animals that are under human care in zoos. Our efforts, unique and significant, are small in comparison with efforts to develop stem cell technology for regenerative medicine in humans. Still, we recognize that, although lab-based conservation science is taking place on a relatively small scale, it can have Northern white rhino skin cells enormous impacts for species of concern. (fibroblasts) We should all be tremendously have been added encouraged by the potential of cellular and to the Frozen molecular technologies to prevent species ZooÂŽ, beginning in 1979. Now, extinctions. With some pride, we can say viable cells are that this potential is closer to realization cryobanked from because of the many decades of investment 12 northern white rhino individuals, and effort in cryobanking reproductive including the materials and lab-grown cells in the Frozen beloved Nola Zoo. This unique and precious resource (above).

16 / ZOONOOZ / NOVEMBER 2020

Six female southern white rhinoceroses arrive at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park in November, 2015.

Saving the Northern White Rhino Multiple collaborative efforts and cutting-edge technology are combining to make it possible for a northern white rhinoceros calf to be born via in vitro fertilization (IVF).

Natural gametes

Artificial gametes

enables our ongoing work to develop Above: Dr. Marisa Korody evaluates genetic rescue technology for a decidnorthern white rhino edly non-model organism, the northern stem cells under the white rhinoceros, for which only two microscope.

Below: A microscopic females survive, mother and daughter. view of northern It is so evident that this effort white rhino skin cells needs to expand and take on a global (fibroblasts) growing in culture. scale. We draw satisfaction from the knowledge that what we are learning as we tackle the complex biology of mimicking development of a rhino embryo through stem cell culture in the laboratory can benefit other species of critically endangered rhinocerosesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;and, we trust, other speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;as our team enters areas of biological investigation never before explored.

Fulfillment of the ambitious goal to produce reproductive cells that can be used to produce embryos that develop into northern white rhino calves lies ahead, but we have taken the remarkable steps. Northern white rhino calves produced Sixfirst, female southern white rhinoceroses arrive at the San Diego Zoo this way would Safari Park in November, 2015. not be clones; they would be unique individuals, produced literally as offspring of cells growing in our laboratory. Now, think again about the wonder that cells are!

Researchers hope to collect oocytes from Fatu, 15, and her mother Najin, 26, the last two northern white rhinos in the world.

Sperm cells from five male rhinos have been frozen and are ready for IVF.

Oocytes

Sperm

Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells

Primordial germ cells

IVF

IN THE FREEZER ...

Number of rhinos from which samples have been obtained

Sperm

Embryo

Six female southern white rhinoceroses arrive at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park in November, 2015.

Surrogate southern white rhinoceros

Northern white rhino calf

iPS cells Other cells and tissue

ADAPTED FROM NATURE JOURNAL; ILLUSTRATIONS BY AMY BLANDFORD/SDZG.

PHOTO BY: (OPPOSITE PAGE) KEN BOHN/SDZG (2); (THIS PAGE, BOTTOM) MARISA KORODY.

Cryobanked cell cultures

SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL / SANDIEGOZOO.ORG / 17

It Takes a Community Turks and Caicos rock iguanas were downlisted from Critically Endangered to Endangered, thanks to decades of committed, cooperative conservation work.

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C

BY GLENN GERBER, PH.D. | SCIENTIST, POPULATION SUSTAINABILITY, AND CARIBBEAN PROGRAM HEAD, SAN DIEGO ZOO INSTITUTE FOR CONSERVATION RESEARCH.

aribbean rock iguanas are the largest native land animals on the islands where they occur and are the dominant herbivores in endangered Caribbean dry forest ecosystems, which they help sustain through selective browsing and dispersal of seeds. Ten species of Caribbean rock iguanas are recognized. Collectively, they are the most endangered group of lizards in the world, and Turks and Caicos rock iguanas are no exception.

Making a Comeback.

Once critically endangered, the Turks and Caicos rock iguana population is recovering, thanks to dedicated conservation efforts over the past 20 years.

PHOTO BY: GIULIANO COLOSIMO

to Save a Species San Diego Zoo Global (SDZG) has been working to save this species, endemic to the Turks and Caicos Islands (TCI), a United Kingdom Overseas Territory, for the past 20 years. During most of this time, the species has been categorized as Critically Endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. However, due to conservation measures implemented by SDZG and our network of conservation partners, the species was recently downlisted to Endangered. This change may seem minor, but it represents a milestone in the recovery of Turks and Caicos rock iguanas: a reversal from a population in rapid decline to one that is stable and poised for significant increase.

Turks and Caicos rock iguanas are the smallest species of the Caribbean rock iguanas, and as such are particularly vulnerable to predation by introduced mammals such as dogs, cats, and rats.

These predators and other invasive alien species, combined with habitat loss and other human impacts, had eliminated Turks and Caicos rock iguanas from most of the 250-plus islands there by 1995, when I began researching them. At that time, my field assistant and I documented that Turks and Caicos rock iguanas had been extirpated from at least 13 large islands since the late 1970s, when the TCI were last surveyed for iguanas. This represented a population decline of more than 50 percent for the species in less than two decades. In essence, Turks and Caicos rock iguanas were SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL / SANDIEGOZOO.ORG / 19

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in free fall due to the spread of invasive species. Without conservation intervention, this species was headed for extinction.

PHOTOS BY: (THIS PAGE): GLENN GERBER, PH.D. (OPPOSITE PAGE, CLOCKWISE FROM TOP LEFT): JOE BURGESS (3), GIULIANO COLOSIMO, KELLY BRADLEY, GIULIANO COLOSIMO, JOE BURGESS, GIULIANO COLOSIMO.

TIPPING THE SCALES In 2000, I joined the San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research as a postdoctoral researcher to initiate a translocation program aimed at reintroducing Turks and Caicos rock iguanas to as many islands in the TCI as possible. To be considered for iguana reintroduction, islands needed to contain appropriate habitat, be uninhabited by humans, be part of the TCI reserve system, and be free of harmful invasive species. In several cases, invasive species were removed from islands to facilitate iguana reintroduction. Turks and Caicos rock iguanas have been reintroduced to six islands in the TCI to date, increasing the overall population by several thousand adults.

Two additional translocations are currently being planned, with more on the horizon.

In addition to restoring Turks and Caicos rock iguanas to islands from which they had been extirpated, we have been working with project partners to protect all remaining island populations of the species and facilitate recovery of threatened island populations. This work involves a wide variety of activities, including monitoring the abundance and health of iguana populations; conducting applied conservation work on everything from iguana population genetics to reproductive ecology; educating the public about iguanas and the threats they face; and increasing the capacity of local conservation partners. We are also working to enact legislation for the protection of iguanas and their habitat in the TCI; working with private island owners to mitigate human impacts on iguanas; and implementing large-scale invasive species removal and biosecurity measures.

PARTNERS AND COLLABORATORS Establishing a comprehensive conservation program such as this requires buy-in from disparate sectors of society and cooperation on many levels. To facilitate this, the Iguana Islands Partnership (IIP) was formed, in conjunction with funding from the UK Darwin Initiative and project collaborators at the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), who brought expertise

in biosecurity and feral mammal control. The IIP is a collaboration between multiple TCI government departments (Environment and Coastal Resources, Agriculture, and Environmental Health), local and international NGOs (Turks and Caicos National Trust, RSPB, Fort Worth Zoo, SDZG), and two private islands (Pine Cay, Ambergris Cay), with support from other organizations and individuals. The South Bank Marina and Boatyard has provided free drydock storage for our research vessel (which allows us to access remote uninhabited islands for weeks at a time) for nearly 20 years. Dr. Mark Woodring, a local veterinarian, has allowed our team to store equipment (including a vehicle and a trailered skiff) and use his property on the main island of Providenciales as a base since 1997. And a small army of volunteers numbering in the hundreds, from college students to retirees, have donated their time and travel to help conduct fieldwork and implement conservation action since 1995.

Since our efforts began, habitat losses and population declines have slowed, and are now largely offset by conservation gains. Turks and Caicos rock iguana numbers have stabilized within the last decade. Future conservation gains are expected with the implementation of biosecurity measures, removal of invasive species from additional islands, covenants against pet ownership on private islands, and the creation of the IIP. To help implement these initiatives, the IIP recently received an additional three years of funding from the Darwin Initiative.

In 2019, invasive cats and rats were removed from nine islands, protecting five robust island populations of iguanas and providing for recovery of two highly threatened populations, and restoring the habitat of two islands where iguanas had been extirpated by invasive species so that iguanas can be reintroduced. A second species recovery planning workshop was held, and we are in the process of publishing an updated IUCN Conservation and Management Plan to guide the IIPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s conservation actions through 2024.

Let there be no doubt: significant threats to Turks and Caicos rock iguanas remain. Nevertheless, overall the iguana population is now relatively stable, as opposed to actively declining, and is poised for large gains in the near future if current conservation measures can be maintained and expanded.

Conservation Win Saving Turks and Caicos rock iguanas has included work to protect Turks and Caicos boas, the iguanas' most important natural predator and an essential part of the TCI ecosystem; longterm capturemark-recapture studies to monitor the health, growth rates, and longevity of individual iguanas and assess the size, sex ratio, and age structure of iguana populations; collecting data on the diet of iguanas (here a female tries to extract pink fruits from a Turkâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s-cap cactus); using field cameras to determine the presence of invasive alien predators; and attaching radiotransmitters to the tail base of iguanas (lower right) to track their movements and monitor their behavior.

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The

Torrey

Pine

Saving a Botanical Icon

BY STEPHANIE STEELE | POSTDOCTORAL ASSOCIATE, PLANT CONSERVATION AND CHRISTA HORN | CONSERVATION PROGRAM MANAGER, PLANT CONSERVATIONÂ

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W

ith its long, needle-bearing branches twisting into unique shapes, and its growth amongst picturesque sandstone bluffs, the Torrey pine Pinus torreyana is a beloved San Diego icon. The species is a Southern California endemic, growing naturally only along the central coast of San Diego County and on Santa Rosa Island, 173 miles off the coast of Santa Barbara. This rarity has garnered the Torrey pine status as the rarest pine in North America.

The species, however, is also in peril. The effects of drought and bark beetle outbreaks have already taken a noticeable toll on trees on the mainland, a combination that will worsen with increasing climate change. To mitigate these threats, our team in Plant Conservation at the San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research is partnering with scientists at California State Parks to work toward preserving this local charismatic conifer.

PHOTOS BY: (OPPOSITE PAGE) TAMMY SPRATT/SDZG; (THIS PAGE, FROM TOP): STEPHANIE STEEL; CHRISTA HORN.

DOUBLE TROUBLE Like many conifers in our region, Torrey pines are experiencing a warmer, drier climate that weakens trees and provides conditions favorable to bark beetle pests.

Without sufficient water, trees may be unable to produce enough oleoresin, a viscous substance that acts as a chemical defense and a means of physically flushing beetles from trees. Individual beetles are only millimeters long, but they can recruit mass numbers through pheromone signaling. With substantial numbers of beetles tunneling into and feeding on inner bark tissues (critical for the pines’ normal growth and development), the pests can overwhelm a tree’s defenses and take it down.

For mainland Torrey pines, the native California fivespined ips beetle Ips paraconfusus is a formidable pest. When the trees are stressed, the beetles can reach overwhelming numbers. From 1988 to 1992, around 12 percent of P. torreyana in the Torrey Pines State Natural Reserve were lost due to an I. paraconfusus population explosion following a windstorm.

In recent years, a combination of drought conditions and a resurgence in beetle numbers has left large stands of dead trees visible throughout the reserve.

Yet, optimism for the Torrey pine remains. To keep beetle numbers in check,

California State Parks has maintained pheromone traps throughout the reserve to lure and capture the tiny pests. To further support the pines, our Plant Conservation team is also pursuing genetic studies, as well as a seedling reintroduction program to restore key habitat and understand more about the species’ ability to adapt in the face of stress.

DELVING INTO THE GENOME

Above: The chains of black containers are part of the pheromone traps used against bark beetles.

Below: Gathering baseline data on the trees requires in-depth assessment.

To test whether Torrey pines can adapt to their bark beetle pests, we can look to their genomes. While the environment is expected to play a large role in tree response to beetles (access to water allows for resin production), genetic makeup may also play a role by shaping chemical and structural traits that contribute to pest defense. Because genetic variation is the stuff of evolution, the amount of genetic variation in a species can signal its potential to adapt. In the case of Torrey pines, however, past genetic studies have indicated a remarkably low level of diversity—every individual within a population was identical for the genetic markers tested, though only a few markers were examined. For our study, a genomewide survey of diversity, we honed in on regions that may be involved in adaptive responses by sequencing RNA, or genetic material that only includes the SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL / SANDIEGOZOO.ORG / 23

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a first step, however, and to confirm these findings, additional genomic work and controlled greenhouse studies are needed to test whether genetic variation is related to pest resistance and susceptibility. In this way, we can use genetic information to ensure that seed collections protect key genotypes and the full spectrum of genomewide diversity that can be used for the restoration of wild populations. In the meantime, we are getting started with restoration research as well.

RESTORATION THROUGH SCIENCE Perhaps no location better illustrates the threats weathered by the Torrey pines than the Guy Fleming Trail in the state reserve. Once sprawling with magnificent, wind-carved trees in one of the most iconic lookout points in the reserve, many trees near the coastline have now succumbed to drought and bark beetles. The breakdown of the trees has left the soil with moisture-trapping litter, and the skeletons of the former inhabitants provide

PHOTOS BY: (THIS PAGE, COUNTER-CLOCKWISE FROM BOTTOM) STACEY ANDERSON; STEPHANIE STEELE; (2); TAMMY SPRATT/SDZG; STACEY ANDERSON. (OPPOSITE PAGE) TAMMY SPRATT/SDZG.

Clockwise from above left: Cones of P. torreyana; windswept habitat of Torrey Pines Reserve; bark beetle damage; our seedling nursery.

At right: A Torrey pine seedling breaks the surface.

expressed genes in a tree. Our goal was to test whether there are genetic differences between trees that appear healthy and trees that succumb to bark beetle attack.

To test this question, a team of Plant Conservation staff and motivated San Diego Zoo Global volunteers took to the field. We searched for and mapped beetleinfested trees, took simple baseline tree measurements, and collected genetic samples throughout Torrey Pines Reserve from pairs of trees with and without evidence of beetles. To preserve the fragile RNA before shuttling samples back to the lab, tissue samples were flash frozen in liquid nitrogen.

In line with previous work, our findings suggest that Torrey pines have low genetic diversity in gene-coding regions across the genome, suggesting limited adaptive potential.

However, we did find genetic differences in attacked and surviving trees with multiple genes related to potential defense functions, suggesting there may be some capacity to adapt to bark beetle pests. This study is

some shade and shelter. It seems a prime location for the restoration of Torrey pines—whether it is or not, is one of the questions we are working to answer.

Though the past century has seen many pines placed in the park, little is known about these plantings.

While we see the results of the successful plantings, unsuccessful efforts can also be informative— helping us learn what exactly a Torrey pine needs to survive. Thus, we are working with scientists on the reserve to initiate an experimental restoration plan.

The restoration plan will build on what we already know about Torrey pines as well as the threats pressing down on them, like beetles and climate change. First, we have developed a habitat distribution model to help identify some of the environmental factors (such as soil type, temperature, slope, and elevation) that these pines prefer, and where they occur. Some of the

-

areas identified currently sustain trees, others supported trees recently (like the Guy Fleming Trail site), and some have not supported trees before. However, this winter, all three area types will receive new seedlings—over 450 of them! Tracking the seedlings’ survival and getting a finerscale look at the conditions they encounter will help us figure out a bigger plan for restoring trees across the park, taking into consideration what and how conditions may shift with climate change.

ROOTING FOR THE FUTURE Our work, both in the lab and in the field, increases our understanding of these awe-inspiring trees. It also can help inform the management decisions of the Torrey Pines State Natural Reserve staff, who support the trees. We all want to ensure that this botanical icon is around to impress future generations of visitors to the sandstone bluffs.

DID YOU KNOW? Cones of the Torrey pine take about 3 years to mature; the seeds are slowly released over a 10-year span.

G R A P H I C A LLY S P E A K I N G

Types of Amphibians

Anura INCLUDES:

Frogs and Toads Most but not all species in this group go through dramatic internal and external changes to adulthood.

Magical Metamorphosis With over 6,400 frog species, there is a fascinating diversity within this order of animals—from the famously toxic poison frog to the goliath frog that can grow to the size of a human newborn, to the glass frog with skin so transparent you can watch its heart beat—frogs are an eclectic group! Many frogs can jump over 20 times their own body length, which is like a human leaping from home plate to first base in a single bound.

While frogs have many superpowers, what really sets them apart is the complex and eerily elegant process most frogs undergo on the way to adulthood: metamorphosis.

BY KARYL CARMIGNANI | STAFF WRITER ILLUSTRATIONS BY ALLISON BRITTAIN | STAFF ILLUSTRATOR

Urodela INCLUDES:

Salamanders and Newts Resembling a cross between a lizard and a frog, this group consists of around 600 species.

2 Apoda INCLUDES:

Caecilians Pronounced seh-SILLyens, this group of legless amphibians range in size from 3.5 inches long to nearly 5 feet long.

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1

EGGS

Female frogs lay a clutch of eggs that can number in the thousands, depending upon the species. Males fertilize the eggs externally. After 6 to 21 days, the fertilized eggs hatch in water, and the tiny tadpoles—also called pollywogs— swim about in search of plant matter.

HIND LIMBS

Buds form at the base of the tail, then knees and toes emerge.

Soon, front limbs develop. The tadpole is still breathing through gills, has a tail, and is aquatic.

The Eyes Have It Frogs have keen nighttime vision. The bulging eye design of many frog species allows them to see in front, to the sides, and partially behind them. But what really takes the cake is when a frog swallows food, it blinks, which pulls its eyes down into the roof of its mouth and pushes the food down its throat!

Did You Know?

Some amphibians are fully aquatic and skip metamorphosis into adulthood, like the axolotls.

3

Saving Local Frogs For the past several years, San Diego Zoo Global has been working to save the mountain yellow-legged frog of the San Gabriel Mountains. Researchers have learned a great deal about the species’ hibernation needs and ecology while breeding and releasing them back into their native mountain streams. Conservation work is underway comparing survivorship of released frogs to find the ideal age and size for successful repopulating.

INTERNAL TRANSITION

The tadpole’s gill structure breaks down, and lungs develop. Soon, the tadpole’s limbs develop, its mouth changes shape in preparation for catching and consuming insects, and its tail is absorbed into the body.

4

Take Your Time.

Metamorphosis times vary widely across species.

The spadefoot toad can hatch and complete its metamorphosis in a matter of hours, while other species, like the mountain yellow-legged frog, can take years.

CHANGE COMPLETE

While the metamorphosis process may be complete in 46 days, most frogs are not yet adults. They are called metamorphs the first year, juveniles at one to two years, subadults at two to three years, and finally adults at three years and older.

SAN DIEGO ZOO GLOBAL / SANDIEGOZOO.ORG / 27

Draw a Zoo

Visit the San Diego Zoo Kids website to find out

about these and other animals, plus videos, crafts, stories, games, and more! kids.sandiegozoo.org

Following the numbered steps here, look for shapes and patterns to help you draw an emu, an anteater, and a rhinoceros.

What other animals can you create with simple shapes?

1

1

6

7

2 2

7

3 8 3

8

4

9

4

5

9

5

6

Now draw my egg.

Emu eggs are green! Learn more at kids. sandiegozoo.org/ animals/emu.

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Now draw my tongue.

An anteaterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s narrow tongue is about two feet long and shaped like a strand of spaghetti. Learn more at animals.sandiegozoo.org/ animals/giant-anteater.

Challenge!

Can you copy this rhino? Look for the shapes we used to create it.

What do you know about rhinos? Explore kids.sandiegozoo.org/animals/rhinoceros.

Save the Date What’s happening at the Zoo and Park this month and next (Z) Zoo events (P) Park events NOVEMBER 6, 13, 21, 28 Roar & Snore Safari Spend the night at the Safari Park in your own tent! Campers of all ages can experience the Safari Park after hours and stay at the Roar & Snore campground. Families or groups from the same household can relax at camp, visit nearby animal areas at their leisure, and enjoy socially distanced camp activities.

Book online or call 619-718-3000. (P) NOVEMBER 21 Breakfast with Tigers Before the Safari Park opens, enjoy a bountiful breakfast while watching our beautiful tigers from Tiger Trail’s Sambutan Longhouse, a comfortable and shaded outdoor venue with amazing views.

Book online or call 619-718-3000. (P) NOVEMBER 26 Thanksgiving Feast at the Zoo Enjoy a Thanksgiving meal prepared by Executive Chef Carissa Giacalone, outside the Zoo’s Sabertooth Grill.

Guests will have assigned, socially distanced seating and receive their choice of starter, entreé (including a vegetarian option), and their choice of dessert. Two seatings, at 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. Book online or call 619-718-3000. (Z) DECEMBER 4-6; 11-23; 25-JANUARY 3 Jungle Bells proudly supported by California Coast Credit Union Join us at the Zoo for holiday cheer with festive

lights and decorations, seasonal music, roaming entertainers, and a variety of special meal options and sweets. (Z) NOVEMBER 27-29; DECEMBER 5-6; 12-13; 19-23; 26-JANUARY 3 Wild Holidays proudly supported by California Coast Credit Union Wander through a winter wonderland at the Safari Park with twinkling lights, holiday music, and seasonal food treats. (P) OFFERED DAILY Inside Look Tours Go on a two-hour adventure filled with experiences and stories you can’t get anywhere else. Your private family or same-household group of up to six people will be escorted by a guide in a private cart outfitted with special screens for social distancing. New tours include Flamingos & Friends and Baboons & Friends. Book online or call 619-718-3000. (Z) OFFERED DAILY Wildlife Safari This exclusive, private, onehour tour takes your family or same-household group of up to six people on a safari adventure to see a variety of African wildlife in their savanna habitat—the only tour we currently offer that takes you into the field in a safari truck to see the animals up close.

Book online or call 619-718-3000. (P) PLEASE NOTE: All programs and dates are subject to change.

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