Student Science Initiative - Vol. 1 by Sekolah Pelita Harapan

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editi on x

CONT ENTS 01

PREFACE

PUZZLE

OUR TEAM

ARTICLE 8

ARTICLE 1

SPLITTING WATER

ARTICLE 2

ARTICLE 9

ARTICLE 3 41

ARTICLE 10

ARTICLE 11

FIRE FROM A GUM WRAPPER?

ARTICLE 12

ARTICLE 13

ELEPHANT FOAM VOLCANO

ARTICLE 4

ARTICLE 5

ARTICLE 6

ARTICLE 7

CONT ENTS 69

ARTICLE 14

ARTICLE 15

FACT FRIDAY

ADDITIONAL CONTENT

100

OUR COLLABORATORS

101

PUZZLE

102

ARTICLE RESOURCES

WHEN KIDS LOOK UP TO GREAT SCIENTISTS THE WAY THEY DO MUSICIANS AND ACTORS, CIVILIZATION WILL JUMP TO THE NEXT LEVEL.

- BRIAN GREENE

WE PROUDLY PRESENT...

SSI

WHO ARE WE? The Student Science Initiative is a student-led project founded to create a magazine platform, where students and science enthusiasts can come together to explore, share their findings, passions and talents to a larger audience while learning actively from others in this inspiring community. By bringing in greater emphasis on science literature, we challenge society's youths to reach far beyond their comfort zones to explore their sense of awareness and curiosity about the world we live in.

V& M

Our magazine brings together individuals, students, and scientists from all the fields of science to contribute to paving a unique form of

The founding vision of SSI is the

active learning.

establishment of a large interconnected network, uniting

Amidst the difficulties of this

people of all backgrounds,

pandemic, we hope to provide other

education, fields and interests,

students with access to each other's

where empowering perspectives

perspectives - providing YOUths with a

can be shared and heard to

different perspective on science.

establish a science-empowering perspective over society's youths, delivering diverse collaborations

The founding mission of SSI is to enrich and inspire our young generation to seek an extensive level of understanding in the world of science by providing them with various articles and educational programs comprised of diverse scientific topics to spark their curiosity.

and a unified passion for science.

VISION & MISSION

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Founder's note From articles on the antibiotic apocalypse to the tragedy of Alzheimer's Disease, I have envisioned the creation of a magazine that strives upon the understanding that science is a gift, an opportunity for humanity to connect deeper with the world. Having spent months building this project alongside my peers and fellow SSI associates, and enjoying every single one of our vivid discussions, I can see that vision possibly turn into a reality in our team, despite the challenges the COVID-19 pandemic has brought forth to us all. Growing up reading scientific magazines, like the National Geographic and Discover – two of my very favorites, I have always been so intrigued by science because it never fails to satisfy my thirst and curiosity about the world. In my perspective, curiosity, imagination, and pure knowledge are the seeds of science, the very torch that illuminates the pavement of our history, the past, present, and future. I am excited to share this perspective of mine with other students, starting from our very own SPH community, and hope to encourage the youths of society to go beyond their comfort zones in order to explore their sense of awareness about the world. My desire to inspire, empower and influence are passionately shared by my peers, who are undoubtfully charismatic young visionaries open to new experiences, and capable seekers striving to invoke the wonders of science in more communities. We acknowledge the truth that it is no secret how our society has become prevalently dependent on science, yet hardly many students in our school truly appreciate the scope of science beyond a classroom setting nor do they often take the initiative to extensively expand their curiosity.

goal of building a student-led platform where science-enthusiasts can share their passions, knowledge, and skills to form a meeting point of ideas and inspiration for many young scientists. I dream to empower students through this sharing and collaboration on SSI’s uniting platform - a bundle of ideas collected and compiled into one magazine. There are many gifted students who possess unique scientific views, and imagining all these distinctive perspectives connected on one platform, I, alongside the SSI team, believe that the student body can spark the fire of interest in more students through the sharing of ideas because we believe that science is not limited to textbooks but rather the product of creative imagination and impactful innovations that begin from our young generation. Seeing SSI’s leaders and members, I see potential, passion, and excitement. Watching their amazingly diverse personalities manifest and develop through their work, I see leaders of the start of our scienceempowering influence in SPH and all the other youth communities around us. We believe in a community where more youths are bearing the torch of scientific pride. The articles, programs, and work that we deliver are reflections of our passion and grit in achieving SSI’s vision: a collaborative endeavor made up of EVERYONE who takes part in our journey in bringing together individuals from all the fields of science to contribute in paving a unique form of learning and discovery. Last but not least...enjoy!

Kathleen Francisca LEADER OF THE PUBLIC RELATIONS DIVISION OF SSI

Hence, motivated by the need for more scientific innovation amongst students, SSI was started with the

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SSI is not only a magazine, a singular video or podcast, it’s not mere words perfected for an audience, it’s an idea. This student led project and organization is the product of the passion, hunger, thirst for knowledge and innovation of our members. This entire organization came into fruition at the very beginning as we came together with the common ambition and goal of expanding science in the student body of our school, of encouraging interest for science which is so fundamental and integral in our lives. Science is everywhere around us, we are constantly interacting with it and forced to appreciate it, in the way it lets oxygen diffuse into our cells after they create energy, or even something as every day and almost irrelevant as being able to enjoy a tasty dish. Science to me is beauty, in knowing how at the microscopic level we have the twisting, interconnected processes at the biological level, of the millions of cells in our bodies that we cannot see but help us heal from a paper cut, of the mechanisms of mitosis and how it allows us to grow and stay alive, how at the macro level, our planet is one of many in the solar system or how the humankind is always coming up with ways to innovate and keep the grinding wheels of life turning– all these strike me as beauty, in an orderly way. Science is the opportunity to ask and grapple with the myriad of questions unanswered to us. Science is all around us, even in the mundane daily grind of life at the human scale, whether or not you’re labelling it as science. At the core of all this really is our passion to share what we love so much. What I realized is that many students cannot truly appreciate science outside of the realms of it being a subject. Learning foundational knowledge in a classroom, while it’s an essential basis to discovery, doesn’t give us the space to ask and answer questions, the focus is rather on cramming a maximal amount of information into my small minds. Sometimes I think this perception of science stifles our curiosity to explore, to discover, as we devote more of our energy to keep up with the volume of knowledge we are expected to retain and the tests and papers we are to write. Rather than

Editor's note being challenged to innovate, to make mistakes, to read about what’s out there in the world, what great things are being done, to let ourselves absorb the organic beauty of how things work all around us, we sit and are expected to reduce something so grandeur to simple monotony. This manifestation of science, while it does not pervade the allure that I love about science, it’s only one half to what I think science is. The other half is what I think SSI is a platform for and what I’m absolutely excited to bring to our school community. It’s an impetus for young minds and scientists to grapple with the real life contexts of science and become a part of a network of scientists, come into contact with the ways science presents itself in the professional world even, an extraordinary opportunity I think in the high school level. I believe in a science that promotes curiosity, reveals the intricate complexity and the unexpected twists of life, a science that provides the scaffolding for understanding and appreciating the world around us. With the aspirations of creating a network that is able to provide the opportunity for students and teachers to delve into a new branch, to witness a fresh perception of science, but also those outside of our normal bubbles to have access to quality resources for exploration, our magazine, podcasts, educational videos and events are all brought to you by the hard work of talented, ambitious students. We give you the amalgamation of unique skills in not only writing and producing content but also in design, media and marketing. With all that said, we give you the SSI.

Chae Yeon Hwang LEADER OF THE WRITING AND EDITING DIVISION OF SSI

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Meet the team!

Teacher Supervisor

Mr. Andrew Rominger

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Leaders

Kathleen Francisca

Chae Yeon Hwang

Writing, Editing, & Public Relations 05 | SSI

Bara

Immanuela

Jason

Salim

Indrajaja

Ardhinata

Jae Woong

Justin

Shania

Lee

Jaya

Pesik

Yebin

Jason

Sang Min

Hojiasheng

Lee

Kim

Writing, Editing, & Public Relations

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Leaders Ribka Bhagchandani

Rayner Lee

C Edelline Sutanto

Media & Marketing 07 | SSI

Anabel

Caitlyn

Hartanto

Nubary

Keshia Widjaja

Eunike

Kezia

Ong

Leonardo

Arella

Jaden

Euginia

Prawiro

Media & Marketing 08 | SSI

Articles written by some of the most passionate students in our SPHLV community, who hope to share what they have learned with you.

Topics range from technological advancements in genetic modification to the interesting facts regarding COVID-19 herd immunity.

ALL YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT HANDWASHING BY BARA SALIM

With the current pandemic starting its second wave of increased cases, it is important to understand the importance and function of prevention methods as simple as handwashing. This article therefore aims to encourage younger children to wash their hands, in order to prevent the spread of the CoronaVirus. In the past, I have had a bad habit of not washing my hands properly. I always did the same unhygienic act of rinsing my hands for a brisk two seconds – most of the time without soap, feeling satisfied as I walked away. The only thing I thought mattered was the contact of water on my skin. This is because no one really told me about the essentiality that is associated with proper handwashing. I ignored all the infographics placed in my school bathrooms because I felt like they wasted my time. Horrible, isn’t it? However, with the current pandemic starting its second wave in multiple countries, I really began to worry about this habit of mine. All the crazy signs and videos on the internet warned me about the dangers of not washing my hands properly. Yet, I was still not convinced regarding the benefits of washing my hands as I still thought that it was entirely useless. Thus, I decided to try to find the benefits and reasons myself and discuss my findings within this article. My research that I have done out of pure curiosity comprises the historical background, scientific reasons and benefits, and my personal technique of handwashing.

MEDIEVAL HANDWASHING Going back a couple hundred years allows us to explore the ancient journey of handwashing. We all know that washing our hands with water and soap is more of a 21st century trend, but aren’t you curious to see the impact handwashing had ages before modern globalization has marked its influence on our human advancements? Don’t you want to learn more about how our ancestors practiced this hygienic act and whether it mirrors ours? Taking a closer look at some major historical events, I had heard a little bit about the spread of the Black Death being due to a lack of sanitation but didn’t know that it was the direct cause. I found out that the primary cause of these epidemic occurrences – specifically the Black Death – was greatly connected to the influence of philosophical cultures and beliefs on the practice of hygiene. Most Medieval Europeans avoided washing their hands, especially during epidemics, because they believed that it would cause them to be more vulnerable to diseases.

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The medical theory, at the time, was that skin pores open up when in contact with water, which would allow diseases to enter your system much more easily. They believed that having a good layer of dirt and feces on your skin was a better form of protection rather than washing your hands. Unfortunately, this was their greatest downfall, as the bacterium Yersinia pestis, better known as “The Black Death”, killed more than half the European population in the span of 60 years (1).

[Fig. 1 A picture depicting the formula of Saponification Source Anne Marie Helmenstine Ph.D. ]

However, even when they did wash their hands, they

The saponification process occurs in oil paintings and

hardly used soap (2), especially since soap was difficult

fire extinguishers as well. In medieval oil paintings, the

to find and had weak antibacterial properties(5).

paint contains heavy alkaline metals in the pigments

Though I was slightly disturbed that I washed my

and the fatty acids from the oils react and create soap,

hands similar to most individuals 500 years ago, it still

which over time, destroys the painting. Unfortunately,

was not sufficient information to convince me to

painters back then didn’t know about this and

enforce a new habit. After all, sanitation has advanced

continued to use these self-destructive materials. In

lightyears since the medieval era, so what did I have to

fire extinguishers, fatty acids are saponified into a non-

worry about?

combustible foam or soap to put out flames. Since it is an endothermic reaction, its heat absorbing

HOW DOES SOAP WORK? Now, coming to the big question, “How does soap work?” I had gotten so used to the idea that bubbles kill germs that I didn’t even question it. What is it made of? Does it only work when mixed with water? Is soap edible? Maybe that last one was a little irrelevant. Nonetheless, my head was burning with questions. Although there are multiple variances of soap, as in liquid or bar, the chemical composition bottles down to two main chemicals – a fatty acid, which commonly originates from animal fats or vegetable fats, converted into an alcohol through the process of saponification with the presence of an alkaline: primarily, Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) or Potassium Hydroxide (KOH). That entire sentence was a lot of chemical mumbo jumbo, so let's simplify it. First, the main ingredient in making soap is fat or triglycerides, which means that you can make soap from olive oil or bacon. The chemical process that turns fat into soap is called saponification. This word is derived from the Latin word sapo, which means soap. Saponification separates the fatty acids from triglycerides and turns them into soap by neutralizing its pH, utilizing a substance called lye. Lye is an alkaline substance made of 100% Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) or Potassium Hydroxide (KOH). The difference between these two chemicals is that NaOH creates solid soap, while KOH creates liquid soap. Through a reaction with lye and fat, glycerol and soap molecules are produced.

capabilities help in extinguishing the fire (3). Now that we know the composition of soap, we can use this knowledge to find out how it really helps in getting rid of germs. To understand that, we must look at the structure of a soap molecule. A soap molecule consists of three elements: carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. In this molecule, two ends consist of 2 out of 3 of the following elements. On one end is the alcohol, or OH (Hydroxide). On the other end is the carbon chain, or CH2. It’s important to know what they are because each end has a significant purpose based on their capabilities. The hydroxide is lipophilic, meaning that it attracts water and repels oils. The carbon chain is hydrophobic, meaning that it repels water and attracts oils (4). With all this said, when you wash your hands, soap completes a two-step process: it collects and washes away. The ‘collecting’ step is achieved using the carbon chain end; by applying its lipophilic properties, it collects all the oils and dirt on your skin. These oils and dirt contain lots of bacteria and viruses that could potentially make you very sick if they enter your system. Afterward, the ‘washing’ step is achieved using the alcohol end; as you rinse the soap off your hands, the hydrophilic properties allow it to dissolve into the water, washing away the oils and dirt previously collected as well (4). We can go into a much more indepth explanation, but these two steps are the basis of why and how handwashing works. If my terrible habit of only using water is employed, it would never properly clean my hands. This is because water and oil naturally repel each other, so theoretically, the water is just sliding off the oils on my hands as they remain dirty.

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What would have happened if my hands were covered

Therefore, I created my method to incentivize people

in grimy oils and dirt that contained the infamous

to wash their hands, not because it was an

COVID-19? If I were to touch my face, I would’ve likely

inconvenience, but because it was fun. I call it, “The

gotten infected and endangered not only myself but

Nutella Method”. In this method, you must imagine

also the people around me, which would be a terrible

that both of your hands are covered in the thick and

consequence for what I thought was the “harmless”

viscous chocolate spread. The goal is to wash off all

decision of not using soap to wash my hands. Take

the Nutella from your hands using soap and water.

note, that the functions that I have just explained may

This method works because it takes advantage of your

not suffice in ridding your hands of the virus, but the

visual senses as well, rather than your kinesthetic

high alcohol composition of the soap is what gives it

senses.

its last kick in preventing infection. To conclude what ,we just discussed in this single In pandemics such as this one, it is important that

article: the historical background, reasons and

society understands that they are in a state of

benefits, and my personal technique to wash one’s

interdependence: where the actions of one person,

hands. I hope that, in doing so, I can not only educate

can bear consequences for more than themselves. Due

you, but also help you see handwashing from a new

to this, it is imperative for society to understand the

perspective.

importance of cooperation, to ensure that everyone is on the same page. If society fails to do so, then millions of people will suffer the consequences of those who failed to wash their hands.

MY NEW METHOD ON HANDWASHING After learning about the importance of washing our hands properly, I decided to come up with my own handwashing technique by applying the scientific explanations I’ve obtained along the way. Hearing about the “wash for at least 20 seconds” guideline is in my opinion not only boring but extremely vague. What

"I created my method to incentivize people to wash their hands, not because it was an inconvenience, but because it was fun. I call it, “The Nutella Method”.

if you only washed the palms of your hands for 20 seconds but nothing else? Then there was the 6-step process that you find in most student bathrooms; but the issue is that the overcomplicating this process would only disincentivize more people from washing their hands. No one tried to make washing their hands fun, it has always been taught strictly.

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Gone, a lifetime’s worth of memories: the “blackbox” disease with a brain-devouring mechanism News of a new game-changer By Kathleen Francisca

Fig. 1 Illustration visualizing the effects of Alzheimer’s Disease on the brain; left (normal) – right (diseased). Credit New Scientist

KEYWORDS

INTRODUCTION

Alzheimer’s Disease, memory loss, a patient’s testimony, cognitive impairment

One piece of advice that most of us have heard at least once in our lives is to build ourselves with experiences and make as much memories because, to some extent, we all know that life would simply be meaningless without them. We live out our days, take pictures, and try to remember even the little moments so that we can look back upon them one day and see how far we have gone – a sense of self-achievement. As stated by one of the greatest Spanish filmmakers, Luis Bunuel, “life without memory is no life at all…our memory is our coherence, our reason, our feeling, even our action. Without it, we are nothing.” So, now, imagine losing all these memories, a lifetime’s product of your own, in just a matter of a few years. Perhaps, starting from your married life, next your childhood, and then those you love.

RELEVANT AREA OF SCIENCE Medicine, health, neuroscience

ABSTRACT This article aims to provide a deeper understanding on Alzheimer’s Disease (AD), an increasingly common neurodegenerative disease, through a personal testimony from one diagnosed with this disease alongside an expert’s outlook and a review encompassing current research endeavors in the field of neurobiology.

This is the very story of Alzheimer’s Disease.

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THE HEART OF ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE: WHAT IS IT? RESEARCH PROSPECTS AND CONTROVERSIES? Alzheimer’s was first identified a century ago as a progressive neurodegenerative disease that was undeniably becoming more widespread across the world’s population. Neurodegenerative diseases typically involve the death or dysfunction of cells in the central nervous system, which is often caused by genetic factors or by a tumor or stroke. To this recent year in 2021, the National Institute on Aging has ranked this disease as the sixth leading cause of death in the United States, with experts predicting that it may be present in 5.5 million Americans aged 65 and older, and this number is expected to increase. However, despite its increasing regularity in health trends, Alzheimer’s Disease has remained as a black box to humanity for decades – a true medical mystery left undeciphered. No clues were offered regarding the mechanics underlying its devastating symptoms and, hence, consequently, up to this day, no cure has been found or synthesized, making this disease terminally life-threatening and incurable. All that was known is that research on this disease dated far back to the year 2000s with the search for effective treatments involving billions of dollars. Hence, why, you might wonder, with the large sum of research investments made, is it difficult to identify a leading cause of this disease? I asked the same question and learned that there are extensive complications involved in the diagnosis of this disease as multiple symptoms differ from one person to the next. This makes it difficult to pinpoint a root cause. For instance, taking the analogy of an uncracked case of bank robbery with the main culprit blending into a mass of criminals with similar track records, you will see how precisely challenging it would be for the police to identify the culprit. Similarly, in the case of Alzheimer’s, scientists for generations remain challenged in their studies upon the observation that multiple symptoms and factors play significant roles in the development of this disease – not just one piece of the puzzle but numerous pieces to unravel. Hence, relating this to past research, studies have provided similar conclusions which led to our suspicions that abnormal clumps and tangled bundles of protein fibers in the brain, respectively called amyloid plaques and tau tangles, might be the primary culprits behind this case

The simplicity of these conclusions drawn is ironic considering the understanding that multiple factors were involved in the development of this disease. Dr. Alois Alzheimer first made his descriptive diagnosis on these large, sticky plaques and tangles in the brain early in 1906 after noticing changes in the brain tissue of a woman who had died of an unusual mental illness (2). These changes included “the appearance of extracellular amyloid-beta plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the intracellular environment, neuronal death and the loss of synapses, all of which contribute to cognitive decline in a progressive manner” (4). In simpler words, several studies have suggested that the abnormal tau-protein phosphorylation in the brain may contribute to the formation of neurofibrillary structures and dendritic spine loss that, in turn, could adversely impact certain parts of the brain, including the nuclei in the brain stem, the hippocampus that primarily mediates memory functions, and neurotransmitter expression in brain atrophy (4). However, despite the bulk of research being centered on this “amyloid hypothesis", controversies in this topic are evident as many experimental therapies targeted to eliminate these protein build-ups have failed to reverse or slow the condition’s progression (5). Furthermore, the lack of positive results from these therapies has been compounded by the discovery that people, including some in their 90s with exceptional memory potentials, can have brain plaques and tangles without having Alzheimer’s (6). Thus, the hypothesis drawn that suggested Alzheimer’s to be caused by protein build-ups was proven to be less likely true, and this disease was once again an unbroken case.

Fig. 2 The P. gingivalis bacteria that causes gum disease, and shows a significant correlation to Alzheimer’s Credit New Scientist

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Now, recently discovered in 2019, a new idea is introduced: the real trigger to Alzheimer’s could be the bacteria involved in gum disease, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and not the protein plaques as initially perceived (6). This could prove a game-changer in tackling one of the largest mysteries in our medical history and lead to a possible cure. In a review of the research to date last year, Bryce Vissel at the University of Technology Sydney concluded that there is insufficient data to suggest that amyloid has a central role in Alzheimer’s. Hypothesis now circulates the idea that the bacteria in the brain are not the result of the disease but, instead, is the ultimate cause. In 2016, researchers found that amyloid seems to function as a sticky defense against bacteria, acting as an antimicrobial compound. When these researchers injected bacteria into the brains of mice engineered to make Alzheimer’s proteins, plaques were shown to develop around bacterial cells overnight alongside the emergence of brain infection, amyloid production, and neural damage in the regions normally affected by Alzheimer’s (6). Additionally, researchers also found that P. gingivalis is at low levels in people without Alzheimer’s and high in those with the disease, feeding on human tissue in 96 and 99 percent of 54 human Alzheimer’s brain samples taken from the hippocampus, which is a brain area crucial for memory (6). These findings all suggest causation - an interesting discovery! So, all these years, have we been misguided, investigating the protein tangles and assuming that they were the leading causes to this disease? Perhaps. However, whether it is the abnormal build-up of proteins that contribute to the loss of connections between neurons or bacterial infections in the brain that possibly led to the initial cumulation of these proteins, scientists are yet to find a clear direction of the cause. This finding was supported by Dr. Andree Kurniawan, an internal medicine specialist and clinician at Siloam hospital Lippo Village, a lecturer at the University of Pelita Harapan, and, previously, a fellow of the Indonesian Society of Internal Medicine. He has greatly aided my search for answers to new prospects in this field, incorporating potential treatments with targets ranging from brain inflammation to gut microbiome that are considered worldwide as well as challenges in the global endeavor of finding a cure to Alzheimer’s. Dr. Andree shared his experience-gained understanding that research in this field, especially in Indonesia, is limited both resource- and investment-wise. There is a lack of funding and commitment by the national government in Indonesia’s overall research department (7).

Furthermore, as a well-established researcher both in the fields of internal medicine and gene therapy, Dr. Andree hypothesized that complications in Alzheimer’s may also be due to the inconsistent responses triggered by current drugs that led to uncertainties in solution. He suggested that Alzheimer’s may also be constructed by gene mutations cumulative to age and environmental factors. Furthermore, he stated that stem cell research and gene sequencing could help determine a cure to Alzheimer’s as protein de-conformation and brain inflammation in AD may be hindered with proper gene therapy techniques.

A CLOSER LOOK INTO THE DISEASE: A PERSONAL TESTIMONY Lastly, by understanding the effects of Alzheimer’s on the patient as well as on the people around them through a personal testimony, we can gain a deeper insight into this disease. One of the biggest reasons for my newfound interest in the mystery of Alzheimer’s Disease – what it looks like, how it affects the body’s functions, and how it works – is my personal encounter with this disease. My family first gradually noticed my grandfather’s declining memory, minor changes in behavior and confusion early in 2018, and, a year later, he was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s.

Fig. 3 Photographs of my grandfather; the one on the left showing his childhood and the right taken on his wedding day

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My grandmother stated, “He sleeps more than usual in the day instead of heading out to socialize in his workshop like he once did. He had stopped playing the guitar, which used to be his happiest moments. Refusing to socialize, go outside, or do things himself, we were seeing some major changes in him…no one can deny that.” Additionally, over long periods, my grandmother also noticed more instances of emotional outbursts that she called “his moments of error”, where my grandfather would express his emotions – typically, negative ones – in the form of harsh actions, like breaking glass or bursting hurtful remarks. Hence, as reflected in my grandfather’s case, the symptoms of this disease, starting mild, increase in severity over time and manifest in the common forms of “memory loss, cognitive deficits, problems with spatial awareness or language use, and impulsive or unpredictable behavior” (1). As these symptoms worsen gradually over months or years, victims of this disease typically find it difficult to remember certain events, to reason, to perform simple tasks like eating, and to recognize people they know – a progressive but painful loss of oneself. Eventually, these changes will lead them to require medical attention and full-time assistance, not only making each day even more of a challenge but also decreasing one’s life expectancy significantly (3).

CONCLUSION To conclude, with the proper tools, funding, and right focus points in research, I am strongly assured that we are on the verge of something truly transformational; it has become a matter of when – not if – we will find the answer to this mystery. The endeavor of research in this field is one of many proofs showing the value of collaboration in the world of science that can positively impact millions of lives today and tomorrow.

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HERD IMMUNITY, AN EFFECTIVE SOLUTION TO COVID-19?

BY IMMANUELA INDRAJAJA

KEYWORDS COVID-19, Immunity, Fighting the Pandemic

RELEVANT AREA OF SCIENCE Biology, Medicine, Health

ABSTRACT This article aims to discern how effectively herd immunity against Covid-19 can be attained through these three methods: vaccination, previous exposure to the disease and naturally acquired immunity. In order to gauge the effectiveness of these methods, the advantages and limitations of each of them are identified. Results show that while natural immunity and previous exposure to the disease may allow herd immunity to happen faster, it is associated with higher public health, so opting for vaccination could result in a safer outcome.

Fig. 1 – Diagram showing the effects of herd immunity [25]

Herd Immunity, conceptualized in 1923, occurs when a fraction of a population becomes immune to an infectious disease, causing the remaining portion to be “immune” to the disease as well [1]. If someone with the virus is surrounded by people who are immune to it, the rate of infection will be kept to a controllable level [2] which then, as a result, indirectly protects other unimmunized individuals [3]. Currently, the reproductive number (R0) ranges from 2.2-3.6 and 4.1-6.5, which suggests that the outbreak will continue to grow. To keep the infections to a controllable level, the reproductive number must be below 1 [4].

Imagine going on adventures with your friends in the summer - blasting the radios, watching the sun set and staying up to admire the stars at night. For most people, this situation seems like a faded memory ever since the occurrence of the Covid-19 pandemic. The world is still confined to their houses and the question that still lingers in our mind is: when will it be safe for social activities to resume? Although the future is uncertain, recent research suggests that “herd immunity” may change the course of this outbreak.

Think of the coronavirus as the rain. When we get vaccinated, we are putting on a raincoat to shield us from the virus. Yet the best way to protect everyone is by using a big umbrella so that the vulnerable community who cannot use a raincoat such as those who are too young or have a weakened immunity may still gain protection. This umbrella is attained when the community “buys” it by having each individual use a raincoat [5]. Now, how can we get this raincoat? Currently, there are three main ways to do so: vaccination, previous exposure to disease and natural immunity [6]. Nonetheless, even with raincoats, some are better quality than others.

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Unlike vaccinations, the pathogens are not weakened and therefore, have a higher chance of being deadly. In a study published by Nature, though most people produced antibodies, 99% of the participants could not produce enough antibodies to attain an ideal immune response – capable of neutralizing the virus [16].

vaccines – live, attenuated vaccines and nonlive/inactivated vaccines. Live, attenuated vaccines are composed of weakened or altered pathogens to prevent replication [9] which triggers an immune response and creates “memory cells” which recognizes the virus and signals the immune system to produce antibodies the next time the virus invades the body [14]. Not only do they contribute to herd immunity through the vaccination of individuals but may also release viral particles which indirectly “vaccinate” other individuals. This is because some live vaccines utilize virus-like particle (VLP) technology, which mimics the “contagious” property of viruses [10]. However, the pathogens of this type of vaccine can be unregulated in immunocompromised – impaired immune system – individuals, which may lead to severe infections, and in some cases, death [11]. Live vaccines are also offlimits for pregnant women as they may cause congenital diseases (diseases present from birth) in their offspring. Although very rare, live vaccines also have the potential to revert to its pathogenic form and cause diseases [12]. Contrarily, non-live vaccines, containing parts of killed pathogens, cannot cause disease and hence, have a better safety profile. Nonetheless, for the antibody production to be sustained for months up to years, there needs to be a certain amount of antigenic mass consistently present within the individual’s body. Therefore, nonlive vaccines, which gradually diminishes over time, requires more administration to be effective [13].

PREVIOUS EXPOSURE TO THE DISEASE When our body gets exposed to the virus, white blood cells create antibodies to fight the antigen (foreign substance). Just like vaccinations, “memory cells” recognizes the virus and produces antibodies to fight the virus when it invades the body again [14]. While purposefully exposing yourself to chickenpox and less harmful diseases may be beneficial, the situation with the coronavirus is certainly different. Not only does getting infected carry a significant risk of severe implications and death, there is also currently no evidence that suggests that those who have been infected will not contract the virus a second time [15].

NATURALLY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY Every day, we are exposed to different viruses and bacteria even if we don’t realize it. Nonetheless, we don’t always experience symptoms because our innate immune system acts as a barrier to antigens [17]. Thus, we only become symptomatic when the innate immune system does not function properly [18]. However, in the case of coronavirus, we still need to keep in mind that being asymptomatic does not prevent the infection of others and posing health risks, especially to the immunocompromised. This is why social distancing measures are still essential to those who are supposedly “healthy” [19]. As vaccines require a long period of time to be developed, we may be forced to only rely on our immune system for defense and continue to boost it by getting adequate sleep, maintaining a healthy diet, and keeping up with a good lifestyle [20] for approximately 12-18 months (mid-2021) in which the vaccine is predicted to be ideal for public usage. So, when will we achieve herd immunity? It is estimated that approximately 60-70% of the population must be immune to the Covid-19 virus for it to no longer be epidemic [21], meaning that the disease no longer spreads rapidly to many people.However, this percentage could potentiallybe reduced to43% if social activity levels are reduced [22]. In the future, we may mourn the death of millions who had lost the battle to the virus exposure and afterward, hastily luxuriate in the joys of herd immunity. Either that or we may end up coming out of our homes sluggishly, with fringes of gray hair – no longer familiar with the outside world we once lived in, as the vaccine is predicted to be released 12 to 18 months from today. The final verdict: allowing the virus to intentionally burn through the world’s population would sacrifice the lives of many more individuals [23]. Not only is it utterly reckless to proceed with the latter, but the big unknown remains: is this form of herd immunity sustainable? What we currently need is patience and obedience. As said by the WHO chief scientist, Soumya Swaminathan, “We have to entertain the possibility that we may have to learn to live with this virus [24].” Now, it’s up to you: what will you do to contribute to herd immunity?

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VACCINATION Vaccines train the immune system to fight pathogens, such as viruses [7] by injecting a certain mass of pathogens to evoke antibody production that neutralizes the virus [8].There are two types of vaccines – live, attenuated vaccines and nonlive/inactivated vaccines. Live, attenuated vaccines are composed of weakened or altered pathogens to prevent replication [9] which triggers an immune response and creates “memory cells” which recognizes the virus and signals the immune system to produce antibodies the next time the virus invades the body [14]. Not only do they contribute to herd immunity through the vaccination of individuals but may also release viral particles which indirectly “vaccinate” other individuals. This is because some live vaccines utilize virus-like particle (VLP) technology, which mimics the “contagious” property of viruses [10]. However, the pathogens of this type of vaccine can be unregulated in immunocompromised – impaired immune system – individuals, which may lead to severe infections, and in some cases, death [11]. Live vaccines are also off-limits for pregnant women as they may cause congenital diseases (diseases present from birth) in their offspring. Although very rare, live vaccines also have the potential to revert to its pathogenic form and cause diseases [12]. Contrarily, non-live vaccines, containing parts of killed pathogens, cannot cause disease and hence, have a better safety profile. Nonetheless, for the antibody production to be sustained for months up to years, there needs to be a certain amount of antigenic mass consistently present within the individual’s body. Therefore, non-live vaccines, which gradually diminishes over time, requires more administration to be effective [13].

again [14]. While purposefully exposing yourself to chickenpox and less harmful diseases may be beneficial, the situation with the coronavirus is certainly different. Not only does getting infected carry a significant risk of severe implications and death, there is also currently no evidence that suggests that those who have been infected will not contract the virus a second time [15]. Unlike vaccinations, the pathogens are not weakened and therefore, have a higher chance of being deadly. In a study published by Nature, though most people produced antibodies, 99% of the participants could not produce enough antibodies to attain an ideal immune response – capable of neutralizing the virus [16].

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What we currently need is patience and obedience. As said by the WHO chief scientist, Soumya Swaminathan, “We have to entertain the possibility that we may have to learn to live with this virus [24].” Now, it’s up to you: what will you do to contribute to herd immunity?

A try-at-home kit for the elephant toothpaste experiment!

PROCEDURE INGREDIENTS

The reaction starts with liquid

1/2 cup of liquid hydrogen peroxide

hydrogen peroxide, and you 01

10 drops of liquid food

reaction.

1 tablespoon of liquid dish soap A 16-ounce plastic soda or

Add food coloring and dish 02

water bottle OR a bucket

soap to the hydrogen peroxide mixture to create colored foam.

that size

In a separate cup, combine dry

A small cup to hold your yeast and at least 3

more or less foam. The stronger it is, the bigger the

coloring

1 packet of dry yeast

can use different strengths for

yeast and warm water for the 03

tablespoons of warm

at-home catalyst, instead of the potassium iodide that Uhas

water

used.

Plastic gloves and safety Pour the catalyst into the

googles Optionally, you can also

put a plastic tarp down to catch all the foam. 05

peroxide, you can just use a funnel at home. Clean up!

Source: https://www.insider.com/how-to-make-elephant-toothpaste-experiment-at-home2019-12

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Inverse Kinematics via Gradient Descent

INTRODUCTION Enough with all the COVID-19 panic, distracting all of us from what is truly important: good ol’ mathematics. WAIT, don’t leave just yet, I’ll try my best to explain this topic as clear as possible. We’ll expand our knowledge and understanding on robotics and mathematics, which do have real world applications.

BY JASON ADHINARTA

ABSTRACT When you think about automation, chances are, you’ll think about robotic arms spread across an assembly line. For good reason, they enable unparalleled efficiency in completing repetitive tasks and an increasing proficiency in complex tasks due to recent developments in robotics and AI. But how do they work? How do they reach for an object? How do you calculate the positions of each joint? This article aims to explain just that.

Source: https://www.mathworks.com/help/fuzzy/modeling-inversekinematics-in-a-robotic-arm.html

This article will be the first one in a series on inverse kinematics, with this one in particular focusing on forward kinematics, which requires only trigonometry to understand. Here’s the rest of the introduction in Q&A format:

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WHAT IS KINEMATICS? According to Merriam-Webster, kinematics is “a branch of dynamics that deals with aspects of motion apart from considerations of mass and force”. In essence, kinematics allows you to describe objects (e.g., position, velocity, acceleration) without having to know what caused them to move (e.g., gravity, you pushing it, torque from motors).

WHAT IS INVERSE KINEMATICS?

WHY IS THIS PROBLEM DIFFICULT? WHY SOLVE IT ITERATIVELY INSTEAD OF ANALYTICALLY? By an analytical solution, I mean one that gives you an exact solution (like the quadratic equation). The problem is, if the arm contains more than 2 segments and can reach the target, then there are virtually an infinite number of possible configurations to reach the target. So iterative methods (where you have to run multiple steps) are the only feasible way.

It is a problem that involves calculating the parameters (e.g., the angle) of every joint within a robotic arm in order for the end-effector (the tip of the arm) to reach a specified target. It is called inverse kinematics because it is the opposite of forward kinematics: calculating the position of the end-effector given the parameters of every joint within the arm.

WHY IS INVERSE KINEMATICS IMPORTANT? It enables you to calculate the parameters of a robotic arm, enabling you to automate the arm without having a person manning it, as that would defeat its purpose.

WHY ARE ROBOTIC ARMS IMPORTANT? It is used for automation in the industry, which includes welding, assembling, packaging, etc. Using robotic arms allows for higher efficiency, consistency

Figure 1. Source: http://faculty.salina.k-state.edu/tim/robotics_sg/Arm_ robots/inverseKin.html

FORWARD KINEMATICS – CALCULATING THE POSITION OF THE TIP For simplicity’s sake, we will be discussing arms with only “bending”-joints (like your elbow), in contrast to “rotation” joints (like your neck). Furthermore, we are limiting the problem to 2d-space, in other words, all the possible positions of the end effector are on a plane. So how do you define a robotic arm mathematically? Let’s say that any arm consists of straight-line segments (Figure 1). For each segment , let the length of the segment be being parameterized by angle . It’s easier to see it in a picture:

in output (because in general, they don’t make mistakes), and safety when dealing with dangerous tools (i.e., welding torches).

WHAT IS A GRADIENT DESCENT? It’s an iterative optimization algorithm (the more you run it the better it gets), that minimizes the value of a loss function given knowledge of the first

Figure 2. Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publ

derivative. It will be described in more detail later on.

for_Heuristic_Path_Planning_Enhancement/figures?lo=1

ication/331685972_Robot_Arm_Free_Cartesian_Space_Analysis_

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So how do you define mathematically? It is the angle measured counter- clockwise from the extension of the previous line segment to segment . Since we are measuring angles with a specific orientation (i.e., counter-clockwise), we can have negative angles, just like in trigonometry! But since line segment 0 does not exist, how do you measure the angle of line segment 1? Well, we can arbitrarily define that the angle of the line segment 1 from the positive x-axis, to conform to trigonometric conventions. Now that we have a mathematical representation of the arm segments, let’s

So the position of the end-effector is , because it is

calculate the position of the end-effector. Let

the final line segment. And that marks the end of

denote the end position of segment i. Now for

this section, not too bad right? The next article will

the equations. So how do you find ? Looking at

involve computing these values in the Python

Figure 1, we can see that

programming language, in order to save us time. Stay tuned.

assuming that the beginning of the line segment starts at the origin (0, 0). How about ? Well, since the angles accumulate (the angle between segment 2 and the positive x-axis

"For good reason, they enable unparalleled efficiency in completing repetitive tasks and an increasing proficiency in complex tasks due to recent developments in robotics and AI. "

depends on ), looking at Figure 1,

How about the general case, how do you calculate ? We can simply extrapolate the pattern ad infinitum:

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FATIGUED AND BLURRY EYES. WHAT CAN YOU DO ABOUT IT? BY SANG MIN LEE

KEYWORDS Optical Sciences, Pandemic, Technology

RELEVANT AREA OF SCIENCE Optical Science, Medical Science, Lifestyle and Health Sciences.

ABSTRACT After long periods of staring at our technological devices, it is normal for our eyes to feel a little pain, and fatigue, which we often refer to as: “eye strain” – also known as asthenopia. This intolerable and agonizing condition is heavily influenced by the muscles that work behind our eyes, and such practices of employing appropriate lighting, smart screen time and period of resting our eyes could significantly reduce the chances of asthenopia.

We have all experienced the feeling of fatigue, strain, or blurriness in vision after long periods of staring at our computer screens or smartphones. Especially during this global pandemic, life seems to be continuing online especially with the rise of online education as both students and teachers are discouraged from engaging with one another physically. The moment students wake up, they must endure hours of zoom calls and the neverending clicking sound of the keyboard; it seems impossible for students and teachers, as well as workers in the workplace alike, to get off from their screen. The temptation and necessity to view our devices is gradually increasing, and we often disregard our health as we tend to glue ourselves to them. After extended periods spent staring into a screen, we realize all too late that our eyes are fatigued and its health deteriorating. Eye strain, also known as asthenopia, is a condition of the human eye caused by excessive or intensive use of electronics over a long period of time that could lead to symptoms such as pain, fatigue, blurred or double vision, watery or dry eyes, headaches, and light sensitivity.

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[Fig. 1 An illustration depicting eye strain from the overuse of gadgets Source Family Health Care Organization]

So, coming to the big question. What really goes on behind this condition? The scientific rationale lie under the six extraocular muscles, which has its role in aligning the eyes when viewing things. Quick fact! The lens in our eyes actively work to invariably change the focal point, with some help from the ciliary muscle, which exerts force onto the lens to change the focus of the eyes. The lens focuses on light rays that pass through to obtain clear images. If you were to stare at a laptop screen for 2 to 3 hours without a break, the medial rectus from the six extraocular muscles would contract, allowing you to see a nearby object – the laptop – and keep it in focus without having double vision. The ciliary muscle will force the lens to thicken enough for nearby objects to get into the line of sight. When these muscles contract for 2 to 3 hours, they get tired just like the way the muscles on our arms and legs get sore after strenuous use. Thus, causing such symptoms as mentioned above.

[Fig. 3 Diagram indicating where the ciliary muscle is in the eye Source The Visual Experience: Reading 2014]

PREVENTION AND REMEDIES HAVING APPROPRIATE LIGHTING One of the primary causes of asthenopia is the wrong adjustments of lighting in your surroundings as you carry out activities that require eye focus. Excessive exposure to exceedingly bright lights or focusing of your vision under dim lighting will significantly damage your eye without even noticing. To prevent eye strain, manage your environment so that while reading or working, your surrounding is at an appropriate level of brightness to let you see clearly without putting pressure on your eyes, but not too bright as it may unintentionally damage your eyes. In the case of devices that allow brightness adjustments, make sure to make any necessary adjustments that would have the brightness match your environment. Getting accustomed to being aware of having optimal lighting, wherever you are, for the protection of your eyes is highly recommended!

[Fig. 2 Diagram labeling the 6 extraocular muscles Source Samarpan Physiotherapy Clinic Ahmedabad]

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SMART SCREEN TIME Managing smarter screen times when working on your electronic gadgets is the best way to prevent strain. The 20-20-20 rule is a way of your eyes a break: every 20 minutes for 20 seconds, looking at an object at least 20 feet – 6 meters – away. If limiting your screen time is not feasible for you, the 20-20-20 rule will allow you to continue looking at your screen for however long without straining your eyes.

LETTING YOUR EYE REST

Just like how you rest your arm and leg muscle after a workout, the same thing applies here! Once the ciliary and six extraocular muscles feel sore, the best thing to do is to let them rest by closing your eyes for some time and opening your eyes in the darkness. Massaging around the eyes could also be helpful, because regardless of difference in appearance, they are still muscles, just like your biceps! So, all the pains, tiredness, fatigues in your eyes were

known as “eyestrain” and it has the scientific word of Asthenopia. Just remember that there are muscles working behind every rotation you make with your eyes, and it can get tired just like any other muscles around your body if there is an excessive and extensive use over long period of time. If you are one of us who frequently gets this symptom, check if your lighting around your environment is not out of adjustment and just let your eyes rest! The 20-20-20 rule for smart screen time is heavily recommended, but if you still decided to do whatever you want and got an eyestrain, just stop whatever you were doing and close your eyes for a minute. Perhaps, it isn’t too bad to let your mind free to wonder around!

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ASSISTED COLONIZATION: CONSERVING THE STAGNANT(LY DECLINING) LIFE BY IMMANUELA INDRAJAJA

KEYWORDS Biodiversity, Migration, Assisted Colonization, Ecosystem

RELEVANT AREA OF SCIENCE Biology, Ecology, Biodiversity Conservation

ABSTRACT This article aims to examine the concept of assisted colonization as a means to prevent the decline of endangered species. In order to identify its effectiveness in achieving this goal, the different strategies and associated risks are investigated. Additionally, the possibility of unconsidered detrimental factors are also examined. Results suggest that while assisted colonization may help to conserve endangered species, the need to hypothesize the effects of introducing species into new environment create great external risks that must be thoroughly accounted for.

As a child, we’ve all experienced the initial exhilaration of catching a fish at the pond or even at the carnival. Brought in a confined plastic bag, our 6-year-old selves only expected the years to come in building a life with our new best friend. Your mom tells you, “put it in a cup” or “put it in that container” and you do as told. Yet the next day, you wake up only to be entirely crushed by the fact that your beloved pet fish had died. While the concept of bringing back a random fish home seems like an idiosyncratic concept to us now, it actually serves larger implications in terms of saving the planet.

Assisted colonization (also known as assisted migration or managed relocation) is the act of “transporting species to a new range that is predicted to be favorable for persistence under future climate scenarios”. In the face of climate change crises, many species are at risk of extinction and biodiversity rapidly declines. Previously suitable environments are now insufficient for the growth and development of certain species. While naturally, these species would disperse to new habitats that they adapt better in, the rapid pace of climate change disables many species from keeping up. Hence, the job of humans to interfere and speed up this process. For example, in 2017, the Western swamp tortoise population was at risk of endangerment due to dry swamps from climate change. In order for it to move into another swampy habitat, they would have to move about 250 kilometers around Perth. For it to successfully move to this newer, sustainable habitat, it would have to take them longer than if being assisted by humans. Hence, further increasing the risk of endangerment.

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Fig. 1 - 3 main strategies to assisted colonization (left to right): (a) assisted population migration, (b) assisted range expansion, (c) assisted species migration

There are 3 main strategies to assisted colonization: assisted population migration, assisted range expansion, and assisted species migration (Fig. 1). Firstly, assisted population migration involves moving populations into new locations that are still eligible/have been lived by the species. This typically is regarded as the “lowrisk” method. Secondly, assisted range migration moves species to areas that are near a species’ natural habitat, but may still be suitable due to its ability to mimic these natural ranges. This typically is regarded as the “intermediate-risk” method. Thirdly, assisted species migration can move populations far beyond a species’ natural range which therefore, impedes any access for natural dispersal. This is the “high-risk” method and its name lives up to its history. In the 1890s, gray squirrel were migrated via human intervention in the UK from North America. Like bagging a fish in a carnival, animal collectors thoughtlessly deposited North American grey squirrels in the United Kingdom – keeping them in zoos and menageries, with some escaping and some getting released to parks. At first, it seemed like a harmless introduction but the results were unwanted, to say the least; gray squirrels outcompeted red squirrels for resources and carried diseases that eradicated a great deal of red squirrels in England and Wales. In 2010, there were already more than 2.5 million gray squirrels in the UK, with less than 200,000 red squirrels

Fig. 2 - Strategies to assisted migration according to outcomes (top to bottom): (a) push strategies, (b) pull strategies, (c) combination of pushpull strategies

In identifying which strategy would be most suitable, considerations need to be made in terms of the appropriateness of the location and the specific type of population of a species that are expected to fit in well with the given area. Specifically, in migrating populations from one place to the other, one may decide to utilize “push” or “pull” strategies (Fig. 2). Push strategies focus on the level of rarity and threat that one species possesses in order to guide which species should be “pushed” into locations where they are expected to maintain and develop their populations. This creates a sense of “insurance” as it involves establishing a population based on only some individuals. Therefore, not risking the possibility of wiping out an entire population. On the other hand, pull strategies focus on the ecosystem function, instead of the species. Therefore, moving certain species to enable them to restore the ecosystem function. This may be favourable in cases where an ecosystem has been negatively affected by climate change. For instance, if a tree species were declining, some bird populations may be considered to migrate to that area to create nesting habitats. Lastly, the push and pull strategies may be combined to obtain both intended outcomes - pushing threatened species into an ecosystem and in doing so, restores a declining ecosystem.

left. Therefore, the effects of the 3 main strategies to migration must be thoroughly examined to prevent any possible repercussions.

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"Just like the pet fish we once brought home, expectations for assisted colonization remains high. Yet there are still many uncertainties that remain in whether the benefits outweigh the risks."

While the given strategies and outcomes seem straightforward, these strategies are not equations towards certain outcomes. Assisted colonization still serves to be one of the most debated and controversial strategies in overcoming the climate change crisis. In “pushing” new species within an area, new pests and diseases may invade the area harming other existing species within the area. This is especially the case for higher risk methods whereby long-distance migrations may result in poor adaptation and growth. Ecosystems used to “pull” species may also be unsuccessful if factors such as soil type, moisture regime, herbivory, competition, endemic pests and pathogens, and photoperiod do not accommodate the development of the introduced species. Typically, “niche models”/SDM (Species Distributon Modelling) are used to predict how suitable an environment is for the species. However, these models fail to consider any possibilities of acclimatization (the ability for species to adjust to environmental changes), how the species will perform given the community of other predator/competitor/mutualist species, and the uncertainties in climate shifts. Just like the pet fish we once brought home, expectations for assisted colonization remains high. Yet there are still many uncertainties that remain in whether the benefits outweigh the risks. Therefore, many researchers are currently trying to further study the risks and benefits of this strategy in hope to resolve the declining biodiversity. If only the fish

Fig. 1 - 3 main strategies to assisted colonization (left to right): (a) assisted population migration, (b) assisted range expansion, (c) assisted species migration

was brought home to a proper aquarium, then we would be able to have a whole school.

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NASA MAY HAVE DISCOVERED A ‘SECOND EARTH’ BY KATHLEEN FRANCISCA

KEYWORDS NASA, planetary science, astronomical discoveries, habitable planets, conditions for life compatibility

RELEVANT AREA OF SCIENCE Astronomy, Projects

ABSTRACT A team of transatlantic scientists, using reanalysed data from NASA’s Kepler Space Telescope, has uncovered Kepler-1649c – an exoplanet closest to Earth in size and temperature found to date, orbiting in its star’s habitable zone. This extraordinary discovery propelled some thoughtful discussions on whether the conditions of this exoplanet are suitable for life, as compared to Earth’s – crucial to scale its habitability levels. A NASA Illustration that visualizes how the surface of Kepler-1649c might look like. Credit NASA

Whether it is the telescopes that enable us closer navigation towards the stars or movies that push us deeper into the folds of the unknown, we have all wondered about what lies beyond our atmospheric boundaries. In today’s society, discoveries of unknown planets or life beyond our Solar System is not new. Most of us have watched celestial science-fiction movies, such as Interstellar or Passengers, that bring us on exciting galactic journeys in search of a second planet to call home. We would marvel at the universe unwinding before our eyes and wonder about the possibilities of an undiscovered 'second Earth' lurking somewhere in Space, a planet like ours enveloped in the darkness where distance is immaterial. Could it be? Is it possible? These bizarre possibilities may be closer to reality than we had expected.

You might be thinking, “Another Earth-like planet? That’s old news.” Kepler-1649c is a very special one as it hits closer to home than all the other known exoplanets have ever before.

THE HUNT FOR EXOPLANETS: WHAT EXACTLY WAS THE NASA KEPLER MISSION? Over the past decade, our history of exoplanet exploration has widely expanded as the number of exoplanets discovered has risen beyond 4,000 in just a few years, pioneered by the spectacular success of NASA's Kepler mission (2).

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Kepler was designed to survey a portion of the Milky Way region and determine the frequency of Earth-sized and bigger planets in the Habitable

INTRODUCING KEPLER-1649C: IGNITING BRIGHTER HOPES FOR THE FUTURE

Zone of solar-like stars (3). The Kepler program hunted for planets using the “transit method” to

Recently this year, NASA announced the discovery

estimate how many of the billions of stars in the

of Kepler-1649c, an exoplanet remarkably like ours

Milky Way, a region of the galaxy that contains

(5). It all started when scientists from NASA

our Solar System, have such planets. This is a

managed to recognize Kepler-1649c as a planet

method used to monitor stars for brightness dips

after taking a closer look at the signature, which

produced by crossing-planets from the

previous searches with a computer algorithm have

spacecraft’s perspective (1). As planets move, they

failed to identify, as they reviewed old observations

produce orbits, which are dashed lines that can

from Kepler – which was retired in 2018 (5).

be easily seen with a proper telescope. Every planet present in space is in orbit around a star,

Every 19.5 Earth days, Kepler-1649c completes one

called a star host. When the orbit of one of the

orbit. This indicates that the exoplanet lies in its

planets passes or ‘transits’ in front of its star host,

host star’s habitable zone, the region around a star

the star would lose an amount of its light with the

where it is possible for a rocky planet to carry liquid

orbit from the planet blocking its light source,

water on its surface and possibly support life (6). Out

typically between 0.01% and 1%, depending on

of the thousands of exoplanets found by Kepler, this

the sizes of the star and the planet (8). Hence, this

distant world that lies 300 light-years away from

shows that for every planet crossing a star, the

Earth is most similar to our planet in terms of its

star’s brightness dips observed by the spacecraft

size and estimated temperatures. This exoplanet is

will vary since the size of different planets and

only 1.06 times larger than Earth and receives 75%

stars are all different from one another. This

of the amount of light we get from our sun (7). This

phenomenon allows Kepler to detect and identify

combination of characteristics truly makes this new

the different planets by measuring these small

planet extraordinary, the first occurrence of its kind

drops in brightness.

written in history, which NASA officials verified by writing, “There are other exoplanets estimated to be

Using this transit method, we can finally speak

closer to Earth in size… in temperatures… But there is

about what's out there with data rather than

no other exoplanet that is considered to be closer to

mere speculation. However, due to the Kepler

Earth in both of these values that also lies in the

space telescope running empty in fuel, NASA

habitable zone of its system.” (1)

decided to retire the nine-year-operating spacecraft, leaving a legacy of more than 2,600 planet discoveries from outside our solar system, many of which could be promising places for life (4). Kepler’s data revealed that our skies were filled with billions of hidden planets. It’s just a matter of knowing where to look. With every newfound exoplanet, we began asking: Is it a matter of time until we find our first inhabited planet beyond the Solar System? Are any potentially habitable by humans? And which planets, in which solar system, are most similar to our Earth? Hence

A NASA graphic that shows Earth in comparison to exoplanet Kepler-1649c. Credit NASA

bringing into attention the characteristics of the newfound Kepler-1649c.

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However, there is still much unknown about Kepler1649c. Firstly, its atmosphere - which could affect the planet’s temperature - remains a mystery. Its true habitability prospects are also difficult to measure as significant margin of errors are present for current calculations of the planet’s size, as do all values in astronomy when studying far-distanced objects, which would interfere with the reliability of the conclusions that can be made from the data obtained (4). Furthermore, unlike Earth, Kepler1649c is in orbit around a red dwarf, a type of star that "is known for their stellar flare-ups that may make a planet’s environment challenging for any potential life," according to NASA (4). However, this shouldn’t be too big of a problem as red dwarfs are incredibly common, making up about 70% of the Milky Way’s stellar population. "With red dwarfs almost everywhere around our galaxy, and these

"You might be thinking, “Another Earth-like planet? That’s old news.” Kepler-1649c is a very special one as it hits closer to home than all the other known exoplanets have ever before."

small, potentially habitable and rocky planets around them, the chance one of them isn't too different from our Earth looks a bit brighter," said lead author Andrew Vanderburg from the University of Texas (1). Before we go packing their bags and rushing for Space however, we must take into account that more information about this planet is required to determine whether it has the conditions promising for life. From what is known already, Kepler-1649c gives hope through the possibility that there is another Earth hidden among Kepler’s many exoplanets, but this latest discovery should keep us on our toes.

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SCIENCE CROSSWORD PUZZLE 1

CITY LIFE \\ ASHTRAYNUTZ

Source: WordMint

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THE SCIENCE OF INFRARED

By Melvin M. Hamdani KEYWORDS Infrared, Light, Covid-19, Energy

RELEVANT AREA OF SCIENCE Physics/Biotechnology

ABSTRACT The current global COVID-19 pandemic has provided a golden opportunity for infrared technologies to be seen in a new light by the world-wide community as an essential tool for the continuity of the human race.

INTRODUCTION Have you ever wondered what thermal cameras, heat-seeking missiles, and laser-thermometers have in common? These technologies boast incredibly accurate heat detection. Their uses range from the science lab all the way to the AC-130 gunship that provided air support over live battlefields in Transformers (2007) targeting the brightly lit smudges that appeared on the operator’s screen. They all use vibrant contrasting colors to function (see Fig 1.), but what really makes them work is infrared radiation. Infrared has seen its fair share of contribution towards the scientific physics community. It has already been applied in a host of various areas and as quarantine rolled in, it has also seeped into our daily lives.

Figure .1. Display on Infrared Equipment. Source: energyeducation.ca

So, what is infrared radiation? It is a type of electromagnetic radiation

that is more commonly known as ‘invisible light’. The light we see every day is comprised of all the colors perceived by the human eye. This works through the interaction of light with various objects, which 'gives' them color. Humans can only see a fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum (see Fig. 2), with the remaining fraction entirely not visible to us unless we use technology for assistance(3). We encounter infrared waves every day; the human eye cannot see it, but we can detect it in the form of heat (5). Infrared radiation (IR) is constantly emitted by the human body and other objects depending on their temperature. With sufficient energy, infrared can turn into visible red light, like the brilliant color you see in fires. When you look through an IR camera, you can clearly see the different colorations based on the temperature of the given location (see Fig .1). With this said, temperature plays a huge role in determining the colors you see through IR cameras as different temperatures influence the emission of IR rays

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Figure .1. Display on Infrared Equipment. Source: energyeducation.ca

In light of recent events, you have probably encountered another piece of IR equipment, which has grown in popularity during the COVID19 pandemic - the laser thermometer which security guards often point at you before you enter a public location. While other thermometers require them to be inserted into your mouth or nestled between the armpits, the laser thermometer allows the temperature-check of individuals from a moderate distance, minimizing contact. It works by concentrating the emitted infrared radiation from the targeted object into a thermopile, a device that converts the thermal energy into electrical energy, which measures and displays the approximate temperature of the object. The laser thermometer may come at a hefty price(12), but it is faster, more convenient, and safer. These thermometers are often also used as a laboratory instrument to measure the temperature of objects inaccessible through normal means.

Although it may not be the most well-known technology, infrared has contributed significantly to the continuity of the human race, and has been especially notable during this current pandemic. As technology continues to develop, we may start to see more and broader applications of infrared in the future.

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SPLITTING WATER INGREDIENTS Water (to fill container) 2 screws (to work as electrodes) 9V battery (a 6V battery will also work) Pinch of baking soda Pinch of salt (sodium chloride) A few drops of lemon juice A few drops of dish washing detergent Small container, ideally clear plastic

DIRECTIONS 1. Prepare your container by placing the two screws at the bottom of the container and screwing them into the container. They should not touch each other. 2. Connect the terminals to the battery. Ask an adult for help with this stage. 3. Fill container with water, making sure it remains water-tight (you may need to glue the screws onto the container). 4. Mix in the baking soda. 5. Switch on the battery and watch the results. As you switch on the battery, you should start to see bubbles forming. These are gases including hydrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Clean the container and repeat again with lemon juice, salt, detergent and just water to see if there are any differences. You may have to try different amounts of the electrolytes (baking soda, lemon juice, salt and washing-up liquid) especially if you have a large container. The trick is to start small and gradually increase until you see some results.

Source: https://www.reagent.co.uk/chemical-reactions-part-3/

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OPINION: THE POLITICAL RELEVANCY OF SCIENCE BY EDELLINE SUTANTO

To truly indulge oneself in their deepest passions, one must also choose to shun themselves from their surroundings. This is a belief adopted by many scientists around the world as anything else can prove to be a distraction to their time. In a normal’ situation, this mindset would not be an issue, yet this world continues to wake to a new reason to disprove of scientific research. These issues may have led the New England Journal of Medicine to publish their first ever political article titled, “Dying in a Leadership Vacuum” [4].

but many have presumed that the article was in reference to Trump and his associates, for they have rarely been spotted with a mask in public and have even caught the virus as a result [4].

This article discusses the United States’ ignorance towards the pandemic as a failure of leadership, especially in comparison to other countries that are presumably not technologically advanced enough to handle the pandemic as the United States should have done [1]. The solution proposed for this issue was to vote out those agreed to be incompetent [1]. There are no specific American politicians that were mentioned,

POLITICS, SCIENCE, PERCEPTION, AND TRUTH

No matter the politicians in question, it is quite evident that the New England Journal of Medicine’s article is a major call to action for scientists to become more aware of political happenings, considering the great popularity that was garnered by this article.

The pandemic is not the only reason scientists should be more politically active, rather such an instance serves more as a wakeup call for scientists worldwide. [With the rise of postmodernism], humanity has entered an era in which facts became synonymous with beliefs.

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With the rise of postmodernism, humanity has entered an era in which facts became synonymous with beliefs.

The situation is made worse by how social media functions in order to attract more consumers. Cookies first originated to meet the need to make activities on the internet more convenient through saving the user’s history [2]. Advertisements have used this technology called algorithmns to advertise whatever a user is interested in [2]. As a result, the internet, especially social media apps, would only display what the viewer wants to see [2]. Logically, this would mean that those virtually surrounding the user are of common thought when it comes to beliefs and opinions which proves to be an issue when it comes to intellectual variety. It seems to be an integral understanding from business to play the devil’s advocate [3]. Such stances have helped individuals find

loopholes and contradictions within their arguments. As a result, playing the devil’s advocate has shown to increase “individuals’ ability to succeed at the bargaining table, with success defined as discovering hidden agreements and both creating and claiming resources at the bargaining table,” [3]. To simplify, actively finding contradictions may strengthen one’s arguments. Such a system would have issues in long term quality of outcomes due to the lack of understanding of such a subject, since this system would require a team when it comes to the field of business (due to conflicts in opposite thought) which is occasionally significant in the STEM field [3]. This does not discount the effectiveness of the approach when it comes to short term outcomes. Playing devil’s advocate is much easier when it comes to an individual’s actual surroundings since everyone consumes different forms of media, therefore molding a different opinion of a subject. Perhaps it is the similarity in thought that has created a greater sense of stubbornness when it comes to a difference of opinion, or this has been a pre-existing issue that has risen due to the freedom of speech that social media grants to its users. It is this collective belief for certain subjects that has caused misinformation to spread like wildfire.

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CLIMATE CHANGE AND FURTHER IGNORANCE As shown through different instances in the United States, such as the fight against the Green New Deal, scientists and researchers are not seen as the authorities of knowledge when it comes to scientific areas of knowledge. Many politicians have stated that climate change was a hoax and those loyal to them have believed such lies. Even myths such as the dangers of vaccines, not really supported by many politicians worldwide, have caused parts of the general public to ignore scientific reasoning. As more and more dishonest claims rise from assumptions of the scientific community working against the general public, so does the distrust for scientists. Quite strangely, many within the States have started to trust politicians in their political party. Since America greatly dominates the media attention, there is a great chance that whatever occurs in America can influence the opinion of those abroad. This could be seen in the George Floyd protests in which several countries including Syria, Kenya and Japan, participated in. Unfortunately, this could also mean that the ideas shared by the Americans have a greater impact on those abroad, including anti-vaccine myths. Given that cases of preventable diseases have skyrocketed after the rise in popularity in anti-vaxxers, such negative impacts from misinformation may cause more global distrust of science.

GOVERNMENT CONTROL In the context of the pandemic, there have been many that have chosen to doubt the vaccine. As a new technology that was ready to be applied, it is reasonable for the general public to worry about any long-term effects that the duration of the experimentation did not reveal, yet what is most concerning is the assumption that there is an alternate objective to these vaccines. Many have stated fears for a device within the vaccine that could breach the safety and security of an individual without much evidence.

Such instances are the reasons why scientists and researchers in the STEM field should be more involved in politics. Since a great portion of what goes on in the country depends on its politicians, there are many that put their trust into such people even if they are wrong. Choosing to be more involved in politics may help the general public be more factually correct as there are more ways of providing empirical scientific evidence for why climate change is a threat in comparison to why it isn’t. Furthermore, being more involved in politics may help scientists abroad know more about how much their own governments are willing to invest in their respective field of research. There are several countries globally that are unable to do much due to a greater investment in other sources of income or war rather than technological development. Quite recently, the police brutality protest has revealed many of America’s budgeting. These papers revealed that the country’s profits greatly go towards military efforts, leaving many areas such as Flint, Michigan deprived of basic needs. Other times, different scientific organizations such as the WHO may express bias towards certain nations depending on who offers more funding. Following up on such instances could help raise awareness for what would be better for the entire STEM community, not just from one nation.

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Bluetooth for Social Distancing BY NATHAN B. WANGIDJAJA

However, there are others who continue to neglect the infectious capabilities of COVID-19. They choose to not wear masks, host large parties or not even maintain proper social distancing. Seeing this prevailing issue, it is essential for people to recognize the importance of social distancing. Moreover, since the economy is now starting to reopen, people must maintain proper social distancing. But, how are we able to do this? Is there a method towards maintaining social distancing whilst continuing our daily lives? The

Throughout this whole pandemic, it has

answer is through the term: RSSI.

been a bother for many people to safely walk outdoors. People worry that the virus is merely steps from them. Humanity is now stuck in their own cage, waiting for COVID-19 to be fully eradicated. Although it has been many months, it does not seem like the condition is getting any better. The

Figure 1

number one cause of the spread of this virus is interactions among people. The more populated an area is, the more likely it is for one to receive the virus. Hence, population density plays a significant role in the spreading of the virus. Now, people are too frightened to be nearby others.

Every device utilizes Bluetooth. Bluetooth is used in a variety of manners: file transfers, computer control and other activities. One of the fundamental features of Bluetooth is its ability to detect nearby devices. In every Bluetooth device, there is a term called the signal strength.

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The signal strength is important in determining

When both the RSSI and the Measures Power are

the distance between devices. It can also be

used simultaneously, it is possible to determine an

referred to as the Received Signal Strength

approximation of the distance between devices.

Indicator (RSSI). To put in a simpler term, RSSI measures the power level received by the Bluetooth antenna.

FORMULA Using both the RSSI and the Measured Power Constant, a formula to measure distance can be seen from the following,

N represents the Environmental Factor (ranging from

2-4). Since there are various environmental factors Figure 2 The minimum distance required for social distancing (Regulation in Indonesia) Source: https://maucash.id/tag/social-distancing

that could cause fluctuations in the RSSI value, they must also be taken into account.

SETBACKS A minor setback with the RSSI is its precision. It is merely an approximation of the distance between devices. For instance, by using the RSSI, the device can approximate the distance to 1-2 meters or 2-3 meters. It is not possible to identify the exact distance between devices (e.g. 2.34 meters). Nevertheless, these approximations would still be beneficial in promoting social distancing. Another issue with utilizing a device’s RSSI is the

Figure 3 Image of Bluetooth connecting devices Source: https://oppo.custhelp.com/app/answers/detail/a_ d/5432/~/whats-new-for-bluetooth-in-coloros-6.0

fluctuations that occur upon absorptions, interferences or diffractions. These fluctuations only occur if the devices are significantly far from

APPLICATION

each other. The farther they are, the more

Using this formula, the approximate

unstable the RSSI is. However, this should not

distance can help promote social

play a massive role in determining the distance approximation between devices. Considering that

distancing. Perhaps, creating an

the social distancing regulations in most

application that utilizes this would

countries are to maintain at least a 1-2-meter

allow people to be more aware of their

distance, this should not cause any fluctuations in a device’s signal strength.

MEASURED POWER Furthermore, devices also use a constant called

surroundings. Although COVID-19 does not seem to be decreasing any time soon, nations have decided to open up their economy. It is moments like

the Measured Power. Essentially, this determines

these that social distancing is

the expected RSSI between devices if they are 1

considered necessary.

meter apart.

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The Significant Correlation Between Zoonotic Diseases and the 2020 Pandemic By Justin Jaya

INTRODUCTION Stories and legends have written of diseases and plagues which were able to wipe out whole civilizations and cities. Regardless of which period they existed, thousands of lives were lost due to diseases and the lack of adequate medical care and knowledge. Different varieties of diseases have caused multiple outbreaks in the past, several of which are categorized as zoonotic diseases.12 The term zoonotic refers to any disease which originates from an animal host, which then spreads to a human host. An example of an outbreak of this type of disease occurred back in the 14th century, where the notorious Black Death took the lives of over 50 million people.3

ABSTRACT Throughout centuries of humanity’s development, numerous cases of new pathogenic outbreaks have always been a serious issue impacting the livelihood and survival of the human race. Just recently, a worldwide pandemic had been instigated due to constant human interaction with wildlife. This disease known as the COVID-19 coronavirus has been categorized as being a disease of animal origin, otherwise known as a zoonotic disease. Newer and more tolerant diseases will continue emerging at a faster rate as globalization has taken its place in modern society, while human interaction between wildlife trade allows for more pathogenic contaminations to occur and affect the masses.

The Black Death disease originated from the Yersinia pestis bacterium that lives in fleas and lice, which consequently, infected many rats.4 These rats with their scavenging behavior had spread all around the cities, towns, or even inside ships, causing a massive spread of this disease throughout the population as humans would often be found to be in close contact with these animals. Making things worse, people in the Middle Age did not have much medical knowledge about hygiene and health. This would leave many to become clueless of how to best avoid or treat the disease. Knowledge that would have been useful in surviving outbreaks, such as social distancing, was not as widespread at the time. Due to the lack of public health advice as well as proper medical treatments and procedures, many exponentially became sick and eventually died.

KEY FACTORS RELATED TO THE RAPID SPREAD OF DISEASES Coming into the topic of the scientific explanation and mechanisms behind the transmission of diseases, for a disease to become highly infectious, it must first spread from one host to the next.

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Many diseases can travel through multiple mediums, such as air, water, animals, humans, and more. Many other diseases also possess asymptomatic traits during the first few days of its incubation period, it does so to fully adapt to the host to begin multiplying itself rapidly. During this incubation period, the virus may still be transmitted to others without showing any distinct symptomatic traits, making the virus unnoticeable. Unaware carriers often act as the main driver to massive increases in infection rates.6 The majority of asymptomatic carriers are individuals from healthy, younger populations who possess stronger immune systems that canrespond better to the virus, therefore preventing or slowing the reproduction of the virus. If the virus is incapable of reproducing at a significantly higher rate than by the amount in which it is being consumed by white blood cells, then it will not be able to cause enough damage to tissues to produce symptoms. Since the symptoms of asymptomatic carriers are undetectable, the majority of these people will unintentionally spread the virus to healthy people even if the virus lives in minuscule quantities in these people.5

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON THE SPREAD OF DISEASES

Present-day diseases have been known to spread across the world at a far more alarming rate, in comparison to past diseases that existed centuries ago. The primary contributor being the implementation of modern transportation into society. Nowadays, traveling to another country could take merely a few hours. In contrast to the past, it would have taken months to transport commodities across land or sea. This slower time period involved in commodity transportation from many years ago implied that plants, animals, and the carried diseases could not be instantly spread across multiple countries in the span of a few weeks or months, as compared to the present day. The increase in worldwide population density is also another factor that contributes to the spread of diseases. This factor is especially prominent in places with higher population densities, like cities and capitals, as it significantly increases the chance of the diseases spreading.8

n the present day, not only do new outbreaks of diseases arise every few months, many old diseases still exist. These older diseases eventually mutate to build a stronger resistance against modern antibiotics. This evolutionary development of new viruses and bacteria will pose a threat in the future as people will not be able to fight against new strains of diseases with the current level of antibiotics.9

CORRELATION BETWEEN HUMAN INTERACTION AND OUTBREAKS OF ZOONOTIC DISEASES

Hence, applying the knowledge on disease transmission back to zoonotic diseases, the majority of highly contagious and dangerous diseases are shown to have originated from animals. Experts estimate that 3 out of 4 of each new infectious disease is categorized as zoonotic. In the current era, more of them have continued to appear due to the increase in human activity and the interaction with wild animals throughout multiple areas in our lives. Humans have continued destroying wild animals’ habitats to gain natural resources or to create land for agriculture or housing purposes. Furthermore, some people have also continued enacting the illegal trade of wildlife, which involves multiple animal species from around the globe being traded as commodities. These animals would, then, be gathered together to be sold in the black market or an exotic animal market. Resultantly, cross-contamination of zoonotic diseases is bound to occur, significantly increasing the odds of a zoonotic outbreak.10 Five of the most common ways, in which people can become infected by an animal-borne disease is either through the direct contact with animals from bites, scratches, bodily fluids and more, or the indirect contact in an animal’s living area, foodborne illnesses - unpasteurized milk or undercooked foods, and waterborne diseases that are contaminated with an infected animals’ fluid or feces.12

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SPREAD OF THE COVID-19 VIRUS AS A ZOONOTIC OUTBREAK In the case of the current zoonotic outbreak of COVID-19, researches are confident that the source of the virus originated from a species of bats. This specific virus is likely to have been transferred between several other species of animals, eventually ending up in humans. The COVID-19 virus first spread to humans in the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market – referred to as a wet market, located in the region of Wuhan. Wet markets sell fresh products such as seafood, meat, fruits, and vegetables. However, in rare cases, certain wet markets also sell wildlife animal products for consumption. Following the spread of the pandemic, the Chinese government has decided to create a law to ban all trades of wildlife connected to food or consumptive purposes. Despite the enactment of this law, it did not affect the majority of wet markets in China, as many did not sell wildlife for consumption. Instead, the only wet market being close down was the Huanan wet market, which was identified as the main source location of the virus.7 One of the main reasons why bats are known to be the culprit of multiple coronavirus species, such as COVID-19, MERS-CoV, or SARS-CoV, is due to their innate ability to remain “healthy” or unaffected by many of the diseases that reside in their body.1 The older generation of bats that would have first contracted these diseases have either died from them or survived and gained a stronger immunity. The reason why viruses may tend to become less lethal over time is that they try to adapt towards infecting more hosts to replicate itself continuously. This is done so that the virus itself would not be too lethal and instead kill their own, leaving them with no more hosts to spread to.

For the first generation of bats that had managed to survive the initial contraction of the diseases, they would pass on their resistance genes towards the next generation. Even though the next generation of bats may still contain the same diseases in their body, it would be in a dormant state.2 In addition to that, bats were also found to possess genetic modifications associated with their ability to fly. These genetic modifications had inherently improved their immune system to a certain extent, which played a significant role in helping their ancestors in surviving these diseases.11

REFLECTING UPON THE EFFECTS OF ZOONOTIC DISEASES What we should learn from the endeavor of surviving a zoonotic outbreak is that we should always be aware of the future dangers that arise from human interactions with wild animals. As a society, we should not continue to harm wildlife through means of habitat destruction and illegal trade of wild animals. If this behavior continues, humans may have to face the threat and consequences of many more zoonotic diseases, which may result in an outbreak that is larger than the current COVID-19 pandemic.

"As a society, we should not continue to harm wildlife through means of habitat destruction and illegal trade of wild animals."

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Ingredients 1. 1 AA Battery 2. A gum wrapper with a foil or metallic side 3. A pair of scissors

Fire from a gum wrapper? Directions 1. PLEASE BE CAREFUL. When done properly it is

Pstt...Yes! It's as simple as that!

fairly safe, but done improperly it can be dangerous (as with most things fire related)

2. Simply cut a long thin strip from your wrapper.

3. Fold your strip in half. Cut diagonally across the folded strip as shown in the picture. When unfolded, your strip should have a narrow spot right in the center.

4. Make sure you are connecting the metallic side (not the paper) to the battery. Source: https://www.instructables.com/Make-A-Lighter-Out-Of-Battery-Gum-Wrapper/

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THE ANTIBIOTIC APOCALYPSE: HAVE WE BEEN DEFEATED BY PATHOGENS?

What would you say if I told you that right now, humanity has linked arms in an effort to artificially engineer the perfect super bug? A bug that could potentially cause millions of deaths, a pathogen much like the coronavirus that could cause the turmoil of the entire world and plunge humanity yet again into an era of pandemic. Well, it’s happening right now, and we are all responsible for contributing to the process of creating a superbacterium. We call it the antibiotic crisis.

BY CHAE YEON HWANG

H Fig. 1: “Bacteria are amongst the oldest living organisms on our earth” Image Courtesy to [4]

which become hosts to these biological enemies that are capable of proliferating at rapid rates which can eventually kill us. Before the discovery of the super-weapon we call antibiotics, humanity was

Dr Juandy Jo, a molecular biologist, senior immunology scientist and scientific analytical research leader at Danone Nutricia Research Center of Singapore, has greatly aided my search of answers to the boundless queries I had about the topic and will help you too as you go through this journey in understanding what the antibiotic crisis really is.

rendered helpless to the imminent death caused by these pathogens, but today, together with vaccinations, antibiotics have revolutionized medicine and quite literally life for humanity. Antibiotics have not only pioneered treatment of microbial infections and enabled us to conveniently cure previously deadly diseases, but also play a pivotal role in what we now consider routine

Bacteria are amongst the oldest living organisms on our earth. They have existed for millennia and it’s safe to say that they are masters of survival. These old creatures exist among us virtually everywhere, even inside of us. But, don’t push the panic button just yet because most of them are harmless and even beneficial. Our own bodies host trillions of good bacteria that aid in digestion and immunity but there are a few bad apples, pathogenic bacteria that can invade our bodies [7],

medical practices and procedures such as surgery, organ transplants or chemotherapy, allowing us to safely conduct them. On a macro scale, it had also increased life expectancy in the U.S. by nearly 25 years. Certainly, in developing nations where sanitation was largely unheard of, antibiotics decreased the severe rates of morbidity due to food-borne illnesses and poverty-related deaths and they still do now [5].

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Fig. 2: “Play a pivotal role in what we now consider routine medical practices and procedures” Image Courtesy to [4]

Fig. 3: “Surgery, organ transplants or chemotherapy, allowing us to safely conduct them” Image Courtesy to [6]

“If we use antibiotics when not needed, we may

In order to understand how an antibiotic

not have them when they are most needed” -

actually works, we need to first imagine a

Dr. Tom Frieden, Former Director U.S. CDC. The

bacterium as a very complex machine with

emergence of multidrug resistant pathogens is

even more complex inner machinery.

threatening our reliance on antibiotics. Dr. Jo

Antibiotics work to disrupt this machinery, for

tells us that antibiotic resistance simply put, is

instance, a bacteria’s metabolism, so that its

any mechanism used by the bacteria to blunt

growth and proliferation is significantly

the efficacy of the drug and escape the

reduced and therefore the antibodies of our

suppression mechanisms of the antibiotics. To

immune system can now deal with the bacteria

understand the antibiotic resistance crisis, we

that is a weaker threat. Other antibiotics work

must look into Darwin’s theory of natural

to attack the DNA replication processes of the

selection. Bacteria, much like any other living

bacteria, again preventing its rapid

organism, is subject to random mutations that

multiplication and therefore killing the

give them an edge in survival, a competitive

bacteria. Some antibiotics are also capable of

advantage. For bacterium, resistance was this

shredding the bacteria’s outer membrane to

edge. The non-resistant bacteria that hadn’t

pieces, leaving its insides no longer intact. It

acquired the special gene died off fairly quickly,

can do all this without bothering our own body

especially in antibiotic-rich environments such

cells.

as hospitals, the perfect breeding grounds for multidrug resistant bacteria due to the clustering of highly vulnerable patients and extensive occurrence of invasive procedures. This leaves a lot more room and resources for the stronger, resistant bacteria to thrive, passing along the mutated genes for resistance, accelerating bacteria’s ability to evade the drugs designed to stop them [7]

Fig. 4: “Antibiotics work to disrupt this machinery” Image Courtesy to [7]

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Well but if antibiotics were so good at defeating bacteria then why are we even talking about antibiotic resistance? That is because evolution has made it possible for a small number of these bacteria to develop resistance against antibiotics. Then they can escape and spread their resistance to their bacterial friends, through horizontal gene transfer that encapsulates three distinct methods: conjugation, transformation and transduction, as explained by Dr. Jo. Firstly, we have conjugation,

Fig. 5: “Spread their resistance to their bacterial friends” Image Courtesy to [6]

bacterium-to-bacterium contact by pili, hair-like structures characteristic to prokaryotic cells, that allow the bacteria to share genes in bacterial ‘sex’. Bacteria, unlike us humans and in fact any other eukaryote, have two types of DNA, meaning two different structures that contain genetic information, chromosomes and plasmids, plasmids are autonomous extra rounds of DNA that do not contain the entire genome of the bacteria but can carry a specified amount of genetic information. What these bacteria can then do is exchange

“Fig. 6: Hospitals are perfect breeding grounds for multidrug resistant bacteria” Image Courtesy to [4]

plasmids with each other. Conjugation is a lot like a big hug between two bacteria, when they hug, they exchange plasmids that contain the information for immunity and resistance. This process makes it extremely easy for these bacteria to share useful abilities with one another and for immunity to spread through a population of bacteria at overwhelming speeds. The the bacterium with the acquired genes produces progeny which in turn inherits the resistance; this vertical transfer is called binary fission, the asexual way bacteria multiply. The second most prominent

Fig. 7: “Two different structures that contain genetic information, chromosomes and plasmids” Image Courtesy to [4]

method is called transformation, in which bacterium with compromised cell walls release their DNA into the environment upon death to be picked up by living bacteria and incorporated into their own genome. The living bacteria harvest the DNA left by the dead but resistant bacteria,

Fig. 8: “Conjugation is a lot like a big hug between two bacteria” Image Courtesy to [4]

therefore obtaining the genes for resistance. The peculiar thing is transformation can occur between species, which increases the risk of the emergence of superbugs that are resistant to multiple types of antibiotics. The third and final variation of horizontal gene transfer is called transduction, in which genetic material is transferred by a viral vector, by phages, which serves a vehicle almost by picking up the genetic material of one bacterium and then infecting another bacterium with those genes.

Fig. 9: “The living bacteria harvest the DNA left by the dead but resistant bacteria” Image Courtesy to [4]

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We’ve been talking about the transfer of genes but

its cell wall and keep it unimpeded so the

what skills and resistance mechanisms are these

antibiotic cannot access the interior of the

bacteria obtaining from their fellow friends. Dr. Jo

bacteria to exert its damage. Hence the MRSA is a

tells us that these genes offer one of three distinct

perfect example of an bacterium that uses the

abilities to the bacteria. Firstly, the bacteria can

mentioned two mechanisms. Lastly, the bacteria

secrete specific enzymes that can deactivate the

can invest in an efflux pump that can simply

antibiotics, for instance, beta-lactam acids, also

pump out the antibiotics the moment they are

called beta-lactamases, that disrupt the beta-

identified by the bacteria, before they have a

lactam ring characteristic to the structure of beta-

chance to do any damage. E.coli is an infamous

lactam antibiotics. Salmonella is a prime example

group of bacteria that prevents the entry of the

of a bacterium that uses this resistance

antibiotic quinolone by actively pumping them

mechanism. Secondly, since the antibiotic needs

out using efflux pumps [7].

to first be able to enter the bacteria to exert its effect on it, the bacteria will modify its cell wall to disable entry. Thirdly, once the antibiotic passes through the bacteria’s membrane and cell wall, it needs to bind to a certain target, a specific receptor. Hence, the bacteria can modify this target or find an alternate pathway to continue creating the products it needs for survival [7]. To illustrate this, we can think about folic acid, a type of vitamin D commonly incorporated into a pregnant mother’s nutritional intake to ensure proper development of the naval system of fetuses.

Fig. 10: “The bacteria can invest in an efflux pump” Image Courtesy to [4]

Humans, in this way, need to obtain this vitamin

The antibiotic resistance crisis is largely attributed

by consumption so that it can be diffused and

to the unique cocktail of two factors: the overuse,

transported into our cells. However, bacteria’s

over-prescription and misuse of antibiotics as well

prokaryotic cell wall inhibits folic acid intake by

as the lack of new novel drug development by the

diffusion or active transport. Hence, it is

pharmaceutical industry due to the lack of

synthesized by the bacteria from the substrate

economic incentives and the challenging

para-amino-benzoic acid (PABA) so that the

regulatory requirements that pose a high barrier.

bacteria can use the folic acid as a nutrient vital for

The crisis is an increasingly concerning issue when

the synthesis of its nucleic acids and proteins.

we consider the substantial clinical and financial

Without the means to obtain this nutrient, the

burdens it places on our healthcare system as well

bacteria would die, hence certain antibiotics

as on patients.

target the pathway of folic acid synthesis in bacteria. When this bacterium acquires resistance

Dr. Jo reports that the first most prominent cause

however, it finds an alternate pathway and

of the crisis is the overuse and over prescription of

overcomes its dependence on this drug target [2].

antibiotics. Especially in many underdeveloped

Staphylococcus aureus, a bacterium species that

and developing countries, antibiotic prescription is

can cause infections such as pneumonia and

severely unregulated, meaning that society has

sepsis, is notorious for its resistant strain MRSA,

access to them without a professional diagnosis by

methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus, which

a health professional. They are available over the

as indicated by its name is a population of bacteria

counter without a prescription. As Dr. Jo puts it,

that is resistant to the beta-lactam antibiotic methicillin. Its resistance arises from a gene that

“People have become their own pharmacy.”

replaces the protein that beta-lactams usually target and bind to in order to kill the bacteria as well as a gene that enables the MRSA to maintain

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Antibiotics being overly accessible, plentiful, and

and officials through public campaigns raising

cheap encourages self-diagnosis and overuse by

awareness of rational drug use and you have the

an oblivious and uneducated society. In contrast,

antibiotic apocalypse.

in countries like Germany, as recounted by Dr. Jo, where he used to live, it is a lot more difficult to

Fourthly, antibiotics are not only found in the

buy antibiotics since they only be purchased with

medical realm; its uses and benefits extend far out

a prescription from a doctor and even then,

to the agricultural world as not only treatment for

doctors are often reluctant on prescribing

infections in livestock that are grown in unhygienic

antibiotics unless the patient is suffering severely.

conditions and tight spaces teeming with

However, even in countries where antibiotics are

pathogens, but also as growth supplements.

tightly regulated, the increased ability to access

Antibiotics therefore increase the revenues of

antibiotics online without prescription has

farmers through increased yield and higher-quality

exacerbated the crisis.

meats. The problem is when humans consume this livestock, the antibiotics are ingested with the

The second reason why multidrug resistant

meat and transferred through the food chain.

bacteria are arising without stop is the inappropriate prescription of antibiotics. “Studies have shown that treatment indication, choice of agent, or duration of antibiotic therapy is incorrect in 30% to 50% of cases…In addition, 30% to 60% of the antibiotics prescribed in intensive care units (ICUs) have been found to be unnecessary, inappropriate, or suboptimal.” Inappropriate prescriptions not only have questionable therapeutic effect but they also expose patients to potential complications that are dangerous and

Fig. 11: “Antibiotics therefore increase the revenues of farmers through increased yield and higher-quality meats” Image Courtesy to [4]

promote genetic alterations in the bacteria. Increased virulence and strain diversification is the result of the antibiotic-induced gene mutation. Thirdly, adherence to the prescribed regimen and dose is often violated; patients simply don’t like to complete their drugs, either they fell sick and halt their prescription without consulting their doctors, or the other extreme, they feel better in 2-3 days of taking their drug and do not finish their antibiotic therapy. Dr. Jo refers to this phenomenon as the lack of discipline by society. He explains that the

“Treatment for infections in livestock that are grown in unhygienic Fig. 12: conditions and tight spaces teeming with pathogens” Image Courtesy to [4]

prescribed regimen ensures sufficient concentration of antibiotics, enough to kill the bacteria; however when antibiotics are underconsumed, the bacteria is merely knocked out, it is not dead, and since the patient has stopped taking the antibiotics, the patient will never get the sufficient concentration of the drug and hence, the bacteria will gain resistance, become stronger, no longer vulnerable to the concentration of antibiotics it was previously exposed to. Add to that the disregard of information disseminated by health organizations

“Treatment for infections in livestock that are grown in unhygienic Fig. 12: conditions and tight spaces teeming with pathogens” Image Courtesy to [4]

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The modern era of antibiotics began in 1928 when

At the time, the antibiotics industry was a highly

Sir Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin as he

successful and highly profitable enterprise.

was returning from holiday and noticed that on a

However, newly discovered antibiotics were only

petri dish with mold growing on it, there seemed

applicable to a relatively narrow spectrum of

to be no bacterial growth, amongst the many

pathogens compared to the first ones that were

other petri dishes he was using to observe colonies

more broadly applicable. This consequently also

of Staphylococcus aureus [1]. Penicillin

meant that fewer of the new antibiotics were sold

revolutionized WWII medical care for soldiers and

due to its reduced versatility and therefore, sales

was first implemented and prescribed to treat

and profit was reduced for the pharmaceutical

extreme cases of infections. In Fleming’s Nobel

companies producing these antibiotics. In the

Prize Speech in 1945, he warned of resistant

early stages of discovery, antibiotics were also

bacteria that had the potential of ruining the

heavily overprescribed, easily over the counter,

miracle we call antibiotics: “public will demand

even for viruses to which the antibiotics had no

[the drug and] … then will begin an era … of

effect on. As time progressed, scrutiny over

abuses” [5]. Surely enough, there came a cascade

prescriptions increased. Once a new antibiotic was

of resistant germs to penicillin and every new

marketed, physicians held this new agent in

beta-lactam antibiotic developed in response to

reserve as a last-line drug and while this was an

the clinical emergency that threatened the validity

inherently good thing, it also meant that sales for

of the achievements made in the prior decade.

antibiotics plunged downwards leading to the diminished return on investment [6]. After a restless and exhausting one and a half decades, the antibiotic business began drying up as new novel antibiotics were not being produced with the same vigor as before.

Fig.13: “1928 when Sir Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin” Image Courtesy to [6]

Fig. 15: “Up until the 1980s however, the pharmaceutical industry… discovering new antibiotics and even newer ones” Image Courtesy to [6]

Fig. 14: “In Fleming’s Nobel Prize Speech in 1945, he warned of resistant bacteria” Image Courtesy to [6]

Up until the 1980s however, the pharmaceutical industry worked day and night to counter the urgent and pressing situation by discovering new antibiotics and even newer ones to defeat the increasingly immune bacteria. In other words, it was a vicious cycle and perfect method of creating increasingly dangerous bacteria and wasting resources.

Number of Antibacterial New Drug Application Approvals Versus Year Intervals The number of new antibiotics developed and approved has decreased steadily over the past three decades (although four new drugs were approved in 2014), leaving fewer options to treat resistant bacteria. * Drugs are limited to systemic agents. Data courtesy of the CDC5 and the FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. [5]

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Antibiotic discoveries were no longer considered

This has led to a strange phenomenon, a

an economically wise investment as they were

disconnect. Economic disparities chip into the

curative in the short term, resistance was

situation, with developing countries being

inevitable and therefore it was only a matter of

composed of massive cohorts of the population

time of how long efficacy lasted. Hence,

simply unable to afford these new medicines at

pharmaceutical companies decided to focus on

higher prices and therefore not even having access

drugs for chronic illnesses instead. These were

to antibiotics that are direly needed. All the while

drugs that patients took indefinitely, for example,

in other parts of the world that have well-funded

those for blood pressure, cholesterol, heart disease,

healthcare systems, they are thrown around all too

diabetes, psychiatric disorders. Making

freely. Antibiotics should be a last resort potent

advancements in the treatment of chronic

drug instead of a throat candy you take when your

illnesses were considered more revolutionary and

cold is annoying [4]. Most antibiotics in the market

worthwhile especially when companies thought

today are off-patent and are supplied by

about the big bucks. The profit motive that drives

manufacturers of generic drugs meaning they are

the pharmaceutical industry is one of the major

cheap and expected to be priced at similar ranges.

players of the ‘antibiotic-resistant microbes take

This is why shifting profits away from the volume

over the world’ game. The lack of economic appeal

of antibiotics to the value per unit poses major

also originates from the low cost of antibiotics,

issues as well.

compared to for example chemotherapy that costs thousands of dollars, antibiotics are considered relatively cheap without much of a financial burden. By the mid-1980s, no new classes of antibiotics were being developed and researched due to woefully inadequate funding [6]. All the while, bacteria had not stopped acquiring resistance and spreading it onto their neighbors and populations of different species, hence, as Dr Jo puts it, “The rate at which bacteria is acquiring resistance

Fig. 17:“The horrors of the pre-antibiotic era have been erased from our memories” Image Courtesy to [4]

is much faster than the rate at which we are making antibiotics.”

Fig. 18: “Antibiotics should be a last resort potent drug instead of a throat candy you take when your cold is annoying” Image Courtesy to [4]

To make things worse, even with the very few companies willing to pursue the development of antibiotics, like the American startup Achaogen, they often go bankrupt [6] because antibiotics are Fig. 16: “Pharmaceutical companies decided to focus on drugs for chronic illnesses instead” Image Courtesy to [6]

The tragedy is that humans have short memories, the horrors of the pre-antibiotic era have been erased from our memories and today we treat this powerful super-weapon as a commodity instead of as the game-changing breakthrough in science that it is.

simply that unlucrative. Furthermore, obtaining approval through the complicated “bureaucracy, absence of clarity, differences in clinical trial requirements among countries, changes in regulatory and licensing rules, and ineffective channels of communication” pose a high barrier to entry.

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The standards for clinical design and trial through the conventional 3 phases of approval are not only expensive and lengthy but are subject to constant alterations by medical institutions [5]. For these many reasons, pharmaceutical industries are fearful of even dipping their feet in the pool. But before you get too hasty in accepting the dystopia, there is good news. Although the development of antibiotics has slowed, scientists are working to stay ahead of these biological enemies in the form of novel treatments and

Fig. 19: “Scientists are working to stay ahead of these biological enemies” Image Courtesy to [7]

antibiotic adjuvants of which nature offers the most promising alternatives. Penicillin itself is a fungal organism that much like any other microbes or fungi evolved over thousands of millions of years in competitive environments which pressured them into continually finding survival advantages over pathogenic bacteria, explaining the antibiotic compounds they contain.

Fig. 20: “Phage therapy… Phages are viruses that attack bacteria” Image Courtesy to [6]

As aforementioned, bacteria can resist antibiotics through the proteins they synthesize that act to degrade the antibiotics. In response, scientists have come up with antibiotic packaging composed of molecules that inhibit resistance so that antibiotics that would previously not work can do its job. Another one of the ingenious and promising avenues scientists are investigating is phage therapy. Phages are viruses that attack bacteria but leave human cells alone. And of course, scientists are constantly developing vaccines that can help prevent diseases caused by

Fig. 21: “Scientists have come up with antibiotic packaging composed of molecules that inhibit resistance” Image Courtesy to [6]

pathogens in the first place, before we contract them [6]. Dr. Jo himself is contributing to the fight

But all this aside, what can we do? Well, we can

against resistance by isolating bacteria found in

partake in preventing infections through proper

our environments, plating and then testing them

sanitation and hygiene, an example being

against various antibiotics to figure out which ones

frequent handwashing. Dr. Jo highlights the

the bacteria exhibited resistance to. Then, Dr. Jo

pandemic as a “blessing in disguise.” It has

explains that the genomes of the bacteria can be

helped us increase our awareness of the sheer

isolated and sequenced with the help of

importance of hygiene, improving our behavior

bioinformatics and the DNA code, the entire

with regards to adhering to public health

nucleic acid contents of a bacteria can be

measures like wearing masks, washing our

researched to figure out which gene mediates

hands, and avoiding areas which all contribute

resistance, and which natural antimicrobial could

to the prevention of bacterial resistance. We can

be used to tackle this resistance.

also be more cautious of following our prescribed length, dose and regimens for antibiotic treatment, making sure to ask our health professionals if we absolutely need to

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take antibiotics and definitely not pressuring them when they recommend against it. Lastly, we can make an effort to keep ourselves vaccinated against bacterial infections so herd immunity can be reached against any type of infectious disease and prevent resistance at its roots [3].

Fig. 22: “Keep ourselves vaccinated” Image Courtesy to [7]

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THE GENE-ALTERING ENZYME THAT'S GOING TO SAVE US ALL BY CHAE YEON HWANG

KEYWORDS Gene-Editing, CRISPR-Cas9, COVID-19, DNA, Viral disease, Ethics, Bioengineering, PAC-MAN

RELEVANT AREA OF SCIENCE Viral Sciences, Biotechnology, Biology, Medicine, Health

ABSTRACT In this article, we will be discussing and exploring the truly extraordinary CRISPR-Cas9 technology, capable of altering a living organism’s genome. Inspired by the bacteria’s natural immunity to viral infections, this technology has provided scientists with the ability to manipulate DNA itself, a phenomenon that was previously deemed impossible. However, with great technology also comes great responsibility, we must consider the ethical implications of such a revolutionary breakthrough. Most importantly, we will look at the real-life applications of this small little enzyme based technology as scientists at Stanford University, in cooperation with Berkeley, create their CRISPR-Cas9 based PAC-MAN technology as a possible antiviral therapy to the ever-present coronavirus.

WHAT IS GENOME EDITING AND CRISPR-CAS9? Genome editing, or altering an organism’s DNA is a particular area of biology that has burgeoned in recent years and is worthy of the title of a groundbreaking scientific discovery, not to mention has gained a lot of hype. These technologies allow the removal, the addition and alteration of genes in an organism’s genomic information or DNA at specific locations. Even though it sounds a bit intimidating right now, this genome-editing is really big and it could change our lives drastically in ways that we could have never imagined. Just imagine 10 years from now, having blue-eyed and red-haired children, that’s what this small little enzyme and a bit of ATCG can do. Amongst these genome editing technologies is CRISPR-Cas9, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9. This recent breakthrough was a result of the collaboration between Jennifer Doudna (a Howard Hughes Medical Institute Investigator and professor of molecular and cell biology and chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley) and Emmanuelle Charpentier (director of the new Max Planck Institute of Infection Biology) in 2012 [4].

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The newly discovered technology is inspired by bacteria’s immunity to viral infections. It’s much like our own immune systems which produce memory β cells, a type of lymphocyte or white blood cell, in response to antigens- any substance that causes your immune system to create antibodies- so that it can recognize the virus the second time it invades and much more efficiently proliferate and combat the pathogen. Bacteria too use snippets of the viral DNA, from the virus that entered its system, to create segments of DNA called CRISPR arrays which concomitantly allow the bacteria to recognize or remember the virus. The second time the virus attacks, the bacteria produces RNA segments – which are like DNA but single-stranded- from the CRISPR arrays to target the viral DNA. The bacteria will then use a Cas9 nuclease or similar enzyme- enzymes are simply proteins with special functions- to cut the viral DNA up. These Cas9 enzymes have the unique capability of cleaving the phosphodiester bonds of the nucleic bases of a strand of DNA. If you didn’t understand that, it basically separates the double-stranded DNA and thus disables the virus from causing any harm [2].

The protein will recognize a similar sequence in the host organism’s genes and bind the foreign RNA to this similar DNA sequence, unwinding and cutting through the double stranded helix by enabling two active sites – regions of enzymes that catalyse reactions according to which substrate attaches to it- to do so. The Cas9 enzyme, “guided” by the foreign RNA then cuts and remove the target DNA sequence. The most important thing is that scientists now have the ability to cut target sequences, or specific DNA sequences at precise locations that code for a certain trait by manufacturing a strand of RNA that corresponds to this DNA sequence. Once the DNA is removed, scientists have the ability to alter this genetic information by “knocking out” or removing unwanted genes, such as disease causing sequences or the replicated sequence of virus, and replacing it with “knock in” or the addition of the correct genes allowing cures for genetic diseases and treatment for viral infections. This technology has provided science with a way to manipulate DNA itself. Hence its rising interest in the prevention and treatment of diseases. Current research is barred by the limitations of independent cells and animal models due to its uncertainty in safety for testing in humans however the prospects for CRISPR-Cas9 is certainly exciting and predicted to be incredibly impactful. Researchers have explored the application of this technology on a vast variety of diseases that include single-gene disorders such as haemophilia, caused by the mutation of blood clotting proteins of the sex chromosome, as well as cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anaemia. CRISPR-Cas9 has also presented itself a promising therapy for the human kind’s most deadly diseases, such as cancer, heart disease, mental illnesses and the chronic HIV-AIDS [2].

Fig. 1. Source: [4]

The CRISPR-Cas9 technology in the lab similarly entails Cas9 proteins binding to segments of foreign RNA to form complexes that can cut the double stranded DNA of the host organism with the same sequence, in very simple terms. Scientists can create a short segment of RNA with a “guide” sequence, or a sequence to which a corresponding DNA sequence that codes for a specific trait will bind to. The Cas9 protein, which is an endonuclease- a restriction enzyme with the ability to cleave double stranded DNA, as aforementioned, with either no regard to sequence or at specific nucleotide sequences- will bind to the foreign RNA to initiate the entire process.

ETHICAL ISSUES SURROUNDING CRISPR TECHNOLOGY Undoubtedly however, with the exponential advancement in scientific knowledge and thus, the greater capability and responsibility appointed in human hands, meticulous consideration becomes increasingly critical in the interconnected ethical and social realm. Ethical concerns that have been raised in public discourse surrounding the acceptability and commercial availability of this technology in the near future focus mostly on genome editing in germ cells.

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Current use of CRISPR technology stretches only as far as somatic cells, or what we commonly call body cells with 46 instead of 23 chromosomes. This necessarily implies that only certain tissues can be affected or altered and these alterations cannot be passed on to further generations. However, this narrative is turned upside down when the storyline is changed to altering genes in egg or sperm cells and even embryos [2]. The term “designer babies” has raised significant debate on the permissibility of CRISPR technology in use for non-therapeutic, clinical, reproductive enhancement purposes. This includes changing perfectly normal traits such as height, skin/hair/eye colour and even the genetic portion of intelligence in unborn babies according to the favour of his/her parents. This definitely sounds unsettling to me because we could be living in designed societies in the future, ones where we would never if someone’s features are their own and societies in which intelligence is determined by whether or not you were wealthy enough to receive CRISPR therapy. Others argue that once the technology is evidenced completely safe and effective, it is indeed a moral imperative that scientists allow commercial use in curing genetic diseases. Another aspect of public deliberation ongoing regarding germline therapy entails the obtaining of informed consent from the patient that will be receiving it, in this case, embryos, considering the fact that genes in germ cells will continue to be passed on to future generations. This can be especially concerning when we take into account the unknown risks prospective parents are taking in the case where therapy goes wrong. The counterargument however, is that parents in the status quo are already allowed to make decisions for their future child, including similarly complicated ones involved in IVF (in-vitro fertilization). Furthermore, justice and equity becomes a prevalent reservation to the ethics of this technology as it most likely will only be accessible to the wealthy. Thus increasing existing social disparities and disparities in access to health care or I guess even enhancement of perfectly normal features. Taking into account that when this therapy is taken to its extreme, it could potentially create a world of classes of individuals defined by the qualities of their artificially engineered genomes, further exacerbating the notion of the birth lottery and systemic disenfranchisement of certain groups of society [3].

IMPLICATION IN COVID-19 THERAPY? CRISPR-Cas9 is truly the revolution in biotechnology and could potentially be the key we have all been looking for since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic thanks to the work in progress of a team of scientists from Stanford University working along with researchers at the Molecular Foundry, located in the Berkeley lab. The two forces have united under the common goal of developing an antiviral agent against the coronavirus that has plagued us all. Previous to the outbreak of the virus, Stanley Qi, an assistant professor at Stanford University had been working diligently on a technology called PAC-MAN, or Prophylactic Antiviral CRISPR in human cells – that applies CRISPR in the common goal of fighting influenza. Hence, when news of an infectious viral disease originating from Wuhan, China began to emerge and soon enough took over the world as a global disaster, scientists and researchers alike all over the world have been working around the clock to beat the competition for a vaccine. Qi and his team too began their efforts in contributing with their very own PAC-MAN technology. Late March marked the beginning of Qi’s team’s collaboration with a group led by Michael Conolly at Berkeley’s lab. The two forces are currently working on developing a method to deliver PAC-MAN into the cells of humans. PAC-MAN is very much similar to the CRISPR technology, it’s comprised of an enzyme, in this case, the virus-killing Cas 13 enzyme and a strand of guide RNA. The RNA brings the message to the enzyme to destroy the specific nucleotide sequence in the coronavirus’ genome rather than the human genome. The team was only able to do this after long hours spent on discovering the virus’ genetic code. The PAC-MAN technology was found to be capable of neutralizing the coronavirus by preventing it from replicating inside human cells. However, one major roadblock Qi and his team faced was in the delivery of the therapy into lung cells, as the virus, SARS-CoV-2, invades the lungs, inflaming the patient’s air sacs/alveoli, filling it with fluid and thus hijacking their ability to breathe. That’s when they began working with Connolly who had been working on synthetic molecules named lipitoids, first discovered 20 years ago by Connolly’s mentor, Ron Zuckermann. These lipitoids, in a nutshell, are synthetic protein or peptide mimics that were evidenced to be effective in delivering DNA and RNA to a vast variety of cells.

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Not only have they been proven to be non-toxic to our bodies but they can also “deliver nucleotides by encapsulating them in tiny nanoparticles just one billionth of a meter wide the size of a virus.” The assembled team, late April of this year had already “tested a type of lipitoid - Lipitoid 1 - that self-assembles with DNA and RNA into PAC-MAN carriers in a sample of human epithelial lung cells. According to Qi, the lipitoids performed very well. When packaged with coronavirustargeting PAC-MAN, the system reduced the amount of synthetic SARS-CoV-2 in solution by more than 90%." The team plans to make further progress in testing with animal models against live samples of the SARS-CoV-2 virus and if successful continue to scale up their experiments up to preclinical testing in humans. The amalgamation of the two technologies, lipitoid delivery coupled with the PAC-MAN CRISPR-based technology could be the light at the end of the tunnel, a tunnel that we have all been tirelessly treading through. It poses as a prospective and powerful cure for fighting viral diseases, not only COVID-19 but against new strains of viruses, potent enough to effectuate a pandemic, that many have warned were prevalent in our future especially with the pattern of viral epidemics we have seen in the past decade.

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The Fight for a LowCost Ventilator BY CHAE YEON HWANG Fig. 1.: A picture sample of a ventilator. Credit Berita Satu {11}

KEYWORDS COVID-19, Bio-Engineering, Biotech, etc..

RELEVANT AREA OF SCIENCE Viral Sciences, Biotechnology, Biology, Medicine, Health

ABSTRACT At a time of medical crisis caused by COVID-19, discussions about ventilators have gained popularity, especially since many patients in desperate need of them are not able to gain access to this costly necessity. Some (mostly car manufacturers) have chosen to re-innovate this advanced piece of technology, though such changes have proven to not be quite simple.

The world is currently at a state in which the COVID-19 pandemic has become the determinant of a government’s ability to lead. It has either become the least of a government's problem in some countries or something that could define a leader’s inability to govern in others. A significant factor of what defines this quality in government is the country’s accessibility to ventilators. For COVID-19 patients with the worst effects of infection, a ventilator can offer the best chance of survival. The World Health Organization stated that the coronavirus causes the oxygen levels in the body to drop through fluid filling up the lungs, making it more difficult to breathe. To alleviate this, a ventilator is used to push air - with increased levels of oxygen - into the lungs, as well as add heat and moisture to the air supply to

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match it with the patient’s body temperature [4].

the patient’s lungs through a mask fitted over

Simply put, ventilators take over the body’s

the nose and mouth, attached to an air reservoir

breathing process when a disease has caused the

[3].

lungs to fail [4]. With their effective application in combating this respiratory virus, ventilators are

This type of structure of a ventilator was first

one of, if not the most, sought out medical

introduced through this project [5] and is now

supplies during these challenging pandemic

used quite commonly in other innovations of

times [4].

low-cost ventilators today [3]. Since there was not much of a rush to create a low-cost ventilator

This virus has caused hospitals worldwide to

in 2010 as it is in 2020, the ventilator prototype

struggle with supply. In regular cases, hospitals

project by MIT students chose not to move past

would have only a few in supply, but the infection

the prototype stage until the project was picked

rate has created a need for a lot more than ever

back up again in 2020 [6]. It was not possible to

expected [1]. As a result, hospitals have had to

immediately manufacture and distribute what

resort to rationing ventilators, which means that

the MIT 2010 project created as it lacked

people with higher chances of survival would be

significant aspects to a ventilator, such as a

favoured in comparison to those with lower

humidifier, which was explicitly stated in the

chances [1]. Consequently, patients cannot be

original scientific journal of the project[5].

promised full service and attention within the hospital setting, raising the likelihood of death

Due to the rush that came with the pandemic

even for those who are admitted for reasons other

and the economic benefits that are promised for

than COVID-19. In light of this issue, companies

the innovation of a low-cost ventilator, many

have either chosen to help manufacture more

have chosen to develop samples similar to MIT’s

ventilators [2] or to re-innovate the ventilator [3].

2010 project. However, a lot of these designs

The latter is not a new idea but is certainly one

would possibly cause more harm than benefits

that is growing in popularity as a result of the

on patients, making them dangerous. This is due

pandemic. Current-in-use ventilators are

to how these ventilators are missing humidifiers

inefficient in cases of a viral respiratory outbreak

or are just BVMs pumped by curved plates

as they take years of training to operate, are

mechanically [3], the two most common aspects

expensive, and face critical shortages that even

that prototypes could be missing. Humidification

contributions to production are unable to fix.

is an essential bodily process. In normal

However, the re-innovation of ventilators may be a

circumstances, the nose would heat and

potential solution to turn this inefficiency around.

humidify the air, which would keep the lungs or other parts of the respiratory system from drying

Before the pandemic, there have been two

out [8]. Patients with breathing issues would not

prominent ventilator prototypes made by MIT and

be able to do so, so they would need a humidifier

AgNa Healthcare, in 2010 and 2018 respectively.

as a substitute for the role of the nose [7]. The

MIT first developed its version due to a rise in

simplest-designed ventilators are known to be

respiratory-related complications in developing

one of the more dangerous prototypes created as

countries and a lack of preparedness for a mass

ventilation has to be tightly controlled since too

casualty in developed countries. What makes this

little pressure would mean that the ventilator is

version of a low-cost ventilator so prominent is its

useless [3]. When the virus invades the human

choice to build on an existing structure rather

body, it causes the lungs to fill with fluid

than starting from scratch since ventilators today

therefore disabling patients from being able to

are made of custom parts [6], which is more

breathe properly. This condition can be treated

expensive [5]. This existing structure, known as a

by increasing the pressure off the ventilators and

BVM or Bag-Valve-Mask, is another form of

allowing them to pump more air into the

ventilation in which air is manually pumped into

patient’s lungs.

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Fig. 2: Image of an AgVa ventilator. Credit Thailand Medical News {12}

AgVa Healthcare’s version of a low-cost ventilator was first prototyped by Diwakar Vaish around 2018. What sets it apart from a regular ventilator is its portable design and how different its design is in comparison to other ventilator constructs. The exterior of this design is oval shaped with a tablet attached to the front. So far, this sample seems to currently be in production and is promised to be distributed as soon as possible. This makes it one of the more promising ventilators out there, as it is most likely the first prototype patients could use safely. Unfortunately, there has been criticism over this product. HuffPost India stated, "Two government-appointed committees have flagged concerns about the reliability and capability of 10,000 low-cost ventilators, ordered by the Narendra Modi government as part of India’s response to the Covid-19 pandemic," [9]. These concerns included how AgVa’s ventilators 'should not be considered as a replacement for high-end ventilators in tertiary care ICUs' since the sample does not meet the standard for a functioning ventilator [9]. There have been several issues encountered regarding the use of this ventilator, as shown through an account from Dr. Zameer Farooq, an anesthesiologist and critical care surgeon at Prayag Hospital. He stated, “The AgVa ventilator was connected to a patient in the IC, but the hospital disconnected it when they found that the device could not

maintain the Tidal Volume - the amount of air delivered by the ventilator in each breath - and kept sounding alarms. The patient was taken off the AgVa ventilator in the night and put onto the hospital’s regular ventilator and the situation was controlled” [9]. “Your reporting is correct on the point that Tidal volume was not being delivered,” Vaish said, but mentioned that this was due to a leak in the “cuff” which is fitted in a patient’s throat to ensure the ventilator works properly. Whenever a ventilator is put on a patient, there should always be an anaesthetist or intensivist to control the machine. “However, Prayag hospital had only visiting anaesthetist and intensivist who were not present at night,” Vaish said. “Had our ventilator not raised an alarm the patient could have died without the needed intervention. So, in a way our ventilator saved a life’ [9]. Currently, these concerns by the Indian government, voiced through HuffPost India, have been dismissed as false news by Vaish himself through the popular social media application, Twitter. Currently, there is no saying as to whether AgVa’s ventilators will be the future of low-cost ventilators, but there is no doubt that there are still long ways to go in the prospects of low-cost ventilation advancement.

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A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF VACCINE TECHNIQUES AND ITS APPLICATION IN THE MODERN SOCIETY OF 2020-2021 BY JUSTIN JAYA

KEYWORDS Vaccines, COVID-19, 2020/2021, Prevention, Antibodies, mRNA Technology, Testing, Viruses, Pathogens

RELEVANT AREA OF SCIENCE Biology, Biotechnology, Medical Science, Cell Biology, Immunology, Microbiology, Virology

ABSTRACT An insight into a scientific perspective of the functionality, biological mechanisms, and applications of different varieties of vaccines and vaccine technologies which are currently market available and those that are still being tested.

Over the span of 2019-2021, the COVID-19 pandemic has devastated international medical and economical systems. The effect of the COVID-19 virus on the entire world has sparked a global initiative for scientists around the globe to cooperatively work and produce a vaccine for the COVID-19 virus. This is a rare moment in history where large amounts of resources and initiatives have been immediately pooled together to contribute towards the creation of a vaccine as well as for the medical equipment and facilities. Usually, the production of vaccines could takes up many years, even up to several decades to be produced and tested; as it entails several different complex research processes and methodological procedures which includes group trials to test for the vaccines’ safety and efficacy before approval and distribution to the general public. However, in the case of COVID-19, vaccines from many different parts of the world have

An image of the COVID-19 vaccine. Credit Reuters

already been mass produced and administered to citizens, to control the spread of COVID-19, to reduce further casualties. The new release of the COVID-19 vaccines had occurred just over a few months, and as a result, the safety and efficacy of the vaccines have been brought into question, since many citizens have poor/limited scientific understanding of the scientific body of evidences based on group trials, which results in the spread of misinformation through the several forms of media. Due to the massive influence of social media and news sources, the public has begun developing mistrust towards the validity of these vaccines. Thus, this article will clarify some of the misinformation and myths about the vaccines and its application in the modern day. A significant portion of the information provided is from Dr. Juandy Jo, a professor of immunology in the University of Pelita Harapan (20).

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AN OVERVIEW OF THE HISTORY OF VACCINES

among cattle. Eventually this virus was spread onto a child in order to develop a stronger immunity in

Source: (36) (40)

hopes to gain an immunity against the smallpox virus. It had turned out that the experiment was a

The influence of globalization has opened up

success. In the modern era Jenner is now

international routes for several foreign diseases to

recognized as the ‘Father of Vaccinology’ for having

spread at an alarming rate through several forms

developed the first vaccine for smallpox in 1798,

of commodities and passenger transport across

eventually leading to the total eradication of the

continents, cities, and even in small towns.

virus in 1979.

Although epidemics (region wide) have been

By the 1800s, vaccination had started being

documented throughout the vast majority of

encouraged and at times were required by

human civilizations, they were mostly known to

governments, in an attempt to limit and control the

have been endemic (restricted to certain regions).

spread of many deadly diseases, although by then,

However, the act of globalization seemed to have

the practice of variolation was discouraged.

increased the frequency of these outbreaks, eventually leading into world scaled pandemics such as the Spanish Influenza.

By 1879, Louis Pasteur had been able to develop the first laboratory made vaccine for Cholera when he accidentally stumbled upon

The concept of vaccination was originally

attenuation/weakening of the pathogen. He had

brought into existence after several decades of

created fresh cultures of the bacteria with the

medical studies, through method of trial and

intention to study its effects of illness on chickens,

error based on the limited knowledge from back

which his assistant forgot to do. A month later, the

then. One of the earliest practices of

assistant used this ‘old’ sample of bacteria on the

immunization happened around the early 1500s

chickens, which showed only mild symptoms in the

by the Chinese population, who had used

chicken in the beginning and eventually gained

inoculation, an artificial method of introducing

immunity against the bacteria, when tested in

microorganisms into a subject.

comparison to the ‘fresh’ sample of bacteria.

This was done by blowing dried infected

The consequent decades of extensive research of

smallpox scabs into the nostril of a healthy person

pathogens and its related disease has led to several

to expose a small amount of pathogens in the

significant developments and applications of new

hopes of obtaining immunity. This specific

vaccines, namely: Anthrax, Cholera, Rabies,

practice of inoculation for the smallpox disease is

Influenza, Pertussis (Whooping Cough), Polio, and

known as ‘variolation’ and it spread to many Asian

Measles. Another key success of the development of

and African countries, and eventually also

vaccines was the implementation of freeze-dried

European countries during the 1700s. The

vaccines which were applicable for use in tropical

significant disadvantage of this practice was the

climates where the vaccines can have a longer shelf

significant mortality rate (1 to 4%), although it was

life (it is still used up to this date). It is important to

not as severe as a natural infection, which was

note that outbreaks of the same pathogen

around 30%.

continued to occur as these pathogens may frequently continue to mutate and develop new

It was not until 1796 when a physician named

strains; equally it is common for outbreaks to spread

Edward Jenner, had developed a breakthrough in

when low rates of vaccination had occurred.

medicine with the controlled inoculation of the cowpox virus, which was a disease circulating

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WHAT ARE VACCINES

Source: (22) (21) (28)

Source: (5) (52)

Neutrophils are a class of granulocytes which have

the ability to combat pathogens, particularly A vaccine is a substance used to initiate the

bacteria and viruses. These neutrophils are also

production of antibodies within the subject. As

capable of creating barriers for the pathogens, to

such, the immune system responds by producing

inhibit the spread. However, these cells can be quite

antibodies to ‘combat’ the ‘infection’ in a

hazardous because when they combat the

controlled manner. Furthermore, immune

pathogens, they inadvertently damage healthy cells.

system’s response enables the body to become

Therefore, once they have completed their function,

resistant towards the same pathogen once the

they will undergo apoptosis (cell death) to prevent

immunity has been built up over time. Vaccines

further damage to the body.

are created in such a way that the contents being used include either a ‘weakened’ version of the

When there is an infection the pathogen enters

whole pathogen in order to initiate the immune

either the bloodstream or the surrounding cells,

response without having the same degree of

where it will be encountered by a macrophage.

symptoms severity in comparison to obtaining

These macrophages are large white blood cells that

the disease naturally.

can undergo phagocytosis (consumption) of both

A pathogen is simply a group of organisms that

infected cells and live pathogens. Simultaneously,

have the ability to create diseases, including

these macrophages send protein signals to the

kingdom ofbacteria, protozoa (i.e. plasmodium),

immune system to release more supply water from

virus, fungi, helminth (parasitic worms), and prion

the blood to the infected region to more easily

(mutated proteins) (20).

combat pathogens, in a process called inflammation. Once the pathogens have been

HOW DO VACCINES WORK The overarching principle behind the concept of vaccination is that if the subject infected by a weakened/partial pathogen (a form controlled inoculation), then they would more safely and easily overcome the disease, thereby gaining immunity from that disease. It is also important to understand that if a subject’s immune system has not experienced dealing with a particular pathogen, then it would take longer for the immune system to deal with that particular disease, thereby causing more damage to the body [49]. Before understanding the mechanism of vaccines, a basic understanding of how the immune system functions, should be understood. First of all, the immune system consists primarily of white blood cells, which can be categorized into 3 main groups :granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes. The main types most commonly involved in combating the pathogenic infections

engulfed, they are destroyed via the digestive enzymes, with the remaining antigen sub-units rising to the surface of the cell. These antigens are also bound to a receptor protein to form a ‘major histocompatibility complex’ (MHC). The particular antigen on the MHC can be used to activate T-cell to begin rapidly multiplying into specialized cells made to combat the pathogen. The activated T-cell can transform into a cytotoxic/killer T-cell, suppressor T-cell, or a helper T-cell, which are all involved in combating the spread of the pathogen. Furthermore, the helper Tcell is involved in activation of the memory B-cells and the generation of antibodies. Whereas for B-cells, they can directly form an MHC with the pathogen’s antigen from their receptor protein, without requiring the help of a macrophage’s MHC. When the MHC B-cells interact with activated helper T-cells, they release lymphokines. These lymphokines are responsible for the rapid duplication of activated B-cells into

are the neutrophils, macrophages, B-cell variants, T-cell variants, and dendritic cells (7) (22).

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memory B-cells or plasma cells. Memory B-cells

molecule which are ‘hypervariable’ and can be

help the immune system recognize the same

modified to combat specific foreign substances

pathogen that has been previously encountered, to

(antigens) (31). Once the antibodies are formed, they

instruct how to combat against it the next time the

will attach onto the antigen found on the surface of

same pathogen reappears, whereas plasma cells are

the macrophage to form an antigen-antibody

involved in the production of antibodies specific to

complex, which is used to combat the original

the particular pathogen.

pathogen.

Dendritic cells are also similar to macrophages, as

it conducts similar actions such as performing phagocytosis and on the pathogens and using the MHC to activate T-cells. However, they are more specialized in processing these antigens to initiate anti-viral or anti-bacterial immune response (by initiating T-cell activation). A variation of the dendritic cells are the follicular dendritic cells which do not undergo phagocytosis and antigen processing. Instead, they are able to hold onto the antigen-antibody complexes, which are used by macrophages as weapons to combat the pathogen, for an extended period of time for later uses. Antibodies are protein components which are specifically created by plasma cells (an activated Bcell) to kill residual pathogens that have survived the main attack from the macrophages (7) (22).

Illustration of a typical antibody molecule (31)

Structurally, they are made of 2 light and heavy ‘chains’ and also have tips on the end of the

Tree Diagram of Different Types of White Blood Cells (1)

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In short, the main significance of vaccines in the

I. INACTIVE/KILLED

immune system’s response against a particular pathogen is that once the body has overcome the

An inactivated vaccine contains deactivated

disease either naturally or through vaccination.

pathogens through the process of ‘killing’ or

The body will be capable of effectively

neutralizing it through chemicals, heating, or

obstructing pathogenic spread through the use of

radiation methods, so that the pathogen’s genetic

memory B-cells and the excess of antibodies

material cannot replicate due to being highly

which are stored by the follicular dendritic cells.

damaged (16).“By killing the virus, it cannot possibly

In that way,when the infection of the same

reproduce itself or cause disease.” (11). One common

pathogen recurs, the immune system can

chemical used to deactivate the pathogen is

recognize and hinder the growth of the

Formaldehyde (CH2O) (48). One downside of this

pathogen, which results in a developed resistance

type of vaccine often requires several doses in the

for that particular pathogen.

future to continually ‘remind’ the immune system’s resistance against the pathogen. These extra doses

DIFFERENT TYPES OF VACCINES

are often referred to as ‘boosters’ which often take

Modern vaccines can be categorized into several

time range differs depending on each specific

different categories including inactivated (dead),

several years before needing a booster vaccine, the vaccine (16) (45).

attenuated (weakened), subunit protein, and nucleic acid-based vaccine (mRNA vaccine)

Examples: Polio, Rabies, Hepatitis A, Flu (11) (45).

(20) (45). There can be many options for vaccines that can effectively develop a person’s immunity

II. ATTENUATED/ WEAKENED

towards specific pathogen(s). However, it also depends on the brand of vaccine which have different formulations of compounds as created by these pharmaceutical companies. Their main goal is to produce the ‘best’ vaccine with high efficacy rates (strong immune response), low symptoms (side effects), and longer shelf life/conditions (20). One additional information is that there are two main subcategories of vaccines, which are preventive and therapeutic vaccines. Preventative (prophylactic) vaccines are the main focus of this section as it is the most relevant for the current pandemic. This type of vaccine is primarily used to prevent the infection of pathogens. On the other hand, therapeutic vaccines can be used to train the immune

system to target particular diseases or pathogens for those who have already gotten the disease. Its usages are mostly for chronic or long term diseases such as cancer or HIV, but they are still under development and are not ready for clinical trials yet (20).

Attenuated vaccines contains weakened pathogens which can no longer continue reproducing itself, or are very inefficient at reproducing specifically in human cells. Two most commonly used methods to attenuate vaccines are by either forcing the pathogen to adapt to suboptimal temperatures or to infect non-human cells. With repeated inoculation of the pathogen in suboptimal conditions (either the temperature or non-human cells), this will cause the pathogen to forcefully adapt in order to survive rather than dying out (19). Once it has adapted into their new environment or a different target species, the pathogen will no longer be effective at infecting human cells which are their initial targets. Therefore, the pathogens can no longer effectively sustain itself inside human environmental conditions (20). One benefit of using live whole pathogens is that they very closely mimic the original pathogen, which will then produce a significantly greater immune response as they can “replicate well enough to induce "memory B cells" that protect

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against infection in the future.” (11). Therefore, the

ready to combat against another infection from the

amount of dosages required to obtain the

SARS-CoV-2 virus due to already having prior

immunity is reduced to once in a single lifetime

experience combating the pathogen, therefore

(19). However, a disadvantage of these vaccines is

already knowing which specific antibodies to create

that those who are immunocompromised (i.e.

when infected (a form of adaptive immunity) (9)

AIDS) may not be able to handle the weakened

(20).

virus (11) (16). For the mRNA vaccines, it is the most recent Examples: Measles, mumps, and rubella (all

technology, which implements the genetic

together as MMR vaccine), rotavirus, smallpox,

information of a pathogen, in the form of mRNA

chicken pox (varicella), yellow fever (11) (45).

strands. The mRNA strand(s) (messenger Ribonucleic Acid) are instructions that are sent from

GENETIC INFORMATION

a cell’s nucleus in order to produce proteins after

In this category of vaccines, it includes mRNA,

exists not only exist in pathogens, but in all living

DNA, and viral vector vaccines. Vaccines

cells and viruses. The theory behind this new

created with this technology utilize the genetic

technology is that once the mRNA is introduced

information of the pathogen by extracting,

into one’s cells, they would travel into the cell’s

modifying, and recreating it after sequencing

mechanisms, namely the ribosome, to produce the

their genome.

virus’ sub unit protein, which in turn will be

being interpreted by the cell’s ribosome. mRNA

recognized by the immune system as a ‘foreign’ For the viral vector vaccine, the concept behind

object (9) (20). Once the immune response has

it is that another harmless virus is used as a

occurred, the immune system will have memory of

‘transport mechanism’ in which a modified gene

the specific viruses’ spike protein and when they

of the known pathogen is then placed inside the

have been infected by the same virus again, the

‘transport’/vector virus. Once this vector virus has

immune system will be ready to combat and

invaded a cell, it releases the modified gene that

produce antibodies more effectively. A benefit of

belongs to the known pathogen to create their

this type of vaccine is that once a pathogen’s

specific proteins through the ribosomes.

genome is sequenced, the particular gene can be

Therefore, when the immune system becomes

easily selected and be developed in a short amount

aware of the infected cell, it will destroy and

of time to form the mRNA strand (20). Furthermore,

recognize the known pathogen’s specific protein

since it does not use any live or partial pathogen,

for future infections. Furthermore, this harmless

there is no risk of obtaining a disease from the

vector virus is not able to continually self-replicate

pathogen [16] [45].

like regular viruses as its genetic code has been modified, so that it can be safely applied for

Aside from the benefits, there are two main

immunocompromised individuals (11). One

detriments with this vaccine. Firstly, there is just not

example of this vaccine would be the Johnson &

enough research documenting the long term

Johnson COVID vaccine, which uses the spike

effects of this vaccine as it is a newly developed

protein gene from the virus to be produced inside

technology to be implemented in the market [16]

a human cell. Once the spike protein has been

[20]. However, based on the most recent clinical

produced, it appears on the surface of the cell

studies no severe side effects from this type of

where the immune system recognizes it and

vaccine has been discovered. One additional

“begin producing antibodies and activating T-

weakness of mRNA technology is that it must be

cells to fight off what it thinks is an infection” (9).

stored in extremely low temperatures (>0°C) due to

After the immune system handles the virus, it is

the fragile nature of mRNA strands [16] [20]. This is

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due to how mRNA strands are significantly more

inactivation, which increases the risk of cancer from

unstable than protein and DNA strands. One

mutations [17] [20]. However, a study done by

reason being many enzymes in the cell can

Nichols et al. (1995), showed that DNA based

accelerate mRNA degradation. Once the mRNA

vaccines did not show any signs of significant

in the vaccine has degraded by enzymes or

integration of plasmid DNA when tested in mice

increased temperature, it would lose its

cells, after several weeks of testing [32].

‘antigenicity’, the potency of the vaccine to

Nonetheless, this type of vaccine is not available for

initiate immune response [20].

public human use and should continue to be tested before widespread public use.

Examples: SARS-CoV-2 virus (Moderna, Pfizer) [11].

III. PARTIAL/ SUB-UNIT The main difference between mRNA and DNA vaccine technology is coming from the source of

The vaccines within this last category include

the genetic material. DNA vaccines use the DNA

protein, polysaccharide, conjugate or combination,

coming from the plasmids of the particular

and toxoid. There are many similarities and

pathogen. A plasmid is a small circular loop of

differences between each specific type of sub-unit

‘naked’ DNA, meaning that it is unbounded by

vaccine, but the key idea is that sub-units (small

histone proteins. It can be found in most

fractions or organelles of a pathogen) are extracted

prokaryotes and even in a few eukaryotes, as they

from the original pathogen and used as the main

carry additional DNA that belongs to the

components of the vaccine, to initiate an immune

pathogen. Therefore, the plasmid DNA is placed

response. The parts of the pathogen that stimulate

within the vaccine to be introduced into the

the immune system’s response and produce

human cell to travel into the host cell’s nuclear

antibody generators which are commonly referred

membrane and then translate it into several

to as antigens, which are also referred to as antigens

strands of mRNA that will recreate the pathogen’s

[18] [20]. Antigens can come in various forms and

protein antigens. Eventually, they will reach the

types of macromolecules such as protein,

cell’s surface and become recognized by the

carbohydrate, lipids, and combination, although

immune system, similar to mRNA. It is a similar

mostly commonly they are in the form of proteins

concept, however the use of DNA strands make it

[20] [25].

far more stable compared to mRNA strands

Antigens are also “characterized by its ability to be

which are relatively more easy to degrade [23].

‘bound’ at the antigen-binding site of an antibody,” therefore allowing the immune system to recognize

However, the downside is that it takes more time

and combat a pathogen [25].

for the plasmid DNA to produce mRNA, rather than directly injecting mRNA into the cell,

An interesting information is that carbohydrate or

because of how the DNA has to travel into the

polysaccharide antigens produce a weaker immune

nucleus to then be translated into mRNA [13]. The

response, which is why these antigens are artificially

reason being that only the enzymes involved in

attached to proteins so that the immune system

DNA translation only being found in the nucleus.

can easily detect the proteins and respond speedily

“Presently, there are no approved DNA vaccines

[8]. This type of technology is referred to as

for use in humans.”, this is due to the safety risks

conjugate, glycoconjugate, or polysaccharide

that are theorized to occur as the DNA from the

vaccines, and they are often used for cell wall

plasmid may integrate into the host cell’s

antigens that are made of polysaccharides (i.e.

chromosomes and increase the likelihood of

peptidoglycan from bacteria cell wall, chitin &

oncogene formation or tumour suppressor gene

mannan from fungi cell wall) [29] [34] [46].

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system’s response, or booster vaccines may be Toxoid vaccines in particular, are produced using

toxic by-products of a pathogen which are often caused by the pathogen. To gather the byproducts, the pathogens are first grown in the lab and then have their toxins to be extracted and purified so that it does not contain impurities and the live pathogen itself. Then when this toxin is introduced into the human cell, it will be recognized as a foreign substance and dealt with accordingly, by getting rid of the toxic byproduct. so that next time the immune system can combat the original pathogen more effectively [45]. A key point to understand is that not all pathogen sub-units are equal, in the sense that only a few sub-units are able to produce an immune response, hence they are called antigens. Furthermore, only some antigens are able to initiate ‘protective or neutralizing immunity’ during an immune response. Therefore, a person who has previously fended off a particular pathogen may still get sick again, due to the immune system not building up its immunity for that particular pathogen. For example, Hepatitis B virus has 3 antigen (HBs, HBc, HBe) that can be detected by the immune system. However, only the HBs antigen can develop ‘protective or neutralizing’ immunity, which is why only this specific sub-unit is chosen for the vaccine [20]. A few of the benefits that come from partial or sub-unit vaccines are that there is no risk of disease and major symptoms occurring, therefore they are valid for use by immunodeficient patients. Additionally, the components in the vaccine are relatively more stable and easier to manufacture in comparison to other vaccine types. The main downside of using sub-unit vaccines is that there is a significantly lower immune response due to the lack of ‘pathogenassociated molecular patterns’ which are found in live attenuated vaccines that use the whole pathogen. Due to this outcome, sub-unit vaccines often have added adjuvants to boost the immune

required to obtain further immunity [16]. Examples: Hepatitis B & acellular pertussis (protein subunit), pneumococcal (polysaccharide), diphtheria & tetanus toxoid (toxoid) [16] [45].

VACCINE COMPOSITIONS Source: (20) (25) Vaccines are composed of several key compounds in order to produce a final product that can effectively be stored for long periods of time while simultaneously boosting the immune response when administered. The key ‘ingredients’ found in vaccines include antigens, adjuvants, stabilizers, preservatives, and antibiotics (residual). Antigens are the antibody generating fragments of

a pathogen which can initiate the immune responses of the cell to produce antibodies and combat the pathogen. The antigens will differ depending on the particular pathogen that the vaccine is made for. Adjuvants are substances used to increase immune

responses, particularly by helping with the production of more antibodies. They are generally used for certain vaccine types that do not provide strong immune responses (i.e. sub-unit vaccines andinactivated vaccines). There are hundreds of adjuvants which are being studied and they can vary in terms of what the compound is. However, they all share the same purpose which is to further activate the immune system’s response. One of the most commonly studied and tested adjuvants are aluminium salts, which keeps the antigen in contact with the immune system for a longer period of time“, thereby lengthening the duration of contact between the antigen and the immune system (i.e. macrophages and other antigenreceptor cells).” [50]. Even though it is known that the aluminium salts are generally safe for usage in vaccines, it is important that they are administered into the muscle and not beneath the skin, to prevent possible formations of cyst, abscesses, and necrosis of cells

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Stabilizers are added into vaccines to keep the

The addition of antibiotics is a by-product of the

pathogenic components of the vaccine from

manufacturing process which is used “to prevent

deteriorating due to the unstable temperature

bacterial contamination of the tissue culture cells in

changes and pH which occur during storage or

which the viruses are grown.” [50]. They are found in

transport. “Stabilizing agents include MgCl2 (for

extremely small quantities and do not cause any

OPV [Oral Polio Vaccine]), MgSO4 (for measles

serious harm in the body. An additional discretion is

[vaccines]), lactose-sorbitol and sorbitol-gelatine.”

that some vaccines contain neomycin (i.e. MMR

[50].

vaccine) which may cause allergic reactions in rare cases. Therefore, people that take vaccines should

Similar to stabilizers, preservatives are added to

be monitored for 15-30 minutes to make sure that

combat and slow down the growth of

allergenic patients are treated with anti-allergic

microorganisms that could grow in the vaccine if

medication in the event of an allergic reaction.

there were any outside contamination. A few examples include thimerosal, formaldehyde, or

The diagrams below explain and describe the

phenol.

contents and function of each ‘ingredient’ that is used in the most recent COVID-19 vaccines.

A key thing to note about thimerosal is that many people are discouraging its use due to the

Figure 3, 4, 5, 6: Simplified Diagram of SARS-CoV-2

use of ethyl mercury which is shown to be

Vaccine Compositions (Pfizer-BioNTech, Johnson &

dangerous in high quantities, especially for

Johnson, Oxford-AstraZeneca, Moderna)

foetuses and pregnant women. Based on a few studies, ethyl mercury in low dosages, such as in

Directly Sourced From: [41] [42] [43] [44]

vaccines, does not have any significant detrimental effects, but should still be avoided [12]. However, due to the public’s concerns of the ethyl mercury, the preservative of thimerosal is no longer used for vaccines since 2003, aside from multi dose flu vaccines [10]. Formaldehyde (CH2O) is particularly known to act as a detoxifier to deactivate pathogens, but it is also known to be somewhat harmful in high dosages [48]. However, the amount of formaldehyde used in vaccines is miniscule, as there is a removal stage during the purification process of vaccine production to remove as much of it as possible.

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SYMPTOMS AND POSSIBLE RISK FACTORS At first glance, vaccines may seem intimidating with the lack of much information, from the idea of introducing pathogens into a human system. However, the main purpose of immunization, is to prevent more possible infections to protect those who are more vulnerable to an infection of a certain disease (i.e. immunocompromised and higher age group). Furthermore, historically speaking, the usage of vaccination have been shown to significantly decrease infection rates of pathogens; in some cases even leading to the near eradication of diseases, as shown with several known disease such as Polio, Pertussis (Whooping Cough), Hepatitis B, and Tetanus [4]. However, it has been put into the attention of several parents about the dangers of having vaccines be administered to young children or infants, due to worries of developing possible unwanted side effects. One example is with the use of diphtheria tetanus pertussis (DTP) vaccine on babies, which can cause most babies to develop fever symptoms due to the immune response towards the attenuated pertussis pathogen inside the vaccine. Many parents are worried about the side effect However, other vaccine technologies are available and can effectively build immunity, such as the sub-unit or a cellular version of the DTP vaccine which has reduced side effects [20]. Each vaccine may produce varying symptoms, however some commonalities do exist. A few of the most common short term side effects include mild fever, tiredness, nausea, soreness. Aching, mild pain, and inflammation can also be felt at the site of vaccination [6]. It is important to note that vaccines are developed with the mindset of reducing the amount of side effects, which in turn makes it safer. To reiterate, most of these side effects are only temporary, whereas the long term benefits can last several years or even for a lifetime. More serious side effects can still exist with certain vaccines and they can be further studied in trusted medical websites

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(i.e. [6]). Allergic symptoms are sometimes also

vaccinators may hold some ground towards

known to occur in the minority, due to trace

discussion, these claims should be further dissected

substances or residual by-products that are found

to find significant correlation to be a factor of

within the vaccine during the manufacturing

concern. The table below shows a list of key

process [50].

arguments made by anti-vaccinators that are summarized and credited to Tara C. Smith [37].

OVERVIEW INTO ANTIVACCINATION BELIEFS

Most of these arguments have already been debunked by several experts in the field of immunology, with most claims simply not being factually based. Further detailed explanations can

Source: [37] [38]

be found in the journal articles credited above. Overall, the spread of misinformation should be put

Quite recently there has been a rise in the anti-

to end so that people would become less sceptical

vaccination movement, due to the combination of

about the usage of vaccines, to lead to reduced

the influence of social media and the recent 2019-

rates of pathogenic infections.

2020 pandemic. As more people begin worrying about the safety and efficacy of the newly developed vaccines, more people begin to doubt scientific evidences that support the use of

THE ARGUMENTS: Directly Sourced From: [37]

vaccines. One crucial clarification that should be made about anti-vaccination is that there is a

Vaccines are “toxic” and contain antifreeze,

spectrum which exists based on people’s beliefs on

mercury, ether, aluminium, human aborted

vaccination, not everyone who is anti-vaccination

foetal tissue, antibiotics, and other dangerous

believes in the same thing. Some may fully reject

chemicals that can lead to autism and an

the concept of vaccination, while others may just be

assortment of chronic health conditions. Slogan:

hesitant or doubtful. It is unfair to assume that all

“Green our Vaccines”.

‘anti-vaxxers’ hold the exact same beliefs, thereby

Vaccines are a tool of “Big Pharma;” individuals

implying that they are uneducated due to

who promote them are merely profiting off of

contradiction of scientific evidence.

harm to children and/or paid off by pharmaceutical companies (“Pharma shills”).

A reason why many people believe in statements

A child’s immune system is too immature to

against vaccination is due to rise of scepticism

handle vaccines; they are given “too many, too

towards pharmaceutical industries. Another reason

soon” and the immune system becomes

may be due to how a small percentages of the

“overwhelmed,” leading to autism and an

population who have been administered have

assortment of chronic health conditions.

experienced several negative side effects due to

“Natural immunity is better;” most vaccine-

allergic reactions. However, these scenarios should

preventable diseases are harmless to most

be investigated by each specific case as there may

children, and natural exposure provides more

be several underlying factors behind the allergic

long-lasting immunity. e.g., “I had the

reactions. In the end, according to dozens of

chickenpox as a kid and I was just fine.” Some

research studies that have been completed over

individuals may also have the mistaken belief

several decades, a trend of pathogenic infections

that all “natural” infections confer life-long

have been seen to drastically decrease, following

immunity, whereas all vaccine-derived immunity

the introduction of administration of preventative

is short-lived.

vaccines.

Vaccines have never been tested in a true “vaccinated versus unvaccinated” study; the

Although a few points made by the beliefs of anti-

vaccines in the current schedule have never been tested collectively.

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Diseases declined on their own due to improved hygiene and sanitation; “vaccines

BRIEF LOOK INTO VACCINE DEVELOPMENT

didn’t save us.” Vaccines “shed” (can be transmitted by vaccinated individuals to others); therefore, cases of vaccine-preventable diseases in the population are driven by the vaccinated, not the unvaccinated.

Source: [20] [33] Vaccines are usually developed over a long period of time as they require a lot of carefully calculated trials to make sure that they are efficacious and safe. The testing of vaccines includes the

A further anti-vaccine argument to be discussed are their reasons why not risking to take vaccines are more beneficial. The argument talks about why people should just all be infected by a particular pathogen to develop natural immunity which would remain for the majority of their lives. The counter argument is that there are portions of the population that are immunocompromised and have higher mortality and infection rates. Therefore, if more people are vaccinated, overall decreases in infections would occur. Thereby leading to ‘herd immunity’ in a shorter amount of time, as more people in a community would have become immune to the disease. Herd immunity also has the effect of providing protection for those under certain health conditions and are unable to receive

exploratory stage, pre-clinical stage, clinical stage (Phase 1-3), regulatory review and approval, manufacturing, and quality control. During the exploratory and pre-clinical stages, vaccines are first tested in-vitro on living cells of microorganism(s). Then, if there are strong evidence supporting its efficacy, they are further tested on animals . After several careful inspections on the results of the animal studies and approval by authorities, the vaccine can then be tested on humans in the clinical stage. Phase 1 of the clinical stage involves a small group of people and focuses on side effects Phase 2 involves a larger group of people and focuses on

vaccines. [49].

finding the optimum dosage and timing of the

Furthermore, throughout history it is evident that

group of people which also includes particular sub-

there was a positive correlation with higher mortality rate and naturally surviving an infection, even in cases of people with healthy immune systems [40]. An additional example where naturally recovering from an infection is less beneficial is with the chickenpox virus (varicella). Even after recovering from the initial infection, the virus still remains within the body in a dormant state. However, when the immune system becomes suppressed or weakened under stressful circumstances, the dormant virus will be reactivated and will cause Herpes zoster disease [15] [20]. Therefore, getting a vaccination provides more

vaccines administration. Phase 3 is an even larger groups of people (i.e. elderly, pregnant, children, etc.) where the vaccine is tested for its ability to reduce the overall rate of infection. The safety aspect of the vaccine is studied throughout all 3 phases of the clinical stage, however, the last phase is where the results of vaccine efficacy is being emphasized on. Once the testing stage of vaccine is over, it will get approved by government organizations (i.e. FDA) and then further adjustments can be made during the manufacturing stage. Quality control of vaccines are also done with vaccines in order to check for any defective vaccines or to check for contaminations.

advantages compared to natural recovery from a disease.

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RELEVANT TO CURRENT COVID19 PANDEMIC

END GOALS OF VACCINATION AND IMMUNOLOGY

In light of the recent COVID-19 pandemic, it should

Source: [20]

be understood that vaccination plays a huge role in restricting the spread of the COVID-19 virus. As more

The main goals of vaccination and immunology can

people support vaccinations, significant decreases

be summarized by Dr. Juandy into 3 main goals.

in overall rates of infection will leading to developing herd immunity to help protect the

Nowadays, the main objective many immunologists

immunodeficient (i.e. elderly,

strive for, is to create viable vaccines in a short time

immunocompromised). However, many still have

to deal with the rise of new and old mutated

concerns and worries of the reliability of the COVID-

pathogens. The creation and application of

19 vaccines, but based on the reports by

vaccination in the general populous has been

government officials on the deaths of people who

reduced the issues with antimicrobial resistance [2],

have taken the vaccine. There has been no sign of

as pathogens are becoming more resistant to

any strong correlation between use of COVID-19

antibiotics due to constant reliance on antibiotic

vaccines and death. Instead, what is likely to be

drugs and treatments. Even though these

occurring is that multiple of the fatalities occurred

treatments are quite effective in dealing with the

in subjects who were previously subjected to

pathogens initially, pathogens that survive from

underlying conditions (i.e. immunocompromised,

these medications would adapt to the drugs and

smoking, etc.), or they were infected with the

therefore grow more resilient and becoming harder

COVID-19 virus before developing complete

to eliminate. Furthermore, there has not been a new

immunity which usually takes 7-14 days after the

antibiotic introduced in the marketplace for the last

second dosage of vaccination [47]. Considering that

20 years due to lack of incentive for the

the COVID-19 vaccine is very unlikely to result in any

pharmaceutical companies to produce newer

serious side effects, vaccinations should continue to

treatments. Once pathogens have adapted to all

be administered to establish a global ‘herd

antibiotic treatments, then diseases can no longer

immunity’ against this virus.

be effectively treated and may results in increased death rates, as seen in the cases of multidrug

TABLE 2: COVID-19 VACCINES EFFICACY RATES

Source: (3) (21) (24) (26)

resistant pathogens often found in hospitals [39].

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nanoparticles which encapsulate the mRNA strand. Therefore, the introduction of vaccination will allow

One study has proven that the vaccine retained its

for reduced rates of infections and overall

effectiveness in mice cells after being stored in

decreased dependence with antibiotics.

room temperature for 1 week, but this study has not

Vaccinations for multi drug resistant pathogens can

yet been further tested in humans [53]. Another

also be made to prevent infection by these

method that has already been developed and

pathogens, further reducing antimicrobial

applied in many of vaccines are freeze dried

resistance [35].

variants which can be stored for longer periods of time before usage. These freeze dried vaccines still

Secondly, many immunologists also aim to create

have to be kept at 2-8° Celsius alongside the

vaccines that have the least adverse side effects

corresponding diluents for mixing later on when it

while retaining the highest antigenicity to

needs to be used [51]. However, the main issue for

effectively stimulate the immune system for

freeze dried vaccines is that it must still be kept at

developing pathogenic resistance. The main reason

relatively cold temperatures for storage, and is still

being that vaccines with lower risk of adverse side

being developed [14].

effects will reduce the stigma revolving vaccination, which will encourage more people to be vaccinated. If vaccines are not administered to the majority of the population, infection rates will grow

CONCLUSION

exponentially. Vaccines also must take into

Based on the discussions regarding the various

consideration of the possible risks which may occur

aspects of vaccination including its history, function,

for certain individuals (i.e. immunodeficient,

composition, safety, and other subtopics, it is quite

pregnant). Furthermore, if vaccines were shown to

evident that vaccines truly hold a place in modern

remain effective for long periods of time, then the

medicine. It has been able to make great

amount of doses required to obtain the immunity

contributions by providing necessary means to

would significantly decrease and thereby becoming

combat against highly infectious and deadly

more accessible to more people. Simultaneously,

pathogens. Although during the COVID-19

this will guarantee that less overall infections occur.

pandemic, many people begin to develop a lot of scepticism towards vaccines, most publicly

Lastly, many immunologists seek to solve the issue

accessible vaccines have undergone the

of producing room temperature storable vaccines

appropriate processes of clinical trials and approval

which still retaining its antigenicity. The reason

to be considered as a safe medical technology by

being that several vaccine components can easily

most medical experts. Without vaccination, many

become denatured and lost its antigenicity,

are at the risk of the infection, leading to

especially if they are composed of proteins or

preventable deaths. Furthermore, the fight against

mRNA strands, which are inherently fragile.

pathogens can be aided with the application of

Currently, most vaccines uses the cold chain

worldwide vaccination. To conclude, it is important

technology in order to store vaccines for longer

to emphasize global education of vaccines,

periods of time safely. Although these vaccines

especially the newly developed COVID-19 vaccines.

usually can be held in 2-8° Celsius, they cannot withstand temperatures that exceed over 20-30° Celsius. Compared to other types of vaccine, mRNA vaccines require the ultra-cold temperature storage (-70° Celsius for Pfizer and -20° Celsius for Moderna vaccines) [30]. This is why new technologies are being developed to relieve the difficulty experienced by third world countries to afford the appropriate storage facilities. An example of such new technologies includes the addition of lipid

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks Dr. Juandy Jo for insightful information regarding the field of immunology and vaccination. Thanks for permission from the Unbiased Science Podcast for the usage of the COVID-19 vaccine compositions diagrams. Credits for Abbas. et al [1], National Human Genome Research Institute [31], and Tara C. Smith [37] for the following tables and diagrams used on the above.

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Additional Content Visual posts

nature v. nurture Genetical factor Inherited from parents Predetermined since birth If true, personality might be difficult to change over time

Each cell in the body has 23 chromosomes, one from each parent. They are made of DNA strands grouped into segments known as genes, which are the basic unit of heredity that transmits characteristics from one generation to the next.

Method of studying human behavior and personality: behavioral genetics

molecular genetics

Study of genetic and environmental influences on human behavior by comparing the traits of biologically and nonbiologically related family members. Study of which genes are associated with personality traits.

Studies in twins: The Minnesota Twin Study conducted between 1979 and 1999 studied 350 pairs of twins. Results revealed that personalities of identical twins were similar whether they were raised in the same household or apart, suggesting that some aspects of personality are influenced by genetics. Normally, identical twins share 100% of their DNA, but they only share approximately 50% of the same traits, which suggests that genetics do not fully define their personality, it is influenced by external factors, such as environment, that affects the gene expression and alteration process.

Environmental factor Gained from experience Adapted in life If true, personality might be flexible to change over time

Is your personality a result of nature (hereditary) or nurture (environment)? BY SHANIA PESIK Conclusion: Every personality trait has turned out to be somewhat heritable, but none is absolutely heritable. It depends on the gene expression, or it could also be altered, due to environmental factors. Therefore, personality is influenced both internally, through genes, and externally, through environment/experiences over time. Though, due to the limited understanding of genes, this matter is still highly debated, thus making the true answer to remain a mystery.

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The boy who harnessed the wind BY KATHLEEN FRANCISCA

Known for his perseverance, determination and grit, a young Malawian boy became a national hero when his invention saved the lives of many in his community - a remarkable journey detailed in the award-winning book and film “The Boy who Harnessed the Wind”. #thepowerofyouth #aheroinscience William Kamkwamba, from Malawi, is a born inventor. At just the age of 14, he had saved his entire community from famine by building an electricityproducing windmill from scraps and rough plans he had found in a library book called Using Energy. The windmill he built powered four lights and two radios in his family home, but he did not stop there. He had a big dream to build a larger windmill for irrigation and a form of resistance against famine and poverty. Growing up in poverty, Kamkwamba’s childhood was a constant struggle for survival. He faced starvation and had also been forced to drop out of school because his parents could not afford his education. However, day by day, Kamkwamba would sneak into the library, where he got the information he needed about windmills and water pumps. The junkyard was his lab, And, despite having faced poverty and public ridicule, Kamkwamba had not once stopped believing.

Everything in life is possible if you put up your mind and trust yourself. I tried and I made. Where is he now? “Is grown up and making a difference globally.”

https://www.ted.com/speakers/william_kamkwamb a https://inhabitat.com/malawi-youth-buildswindmill-to-power-village/ https://www.bustle.com/p/whats-williamkamkwamba-doing-in-2019-the-boy-whoharnessed-the-wind-inventor-is-making-adifference-globally-16103209

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What is Neuralink? BY YEBIN KIM

Neuralink is building a fully integrated brain machine interface (BMI) system. BMIs are technologies that enable a digital device to communicate directly with the brain.

https://neuralink.com/approach/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LgJpYOTll8U

A person with paralysis can control a computer mouse or keyboard. Information can be written back into the brain, (eg. to restore the sense of touch)

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FROM ALCHEMY TO CHEMISTRY

BY JAY LEE

alchemy v. chemistry Branch of philosophy that became the foundation for modern chemistry. Focused on transforming normal metals; ultimately finding a universal cure to all diseases and granting eternal life. Based on myths, spiritual beliefs, and experiments with minimal scientific basis.

The study of atoms (thus elements and compounds) and how they interact with each other. Combination of scientific theories and knowledge with experiments. People’s curiosity to explore the unexplored paved the way for modern science.

From alchemy to chemistry Discovery of new elements (e.g. arsenic, zinc, and mercury) peaked during the era of alchemy became the template for the periodic table and chemicals used in everyday life (e.g. NaOH: drain cleaner, NaCl: table salt). Discovery of extracting metals and other elements from their ores able to exploit elements and create compounds today (because of alchemy we are able to make iron/steel structures). Introduced the process of distillation as alchemy was mostly empirical [4] contributed to the creation of dyes, perfumes, alcohol-based drinks.

Most discoveries were “accidental” as alchemists experimented with different ways to turn base metals into gold. Accidental discoveries people/scientists are now able to understand chemical properties and make use of them Alchemy does look foolish to us now but knowing that It was crucial in creating the things we so carelessly use today, it perhaps wants to tell us that even the most absurd ideas should be heard.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/alchemy https://www.britannica.com/science/chemistry https://www.britannica.com/topic/alchemy/The-chemistry-of-alchemy https://science.howstuffworks.com/alchemy-to-chemistry.htm https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-alchemy-and-vs-chemistry/

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ASK GRACE INTERVIEWED BY JASON HOJIASHENG

Grace Tan, a student who majored in Electrical and Computer Engineering at Cornell University, answers the college STEM questions you have all been dying to ask.

So Grace, what was it like studying the major you took in university? It was definitely difficult because I had to explore both the software and the hardware side of the programs. The challenge truly lies in engaging in material that was not intuitive, such as in cases that involve the unpredictability of our exam questions. Not to mention, some other difficult aspects are the values of determination students were required to possess in order to get through our assignments well. What do you like most about your university experience majoring in a field of STEM? To me, in a technical sense, the core subjects, ranging from the study of how computers work to the coordination of their mechanics, are very interesting. The other aspects of this major I also enjoyed were the projects that involved teamwork - solving problems and implementing solutions together - with like-minded, intelligent individuals. We were in an environment, where openminded-ness was encouraged, and I really enjoyed that.

When did you decide to choose

How do you see yourself in the

Electrical and Computer

future, in this field that you're

Engineering?

pursuing?

When I was in 10th grade, I took this

I've currently accepted a full-time

electrical vehicle class and, there, I

job encompassing this background

built my own circuit. At that time,

of software programming applied

seeing the car that I programmed

to medical devices. There are a lot

function, it was like magic to me.

of opportunities for me to grow in

Then, I found out that mathematics

my understanding of the technical

and science were behind all of this

engineering skills in industry,

"magic" that I was seeing. That really

especially in a team which

intrigued me, which led me to this

involves...not only engineers, but

path of engineering.

also business representatives. A

My college intro courses were also

valuable real-world application.

very helpful in providing me with a

I believe that, in the future, as the

deeper insight into how diverse this

interjectory of innovation is still

major is - it will be very helpful to me regardless of which career path I decide to pursue in the future.

very much on the horizon, many more careers and opportunities in the STEM field are going to be highly demanded and needed for our civilization's advancements.

My ultimate advice for future students in STEM - in fact, in all the fields out there - is to never lose your curiosity.

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COLLABORATIONS STUDENT WRITERS Nathan Wangidjaja Melvin Hamdani

THE UPH FACULTY Dr. Andree Kurniawan Lecturer at the Faculty of Medicine of UPH and a clinician at Siloam Lippo Village, Karawaci, Dr. Andree has a research track of 50 international publications, 36 national publications, and 44 proceedings in symposium-congress books. He specializes in oncology-related clinical investigations.

Dr. rer. nat. dr. Juandy Jo, M. Mol. Biology An esteemed viral immunologist with a medical background as a physician, Dr. Jo is currently working as a lecturer at the Biotechnology Program of UPH. His record of achievements includes 15 international publications, 2 book chapters and 2 patent applications.

Edmund Anderson As the CEO of Hermetia Bio Science, Anderson is a 30 year professional with a specialty in Project Development, through systems design and integration. He has a passion for protein learning, incorporating its advances within the feed and food industries.

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SCIENCE CROSSWORD PUZZLE 2

CITY LIFE \\ ASHTRAYNUTZ

Source: WordMint

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2021 EDITION | SPHLV X SSI

THE END From our team to you, Thank you for reading our magazine! We hope that you were able to learn something new about science while also gain inspiration from our work - a project made possible by all the dedicated and intelligent students, individuals, professors who have assisted us this year. With much appreciation, The Student Science Initiative

JULY 2021

ARTICLE SOURCES ALL YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT HANDWASHING [1] “Bathing in the Western European Tradition.” Coming Clean: Hand Washing and Public Health, University of Virginia, 2007, exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/hands/western/. [2] Harvey, Katherine. “The (Not so) Stinky Middle Ages: Why Medieval People Were Cleaner than We Think.” HistoryExtra, 3 Mar. 2020, www.historyextra.com/period/medieval/did-medievalpeople-take-baths-why-they-were-cleaner-than-wethink-middle-ages-hygiene-handwash-washingcleanliness-coronavirus-plague-covid/. [3] Helmenstine, Anna Marie. “Know the Definition of Saponification.” ThoughtCo, 8 Jan. 2020, www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-saponification605959. [4] Kallen Scientific Communications Officer, Laura Edison. “How Does Soap Actually Work?” DefeatDD, 28 Aug. 2019, www.defeatdd.org/blog/how-does-soapactually-work. [5] Matterer, James L. “Daily LIfe.” Tales of the Middle Ages - Daily Life, 1970, www.godecookery.com/mtales/mtales08.htm.

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ARTICLE SOURCES GONE, A LIFETIME’S WORTH OF MEMORIES: THE “BLACK-BOX” DISEASE WITH A BRAIN-DEVOURING MECHANISM (1) “Alzheimer's Disease: Symptoms, Stages, Causes, and Treatments.” Medical News Today, MediLexicon International, www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/159442#what-isit. (2) “Alzheimer's Disease Fact Sheet.” National Institute on Aging, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimersdisease-fact-sheet. (3) Carrillo, Maria C. “We Will Find a Breakthrough for Alzheimer's Disease.” Time, Time, 24 Oct. 2019, time.com/5709633/alzheimers-disease-breakthrough/. (4) Kocahan, Sayad, and Zumrut Doğan. “Mechanisms of Alzheimer’s Disease Pathogenesis and Prevention: The Brain, Neural Pathology, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptors, Tau Protein and Other Risk Factors.” Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience, vol. 15, no. 1, 2017, pp. 1–8., doi:10.9758/cpn.2017.15.1.1. (5) “What Is Alzheimer's Disease?” New Scientist, www.newscientist.com/term/alzheimers-disease/. (6) Mackenzie, Debora. “We May Finally Know What Causes Alzheimer's – and How to Stop It.” New Scientist, 23 Jan. 2019, www.newscientist.com/article/2191814-we-may-finallyknow-what-causes-alzheimers-and-how-to-stop-it/.

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ARTICLE SOURCES (7) Kurniawan, Andree. Interview. By Kathleen Francisca. 21 December 2020. (8) Lee, Kwie Joen. Interview. By Kathleen Francisca. 24 February 2021.

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ARTICLE SOURCES HERD IMMUNITY, AN EFFECTIVE SOLUTION TO COVID-19? [1] - Rogers, Lindsay Smith. “What Is Herd Immunity and How Can We Achieve It With COVID-19?” Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 10 Apr. 2020, www.jhsph.edu/covid-19/articles/achieving-herdimmunity-with-covid19.html. [2] - Pawlowkski, Agnes. “What Is Herd Immunity and When Will We Get There for Coronavirus?” TODAY.Com, 3 June 2020, www.today.com/health/what-herd-immunity-when-willit-be-achieved-coronavirus-covid-t183014. [3] - “Herd Immunity.” Historyofvaccines.Org, 2015, www.historyofvaccines.org/content/herd-immunity-0. [4] - Barratt, Helen. “Epidemic Theory (Effective and Basic Reproduction Numbers, Epidemic Thresholds) and Techniques for Infectious Disease Data (Construction and Use of Epidemic Curves, Generation Numbers, Exceptional Reporting and Identification of Significant Clusters).” Health Knowledge, 20 June 2010, www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-healthtextbook/research-methods/1a-epidemiology/epidemictheory. [5] - Texas Medical Association, and Ari Brown. “What’s Herd Immunity? Physician Explains How It Protects Us.” YouTube, 3 Jan. 2020, www.youtube.com/watch?v=RR7MB64TDz8.

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ARTICLE SOURCES [6] - Last, John M. “Epidemic Theory: Herd Immunity Encyclopedia.Com.” Www.Encyclopedia.Com, 30 July 2020, www.encyclopedia.com/education/encyclopediasalmanacs-transcripts-and-maps/epidemic-theory-herdimmunity. [7] - “How Vaccines Work.” PublicHealth.Org, PublicHealth.org, 2011, www.publichealth.org/publicawareness/understanding-vaccines/vaccines-work/. [8] - “Vaccine Basics.” Vaccineinformation.Org, 2019, vaccineinformation.org/how-vaccines-work/. [9] - CDC/NCIRD. Immunology and Vaccine-Preventable Diseases – Pink Book – Principles of Vaccination. 2015. [10] - Magnussen, Nils. “Reproduction Number of COVID-19 and How It Relates to Public Health Measures.” News-Medical.Net, 10 May 2020, www.news-medical.net/news/20200510/Reproductionnumber-of-COVID-19-and-how-it-relates-to-publichealth-measures.aspx. [11] - Rappuoli, R., et al. “Vaccines, New Opportunities for a New Society.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 111, no. 34, 18 Aug. 2014, pp. 12288–12293, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4151714/, 10.1073/pnas.1402981111. [12] - Vetter, Volker, et al. “Understanding ModernDay Vaccines: What You Need to Know.” Annals of Medicine, vol. 50, no. 2, 27 Nov. 2017, pp. 110–120, 10.1080/07853890.2017.1407035.

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ARTICLE SOURCES [13] - “Classification of Vaccines.” Immunisation Advisory Centre, 27 Mar. 2017, www.immune.org.nz/vaccines/vaccinedevelopment/types-vaccines. [14] - “Coronavirus Immunity and Reinfection.” WebMD, www.webmd.com/lung/coronavirus-immunityreinfection. [15] - “Immunity Passports.” Www.Who.Int, 24 Apr. 2020, www.who.int/newsroom/commentaries/detail/immunity-passports-in-thecontext-of-covid-19. [16] - Collins, Francis. “Finding Antibodies That Neutralize SARS-CoV-2.” NIH Director’s Blog, 30 June 2020, directorsblog.nih.gov/2020/06/30/findingantibodies-that-neutralize-sars-cov-2/. [17] - “Innate vs. Adaptive Immunity.” Www.Biology.Arizona.Edu, 4 May 2000, www.biology.arizona.edu/immunology/tutorials/immun ology/page3.html#:~:text=Innate%20immunity%20refer s%20to%20nonspecific. [18] - Miller, Daniel. “Natural Immunity Against the Coronavirus.” Pamplin Media Group, 26 July 2020, pamplinmedia.com/wbi-adv-insiders/458223-373383natural-immunity-against-the-coronavirus. [19] - Richards, Sarah Elizabeth. “Why Do Asymptomatic COVID-19 Cases Even Happen?” Science, 22 July 2020, www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/07/why-doasymptomatic-coronavirus-cases-even-happen-cvd/.

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ARTICLE SOURCES [20] - Harvard Health Publishing. “How to Boost Your Immune System - Harvard Health.” Harvard Health, Harvard Health, 16 July 2018, www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/how-to-boostyour-immune-system. [21] - DeMarco, Cynthia. “COVID-19 Herd Immunity: 7 Questions, Answered.” MD Anderson Cancer Center, 17 July 2020, www.mdanderson.org/cancerwise/whatis-covid-19-coronavirus-herd-immunity-when-will-weachieve-herd-immunity.h00-159383523.html. [22] - “COVID-19: Herd Immunity Threshold Could Be Lower.” ScienceDaily, 23 June 2020, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/06/200623111329. htm. [23] - Lambert, Jonathan. “When Will the Coronavirus Pandemic and Social Distancing End?” Science News, 24 Mar. 2020, www.sciencenews.org/article/covid-19when-will-coronavirus-pandemic-social-distancingend. [24] - Singh, Prashasti. “No Covid-19 Herd Immunity yet, Says WHO Chief Scientist Soumya Swaminathan.” Hindustan Times, 25 July 2020, www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/no-covid-19herd-immunity-yet-says-who-chief-scientist-soumyaswaminathan/story-ho7p9cZpArmLMIDbpNolvO.html. Accessed 26 July 2020 [25] - Woodruff, Matthew. “WHY ‘PERSONAL BELIEF’ VACCINE EXEMPTIONS PLACE MANY VULNERABLE AMERICANS AT RISK.” Scholars Strategy Network, 18 May 2017, scholars.org/contribution/why-personalbelief-vaccine-exemptions-place-many-vulnerableamericans-risk.

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ARTICLE SOURCES INVERSE KINEMATICS VIA GRADIENT DESCENT [1] Kinematics. Merriam-Webster. url: https://www.merriam-webster.com/ dictionary/kinematics.

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ARTICLE SOURCES FATIGUED AND BLURRY EYES. WHAT CAN YOU DO ABOUT IT? [1] Bedinghaus, Troy. “What Causes Eye Strain or Tired Eyes?” Verywell Health, 26 Jan. 2020, www.verywellhealth.com/eye-strain-3422042. Accessed 29 July 2020. [2] Healthline Editorial Team. “Lens.” Healthline, Healthline Media, 20 Apr. 2015, www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/lens#1. [3] Santos, Adrienne. “Asthenopia: Remedies for Tired Eyes, Fatigue, Strain, and More.” Healthline, 18 Dec. 2018, www.healthline.com/health/asthenopia#homeremedies. Accessed 29 July 2020. “ [4] The Eye’s Physical Mechanism.” The Visual Experience: Reading 2014, arthistoryresources.net/visual-experience-2014/eyephysical-mechanism.html. [5] Vastralphysiotherapyclinic. “Superior Oblique Muscle :” Samarpan Physiotherapy Clinic Ahmedabad, 13 Sept. 2018, mobilephysiotherapyclinic.net/superior-obliquemuscle/. Accessed 29 July 2020. [6] Wilson, Shayla. “Eye Strain Eye Strain.” Michigan Medicine University of Michigan, Apr. 2015.

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ARTICLE SOURCES ASSISTED COLONIZATION: CONSERVING THE STAGNANT(LY DECLINING) LIFE [1]https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/ab s/pii/S0006320710004866 [2] https://www.dw.com/en/can-assisted-colonizationhelp-save-species-in-a-warming-world/a-39232504 [3] https://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/topics/assistedmigration#:~:text=Assisted%20species%20migration%2 0(also%20species,locations%20accessible%20by%20na tural%20dispersal [4] https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/170448/dontblame-grey-squirrels-theirbritish/#:~:text=Grey%20squirrels%20were%20importe d%20to,able%20to%20adapt%20and%20spread. [5] https://homeandroost.co.uk/blog/how-did-greysquirrels-first-get-to-the-uk/ [6] https://scribblygumblog.wordpress.com/2015/02/08 /a ssisted-migration-is-it-worth-the-risk/ [7] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23660807 2_Using_assisted_colonisation_to_conserve_biodivers ity_and_restore_ecosystem_function_under_climate_c hange [8] https://climate-woodlands.extension.org/thedebate-about-assisted-migration/

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ARTICLE SOURCES [9] https://www.researchgate.net/figure/An-exampleof-environmental-niche-modeling-with-2-climatevariables-and-observed_fig2_278030758 [10] https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j. 1461-0248.2005.00792.x

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ARTICLE SOURCES NASA MAY HAVE DISCOVERED A ‘SECOND EARTH’ [1] Wall, Mike. “Newfound Alien Planet May Be Most Earth-like Yet.” Space.com, Space, 15 Apr. 2020, www.space.com/earth-size-exoplanet-habitable-zonekepler.html. [2] Siegel, Ethan. “Sorry, 'Earth 2.0' Fans, There's No Such Thing as An Earth-Like Exoplanet.” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 22 Apr. 2020, www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2020/04/22/sorr y-earth-2-0-fans-theres-no-such-thing-as-an-earthlike-exoplanet/#19c7219f1989. [3] “Kepler Mission - Hunting for Exoplanets.” Kepler Mission - Satellite Missions - EoPortal Directory, directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellitemissions/k/kepler. [4] Northon, Karen. “NASA Retires Kepler Space Telescope, Passes Planet-Hunting Torch.” NASA, NASA, 30 Oct. 2018, www.nasa.gov/pressrelease/nasa-retires-kepler-space-telescope-passesplanet-hunting-torch. [5] Potter, Sean. “Earth-Size, Habitable Zone Planet Found Hidden in Early Kepler Data.” NASA, NASA, 15 Apr. 2020, www.nasa.gov/press-release/earth-sizehabitable-zone-planet-found-hidden-in-early-nasakepler-data. [6] “What Is the Habitable Zone?” The Planetary Society, www.planetary.org/articles/what-is-thehabitable-zone.

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ARTICLE SOURCES [7] Kooser, Amanda. “NASA Discovery of Planet Remarkably like Ours Gives Hope for 'Second Earth'.” CNET, CNET, 17 Apr. 2020, www.cnet.com/news/nasadiscovery-of-planet-remarkably-like-our-own-giveshope-for-second-earth/. [8] “Home: Instituto De Astrofísica De Canarias • IAC.” Home | Instituto De Astrofísica De Canarias • IAC, www.iac.es/en. [9] Christiansen, Jessie L., et al. “The Derivation, Properties and Value of Kepler's Combined Differential Photometric Precision.” ArXiv.org, 2 Aug. 2012, arxiv.org/abs/1208.0595.

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THE ANTIBIOTIC APOCALYPSE: HAVE WE BEEN DEFEATED BY PATHOGENS? [1] “Alexander Fleming Discovery and Development of Penicillin - Landmark.” American Chemical Society, www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistr y/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html#:~:text=But%20it% 20was%20not%20until,Mary's%20Hospital%20in%20Lon don. [2] Done, Stanley, et al. “Practical Antimicrobial Therapeutics.” Veterinary Medicine (Eleventh Edition), 2017, pp. 153–174., doi:10.1016/b978-0-7020-52460.00006-1. [3] Healthline Editorial Team. “Antibiotic-Resistant Infections Affect Millions: How We Can Fight Back.” Edited by Dana K Cassell, Healthline, 26 Oct. 2020, www.healthline.com/health-news/antibiotic-resistantbacteria-causes-2-8-million-infections-annually-howwe-can-fight-back#Whats-antibiotic-resistance?

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ARTICLE SOURCES THE GENE-ALTERING ENZYME THAT'S GOING TO SAVE US ALL [1] “Scientists Work Towards a CRISPR-Based COVID19 Therapy.” Genomics Research from Technology Networks, Technology Networks, 4 June 2020, www.technologynetworks.com/genomics/news/scientis ts-work-towards-a-crispr-based-covid-19-therapy335707. [2] “What Are Genome Editing and CRISPR-Cas9?” Genetics Home Reference, National Institutes of Health- U.S. National Library of Medicine, 7 July 2020, ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/genomicresearch/genomeeditin g. [3]“What Are the Ethical Concerns of Genome Editing?” National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health- NIH, 3 Aug. 2017, www.genome.gov/about-genomics/policyissues/Genome-Editing/ethical-concerns. [4] Szen, Tzen. “The CRISPR-Cas9 System: Part 1.” Doctorpreneurs, 26 Feb. 2016, www.doctorpreneurs.com/crisprcas9-part1/.

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