Study of Environmental Impacts of Wind Power Plants Aiming to Support Public Policy in Brazil

International Journal of Energy Science (IJES), Volume 6 Issue 1, 2016 www.ijesci.org doi: 10.14355/ijes.2016.0601.01

Study of Environmental Impacts of Wind Power Plants Aiming to Support Public Policy in Brazil Wilson Pereira Barbosa Filho*1, 2, Abílio Cesar Soares de Azevedo1, Andrea Brandão Andrade1 Antonella Lombardi Costa2, Ricardo Brant Pinheiro2 Fundação Estadual do Meio Ambiente (FEAM), 2Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG) ‐ Departamento de Engenharia Nuclear 1

Rodovia Américo Gianetti, s/n, ed. Minas, Cidade Administrativa Tancredo Neves, CEP 31630‐900 Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, Escola de Engenharia – Campus Pampulha, CEP 31270‐901, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brasil *wilson.filho@meioambiente.mg.gov.br, abilio.azevedo@meioambiente.mg.gov.br, andrea.andrade@meioambiente.mg.gov.br, antonella@nuclear.ufmg.br, rbrantp@gmail.com Abstract This article presents a study about environmental impacts resulting from the construction and operation of wind power farms.

For this matter, a research in national and international literature reviews was carried out, as well as technical visits to wind power plants in several Brazilian states and discussions with the working group about environmental licensing of wind mills in land surface of the Ministry of Environment, which FEAM (Fundação Estadual do Meio Ambiente – Environmental State Foundation) takes part, aiming the formation of plans, projects and wind power programs, according to the provisions of the “Carta dos Ventos” (Charter of Winds). These surveys were carried out in the last three years and used as base for the implementation of relevant work to the theme. The article discusses the impacts in biotic and physical environment, physical and socioeconomic status, identifying the biotic environment, which results from the removal of vegetation, intervention in fauna, degradation of the affected area, changes in the hydrostatic level of aquifer, and still on the socio‐economic environment, the issue of noise, visual impact, the corona visual or glare, the electromagnetic interference, the strobe effect and the local interference. The noise and the strobe effect can harm the health of people near the plants, but the distance can avoid such effects. The generation of electricity through wind farms has major advantages in reducing greenhouse gases and CO2 concentration during operation when compared with other sources. However, the environmental impacts coming from the implementation and operation of a wind power plant cannot be neglected.

Keywords Wind Power, Environmental Impact, Energy

Introduction Due to the advancement of human activities, much more natural resources are demanded in direct or indirect way, and even there will be serious impacts on the environment. As a result, the need to establish standards and legal limits to guide such process emerges. Therefore, the environmental licensing was created, which consists of a tool for conserving the environment over human development. The environmental licensing aims to obtain the license issued by the environmental agency, stating the location, installation, expansion and operation of enterprises and potentially pollutional activities. The environmental license is the permission given by the State, for that specific activity developed by individuals or legal entities (entrepreneurs), in a controlled manner, in order to avoid irreparable damage to the environment, or even to allow the action of mitigation or compensation of damage, having as focus, its preservation for the present and future generations. This license is required whenever the activity is considered to be pollutional or potentially pollutional, as called for in Article 225 of the Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil of 1988 (CF, 1988).

All laws, edited prior to the Constitution/88 with which they do not conflict, were approved by the legal system prevailing in an integral way, as is the case of the Federal Law N. 6938/1981 that establishes the Brazilian Environment Policy. This law regulates the Federal Constitution on jurisdiction in terms of environmental issues,

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and provides that the environmental licensing should be coordinated by the competent environmental organization (Federal, State, Municipal), and it is with the entrepreneur themselves to get it necessarily.

Following the law N. 6.938/1981, the CONAMA (Conselho Nacional de Meio Ambiente – Environment National Council) Regulatory Resolutions N. 001/1986 and N. 237/1997 are essential standards to environmental licensing, as they guide the competent environmental organization, in terms of the administrative procedure to be followed.

Article 1 of the Normative Resolution CONAMA, Resolution N. 237/1997, defines the environmental licensing and environmental license. The abovementioned standard defines, yet, in its Article 8, that the environmental licensing process has three distinct stages: Prior License (LP), Installation License (LI) and Operating License (LO) (CONAMA, 1997). Each one of them allows the entrepreneur to do some activities, but only the LO grants right to effectively start the activities characteristic of the enterprise: if it is the undertaking of significant environmental impact, the venture should present the Environmental Impact Study and its corresponding Report (EIA and RIMA, respectively), being for the other ventures required more simplified studies. These studies should be presented in the LP step, which also defines mitigating measures and compensation, in order to establish the conditions for which the project fits in the mold of sustainable development.

Electricity generation from wind energy has proved to be increasingly inviting, not only for its being a renewable source, and also because it does not show the magnitude of the environmental impacts often associated with other sources of energy often used. However, the environmental impacts arising from the implementation and operation of a wind farm cannot be overlooked Several investigations around the world have focused the attention to the importance of planning issues and EIA processes to provide social acceptability for wind farms. The actions involve several aspects such as the review of specific laws, regulations, documents and environmental policies (Smart et al., 2014, Josimovic et al., 2014, Geißler et al, 2013).

This article presents a study about the environmental impacts resulting from the construction and operation of wind power plants. For both, studies from the environmental impacts in the biotic and physical media and socioeconomic status were compiled, not seeking to drain the information related to the theme, but to corroborate with the existing studies and to provide information for the technicians, students and lay people, aiming to learn more about the topic.

State of the Art Brazil already has one of the cleanest generator parks of the world, due to the fact that more than 65% of the generated electricity comes from water, one of the cleanest and cheapest energy sources. At first, it may seem difficult to obtain an increase in the hole of clean energy in the matrix, reducing to even lower emissions of Brazilian greenhouse gases (GHG) and other pollutants related to the generation of energy; however, it is notorious that this trend exists and it obtains amplitude each year.

According to the Reference Center for Solar and Wind Energy, wind potential in Brazil reaches 143,000 MW (Amarante et al., 2001), as presented in the ʺAtlas do Potencial Brasileiro de Energia Eólica ‐Atlas of Brazilian wind power potentialʺ, not including in this calculation the potential off shore. It must be enhanced that this atlas was elaborated according to the electricity generation technology prevailing at the time limited to the low power turbines installed up to 50 m height from the ground. As an example, it is the strong growth in wind energy potential of the Rio Grande do Sul State, which rose from 15,800 MW in 50 m to 115,200 MW at 100 m height.

Current data show a significant increase in the installed capacity of wind power in Brazil pointing out a trend of economic international market and also for financial and technological investment in Brazil. This can be seen in the Fig. 1, which details the total power of each Brazilian State considering plants in operation, under construction and already contracted.

Since the implementation of the current sectorial model (2004), the energy auctions have consolidated as efficient mechanisms for promoting the expansion of generation, with a focus on inclusion of alternative and renewable sources in Brazilian electricity matrix, enabling especially the generation of wind energy. The wind had taken the initial steps in Brazil with the Incentive Program for Alternative Sources of Electric Energy (PROINFA) initiative

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launched by the Brazilian government in 2002, in which wind plants, biomass plants and PCHs (little hydroelectric plants) sold their production for the Free Trade Association EGF in subsidized prices. In 2009, aiming to impulse the development of wind farms, a reserve auction was promoted to hire production and allow the construction of new enterprises in the sector. The result was an average selling price of R$ 148.39 per MWh, at that time, representing discount of 21.49% compared to R$ 189 per MWh placed as ceiling. In the following years, the wind began to compete with both “reservation” modalities as in the A‐3 auctions, which came to be called ʺalternative sourcesʺ fairs. The rates offered by enterprises dropped year by year, until the record was established at the end of 2012. The rates of wind mills were between R$ 87.50 and R$ 88.68 per MWh, and has surpassed by far the lowest price already registered until then, of R$ 99.54 in the reserve auction of 2011. In 2013, 4,710.6 MW of energy from wind sources were hired. Thus, by means of the auction, the wind sources were inserted by a competitive way in the expansion of power generation (EPE, 2014). Figure 2 presents the results of installed capacity, since the creation of PROINFA in 2002 (1st Phase), by 2013 (Phase of energy auctions organized by EPE) and contracted until 2018.

FIG. 1 TOTAL WIND POWER (MW) BY BRAZILIAN STATE SOURCE: MELO ET AL., 2012

FIG. 2 EVOLUTION OF INSTALLED CAPACITY OF WIND POWER IN BRAZIL AND PROJECTION. SOURCE: SELF ELABORATION

Figure 3 shows the generation capacity of electricity by wind in the period from March 2012 to March 2013, over 3 lines, that relate to the 1st Phase (Pre‐PROINFA and PROINFA), 2nd phase (phase competitive ‐ auctions) and total (Melo et al., 2014). It was observed that in March 2013 the generation of 2nd Phase exceeded 10 MW average generation of 1st Phase. After analyzing the data on installed capacity, the greatest generation was carried out by phase of lower installed capacity, i.e. the 2nd Phase. This stems from the fact that the capacity factors from the recent wind turbines are larger than those from the 1st Phase (generation PROINFA), providing greater use of winds (Simas, 2012)

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FIG. 3 WIND POWER GENERATION IN BRAZIL (MW) SOURCE: MELO ET AL., 2014

The assertion can be proven in the graphic of Figure 4 , which shows the capacity factor in the same period, that is, March 2012 to March 2013, by means of 2 curves, which relate to the 1st Phase (Pre‐ PROINFA and PROINFA) and 2nd phase (phase competitive ‐ auctions).

FIG. 4 CAPACITY FACTOR SOURCE: MELO ET AL., 2014

This factor refers to the potential for energy generation plants that can actually be harnessed and transformed into electricity. In Brazil, the plants that are being hired must submit average indices for use in the order of 45%.

Although higher than those of the Europeans, these levels of wind mills utilization in Brazil are considered low if compared with other sources of energy. For this reason, it is important that these ventures are monitored after their entry into commercial operation to ensure that the goals set out in the project are met and the volume of energy contracted is effectively delivered.

Another crucial factor for the development of wind energy in Brazil and worldwide is the technology, since the turbines capacity has grown in recent years, from 50 kW to a value above 9 MW. This improvement allowed the wind power plants to be a powerful alternative for different levels of demand.

There is no power generation without environmental impacts; therefore it is important to combine low prices with fewer burdens on the environment. The big hydropower plants keep offering the lowest prices of energy in Brazil.

But on the other hand, the greatest potentials still available to the country are located in the Amazonas and Tocantins/Araguaia basins, bringing two main issues we may concern. According to Abbud (2012), the first issue is the distance between the source of energy and the consuming centers, that makes the energy expensive, and the second one is that building power plants in those areas, which have a flat topography, tends to increase the flooded areas. Table 1 presents a comparative research on prices of energy according to the source. The fixed costs of Table 1 are the average prices of New Energy Auctions that occurred in the period between 2005 and 2010, excluding the costs of wind power, which is the value reached in the auction of 08/17/2011, the first one where wind power had been evaluated. The variable costs of generation are the average variable costs of the thermal energy used by ONS (Operador Nacional do Sistema Elétrico – National Operator of the Electrical System) for the development of Review 3 of the Monthly Operation Plan of September/2011 (17 to 23/09/2011 operative week).

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TABLE 1 PRICES OF ELECTRICITY BY SOURCES

Variable Cost (US$/MWh)

Total Price (US$/MWh)

Source

Fixed cost (US$/MWh)

Large hydroelectric

32.27

32.27

Wind

37.99

37.99

Hydroelectric Midsize

56.26

56.26

Small Hydroelectric Power Plant

60.64

60.64

Thermal Nuclear

55.5

7.68

63.18

Thermal Coal

60.79

64.51

125.3

Thermal Biomass

65.41

63.8

129.21

Thermal Natural Gas

63.69

71.28

134.97

Thermal Fuel Oil

63.55

192.96

256.51

Thermal Oil Diesel

63.55

240.47

304.02

SOURCE: ADAPTED FROM (ABBUD, 2012)

In Brazil, electricity generated by intermittent sources has priority in the power transmission network. In other words, when the wind farm produces energy, the ONS managing agency from the SIN (Sistema Integrado Nacional – National Integrated System) decreases or even stops the power generation from other sources. The use of batteries to storage energy is not usual in those plants; only systems are isolated from the net. In Brazil, it is more usual that the storage in batteries of solar photovoltaic energy due to the large solar incidence all over the country. Researches demonstrate a great advantage to the combined use of these two technologies (Elhadidy e Shaahid, 1999), especially for hot regions (Shaahid, 2011). In according with studies developed, the use of combined wind power and diesel (Elhadidy and Shaahid, 2004, Shaahid et al., 2007) and wind power, photovoltaic and diesel (Shaahide et al., 2010) decrease intermittence issues are being strongly recommended for isolated systems.

Given the decrease of rain fall in Brazil, and the consequent fall in the capacity of hydropower generation, the possibility of combining two types of technologies becomes very interesting, such as wind power with photovoltaic, due to the seasonal complementarity and the employment of transmission networks has already existed, avoiding environment impacts that would be caused by building new infrastructure (Barbosa Filho et al., 2013).

Environmental Studies In July of 2009, the Ministry of Environment (MMA), Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME), Forum of State Secretaries for Matters of Energy and other authorities signed the Charter of Winds, which sets guidelines for wind energy in Brazil (FEAM, 2015).

According to the directive VII brought by the Charter, the MMA was charged to ʺ…define, together with the member states, guidelines for improving the environmental licensing process in wind millsʺ (MMA, 2010). This ministry, then, in order to evaluate the procedures of Environmental Licensing and standardization of ventures of generation of electrical energy from wind sources has formed a working group with organizations of environment and of the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (Ibama), so that these analysts, by means of systematic meetings and technical visits to wind mills in national territory, would define the studies required for the environmental licensing. In view of the conflicts identified by the working group, coordinated by the MMA, a draft resolution was held for consideration of the CONAMA, advisory body and deliberative SISNAMA (Sistema Nacional de Meio Ambiente ‐ National Environmental System), which offers the National Policy on the Environment, specific to the environmental licensing of wind mills on land surface, that is compliant by means of Process N. 02000.002302/2012‐90 (CONAMA, 2012). There also carried out Terms of Reference for the development of environmental studies (EIA/RIMA and RAS) that will support the examination of applications for licensing and a survey about the environmental licensing in Brazilian States: Consolidation of Research on Licensing of Windfarms (MMA, 2010).

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The FEAM, component of indirect administration of the Semad (Secretaria Estadual de Meio Ambiente e Desenvolvimento Sustentável de Minas Gerais ‐ Office of the Secretary of State for the Environment and Sustainable Development of the Brazilian State of Minas Gerais), participated the working group, which allowed a significant enhancement of technical knowledge related to the theme, and the preparation of documents available to the public by the website http://www.feam.br/mudancas‐climaticas (FEAM, 2015): 

Term of Reference for the preparation of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and its Environmental Impact Report (Rima) for wind power plants.



Term of Reference for drafting Report of Environmental Control (RCA) for wind power plants.



Term of Reference for the elaboration of the Environmental Control Plan (PCA) for wind power plants.



Technical Release 2 (Gemuc /Dped/Feam) ‐ The Use of wind Energy in the State of Minas Gerais: Technical Aspects and the Environment.

Since the beginning of 2014, CONAMA evaluated the proposal sent by the discussion group and recently, in July 10th, the proposal became a norm.

Environmental Impacts The use of wind power is configured as an important alternative for electric power generation, especially when it happens to deal with expansion of electric matrix and the need to reduce the greenhouse gases emission from the energy sector. The environmental impacts generated are mainly related to the visual impact and the impact on the fauna and flora.

Main Impacts on the Biotic Environment For the biotic environment, the main components affected by the operation of wind power plants are: 

Flora ‐ due to its significant importance for the environmental quality, protection of the soil and natural asset, whose intervention is defined through specific legislation; and



Fauna ‐ due to its importance with environmental and natural indicators and the fragility face changing in the natural terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

1) Suppression Of Vegetation The construction of wind power plants can cause local impacts on flora and fauna during the construction phase and during the time of the enterprise or its holding; the recurrent impacts are suppression of vegetation, soil removal and compaction of the ground due to the machineries. The deforestation promotes the abolition of environment with fauna and flora and the fragmentation of local ecosystems (Meireles, 2008).

2) Fauna Wind power plant can affect directly and indirectly the birdlife representing risk of collision with turbines (rotors, blades and towers of support); collision with the power transmission lines; amendment of reproductive success; disturbance in migration (changes in the patterns of migration); loss of habitat for reproduction and feeding; amendment of movement patterns and habitat use due to disturbance associated with the presence of the turbines. According to Tolmasquim (2004), wind ventures out of immigration routes do not disturb the birdlife, and they tend to change their flight route between 100 to 200 meters, passing above or around the turbine.

The wind turbines represent a major threat to the populations of bats. The rotation of the turbines causes a drop in atmospheric pressure in the region near the end of the blades, and when a bat is replaced by this low pressure zone, its lung suffers a sudden expansion, resulting in the rupture of lung capillaries causing internal hemorrhage, something similar to that what happens with divers who experience sudden changes of pressure.

Although some are affected by direct striking battering by propellers of the turbines, the main cause of death is this sudden pressure drop which closes to the structures of the wind turbines. The birds are less impacted than

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bats, because, thanks to its more robust respiratory system, they do not suffer from the problem of depressurization (Villey‐Migraine, 2004).

Painting pads in more visible color can increase its visibility, reducing the number of collisions. But in terms of mortality of birds, the location of the plant wind is the most important aspect. The correct location of wind ventures can reduce the negative effects on the environment in some fauna groups. However, the studies with focus on these impacts are still recent. The deployment of wind power plants can result in interference of the terrestrial fauna, first to achieve their habitats, and, second, by the increase in movement and noise in the implementation phase, which tends to scare off the wildlife to other localities, which may suffer from trampling on the roads. But it is noted the return of terrestrial fauna will approach at the end of the works. Technical visits carried out in land areas that received the construction of wind power plants have shown good conviviality of animals with the towers.

Main Impacts on the Physical Environment The main elements of the physical environment subject to the effect of deployment and operation of this project are: 





Water Resources ‐ In the light of the possible risks of changing the quality of the body receiver by the addition of the generation of sanitary sewers due to the increase in the number of employees, and by any sedimentation processes triggered by changes in superficial structure and sub‐surface soil generated in phase of the works, and by the possible improper disposal of wastes and industrial and sanitary effluents during the operation phase; Soil and Subsoil ‐ Due to the possible changes that may occur in the structures of the soil and to the risks of contamination by improper disposal of chemical substances (solid waste, industrial products and effluents); Atmosphere ‐ As a function of the risks of air pollution by the emission of dust and particulate matter, due to excavation and movement of vehicles and machinery during the phase of construction and operation of the project.

1) Degradation of Affected Area The wind mills when in operation or in the process of installation can degrade considerably the area occupied due to the processes of deforestation, topography, and earthworks necessary for the creation and maintenance of a network of access roads to the turbines. The impacts generated by earthworks are related to activities of withdrawal and burial of plant cover, transversal and longitudinal cuttings and landfills, opening of access roads, maneuvering area for trucks, mechanical shovels and track tractors, and preparing the ground for the installation of the construction site. Another impact is the introduction of sedimentary material for soil waterproofing and compaction, when the stage of the deployment process is to provide the vehicle traffic on the network of access roads to wind turbines, at the jobsite, the deposit of materials, the office and the warehouse.

The deployment of wind power generating plants can cause interference in archaeological sites, which brings the need of, in addition to precedents technical studies, the monitoring of the affected area.

2) Greenhouse Gas Emission The generation of electricity through wind power plants shows great advantages during its operation when compared with other sources of power, due to less greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and lower CO2 concentration. According to Dones et al., (2003), emissions of the complete chain of several electricity generation systems for wind source demonstrate an order of magnitude much lower than the thermal power plants. Alvim et al., (2010) investigated several sources cycles using international parameters adapted to Brazilian conditions and the results are basically the same to direct emissions. However, to the cycle emissions, they found emission factors values per power generated much higher than natural gas and oil by‐products. Table 2 shows emissions before, during and after the generation, in this case after meaning the facility deactivation. Escape emissions, so called for being result of GHG escape (mainly methane) during the different stages of the generation cycle, are also presented.

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TABLE 2 DIRECT AND INDIRECT EMISSIONS IN ELECTRICITY GENERATION – (x10‐3 kg co2/kwh)

Aggregate Steps

Nuclear

Coal

Natural Gas

Bagasse

Diesel oil

Fuel oil

Wind

Photovoltaic

Amount

19.1

7.4

26.3

49

76.3

66.1

15.4

105

Generation

0.8

1262

465

755

725

5.4

0

Downstream

7.8

0.2

0.6

0.4

1.3

Escape

0.1

76.3

31.5

0

0

0

0

0

Total

27.8

1346

523

49

832

792

21

105

Subtotal without generation

27.0

83.9

58.4

49.0

77.3

67.4

15.4

105.0

SOURCE: ADAPTED FROM (ALVIM ET AL., 2010)

3) Amendment of Hydrostatic Level of Aquifer The activities of earthworks can change the hydrostatic level, influencing the flow of underground water, since the cuts and embankments possibly will be submitted to the engineering works for the stability of slopes and tracks compressed to provide continuity of traffic of trucks. Another factor that threatens the aquifer’s hydrostatic level is the production of concrete for the wind towers foundations, since there is a high volume of material to be used. In other words, there is interference with the availability of water due to the high consumption of water in the manufacture of concrete. The set of environmental impacts can interfere in the control of erosion, in the hydrostatic dynamics and availability of fresh water, removal of habitats and changes in landscape linked to scenic and leisure aspects.

Main Impacts on Socio‐Economic Environment As regards the social‐economic environment the main elements subjected to impacts during the phases of planning, implementation and operation are: 

Population and Land Use ‐ In relation to the new trends of land use during the phase of deployment and operation of the project.



Infrastructure ‐ Regional Structure ‐ Checking the main public instruments that may be affected, according to a new demand (increase in the number of workers);



Tax Collections ‐ values to be collected by the municipality, State and Federation in phase of deployment and operation of the project, which will return in benefits for population; and



Labor Market ‐ New jobs to be generated for the municipality during the phase of deployment and operation of the project.

The advantages conferred on wind energy highlights the fact that it does not use the water as a key element for the generation of electrical power, does not have radioactive wastes or harmful gases emissions. In addition to these aspects, it is important to point out that approximately 99% of the area used for the deployment of wind power plant can be used for other purposes such as agriculture, livestock, etc. The main negative impacts on the socio‐ economic environment caused by the generation of wind power are related to the following aspects: the issue of noise, visual impact, corona visual or glare, electromagnetic interference, strobe effect and local interference. These aspects can be minimized or even eliminated through planning and appropriate studies, coupled with technological innovations.

1) Noise Emission The wind turbines produce two types of noise: the noise of mechanical gears and generators, and aerodynamic noise from the blades. The mechanical noise has been virtually eliminated through insulation materials. The aerodynamic noise is produced by the rotation of the blades generating a hissing sound caused by the speed of

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the tip. Modern wind mills are being optimized with scope to reduce the aerodynamic noise.

The noise inside or around a wind power plant varies considerably depending on a number of factors, such as: the layout of the plant, the type of turbines installed, the mound, the speed and the direction of the wind and background noise. The increase in emissions of sound of wind turbines is related with increasing wind speed.

However, the background noise that normally increases faster than the sound of the turbine which tends to mask the noise of the turbine with the growth of the wind speed. Noise levels decrease as you increase the distance between wind turbines and are most commonly expressed in dB(A), decibels measured in the scale of compensation of meter (decibel), as it is the scale that most closely approximates the human perception of noise.

The estimates of the noise levels in future wind mills are of extreme importance in order to predict the impact of the noise. When there are people who live near a wind power plant, special care must be taken to ensure that the sound of wind turbines is at a reasonable level in relation to the level of ambient sound in the area. Because of the wide variation in the levels of individual tolerance to noise, there is no completely satisfactory way to measure their subjective effects, or the corresponding reactions of annoyance and dissatisfaction (Stewart, 2006).

The individual annoyance to noise is a very complex issue, but studies have shown a correlation between noise annoyance and the interference and visual characteristics of intrusive sound. In the same way, the bother is greater in the rural area than in the periphery and also higher in complex terrain, in comparison with the flat ground in a rural environment (WindFacts, 2012). Low frequency noise (LFN), also known as infrasound, is used to describe the sound energy in the region below 200 Hz. The LFN can cause discomfort and inconvenience to sensitive people and therefore has been widely analyzed. The most important finding is that the modern wind turbines with rotor placed against the wind produce very low levels of infrasound, usually below the perception threshold (Stewart, 2006). Results of infrasound measurements of wind turbines conclude that, with turbines upwind, the infrasound can be neglected in the assessment of environmental effects (Jacobson and Masters, 2001).

Noise emissions are regulated by technical standards of ABNT (Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas ‐ Brazilian Association of Technical Standards) N. 10,151 (ABNT, 2000) and N. 10,152 (ABNT, 1987). Several studies have demonstrated the dangers of this type of decibels to human health. Decibels of type B and C, called infrasound, although inaudible are felt as a vibration in the body, even inside the houses can be harmful to health as much as or more than the type A, and can cause lack of sleep, nausea, dizziness, headaches, increased blood pressure, aggressiveness and others. An observer, if exposed for a short time when the noise is limited to an instant perception of them, but is unable to take on the actual long‐term effects. The exposure distributed for a period of time, at least, two weeks can cause the majority of effects on humans. The impacts of noise depend on several factors: direction and strength of the wind, height and type of wind, topography, air pressure, obstacles and specific physical phenomena (Stewart, 2006).

The French Environmental Agency, Agence de lʹEnvironnement et de la Maîtrise de lʹEnergie, suggests a minimum distance of 250 m between the wind tower and a human residence, being however, this distance defined in public hearing (MEEDDM, 2010). The National Academy of Medicine of France and the United Kingdom Noise Association recommended a distance of 1.5 km (Villey‐Migraine, 2004). Several studies reported a common set of adverse effects on the health of people who live close to wind turbines. These symptoms started after the operation of wind power plants, and include: sleep disorders, headache, ringing in ears, ear pressure, nausea, dizziness, tachycardia, irritability, problems with concentration and memory panic episodes with pulsing sensation or internal shaky that arise when people are awake or sleeping.

These disorders have their main cause in the effect of low frequency noise from wind turbines in the organs of the inner ear. In Table 3, it is presented a summary of researches conducted about the distance to be defined between the wind tower and residences, being these values, for the most part practical, because not all were regulated.

Despite of the lack of conclusive studies, the precautionary principle can justify the termination of the operation of any wind plant in inhabited areas, even if the local community has accepted.

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TABLE 3 ‐ DISTANCE FROM THE TOWER TO THE HOMES ‐ POLICY ADOPTED

COUNTRY

Distance from the tower to the homes/Policy adopted

Belgium

150 to 500 meters

Czech Republic

400 to 800 Meters

Denmark

4 times the height of the tower

France

250 to 500 meters, according to ADEME

Germany

‐ ʺTranquil Regionʺ (35 dB (A)): 1,000‐1,500 m ‐ ʺMiddle Regionʺ (40 dB (A)): 600‐1,000 m ‐ ʺDefault Regionʺ (45 dB (A)): 300‐600 m

Italy

Some regions have set distances, others do not. Calabria and Molise: 5 times the height of the tower. Basilicata: 2,000 meters. Campania: 10 times the height of the tower. Molise: 20 times the height of the tower.

Netherlands

4 times the height of the tower

Northern Ireland

Minimum of 500 meters

Romania

3 times the height of the tower, and will be less as decision in public hearing

Scotland

‐ Bankend Rigg (awaiting approval): little more than 1,000 m ‐ Chapelton (awaiting approval): 750 m ‐ Dungavel (awaiting approval): 1,000 m ‐ Whitelee (built): approximately 1,000 m ‐ Gathercauld Ceres (awaiting approval): 572 m ‐ Auchtermuchty (approved): 650 m

Spain

National: legislation applied as a function of the level of noise. Regional: the policies of wind power are varied. Examples: Valencia: 1,000 meters of any piece of land that can be exploited. Andalusia: 500 meters.

Sweden

Applicable legislation on the basis of the level of noise (40 dB (A)). In practice, uses is 500 meters.

United Kingdom

There is a bill with the following content: if the height of the wind generator turbine is greater than 25 meters, but does not exceed 50 meters, there is requirement of minimum distance for 1,000 meters; greater than 50 meters, but does not exceed 100 meters, there is requirement of minimum distance for 1,500 meters; greater than 100 meters, but not to exceed 150m, there is requirement of minimum distance for 2,000 meters; greater than 150 meters, the requirement of minimum distance for 3,000 meters. The height of the wind generator turbine is measured from the ground to the end of the tip of the blade at the highest point. There is no requirement for minimum distance if the height of the tower does not exceed 25 meters.

Switzerland

Documentation of Suisse Éole mentions 300 m from the tower, but each Canton is still working on its own policy.

SOURCE: FEAM, 2013

2) Visual Impact The modern wind turbines, with heights of towers above 100 m and length paddles above 30 m, are of course a visual change of landscape. The studies of environmental impact must identify, describe and assess the direct and indirect effects of the project on the landscape.

Note that the visual impact decreases with distance. The areas of theoretical visibility can be defined as (University of New Castle, 2002, apud WindFacts, 2012):  

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Zone I ‐ Visually dominant: the turbines are perceived as large, the movement of the blades is obvious.

The immediate landscape is changed. Distance up to 2 km.

Zone II ‐ visually intrusive: the turbines are important elements in the landscape and are clearly perceived. The movement of the blades is clearly visible and can attract the eyes. The turbines are not necessarily the dominant points in vision. Distance between 1 and 4.5 km, in conditions of good visibility.

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

Zone III ‐ Remarkable: the turbines are clearly visible, but not intrusive. The wind power plant is perceived as an element in the landscape. The movement of the blades is visible in good conditions of visibility, but the turbines seem small in the global picture. Distance between 2 and 8 km, depending on the weather conditions.  Zone IV ‐ Element in landscape distant: the apparent size of the turbines is very small. The turbines are like any other elements in the landscape. The movement of blades is usually imperceptible. Distance of more than 7 km away.

Although the visual impact is very specific to the site, in a wind power plant specifically some features in the design and deployment can be identified to minimize their potential visual impacts: 

The size and type of similar turbines in a wind power plant or several adjacent.



The selection of design of wind turbines (tower, color) in accordance with the landscape characteristics.



Selection of neutral color paint and anti‐glare for towers and blades.



Camouflage Paintwork next to military installations, to avoid that the windmills constitute reference points.



The use of three blades rotating in the same direction.



The panorama visual improvement with the distribution of turbines in line.

3) Visual Corona or Glare Visual Corona or glare is the amount of electromagnetic radiation leaving or arriving at a point on a surface, which can be minimized using matte paintings in the towers and blades.

4) Electromagnetic Interference The turbines, in some cases may reflect the electromagnetic waves. This implies that they can interfere and disrupt telecommunications systems. The electromagnetic fields of wind turbines can affect the quality of radio and telecommunications, as well as communications, microwave, cellular, internet and satellite transmission.

The impact assessment should address the problem, but cannot always guarantee the safety of optimal distribution of the magnetic field. The electromagnetic interference with the aeronautical communication will not be a problem created by wind plant, providing that the project covers a minimum distance from the airport, and also an area of bondage radio action of wind tower in relation to the route of navigation of aircraft determined by the competent agency.

5) Strobe Effect of the Wind Turbines The strobe effect is due to the passage of the blades before the sun that occurs at the beginning or at the end of the day when the sun is lower in the sky. The degree of intermittent shading depends on the distance of the tower, the latitude of the location, time of day and year. What becomes more relevant the smaller is the distance of the paddles and the receiver, as well as the fact of being in a same altitude.

According to Pires (2011), the intermittent shading can cause discomfort and harm people who suffer from epilepsy, in addition to nausea and headaches in residents. The effect is felt at a distance up to ten times of the diameter of the paddles and depends on the direction of wind turbines for homes. The effect is well documented in several countries of the world, however badly regulated.

6) Interference Locations For the population located in the surrounding area of direct influence, the most significant impacts of the implementation of the wind farm construction works are the local interference and the expectations caused by the realization of the project.

The deployment may cause temporary discomfort to local population, as well as may interfere with the daily life of the local community: increase of the vehicles flow, noise pollution, insecurity in transit, temporary increase in local population density, generation of employment and promotion of economic activities. The increase in the flow of vehicles, especially of heavy goods vehicle, can generate danger to drivers for any deviations and disruption of traffic.

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To decrease the disorders, the engineering firm responsible for the execution of the works must draw up a detailed plan of the procedures related to the movement of vehicles, by establishing a schedule to guide the flow of these in a rational way, as the signaling of the works, the necessary isolation facilities, safety devices, and even the dissemination to the communities of activities that might interfere with the traffic. In this plan the ability to support the deck must also be observed, which carries as much as possible compatible loads, thus preventing damage to the paving of roads, as well as the residences (EPA, 2007).

For partial or total use of existing road accesses, in addition to a transportation logistic plane, improvements in those roads should be evaluated to ensure the permanent nature of traffic, including amendments and new constructions in road infrastructure. These improvements may be a legacy of the project to the local population, since that can facilitate the flow of goods and access to properties. The temporary increase in local population density is worrying, because it can lead to serious issues as lack of housing, vandalism and prostitution. Then, it is necessary to implement a plan of measures which should be implemented by the company responsible for the works and the local municipality, aiming to soften these problems, to raise awareness of the population and the employees and to ensure priority of employment to the local population (FEAM, 2013).

Another impact to be managed by the company responsible for the execution of works is related to solid and liquid waste from the activities of the jobsite and constructive activities. The solid waste must be managed properly according to its characteristics, i.e. distinguishing the hazardous waste, non‐inert waste and inert waste. To mitigate this impact, the Program of Environmental Management of Solid and Liquid Waste should be implemented, which will cover the design and construction of wastewater and the achievement of a service contract with a licensed company to the collection of the waste generated in the implementation of the wind power plant. In regard to the waste from the construction, the normative instructions packaging, transport and final disposal of different types of waste generated during construction, in particular the CONAMA resolution N. 307/2002.should be followed.

Results and Discussions As shown in this paper, wind farms are not as degrading as hydropower or fossil fuel plants. However, we found that two issues must be carefully analyzed to determine its environmental impacts, the location and the distance between the plant and urban centers. The working group mentioned before corroborates with this point of view, which was also included in CONAMA Resolution N. 462 adopted on 24 July 2014 that lays down the procedures for environmental licensing of electricity generated from wind power plants on land´s surface.

CONAMA Resolution N. 462, in its third article, seeks to solve the normative conflict established by CONAMA Resolutions N. 01/1986 and the N. 279/2001. The CONAMA Resolution N. 01/1986, Art. 2, provides: “Article 2 ‐ Depend on the development of the Environmental Impact Study and its Environmental Impact Report ‐ RIMA, to be submitted for approval to the competent state agency, and to IBAMA in a supplementary nature, the licensing of activities which modify the environment, such as: Xl – Plants of electricity generation whatever the primary energy source, above 10 MW”;

The CONAMA Resolution N. 279/2001, that establishes procedures for simplified environmental licensing of electrical projects with a small potential of causing environmental impacts, brings on its first article: “Article 1 ‐ The procedures and deadlines established in this Resolution are applicable at any level of competence, to the simplified environmental licensing of electrical plants with low environmental impact potential including: IV ‐ Wind Power Plants and other alternative energy sources”.

As explained, the divergent normative then inserts legal uncertainty for practitioners, like who should determine what a small port is, either the technician himself or the legal text itself. Legal certainty depends on the application, or rather the obligation of the law. This statement proves that the legislator should strive to meet the social expectations at the time of drafting laws as these, understood here as a set of standards, including the principle of legal certainty in order that they make up and guides the legal system. This principle consists in the objective side, represented by limited retrospective application and protection of the acts made before the subsequent changes in

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legislation; and the subjective side, represented by the principle of protection of trust, whereby the stability of legal relations is linked to the preservation of legitimate expectations arising in society, on the legitimacy of acts emanating from the administration.

In this sense, the new rule approved introduces in its third article the term ʺlocationʺ as a parameter setting which will not be considered low impact, requiring for those submitting Environmental Impact Study and Environmental Impact Report, in addition to public hearings.

As presented in the environmental impact study, the distance of 1.5 km should be observed, taking into account the strobe effect and other effects reported. The standardization of the legal framework related to renewable energy is important to define the role of federal agencies in the permitting procedures.

Conclusion The generation of electricity from wind power has been increasingly inviting, mainly because it does not present the magnitude of environmental impacts typically associated with other energy sources.

However, the environmental impacts coming from the implementation and operation of a wind power plant cannot be neglected. The location of the plant and the distribution of the wind turbines must be defined on the basis of established environmental study. After the construction phase there is a natural tendency for recovery of vegetation, which favors the return of wildlife habitat. Other interesting points observed are the environmental education projects and monitoring of the area plant that can eventually bring tourism to the municipality.

It is important to emphasize that the economic return generated by leasing and use of areas within farms is highly attractive, and does not necessarily preclude that ceases to exploitation of agriculture, livestock, or other already existing activities. Several farms have sought to incorporate wind parks, in order to increase revenue and improve the safety of their surroundings.

The wind mills not only represent electricity generation where they are installed, but also a strong socioeconomic development, such as the increase of direct and indirect jobs, income and local improvements. Coincidentally, the Brazilian areas of greatest potential for generating power of wind are located in poor regions or poorly developed, with low economic activity and various social deprivations. Another positive aspect we must highlight is that after the wind power plants begin to work, we observe an increase of municipal and state inflows that focuses on energy market and land‐use. This tends to decrease the population exodus, and usual phenomenon in poor municipalities.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors are grateful to the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG) and the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG) for the support.

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Wilson P. Barbosa Filho was born in Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil, in 1962. He is graduated in Civil Engineer at PUC Minas (2005), MG, Brazil and Law at University Salgado de Oliveira (2013). Barbosa Filho got his specialization in Strategy Management and Quality at UCAM (2009), Environmental Law at PUC‐Minas (2012) and his MSc Degree in Environmental Management and Audit at European University Miguel de Cervantes (2013).

Currently, he is PhD student of Program Nuclear Science and Techniques of Department of Nuclear Engineering at UFMG. MSc Barbosa Filho works as environmental analyst of FEAM, MG, Brazil.

Abílio C. S. Azevedo was born in Araguari, MG, Brazil, in 1950. He is graduated in Civil and Sanitarian Engineer at UFMG (1975).

Eng. Azevedo works as environmental Analyst of FEAM, MG, Brazil since 1982.

Andrea B. Andrade was born in Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil, in 1982. Andrade is graduated in Forest Engineer at UFV, Brazil (2005). She got her MSc Degree on Forestry Sciences also in UFV, Brazil (2007).

Eng. Andrade works as environmental analyst of FEAM, MG, Brazil.

Antonella L. Costa was born in Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil, in 1971. Costa is graduated in Physics at the UFMG, Brazil (1999).

She got her MSc Degree on Nuclear Engineering in the UFMG, Brazil (2000), and the PhD degree on Nuclear and Industrial Safety at the University of Pisa, Italy (2007).

Currently, she works as professor and researcher at the Nuclear Engineering Department of the UFMG, Brazil. She has experience on minor actinides transmutation in nuclear systems, neutronic and thermal hydraulic valuation, research reactors, renewable resources.

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Prof. Costa is also a member of the National Science and Technology Institute of Innovators Nuclear Reactors, Brazil.

Ricardo B. Pinheiro was born in Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil, in 1939. Pinheiro is graduated in Electrical and Mechanical Engineering at the UFMG (1963). He got his Nuclear Engineering Specialization (1964) also in the UFMG and the Doctor Degree in the Faculté des Sciences dʹOrsay, Université de Paris XI (1968).

He worked as researcher at the National Commission for Nuclear Energy of Brazil and Empresas Nucleares Brasileiras SA – Nuclebras for about 35 years in Reactor Physics and Reactor Technology. He coordinated several projects mainly related with thorium utilization in Pressurized Water Reactors, reactor safety and reactor component testing.

Since 1997, Prof. Pinheiro works as associate professor at the Department of Nuclear Engineering, UFMG, Brazil. He gives lessons on energy planning, energy resources, exergetic analysis of energy conversion systems and nuclear engineering.

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