Factors Affecting the Adoption of Fuel Efficient Stoves among Rural Households in Borena Woreda: Nor

International Journal of Energy Science (IJES) Volume 4 Issue 5, October 2014 doi: 10.14355/ijes.2014.0405.01

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Factors Affecting the Adoption of Fuel Efficient Stoves among Rural Households in Borena Woreda: North central Ethiopia Amogne Asfaw Eshetu Wollo University (Ethiopia): Department of Geography and Environmental Studies amuvenu@yahoo.com

Abstract Descriptive survey research has been employed to assess the major factors which affect the adoption of fuel efficient stoves in the rural households around Borena‐Saynt national park. Data were collected from 248 randomly selected household heads using a structured questionnaire and from 22 purposively selected key informants for FGD. The findings revealed that the prominent source of fuel is wood followed by animal dung and shrubs; the sources are own plantation and kebelle forests. Modern energy efficient stoves are not common in the study area due to financial constraint (66.7%) and lack of access (25.9%). Chi‐square test and binary logistic regression model results reveal that income level of the household head (χ2 = 64.914, N= 248, df =1, V=0.512, OR=23.7 and p < .001) and educational level of husband (χ2 = 60.514, N=232, df =1, V=0.511,OR=11.3 and p < .001) are found to be the major variables which increases the propensity of stove adoption. The independent t‐test shows statistically significant difference (t=12.063, N=248, df =246, p<0.001) in the average time spent weekly by stove users and non‐users. One sample t‐test result reveal that local residents do have positive attitude on the benefits of fuel efficient stoves. Both governmental and non‐governmental organizations have to take their part in making stoves available to users. Concerned bodies should also see fuel‐ wood plantation projects in degraded lands and agro‐ forestry practices as well as biogas energy as another option.

Key words: Indoor Air Pollution; Fuel Efficient Stoves; Energy Ladder; Deforestation

Background of the Study and Statement of the Problem Energy is vital to meet our basic needs mainly for cooking, boiling water, lighting and heating. More than three billon people worldwide burn wood, dung and other traditional fuels inside their homes which results in indoor air pollution (IAP) which brings about more than 1.5 million deaths mostly of young children and their mothers. In addition, millions more

suffer every day with difficulties in breathing, stinging eyes, adverse pregnancy outcomes and chronic respiratory diseases (WHO, 2006; Martínez and Alfonso, 2014). Traditional stoves tend to be highly inefficient and lose a large percentage of the fuel energy due to incomplete combustion (Owsianowski and Barry, ND; WHO, 2006). As a result, high dependency on traditional stoves deplete resources and degrades local environments, multiplies the time needed to collect fuel, and creates IAP that threatens the well‐being of the most vulnerable members of households (Douglas and et al, 1994 and Barnes et al., 1994). Improved stoves can cut back indoor smoke levels considerably (WHO, 2006). Lack of energy, in particular lack of access to modern cooking fuels and electricity, already represents a bottleneck, holding back progress towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). As a result, UN highly recommended that without increased investment in the energy sector, the MDGs will not be achieved in the poorest countries (Modi et al., 2006 and Manyo‐ Plange, 2011).

In Ethiopia, fuel wood is the major energy source and over 90 percent of the country’s total energy for household cooking is derived from biomass fuels (EPAE, 2004). According to CSA (2012:18), wood is the main type of cooking fuel, used by 77 percent of households. Burning of dung and crop residues which were sources of soil humus and fertility has brought about a progressive decline in land quality and agricultural productivity (Zenebe and et al., 2006).

According to EPAE (2004), improved charcoal stove (Lakech) and biomass closed Enjera stove (Gounzie) can save up to 25 percent and 47 percent over open fire stove respectively. They help to reduce pressure on the biomass resources including forests; increase land productivity by reducing crop residue and dung usage for fuel wood and improve family health (Barnes et al., 1994; FAO, 2003 and EPAE, 2004). Even though the

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pressure on the forest for fire wood has decreased around Borena‐Saynt National Park (BSNP) environs due to own plantation on the home stead, still there is a tendency to use the forest resource for fire wood by the local community (Amogne, 2011). Shortage of fire wood is among the principal problems of the local community that poses pressure on the remaining forest resource of the park (ANRS, 2009). Using fuel efficient stoves is not common in the study area in which traditional open fire cooking is predominant.

Only 11 % of the local residents were using fuel saving stoves and almost 90% of them were locally produced from mud and stone which are not biomass efficient (Amogne, 2011) and such types of stoves waste a lot of biomass, mainly because of an inefficient heat transfer (Owsianowski and Barry, ND). This research, therefore, tried to investigate the prominent factors that hinder rural households in BSNP environs to adopt fuel efficient stoves. Specifically, the research tried to point out the major types of energy used in the study area; to identify the major sources of fuel wood in the households; to point out the prominent factors which hinder utilization of fuel efficient stoves in the study area and to examine the attitude of local residents towards wood fuel saving stoves.

Review of Related Literature Forest Resource of Ethiopia Due to its diversity in physiographic, altitudinal, climate and edaphic resources, there are different types of vegetation ranging from alpine to desert plant communities in Ethiopia (Sahle, 1984). But as explained by Badege (2001), the country is facing rapid deforestation and land degradation that has been fueled by increasing of population. This alarming rate of deforestation is the major cause of the disappearance of various indigenous wild animals and plants, and it has also brought about adverse effects on the country’s tourism industry, bio‐diversity and economy, among others (EPAE, 2002). According to the climate‐resilient green economy strategy of Ethiopia (FDRE, 2011), despite their economic and environmental value, Ethiopian forests are under threat. It pointed out the underlying causes as: “The growing population requires more fuel wood and more agricultural production, in turn creating needs for new farm land‐both of which accelerate deforestation and forest degradation. Projections indicate that unless action is taken to change the traditional development path, an area of 9 million hectare will be deforested between 2010 and 2030.

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Over the same period, annual fuelwood consumption will rise by 65%‐leading to forest degradation of more than 22 million tones of woody biomass.”

In order to minimize the rate of deforestation, the document forwarded reduction of the demand for fuelwood via the dissemination and usage of fuel‐ efficient stoves and/or alternative fuel cooking and baking techniques (FDRE, 2011and MoFED, 2010).

Using fuelwood saving stoves also enables to reduce green house gas (GHG) emission offering a potential of almost 35 Mt CO2e reductions (FDRE, 2011).

Introducing efficient stoves has two distinct effects on GHG emissions “it reduces forest degradation, with an impact of around 0.9 tonnes biomass/year per households; and woody biomass acts as carbon sink amounting to 2.1 tonnes per year per household” (FDRE, 2011:112).

The Roles of Fuel Efficient Stove Access to clean and affordable energy plays vital role in the fight against poverty. Access to clean energy contributes to achieving the MDGs as it plays an important role in the ability of a household to overcome poverty and build resilience (Manyo‐Plange, 2011). Burning of solid biomass fuels for cooking in indoor environments can lead to an increased disease burden. WHO estimates that the impact of IAP on morbidity and premature deaths of women, older persons and children is among the critical public health issue in many developing countries, particularly for the poorest segments of the population (Modi et al., 2006). Exposure to IAP is linked to several adverse health effects including acute respiratory infection, chronic obstructive lung disease, pregnancy complications, daily discomfort in women from coughs, headaches, stinging eyes and backaches. The supply of alternative energy services could positively benefit maternal health and reduce child mortality (Beyene and Koch, 2013; USAID, 2010; Anhalt and Holanda, 2009; Duflo and Greenstone, 2008; MoFED, 2010; Barnes et al., 2012 and Rehfuess et al., 2014). A study in Mexico has shown that, stoves can reduce IAP by 70 percent, reducing the risk of a range of health impacts. As indicated in figure 1, the death prevalence due to IAP worldwide is expected to increase in 2030 while the rate decreases for malaria, tuberculosis and HIV/AIDs. In addition to the respiratory health burden posed by the use of traditional fuels, women also face health dangers such as vulnerability to cuts, animal bites, falls, sexual attack, and back injuries as they travel long distances to collect and carry traditional fuels for home use (Modi et al., 2006 and Barnes et al., 2012).

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FIGURE 1 NUMBER OF DEATHS FROM INDOOR AIR POLLUTION‐RELATED HEALTH COMPLICATIONS SOURCE: WHO (2009) AS CITED IN IBRD, 2011

FIGURE 2: TRADITIONAL FIREWOOD STOVE (SOURCE: WORLD VISION, 2011)

Anhalt and Holanda (2009) also explained the impact of IAP on child health as “…..in many rural settings, women cook with their children strapped on their backs (see figure 2) or the children are always around in the kitchen.

Any reduction in pollutants emitted from cook stoves will be beneficial for children’s as well as for women’s health.” In Ethiopia, use of dung as fuel is also an important cause of health problems, mainly through IAP (Alemu and Kohlin, 2008). Fuel‐saving stoves can also slow the rate of degradation and help ease tensions over the use of forest resources (USAID, 2010; MoFED, 2010 and Barnes et al., 2012). In line with this, World Vision (2011) noted that meeting the energy needs of growing populations in developing countries is contributing in reducing carbon sinks and minimizing rate erosion.

The local environment may also be improved with modern energy services as the use of biomass can contribute to land degradation by exacerbating erosion, reducing soil fertility and contributing to desertification (Dessalegn, 2001; ESCAP, ND; IBRD, 2011; Beyene and Koch, 2013; Anhalt and Holanda, 2009 and Barnes et al., 2012). Cooking with traditional biomass fuels may account for approximately 18% of current global GHG emissions if forest degradation and deforestation are included in the equation (Anhalt and Holanda, 2009 and IBRD, 2011). Therefore, improved cooking stoves are also vital to reduce GHG emissions. One of the four pillars of the green economy plan of Ethiopia is protecting and reestablishing forests for their economic and ecosystem services, including as carbon stocks and in doing so large scale promotion of advanced rural cooking technologies is taken as a prominent option

(FDRE, 2011:2‐3). Fuel efficient stoves can also enable to save the time spend by women. Women in rural areas usually spend long hours collecting wood‐based biomass‐time that would carry higher value‐added to the household if it could be used for child‐care, agricultural production, education and other activities (IBRD, 2011; Manyo‐Plange, 2011 and Barnes et al., 2012).

A more serious and long‐term implication of fuel shortages is that as the daily search for fuel wood, fodder and water becomes more difficult, children are taken out of school to help their mothers. In the southern state of Tamil Nadu in India, a major reason for keeping girls out of school is to help the mothers to collect cow dung (ESCAP, ND). Access to a reliable modern energy supply will free women and girls from this assignment, providing time for activities such as education and income generation (ESCAP, ND; MoFED, 2010 and Barnes et al., 1994). Another example, in the Himalayan foothills of Nepal, a journey to gather firewood and fodder which took an hour or two a generation ago now takes a whole day (ESCAP, ND). An increase in time spent in fuel wood collection implies that women may now have less time for other livelihood activities (USAID, 2010; MoFED, 2010 and Barnes et al., 2012). A study in Kenya showed that time gained from faster cooking was used for farming, income‐generating activities, girls’ education and women’s participation in community life (GTZ, 2009 as cited in IBRD, 2011 and USAID, 2010). In short, when fuel efficient stoves are widely used, the disproportionate amount of daily time and effort women and young girls spend gathering solid fuels and water for household chores could be used for other income‐producing activities, family subsistence, or education (Barnes et al., 1994; Modi et al., 2006; World Vision, 2011and Barnes et al., 2012). A study in India regarding the efficiency of modern cook stove proved that modern solid biomass cook stoves in real kitchens have impressive performances in wood consumption and time of cooking as compared with the traditional ones (singh et al., 2014).

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Poverty reduced

More production

MDG‐1

More time for

Land productivity

other activities

increases

Wood collection time Dung used for

reduced for women

fertilizer

attend school

FUEL EFFICIENT STOVE UTILIZATION ENABLES:

IAP

female students to

productivity

Minimize

More time for

Increase labor

Health status improved

Engage in

MDG‐4, 5, 6

more productive activities

Decrease wood consumption Better academic achievement MDG‐2, 3

Medical Less carbon

Fuel wood demand reduced

emission

MDG 3

expense decreases

Mitigate climate Pressure on forests

change‐MDG‐7

decreased‐ MDG‐7

FIGURE 3: CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK: FUEL EFFICIENT STOVES AND MDGS OWN DEVELOPED AFTER (WHO, 2006; MODI ET AL., 2006 AND UNDESA, 2005)

Factors Affecting the Adoption of Fuel Efficient Stoves People seldom adopt innovations without good reason (Barnes et al., 1994). The amount and quality of energy consumption has a correlation with poverty, deprivation, social seclusion, access to knowledge and achievements, health, livelihood and security because energy services are directly associated with the quality of life and level of development (ESCAP, ND). Modi et al. (2006) stressed that progress towards providing greater access to modern energy services has been slow, due to a combination of interrelated circumstances. These include low income levels among the unserved population; lack of financial resources for service providers to build the necessary infrastructure and reduce first‐cost barriers to access; weak institutional, financial, and legal structures; and lack of long‐term vision and political commitment to scale up services (Modi et al., 2006). The most important factor worth mentioned by different scholars is poverty and lack of access. Households at lower levels of income and development tend to be at the bottom of the

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energy ladder, using fuel that is cheap and locally available but not very clean nor efficient (Duflo and Greenstone, 2008). Economic determinants of fuel choice, as stressed by Barnes et al. (1994), Manyo‐ Plange (2011) and Jan (2012), is by large the most widely covered driver of fuel choice. There are several components to economic factors which include household income, cost of equipment and fuel, and noneconomic costs such as time and access to fuels.

Barnes et al. (1994) emphasized that “the price of stoves can be a significant barrier to their adoption. Improved wood fuel stoves are typically about twice as expensive as the local traditional stoves. Although in the long run improved stoves save money, the initial cash outlay required may prevent poorer people from affording the stove.” Ergeneman (2003) also underlined that the incidence of rural poverty is an important determinant for the adoption of improved cook stoves. He added that “it is hard to imagine a rural household which is barely meeting its subsistence needs being able to afford the whole cost of an improved cook stove.” Bruce et al (2000), on their part, stressed the impact of poverty on fuel stove adoption

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as “the types of fuel used become cleaner and more convenient, efficient and costly as people move up the energy ladder.” Improved stoves are more attractive to those households that experience a scarcity in biomass resources since they will benefit significantly (be it in terms of time saved from collecting firewood or money saved from the purchase of firewood) from the increased efficiency of the stoves. In an evaluation done on the Mirt stove in the Amhara National Regional State (ANRS), a large percentage of households indicated that the price was too high (Ibdi.).

According to Barnes et al. (1994) and Manyo‐Plange (2011) women’s choices of fuel efficient stoves also depend upon existing environmental factors and culture. The cultural factor has particular significance because it can form the basis through which individual decisions are made. It comprises not only the local traditions specific to tribes, but also of a womanʹs beliefs and understanding like age and education. A study in determining barriers to fuel switching in Sri Lanka by Wijayatunga and Attalage (2003) as cited in Manyo‐Plange (2011) confirmed that cultural factors play an important role in cooking fuel decision‐making and should not be overlooked. The study identified that an attachment to past practices and the belief that food cooked on clay stoves tasted better than food cooked on other stoves, as main reasons for not switching from biomass to cleaner fuels. Manyo‐ Plange (2011) also pointed out that the design of equipment, its size, perceived safety and even the type of existing cooking utensils are technical aspects which have their own impact in stove adoption. Educational status also plays a significant role in determining fuel choice. In addition, the higher education leads to better knowledge regarding modern fuels which could result in a greater likelihood of fuel‐switching (Manyo‐ Plange, 2011; Jan, 2012 and Rehfuess et al., 2014). High wood prices or scarce supplies of wood are also factors which increase the likelihood of stove adoption (Barnes et al., 1994). Rehfuess et al. (2014) added on this issue that households that purchase rather than collect solid fuels are more likely to adopt, reflecting the greater perceived value of monetary savings compared to time savings. Social capital (diffusion of information) has also its own impact of the adoption of fuel efficient stoves. Information about a new technology is more intensively diffused in villages which are likely to have strong levels of bonding social capital. This implies that bonding social capital played a crucial role facilitating social learning during the

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adoption process of improved stoves. A study in northern Peruvian Andes by Adrianzén (2011), confirmed that the relevance of information diffusion during the adoption of new cooking technologies is essential, and highlights the importance of having an appropriate understanding of the village social structure, as this structure influences the degree in which local generated information will be shared and diffused. It also pointed out the relevance of high quality monitoring and extension services in stove adoption because bad news about the performance of the new technology can have adverse impacts in terms of the adoption processes. On the other hand, Rehfuess et al. (2014) identified that (after thoroughly examining varied studies) larger family size as a barrier to stove adoption, possibly due to the low value assigned to time and labor used to collect firewood and/or the need to cook for more people. He also pointed out that lack of a permanent home or kitchen, as well as space limitations, can be obstacles to purchasing a built‐in stove. Another factor which determines the adoption of fuel efficient stoves according to Bruce et al (2000), World Vision (2011) and Rehfuess et al. (2014) is alternative purposes of an open fire. Indoor fires that cook food often also serve other purposes, such as heating indoor areas, preserving food through smoking, keeping thatched roofs dry, repelling mosquitoes and lighting. A study in Ghana pointed out that open firewood is required to smoke fish (Manyo‐Plange, 2011). Failure to effectively address these issues almost guarantees that the improved stove will not be adopted.

Description of Study Area, Methods and Materials Borena‐Saynt National Park (BSNP) is found in south Wollo, north central Ethiopia, between Borena, Mehal Saynt and Saynt woredas. It is located between 10O 50’ 45.4”‐ 10O 53’ 58.3” N and 38O 40’ 28.4” – 38O 54’ 49” E (ANRS PaDPA, 2006). The park is bordered by nine kebelles in the side of Borena wereda, share common boundary with three kebelles from Mehal Saynt wereda and one kebelle in the side of Saynt wereda (ANRS PaDPA, 2006:6: personal note of Ato Abebaw Abayneh, 14/9/04 E.C). The area was originally recognized and proposed to protect the natural resources during the reign of Zara‐Yakob in the 15thC (Dessalegn, 1998). During that time, the forest cover was too large encompassing vast areas extended as far as the edge of the Blue Nile gorge (Woldegabreil, 2003 and Dessalegn, 2001).

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Approximate Location of Borena‐Saynt National Park based on ANRS PaDPA (2006) (not to scale)

FIGURE 4: RELATIVE LOCATION OF BORENA‐SAYNT NATIONAL PARK (SOURCE: WOLLO UNIVERSITY GIS TEAM)

In 1952, during the Haileselassie regime, it was recognized as an important biodiversity area and then after, demarcated in 1973. Even though the protection of the forest continued up to the end of the Derge regime (1991) as a state forest, ruthless destruction had taken place on it during the government change over in 1991. In 2003, the regional government designated it as a regional forest priority area (Woldegabreil, 2003) and latter on, due to its biodiversity importance, the Amhara national regional state has decided it to be a park with the name of ‘Borena‐Saynt National Park’ with proclamation number 68/2009 (ANRS, 2009). The park, with a total area of 4375 hectares, contains one of the few representative highland biodiversity in Ethiopia (Lakew et al, 2007) and harbors significant number of large and small mammals, birds, amphibians and plant species (Woldegabreil, 2003; Lakew et al, 2007 and ANRS, 2009).

Design of the Study Since the study focused on identifying the hindering factors in utilization of wood fuel saving stoves in Borena wereda particularly BSNP environs, descriptive survey type of research was used. Data were collected from 248 household heads from 13villages living adjacent to BSNP which were selected using cluster sampling technique out of 628 household heads from 26 villages with the help of data enumerators. In addition, focus group discussion and

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in‐depth interview were conducted with 22 purposively selected individuals. Direct field observation was also conducted to substantiate the data collected through survey and discussion. Both primary and secondary data sources have been used for this study. The primary source of data was information collected (from may 1‐30/2012) using questionnaire and interview basically from household heads, kebelle development agents, health extension workers, kebelle administrators, kebelle women association leaders and wereda water and energy department workers. In addition, reports and documents from wereda water and energy office as well as field observation were also used to substantiate the information collected through questionnaire.

Energy policy of the country, forest related strategies and policies as well as the new climate resilience green economy documents were critically examined. The information gathered from important sources using different tools have been triangulated and organized in to manageable manner using tables using SPSS version 20.

Based on the organized data, analysis has been undertaken quantitatively using t‐test, chi‐square test, mean and percentage. Binary logistic regression model was applied to identify determinants of stove adoption. One sample t‐test was also used to examine the attitude of respondents towards wood fuel efficient stoves and chi‐square test to see the association

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between stove adoptions with varied independent variables. In addition, independent t‐test was applied to see whether the mean time spent by stove users and non‐users is statistically different. Quantitative data analysis was supported qualitatively based on the information collected through interview, FGD and direct observation. Though different factors determine adoption of fuel efficient stoves; only educational level (husband and wife), income status of household head, total family size and land holding were selected for this study. This can be taken as one limitation of the study.

Finally conclusions and feasible recommendations have been drawn based on the major findings of the analysis.

Major Findings and Discussions Occupation The majority of respondents (96%) were engaged in mixed farming (crop production and rearing of animals) for their livelihood and 76.2% of them have at least one type of non/off farm source of income. The first three (based on rank) off/non‐farm economic activities identified in the study area were apiculture, handcraft of any type and selling of fuel wood. 85.5 percent of the participants do have their own cultivable land. The average land size for each household in the study area was found 0.8 hectare. It is very low compared with the average land holding of both the Amhara National Regional State (1.16 hectare per household) and the country average (0.98 hectare) but relatively similar with south Wollo administrative zone (0.76 hectares) per household (ANRS BoFED, 2009). The minimum per capita cultivable land, according to the revised ANRS rural land administration and use proclamation number 133/2006 (ANRS, 2006), should not be less than 0.2 hectares.

With average household size of the sampled respondents of 5.4 in the study area, at least 1.08 hectares of cultivable land is needed for each household. This indicates that shortage of cultivable land and low land management system of the area coupled with utilization of animal dung for fuel (mainly due to lack of fuel efficient stoves) rather than for fertilizer might exert pressure on the park both in search of firewood and cultivable land.

Type and sources of Energy The prominent source of fuel for cooking and lighting is wood (83.1%) followed by animal dung and shrubs.

98.8 percent of the participants responded that they are

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using animal dung either partially or totally. The result is consistence with the 2011 demographic and health survey of Ethiopia which came up with wood as the major cooking fuel (86.2%) for rural households followed by animal dung (8.3%) and others like agricultural residue and shrubs accounts 5.5% (CSA, 2012). During field observation, the researcher observed dung cakes prepared for fuel and FGD participants also responded that it is common practice to use animal dung for fuel due to shortage of fuel wood. Households also collect additional animal dung for fuel from fields. But using charcoal and crop residues for fuel were not identified as a source of energy in this research. Woldegabreil (2003) has also indicated that firewood and dung cakes are the major sources of fuel in the study area and absence of alternative source of energy forces local communities to exert pressure on the park. Furthermore, using dung as fuel instead of as organic fertilizer can reduce grain production by some 550,000 tons annually across the country (Forum for Environment, 2009). For 87.1% of the respondents, the source of fuel wood comes from their own plantation either home stead or wood lots and 11.7% indicated kebelle forests as their source of wood. It was only 1.2% that reported the park as their source of fuel wood. But this was not confirmed during the FGD session. FGD Participants asserted that, even though the pressure over the park for fuel wood decreases from time to time due to fear of the guards and penalty, still there is a tendency to collect wood either for home consumption or for market. One indicators for this is that out of 78 ‘illegal’ acts (only those reported with written letter) done by locals and reported by guards to Borena wereda agricultural and rural development office during the period of 2006‐ 2008, ‘fuel wood collection from the park’ ranks second (18 or 23.1% cases) next to 20 (25.6%) cases relating ‘grazing of livestock in the park’ cases (Amogne, 2011). As observed during field work, except the homestead plantations and very few woodlots, it is very difficult to get fire wood outside the park. The researcher also observed fire wood collected from the park around the homes of residents.

The members of the family who are frequently engaged in gathering of fuel wood in the study area are both women and female children. Rural women (and children) are the primary collectors of wood and residue fuels in poor developing countries; they also manage most of the energy used by households (ESCAP, ND).

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Factors Affecting Adoption of Fuel Saving Stove Modern energy efficient stoves are not common in the study area. But there is an increasing trend of using stoves made up of mud and stone with the consultation of health extension workers (this was confirmed during field observation and FGD session).

42.3% of the households used stoves made up of mud and stone instead of the traditional open fire type. But the majority (55.6%) still used the open fire system which is not energy efficient. Mud‐stove enables to save about 20% of energy over three‐stone fireplaces.

A common problem with mud stoves is that a lot of energy is wasted in heavy stove mass and it is not durable like the modern ones. Since most part of the study area has dega agro climatic condition (high land), open fire cooking stoves also serves as source of heating and this might affect adoption of fuel saving stove which are not as such conducive for heating purpose. Provision of stove by government and NGOs were insignificant. The head of water and energy office of the wereda, Ato Tesfaye Gebru (representative), reported that a nongovernmental organization, sewech le sewech, is currently distributing fuel efficient stoves for eight kebelles. Till 2012, 620 stoves have been distributed to rural communities and more is ready to be distributed to users. But none of the kebelles bordering the park was included by the project so far.

The prominent factors which affect the adoption of fuel efficient stoves in the study area in their degree of influence were financial constraint (66.7%), lack of access (25.9%) and lack of information/knowledge (4.1%). Though the number of respondents for the suitableness of the stove is small (3.3%), most of the participants during FGD mentioned that the stove made up of mud and stone, since both sides are closed, are not favorable especially for lightening and heating.

In line with this, Anhalt and Holanda (2009) stressed that in developing countries, fuel is used not only for cooking but also for heating and serves as a source light. In China, there was similar problem in the 1980s but a stove model that enables for both cooking and space heating was developed. A chi‐square test of independence was employed to see the association between stove users 1 and non‐users in terms of

educational status of husband/wife2, wealth category of the household head.

A Pearson chi‐square test was applied (table 1) to examine whether there is a relationship between income level of the household head, educational level of the husband and wife with the likelihood of adoption of fuel efficient stove. The results revealed that there was a significant relationship between level of income and adoption (χ2 = 64.914, N=248, df =1, V=0.512, p < .001). A significantly larger proportion from medium income class (68.2%) reported that they used stove compared with only 17.2% from the poor income status. In terms of non‐users it was 82.8% for poor category while only 31.8% from the medium income level.

TABLE 1: CHI‐SQUARE RESULT FOR STOVE ADOPTION WITH INCOME CATEGORY OF THE HH AND EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF HUSBAND/WIFE

Category

χ2 value

df

p‐ value

Phi value

p‐ value

Income level of the HH head

Medium Vs poor

64.914

1

.000

0.512

.000

Educational level of wife

Literate Vs illiterate

4.186

1

.041

0.13

.041

Educational level of husband

Literate Vs illiterate

60.514

1

.000

0.511

.000

Source: own survey (2012)

The Cramer’s V3 value (0.512) indicates the association is moderately strong. In the other way round, 81.8% of the stove users were from medium income level and it was only 18.2% from poor category. The result is consistent with the findings of Beyene and Koch (2013), a study conducted in urban Ethiopia, which concluded that households in the lowest income bracket are the least likely and slowest to adopt, while those in the highest income bracket are the most likely and quickest to adopt. A significant relationship was also found between educational status of wives/husbands and degree of stove adoption (χ2= 4.186, N=246, df =1, V=0.13, p < .05 for wives and χ2 =

2

1 for this analysis ‘stove users’ includes both users (modern stove made up of cement and stove made from mud and stone locally) while ‘non- users’ consists those who are using the traditional three-stone open fire stove

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the percentage and Chi-square tests are calculated by merging educational status into illiterate and write/read as one category while primary and secondary as another category).

3 Cramer's V value measures the strength of associations between variables and the value ranges between 0 and 1; a V value near to 0 indicates weak association between the variables while close to1 indicates strong association (Beins and McCarthy, 2012:301)

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Yi = expu (4)

60.514, N=232, df =1, V=0.511, p < .001 for husbands).

Regarding the educational status of wives, a significantly larger proportion from primary and above (64.0%) reported that they used stove compared with only 42.5% from the illiterate and write/read category. In terms of non‐users it was 57.5% for illiterate and write/read category while only 36% from primary and above level. But when we see the Cramer’s V value (V=0.13), it shows very weak association and the logistic model result also found not to be statistically significant for wives. When we see the educational status of husbands, 63.5% from primary and above level used stove but only 10.7% from illiterate and write/read category; in terms of non‐users it was 36.5% from primary and above status while 89.3% from the illiterate and write/read level were non‐users. The V value (0.511) indicates a moderately strong association between educational status of husbands and degree of stove adoption.

expu

1+

Where Yi = the dependent variable (the estimated probability of stove adoption) β0 and βi = coefficients u=β0 + β1 THHSIZE +β2 EDuHUS2 +β3 EDuWIF2 + β4 SIZELAND + β5 INCMECGRY+ =error term Logistic regression was performed to assess the impact of five independent variables on the livelihood of fuel efficient stove adoption of households. The full model containing all predictors was statistically significant, χ2 (5, N = 248) = 100.56, p < .001, indicating that the model was able to distinguish between respondents who adopt and did not adopt the technology. The model as a whole explain between 39.8% (Cox and Snell R Square) and 53.2% (Nagelkerke R Square) of the variance in adoption level, and correctly classified 78.8% of cases. As the binary logistic regression model revealed in the table 2, educational status of husbands and income level of the household head were found to be significant in determining the probability of stove adoption positively at p<0.001 alpha level of significance. The exp(B) result in logistic regression indicates the odds ratio (Pallant, 2011:180 and Tabachnick and Fidell; 2013:463). The propensity of using fuel efficient stoves increases when the educational level of husbands (OR=23.65) and the income level of the household head (OR=11.25) increases. The educational status of wives in the study area was not found to be significant in the logit result though Chi‐square test revealed a weak association.

This might be due to low decision making power of women in adoption of stoves. The finding is more consistent with the study conducted in northwest Pakistan by Jan (2012) which asserted that even though stove utilization is the responsibility of women, its provision is mostly the responsibility of male household heads. As the household head is the major decision‐making body, particularly on financial decisions, his education (awareness) is more significant for adoption of cook stoves. Total house hold size and land size were not found significant in determining adoption of stove in the study area.

A binary logistic regression model has been applied to identify the determinants of fuel efficient stove utilization. As indicated in the model below, adoption (stove user =1, non‐user = 0: dummy variable) was used as a dependent variable. The probability of adoption of a household to improved devices is formulated as a function of individual and household level characteristics. Total house hold size (THHSIZE)‐ continuous variable, educational status of husband (EDuHUS2; 1= literate of any level and 0=otherwise), educational status of wife (EDuWiF2; 1= literate of any level and 0=otherwise), total land size (SIZELAND)‐ continuous variable, and income/wealth level (INCMECGRY; 1= poor, 2 = medium) were used as independent variables.

Logit (P) = Log[P/(1‐P)] (1) Let Pi=Pr(Y=1/X = xi) then we can write the model as Log (Pi/1‐Pi) = logit (Pi) =β0 +βiXi (2)

Pi is the probability of being using fuel efficient stove (dependant variable) and xi’s are (independent variables). Therefore the parameter β0 gives the log odds of the household not using fuel efficient stoves (when xi =0) and β1 shows how these odds differ for users (when xi =1). We can write the model in terms of odds (Tabachnick and Fidell; 2013:447) as: (Pi/1‐Pi) = exp (β0 +βiXi) (3)

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TABLE 2: BINARY LOGISTIC MODEL RESULT (DETERMINANTS OF FUEL EFFICIENT STOVE ADOPTION)

Variables in the Equation Variables

B

S.E.

Wald

df

p‐value

Odds Ratio

EDuHAS WDuWiF INCMECGRY THHSIZE SIZELAND Constant

3.163 ‐.309 2.420 .352 ‐.064 ‐7.344

.562 .683 .410 .203 .097 1.793

31.680 .204 34.919 3.005 .435 16.783

1 1 1 1 1 1

.000* .651 .000* .083 .509 .000

23.652 .734 11.250 1.422 .938 .001

95% C.I. for OR Lower Upper 7.861 71.165 .193 2.800 5.041 25.108 .955 2.117 .775 1.135

*Significant at P < 0.001 alpha level Source: Own survey, 2012 TABLE 3: INDEPENDENT T‐TEST RESULT‐ AVERAGE TIME SPENT IN HOURS FOR COLLECTION OF WOOD WEEKLY (N=248)

Category

N

Mean

SD

t

df

p‐value

stove non‐users stove users

138 110

14.6449 9.9091

3.09414 3.04265

12.063

246

.000

Total

248

12.544

3.8669

Average time spent(in hour) to collect fuel wood weekly

Source: Own survey, 2012

One of the significance of fuel efficient stoves is to minimize the time spent in gathering of fire wood mainly for women and children. An independent t‐test was applied to check whether the average time spent weekly by stove users and non‐users in the study area was statistically significant. The result, as indicated in table 3, was statistically significant (t=12.063, N=248, df=246, p<0.001). The average time spent by stove users (9.9 hours per week) is statistically less than non‐ users (14.64 hours per week). A study in rural India found collection time for wood to be 37 hours per month [9.25 hours per week] (Modi et al., 2006). The case in study area was 12.54 hours per week (which is around 50.16 hours per month) that means, even though the stove users spent less time than non‐users, it is still high compared with Indian case. In addition to the time spent for fuel wood collection, there is also difference in the frequency of collection. More stove users collect once every two weeks while the majority of non‐users were reported daily. In the study area, FGD participants confirmed that, even though most of them are using stoves made up of mud and stone, it has a comparative advantage as compared with the open one in saving fuel wood. Provision of fuel efficient stoves can enable them to save more time in collecting fuel wood. Since, the burden of fuel wood collection relies on women and school aged girls, access to fuel saving stoves has a paramount importance in empowerment of women, can use their time in more productive activities, and can help school aged girls to devote their time for education.

Attitude towards Fuel Saving Stove Attitude of people towards a certain intervention

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determines the extent of adoption. Table XI depicts the attitude of respondents towards the varied benefits of fuel efficient stove.

One sample t‐test was used to examine whether the attitudes of the local residents towards the benefits of fuel efficient stoves are different from neutral (see table 4). The attitudes of respondents towards the benefits of fuel efficient stoves are different from neutral. But when we observe the percentage, a significant number of respondents reported either neutral or disagree or strongly disagree mainly regarding the benefits of fuel efficient stoves to minimize fire related accidents (52.4%), to prevent indoor air pollution (58.9%) and its role in minimizing the pressure on the park (47.6%). A great proportion of respondents either agreed or strongly agreed with the benefits of using fuel efficient stove to save time for wood collection (95.1%), in minimizing demands of fuel wood (96.8%), enables to use animal dung for fertilizer (97.6) and in saving fuel wood consumption (99.2%). Kebelles development agents and health extension workers were their sources of information regarding its benefits. Having knowledge on the benefits of fuel saving stove makes adoption process more ease if there is accessibility of the technology.

Ergeneman (2003) pointed out that much of the time rural households are unaware of the benefits of the improved stoves, especially the health‐related benefits.

The external benefits are less likely to be perceived by the rural population; although this is certainly a gross underestimation of the capability of the poor to understand the ecological problems in their surroundings (Anhalt and Holanda, 2009).

International Journal of Energy Science (IJES) Volume 4 Issue 5, October 2014

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TABLE 4: RESPONDENTS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE BENEFITS OF FUEL EFFICIENT STOVES (ONE SAMPLE T‐TEST)

One‐Sample Test Test Value = 3 Using fuel efficient stove enables to:

t

df

p

Mean Difference

minimize fire related accidents save time of firewood collection minimize the demand of fuel wood prevents indoor air pollution use animal dung for fertilizer save fuel‐wood consumption minimize the pressure on the park

6.946 31.374 36.588 4.954 36.833 44.511 8.879

247 247 247 247 247 247 247

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

.46774 1.21371 1.20565 .33065 1.47177 1.45565 .48387

95% Confidence Interval Lower Upper .3351 .6004 1.1375 1.2899 1.1407 1.2705 .1992 .4621 1.3931 1.5505 1.3912 1.5201 .3765 .5912

Source: own survey, 2012 Ho: the attitude of households in the study area regarding the benefits of fuel efficient stoves is neutral Ha: the attitude of households in the study area regarding the benefits of fuel efficient stoves is different from neutral At df=247; p<0.01; test value 3(neutral)

Conclusions and Recommendations The creation of sustainable wood‐based biomass energy sectors could help client countries in achieving the MDGs, energy security, low‐carbon growth and sustainable natural resource management (IBRD, 2011). Policies on the efficient utilization of fuel‐wood could include promoting the development and marketing of improved stoves. This can be accomplished by supporting training on stove designing and testing along with public campaigns.

Such initiatives would likely yield multiple benefits in the form of reduced fuel demand, substantial health benefits and reduced time needed for women to gather firewood (ESCAP, ND). This research has been conducted in assessing the major factors affecting the adoption of wood fuel efficient stoves in the rural households around Borena‐Saynt National Park. The prominent source of fuel in the study area is wood followed by animal dung and shrubs& leaves of trees.

The sources of fuel wood come from their own plantation either home stead or wood lots and kebelle forests as their source of wood. Even though the pressure over the park for fuel wood decreases from time to time due to fear of the guards and penalty, still there is a tendency to collect wood either for home consumption or for market. Modern energy efficient stoves are not common in the study area though there is an increasing trend of using stoves made up of mud and stone with the consultation of health extension workers. The prominent factors which restrain local residents not to use fuel efficient stoves are financial constraint and lack of access.

A Pearson chi‐square test and binary logistic model were applied to examine relationship between adoption of fuel efficient stove and other independent

variables. As a result, income level of the household head (χ2 = 64.914, N= 248, df =1, V=0.512, p < .001 and OR=11.3) and educational level of husbands (χ2 = 60.514, N=232, df =1, V=0.511, p < .001 and OR=23.7) were found to be the major variables which have strong positive relationship with degree of stove adoption. The logit result did not show any significant relation between the degree of stove adoption with that of total family size, educational status of wives and total land size of the households. The independent t‐test shows statistically significant difference (t=12.063, N=248, df =246, p<0.001) in the average time spent weekly by stove users and non‐users in the study area. The results of one sample t‐test revealed that local residents do have positive attitudes over the benefits of fuel efficient stoves mainly in minimizing wood demand, time spent for wood collection, in enabling them to use dung for fertilizer and the like Based on the major findings of the research, the following plausible solutions have been forwarded.

Fuel efficient stove adoption is a complex process and needs integrated action of different stakeholders. In the study area, since financial constraint and lack of access have been identified as critical factors hindering the locals not to use fuel efficient stoves, both Governmental and Non‐governmental organization have to take their part in making stoves available to users. In addition, stoves should be affordable to the poorest section of the population through long term payment modalities and reasonable subsidies. Since household requirements vary based on the local condition, emphasizing the importance of incorporating user requirements in research and development and of offering a choice of high‐quality designs enables adoption more successful. Awareness creation on the health benefits of clean stoves should

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also enables to scaling up adaptation. To alleviate wood shortages, fuel‐wood plantation projects should be supported, including the planting of native species in degraded lands and agro‐forestry practices. In addition to promoting sustainable fuel wood production, agro‐forestry systems create several benefits, such as soil conservation and increased agricultural productivity. Rearing of livestock is practiced in the area; this implies that there is potential for the development of biogas energy as well.

Concerned bodies should also see biogas energy as an alternative option.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Ethiopian highlands: strategy for physical recovery.

The author is indebted to Wollo University for the financial and material support. Thanks are also owed to all individuals and organizations involved in this research, namely, data enumerators, interviewed individuals and households, participants of focus group discussions, workers from Borena wereda energy department for their unreserved assistance and provision of the required information. The author also appreciates anonymous reviewers and editors for their constructive comments.

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Amogne Asfaw Eshetu has completed his MA in RLDS from Mekelle University (Ethiopia) and has served as a lecturer in Wollo University for more than six years. Currently, the author is pursuing PhD (in rural development) from Addis Ababa University (Ethiopia), college of development studies.

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