Comparative Analysis and Empirical Study on Different Characteristics between Chinese and Japanese P

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International Journal of Modern Education Forum (IJMEF) Volume 3 Issue 3, August 2014 DOI: 10.14355/ijmef.2014.0303.02

Comparative Analysis and Empirical Study on Different Characteristics between Chinese and Japanese Postgraduate Students Wenxin Wang*1, Yibo Li2, Jianfeng Sun3, Yun Xu4 1. College of Economics and Management, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China 2. College of Business, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 071000, China 3. College of Food Science and Technology, Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding 071000, China 4. College of Information and Electrical Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China 93542@cau.edu.cn; 2lyb_cau@126.com; 3causunjf@yahoo.com; 4 sdxuyun@cau.edu.cn

*1

Abstract By investigating and analyzing the learning motive, methods, and understanding on employment among Chinese and Japanese postgraduate students, this study established a logit model by which the effect levels of each factor affecting the employment of Japanese or Chinese graduate students are calculated. The paper also analyzed the main reasons causing the differences and provided some preliminary suggestions on how to positively study and improve the postgraduate education system.

is 38,500 students higher than the number in the previous year. Graduate enrollment has reached new heights, with postgraduate entrance examinations constantly gaining popularity. All signs indicate the different characteristics and rules between Chinese and Japanese postgraduate education (Wang 2001).

Postgraduate Student; Characteristics; Employment

Thus, a survey is conducted in this study to identify the differences between Chinese and Japanese postgraduate students on enrollment motivation, learning patterns, and social awareness on the effect of various factors and to analyze the reasons behind these differences.

Introduction

Data

Postgraduate education in Japan and in other countries has shown the inverse relationship between changes in the number of graduate students and the gross national product. When the economy undergoes rapid development, the increase in employment opportunities contributes to the slow increase in the number of postgraduate students, whereas when economic development is slow, the intense competition in obtaining employment rapidly increases the number of postgraduate students (Cai 1996).

This study involved all graduates at the Agricultural Economics Department in the University of Tsukuba in Japan (total of 24) and randomly selected 50 postgraduate students at the Agricultural Economics Department in the China Agricultural University for the survey interview. The interviews were conducted from April 15 to May 26, 2012. The questions asked included the main reason for pursuing a master's degree, perceptions on employment and on main factors in selecting a career such as whether to engage in further study (a doctor’s degree), perceptions on school specializations, and understanding on the relationship between high-level education and high employment rates and so on.

Keywords

In China, the number of Chinese postgraduate students has increased from 218,700 at the Graduate School in 1999 to approximately 501,000 in 2002, along with the fast economic development. In 1990, the number of doctorate graduates was 11,300, which rapidly increased in 2003 to 136,700. As of 2011, postgraduate enrollment increased at an average rate of more than 26.9%, which was attributed to the increase in the national postgraduate recruitment of up to 527,800 that

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Analysis of the Findings Survey on the Reasons for Pursuing a Master’s Degree From the interviews, we found that Chinese and Japanese postgraduate students have different

International Journal of Modern Education Forum (IJMEF) Volume 3 Issue 3, August 2014

perspectives in pursuing postgraduate education, and most postgraduates in China are regarded to more easily find jobs than undergraduates. (Table 1) According to statistics, the employment rates of university and junior college graduates in China from 2002 to 2011 period were 80.0%, 70.0%, 73.0%, and 72.6%, respectively. While the scale of undergraduates and junior college students has expanded rapidly, social needs have not expanded accordingly, contributing to the decline in the employment rate.

TABLE 1 THE MOTIVATION TO RECEIVE POSTGRADUATE EDUCATION

Being The need Changing the Finding a interested in for future Country working Others researching job easily work environment work China 88.0% 36.0% 14.0% 22.0% 18.0% Japan 0% 54.2% 33.3% 8.3% 2.5%

Knowledge-based unemployment is widespread in many developed countries. In the US, from 1985 to 1988, 19% of people who had doctoral degrees engaged in post-doctoral degrees. The unemployment rate of doctorate graduates in the US in 1999 was 10.6%, in Britain in 1989 was 7.0%, which increased to 8.6% in 1992, and in France in 1989 was 12.0%. This phenomenon is attributed by two main reasons. First, between higher education and the economic structure, a gap exists, which prevents college graduates from immediately meeting social needs. Second, many positions with high wages, better work environment, and high social status, such as university professors and senior researchers, require applicants who are well-educated, increasing the public's enthusiasm in receiving higher education and then resulting in the over-supply of highly educated people. Thus, as a consequence, highly educated people are unsurprisingly facing the risk of unemployment.

Students, universities, and the society are fully aware of these employment risks and have to implement various measures to avoid them. As a result, the speed and scale of postgraduate education development experience adjustments. Agricultural Economics at the University of Tsukuba in Japan, for example, had 6 doctorate and 11 master’s degree students enrolled in 2004. At the end of 2011, 6 students graduated with a master’s degree on schedule, 2 graduated with a doctorate, a doctorate student dropped out of school after finding a job in the first year, and another doctorate student continued with his studies while working at the same time. Although the increase in postgraduate enrollment has affected employment to a certain extent, postgraduate employment rate

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maintains at more than 90%, while that in some universities can reach 100%. The high rate and the quality of postgraduate employment have encouraged many university students to pursue further study, particularly those who are not optimistic on their employment prospects. Many of these students had already set their minds on engaging in postgraduate studies when they stepped into the university, thus they have spent considerable amount of time in studying courses in preparation for the postgraduates’ entrance examination, systematically affecting learning in undergraduate education. Meanwhile, the Japanese respondents did not consider having postgraduate education as an advantage in finding jobs more easily than undergraduates. In Japan, to save costs, employers tend to employ staff members with low qualification.

With the same capability, employers always favor those whose degrees are low. Unlike in Chinese job advertisements that indicate “higher than a certain qualification”, job advertisements in Japan directly request specific educational qualifications. A PhD is mostly required by research institutions and in teaching. Thus, the demands are limited. Well-educated people then often have to face the high risk of unemployment.

By contrast, Chinese postgraduate education appears to be a tool only. Almost all postgraduate students hold the view that postgraduate education will lead to high-income work, reflecting the society's respect for knowledge. Public opinions also generally agreed that highly educated people possess talents. If they cannot find a job, a potential human resource is wasted, and the employment mechanism must have a problem.

Foreign elite or well-educated graduates not being able to find work are not uncommon. The public has already recognized this actuality. Chinese postgraduate education has been controlled by the distorted job market that is excessively pursuing postgraduate graduates and offering high wage levels. Consequently, postgraduate employment has been given a number of many other social functions, but neglecting the essence of postgraduate education.

Survey on Learning Courses and Evaluation The Chinese postgraduate students who were surveyed expressed that they are carrying a heavy study load.

The average daily studying time of first-year graduates is more than 10 hours. A total of 77% of Chinese postgraduates spend an average of more than 8 hours for study each day (Training scheme for Graduate Student of China Agricultural University 2004).

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International Journal of Modern Education Forum (IJMEF) Volume 3 Issue 3, August 2014

Meanwhile, Japanese first-year graduates only have an average of 4 to 5 courses per week (75 minutes for each course). The daily studying time of Japanese first-year graduates is therefore less than 5 hours on the average, and a total of 83% of Japanese postgraduates spend less than 8 hours for study each day (Table2) (Graduate Student handbook of University of Tsukuba 2004).

TABLE 2 DAILY STUDYING TIME (HOURS/DAY)

Country

10 hours above

8 to 10 hours

6 to 8 hours

6 hours below

China

22.0%

50.0%

22.0%

6.0%

Japan

4.2%

12.5%

41.7%

41.7%

The Chinese exam-oriented education produces postgraduates. Universities and the society have agreed to evaluate personal performance simply through test marks. Universities emphasize on the firm grasp of basic knowledge, harnessing expertise, diligent study, and training as scientists. Students then study hard to obtain high marks, higher evaluation, and a favorable position, not because of interest but for the mastery and application of knowledge. In Chinese universities, degrees, courses, and enrollment standards are managed by the government. Common leadership of national postgraduate education, similar involvement of characters, same degree conferred upon graduation, and lack of school characteristics provide the possibility of objective comparison. Universities then mold students to systematically learn basic knowledge by motivation and monitoring. These methods allow students to adapt to passive learning, resulting in the lack of practical ability and understanding about the society and limited creativity (Wang 2001).

In Japan, because the credits required are few, students from different or the same specializations attend various courses with different teachers. The courses and the learning difficulties are lesser than those in China (Graduate Student handbook of University of Tsukuba 2004). A significant gap only exists in the learning time. Japanese students are required periodically to report on their study results (seminar system), especially on topics that they are most interested in. Thus, they initiatively spend a considerable amount of time searching for information and conducting research, including experiments.

Perceptions on Society and Future Work Arrangements for after-school hours highly determine the degree of knowledge of graduates and their ability to solve problems. A part-time job can offer material

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interest and establish the foundation for entering into the society. For the question on having a previous part-time job, 96% of Chinese graduates stated that do not basically work and are not engaged in regular part-time work. A few reported that they mainly served as tutors, programmers, and campus assistants. The range of work is limited because of two reasons, namely, the study load is heavy thus no time for work and the effect of traditional ideas. The Chinese professors interviewed (19 people) agreed that students should focus on learning and that having a part-time job during study is not encouraged.

TABLE3 SURVEY ON PART-TIME JOBS OUTSIDE THE SCHOOL

Country China Japan

A steady job 0% 37.5%

Regular work 6.0% 45.8%

Occasional work 22.0% 12.5%

never work 72.0% 4.2%

Japanese students have a wide range of employment opportunities, from being a cashier, performing general chores, moving house as a coolie, to being a part-time researcher in a research institution. The tutor system supports having a part-time job. Among the Japanese students surveyed, 20.8% obtained part-time jobs from recommendations of teachers or administrators.

Through work, the students received material support that allowed them to successfully complete their studies. More importantly, they attained an in-depth understanding of the society and of their own skills, which accurately identify their role. In the University of Tsukuba, for example, the tuition fee of a graduate student is 521,000 yen a year. With accommodation and other expenses, the average cost in a year has a total of more than 1,400,000 yen. Among the respondents, more than 70% of the students sought the help of their parents in paying the tuition fee or a portion of the living costs such as rent and utilities, while 47% worked independently or applied for state loans.

Therefore, only a few students relied on their parents to pay for all the costs.

At present, the slogan "knowledge changes the fate� has been widely recognized by the Chinese society.

With the implementation of a series of national employment protection policies including the policy of registered residence and of employment conditions for access, "knowledge" has indeed made a significant change in the fate of many people. To change their fate, majority of the students devoted all their energies into acquiring textbook knowledge. Academic performance then almost became the sole criterion for assessing students. Parents also regard their children's academic

International Journal of Modern Education Forum (IJMEF) Volume 3 Issue 3, August 2014

performance as the fulfillment of their biggest aspirations and glory, thus many of them do not fully support the idea of their children working during study.

However, "knowledge" cannot absolutely meet the needs of the society and cannot be transformed into practical productive forces, as a guide to social needs, or a favorable aspect of the society.

Perceptions on Qualification and Ability Understanding the relationship between qualifications and ability and the recognition of the necessary abilities has an important guiding significance for graduates. In the survey inquiring on the understanding of the graduates about the relationship between study and work (“When you meet an ideal job, will you give up your current studies?”), only 4% of Chinese respondents chose to sacrifice their studies. In China, gaining qualifications is not only a stepping stone for work but also a symbol of capacity and status. The low dropout rate in Chinese graduate education implies that only people who lack the ability or who have made mistakes will likely suspend their studies halfway. This idea has been given less attention in research.

Furthermore, the strict Chinese management system, including policies on registered residence and employment policies, is harmful to them. Despite their strong abilities, Chinese postgraduate students cannot be treated as the same with other graduates. Education trends in all universities may be same, and the lack of individuality allows easy comparison between universities and students. Employers will then have to adhere objectively to the “qualification only”. The higher the qualification, the more attention is drawn.

The society caused the "symbolic effect" of the qualification, that is, the requirements of the ability are not as important as those of the qualification, which forces a large number of graduates who refuse on improving their abilities (Wang 2001).

Universities do not specify for whom they are training and are only responsible for higher authorities. For graduates, an apparent lag is observed in the concept of talent. They study only to fulfill the purpose of tests and consider the performance in exams as equivalent to their abilities regardless of the social needs. The survey shows that the respondents considered the following abilities to be strengthened: self-expression (62%), foreign language (58%), professional competence (40%), and interpersonal interaction (38%). According to the survey issued jointly by the school department of the Central Commission of China Communist Youth League and the Public Policy Institute of Peking

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University on July 16, 2010, the requirements indicated by employers are the following: adapting to the environment (66%), interpersonal interaction (57%), self-expression (56%), professional competence (48 %), and foreign language (25%).

Perceptions on Learning and Working Japanese graduates focus more on social needs. A total of 54.2% of the respondents are willing to suspend their studies for work. They agree that the purpose of studying is to have a satisfying job. If good opportunities arrive, they should be fully utilized. This perception is highly connected with the emphasis of the Japanese recruitment process on quality and ability.

An examiner, after passing the written examination, must undergo 3 to 4 subsequent interviews. The interviewers can be from the personnel department, staff members, the department chief, the corporation’s stockholders, and the chairman. When a failure is observed, the interviewee cannot proceed to the next procedure. Written exams and interviews are highly flexible. Interviews have no fixed standards, so examinees can hardly prepare for them, and passing only the high school record is unacceptable. Obtaining employment is more difficult than passing the college entrance examination, so the students must pay more attention to the latter. Students have increased their demand for tutors who had been strict with students in equipping them for employment and in allowing them to exhibit their important work when looking for a job.

TABLE 4 CHOICES MADE BY RESPONDENTS TO OBTAIN SATISFYING JOB OPPORTUNITIES

Country China Japan

giving up studies 4.0% 54.2%

working with school roll's retention 28.0% 33.3%

continue with studies 68.0% 12.5%

Japanese university systems are also very flexible. For students of successive postgraduate and doctorate programs in the University of Tsukuba, for example, five years can easily be extended to seven years, and the period of suspension from schooling can be up to three years, which are not considered in the education system. A student of postgraduate and doctorate programs can therefore study in school for 10 years at most. If one cannot obtain a degree within the study period, similar to the status of working individuals after quitting school, the effect completing a doctorate thesis is the same as finishing a doctorate degree. [8] The flexible system, convenience in dropping out, and the multi-channel approach in obtaining a degree

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objectively relieve Japanese graduates on the consequences of suspending their studies for work.

Methodology Modeling the Determinants of Ph.D. Candidates With the improbability of having a direct quantitative analysis of the multivariate differences among Chinese and Japanese master’s degree students, a fixed effects conditional logit estimator is employed, which is similar to that developed by McFadden (1974). An individual, i, whose choice depends on his/her expected utility from it, is identified at given a vector of individual, household, and community characteristics xi . At an indicator variable yi that equals to 1 when individual, i, chooses a Ph.D. and 0 if otherwise, the effects of the variables contained in x on the decision of Ph.D. candidates can be estimated by

y= f ( xi β + µv ) + ε i i where β

represents a vector of parameters that

correspond to the effects of individual characteristics on Ph.D. candidates (In using the logit estimator, the error term is assumed as independent and identically distributed across observations, similar to the Weibull distribution.). Variables in xi measured at the individual level are included to explain the reasons of master’s degree or Ph.D. candidates. Based on the analysis in the previous section, each person’s gender, difficulty to find a job despite having a master’s degree, the need for a future job, better work environment, and better treatment for Ph.D., and interest in doctorate professionals indicate that knowledge remains inadequate and mentors, with their understanding of the community and of influential social relations, among others, extend their help in finding employment.

Results of the Multivariate Analysis The measuring results are shown in Table 5. With a marginal probability of 21%, the difficulty in finding jobs was found to have a high influence for Chinese female graduates to decide on pursuing a doctoral degree. Gender has no significant effect on decisions to engage in doctoral study in Japan. In China, a large number of female graduates pursue a doctoral degree to obtain a satisfying work, implying that the current employment system is not favorable to Chinese female graduates. For postgraduate students, the major reason for pursuing doctoral degree is its nearly 100% employment rate, accounting for the increase of 57% of 90

students apply into the doctorate program. By contrast, due to the difficulty in gaining employment for Japanese Ph.D. graduates, a doctorate has a negative implication. A total of 80% of the surveyed Chinese graduates stated their reason for pursuing a master's degree because of the critical situation of undergraduate employment. Thus, engaging in a master’s degree is the next best option if they cannot find ideal work.

TABLE 5 AFFECTING FACTORS OF THE ENTRANCE EXAMINATION TO CHINESE AND JAPANESE STUDENTS

Explanatory variables Gender (female=1) Difficulty to find job (yes=1) The need for future work (yes=1) Interest in obtaining a doctorate (yes=1) To understand more about the society (yes=1) Mentors to help find job (yes=1) Obtain more influential social relations (yes=1) Sample size

Chinese graduate students 1.21**(4.66) 1.57** (11.28) 1.22** (3.57)

Japanese graduate students 0.98(0.78) 0.62** (8.72) 1.47** (4.33)

1.09** (2.61)

1.18** (4.82)

1.07** (2.35)

0.89** (6.74)

1.03** (2.38)

1.11** (3.29)

0.18** (4.92)

0.93** (3.31)

50

24

Note. Coefficients reported are odd ratios in SPSS 11.5.

As reported in Exp(B), the coefficients can be interpreted as the additional probability of an event, if there is an additional unit of the explanatory variable. Z statistics are indicated in the parentheses. ** is significant at 5% level.

Pursuing a doctorate to engage in future work has an active effect on both Chinese and Japanese graduates.

Further study motivated by professional interests has a significantly positive correlation with the decision of students from both countries in pursuing a doctorate (Schultz 1977). Unlike Chinese students, Japanese students more obviously engage in Ph.D. study for their individual interests. (The marginal possibility is two times more than that in China). Social recognition has opposite effects on students from both countries, who are pursuing a doctorate. Various societal circles in China guide students to pursue higher education based on diverse aspects, while Japan showed a negative correlation. This finding is consistent with the observation mentioned in the introduction of this article, which referred to the difference between Chinese and Japanese higher education. With the burst of the economic bubble in Japan at the end of previous century, the demand for postgraduates in main departments, such as the Japanese government, universities, and institutions of scientific research, has reduced. These trends are made known immediately to

International Journal of Modern Education Forum (IJMEF) Volume 3 Issue 3, August 2014

schools and students, exhibiting the remarkable interaction between students and the society. Majority of Japanese students have been aware that high qualification translates not only to higher salary, better work environment, and respected position in a company, but also a higher risk. In Japan, a considerable number of professors in universities are recruited directly from the society because they possess a wealth of social experience and have a wide range of interpersonal networks. They are likewise familiar with the social needs, can guide students in correctly understanding the society, and can recommend suitable jobs to their students. Chinese professors who directly came from educational institutions can also help students find jobs, but the effect is relatively small, with the marginal probability of only 3%, whereas that in Japan is 11%. In China, employment opportunities rely heavily on various existing social relations. From the results of the survey by the central mission in 2004, 41.6% of undergraduates find jobs by asking acquaintances for help in social relations involving the family and individual. This rate in large and medium-sized cities can increase to as high as 51.29%.

School recommendations also largely contribute to addressing problems in job seeking. In Japan, students who look for jobs mainly rely on the applications they send, while those with recommendations from their tutors or with help from their acquaintances for family and individual social relations comprise only a very small portion. As shown in Table 5, 82% of Chinese postgraduate students have more influential social relations that discourage them from giving up their pursuit for advanced studies, whereas in Japan is 7% only.

Conclusions and Recommendations In comparison with postgraduate education in developed countries, Chinese postgraduate education lacks an effective connection with the society and thus cannot provide adequate feedback to the needs of society. Education philosophy, teaching requirements, teaching methods, and content must be updated.

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Graduate schools should not only maintain the individuality and independence of students during the educational process, but also ensure that they can well-serve the society after graduation.

In addition, Graduate schools also need to perform the initiative of actively addressing social needs by guiding students to focus on cultivating their abilities and by encouraging them to be in touch with the society to increase their perceptual knowledge. Graduate schools should motivate teachers to learn more about social needs and to adjust their knowledge and ability structures.

States should gradually relax their rigid control to graduate education and should establish a postgraduate education system that is market-driven, macro-controlled by the government, and focused on serving the development needs of the economy, society, culture, science, and technology.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was support by China National Key Technology R&D Program (2012B4J18B07).

REFERENCES

Cai, Keyong. 1996. “Introduction of higher education”, PhD Diss., Capital Normal University Press in Beijing.

Graduate Student handbook. 2004. University of Tsukuba.

McFadden, Daniel.1974. Conditional Logit Analysis of Qualitative Choice Behavior. In Paul Zarembka, Ed., Frontiers in Econometrics, New York: Acdaemic Press.

Schultz.Theodore W.1977.Investment in Human Capital, New York, The Free Press.

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