Spatial and Multi-Temporal Change Analysis of the Niger Delta Coastline Using Remote Sensing and ...

International Journal of Remote Sensing Applications Volume 4 Issue 1, March 2014 doi: 10.14355/ijrsa.2014.0401.04

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Spatial and Multi-Temporal Change Analysis of the Niger Delta Coastline Using Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) Chituru D. Obowu*1, Tamunoene K. S. Abam*2 First-Second Institute of Geosciences and Space Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology Port Harcourt, Nigeria cdobowu@yahoo.com; 2groundscan@yahoo.com

*1

Abstract The Niger Delta is one of the most dynamic deltas in the world. It is experiencing relatively strong environmental changes resulting from the complex interaction of natural and human-induced processes that operate upon it. The research focuses on the Niger Delta coastline change detection and vulnerability assessment to coastline changes using remote sensing and geographical information system.

The change detection involves, processing of multi-temporal images (1972-2008), followed by image differencing, post classification image overlaying, image fusion, image visual interpretation and on-screen digitising. The result shows that the image differencing and post-classification image overlaying change detection techniques are useful to monitor coastline change. The image visual interpretation and on-screen digitising is the main quantitative method to detect the Niger Delta coastline change. The coast line was analyzed in sections starting and terminating a major river mouths. Quantitative measurement and analysis showed that for most of the coast line sections there have been period of erosion and accretion over the 36 year study period. Only very few sections show consistent erosion or accretion over the years. The natural fluvial and marine factors and also human activities played an important role on this development..

Keywords Niger Delta; Coastal; Change Detection; Mangrove

Introduction The Niger Delta being one of the most dynamic deltas in the world is supporting one of the world’s most extensive wetlands. It experiences a combination of wave, tide and current action from the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. This results in relatively significant environmental changes resulting from the complex interaction of natural and human induced processes that operates on it. The natural processes include

phenomena such as changes in sea level rise, subsidence and compaction, storm surges, coastal flooding and erosion. Human induced factors include artificial diversions of river path, channel dredging, erection of harbour protecting structures, dam construction, mining of beach sand and de-vegetation.

The Niger Delta coastline faces the high-energy dynamic environment of the Atlantic Ocean. The shape of the Nigerian coast is influenced by the regular strong swell of the South Atlantic coming in from a general S. 24° W. direction. This swell reaches the coast at an oblique angle, creating strong long shore currents. The strength of these currents diverts the sediments brought into the sea by the rivers, distributing them along the coast and preventing the formation of a bird-foot-type delta. Tidal currents created by tides accentuate swell, wave, and longshore current activity. Apart from the scouring effect of the tidal currents along the coast and in estuaries and rivers, a physio-chemical effect is caused by the heavy salt-water wedge, which, at high tide, pushes far inland.

The resultant effect of the changing dynamics of the above hydrological processes and human induced factors on the Niger Delta coastline are changes in coastline geomorphology. These forces mainly result in erosion and deposition of sediments along the coastline. These morphological changes are most prominent at the major river mouths where the rivers open into the sea. There are also a number of reported shifts in shoreline position around coastal communities. These changes have significant consequences on the sustainability of the daily livelihood of coastal communities and also on the safety and integrity of oil and gas production facilities with lace the Niger Delta coastline.

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This paper presents an analysis in the changes that have taken place in the coastline using remote sensing and geographic information system technology and also tries to understand the reasons for such changes.

Optical satellite imagery dating 1972 – 2008 were used for this analysis in addition to SRTM digital elevation model over the Niger Delta.

Niger Delta Coastline The Niger Delta coastline area under consideration extends for about 450 km in the east-west stretch. It is geographic location that takes its origin from the Niger Delta which is between Aboh at 5O33’ 49”N, 6O31’ 38”E in the north and Palm point (4O16’ 22”N, 6O05’ 27”E) in this south. The east-west limit is between Benin River estuary (5O44’11”N, 5O3’ 49”E) in the west and Imo River estuary (4O27’16’N, 7O35’27”E) in the east (Ogba et al, 2007). The Niger delta coastline of Nigeria, which is the main study area, is bounded to the south by the Atlantic Ocean. The area of study extends from the coastline 20 km landwards along the full stretch of coastline from Imo River to Benin River. The Niger Delta comprises four principal drainage zones. The interaction of the drainage processes with the environment has resulted in the evolution of five subenvironments. These are dry flat land, dry land with abundant swamp zones, fresh water swamps, mangrove swamps and beaches and bars.

in terms of physical infrastructure and land loss, as well as demographic inconveniences arising from sealevel rise are obvious.

1) General Hydrologic Setting The hydrology of the Niger Delta is dependent primarily on the River Niger. The River Niger drains a large part of the West African sub region and discharges sediment laden water into the Atlantic Ocean through the Niger Delta. The delta is fan shaped in geometry with an apex located some 250 km from the Ocean at Onitsha. The River Niger bifurcates into two main distributaries, the Nun and Forcados rivers, some 100 km south of the apex creating a coastline spanning of over 450 km.

Water and sediments from the delta empties into the Atlantic Ocean through 11 major rivers namely: Imo river, Bonny river, San Bathelomeo river, Brass river, Nun river, Pennington river, Dodo river, Ramos river, Forcados river, Escravos river and the Benin river. These rivers which make up the main drainage outlet have fairly large river mouths of about 1.3 km to 5 km, opening into the Atlantic Ocean.

FIG. 2 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND PRINCIPAL SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS IN THE NIGER DELTA FIG. 1 GEOMORPHIC SUB-ENVIRONMENTS OF THE NIGER DELTA

The coastline is generally protected from the ocean by a chain of natural barrier. However, the narrow sandy beach ridge of the barrier islands and the coastal beach ridges are of relatively low elevation. This implies that significant rise in sea level could inundate this zone, which inhabits some of the settlements. Most parts of the vegetated tidal flat (mangrove swamps) and forests are even of lower elevation than the beach ridges. The physical and socio-economic implications

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2) Metocean Setting The Niger delta is peculiar in that it experiences the triple effect of tide, wave and current action, it is however a wave dominated delta. Forces generated by these three phenomena act on the coastline in various ways leading to the generation of various features and consequencies.

Waves: These transfer energy from one place to another. Waves in the oceans are caused by wind blowing over the surface of the water. The size of a wave is determined by how far, how fast and how

International Journal of Remote Sensing Applications Volume 4 Issue 1, March 2014

long the wind blows. A gentle breeze forms patches of tiny ripples on the surface of the water.

Strong, steady winds over long distances create large waves. The Niger Delta is a wave dominated delta and its morphology is determined principally from Atlantic wave action. Southwesterly winds are the prevailing and predominant in strength during the rainy season (April-September). The coastal winds generally lie between 210-250° in direction and have a mean velocity of about 10 knots. Winds from the fetch area (lat. 10°S-20°S and long. 10°E-20°W) generally increase from East to West with their strengths, lying between 6-18 kts.

The winds are weak in August while July and part of September presented much stronger winds. The corresponding wave heights generated at the front edge of the fetch area were not less than 0.3 m and not more than 2.8 m, with the period ranging between 2.8 and 6.5 sec. Further investigations revealed that it takes the lowest generated wave about 5-8 days and the highest about 2-3 days to reach the coast as swells. Also, from 1999 to 2001, coastal swells were rarely more than 2 m in height.

However, during the high spring tide, swell height could exceed 2.5 m and coincides with observed ocean surges. The studies also show that higher waves were more frequent in 2000 than 1999 and 2001(Olaniyan et al. 2002). These waves are generally erosive in nature.

Currents: Currents are the horizontal, unidirectional flow of water. The currents affecting the Nigerian coastline consist predominantly of longshore currents generated by south-westerly breaking waves. The transport or drift, of beach sediments along a coastline, caused primarily by the action of waves and tidal currents, is a major factor in the long-term development of beaches.

Longshore currents along the barrier lagoon coast in the west, have a west to east directional component. The Mahin mud coast has little or no long shore currents due to the fact that the south westerly waves arrive parallel to the coast.

Longshore current along the north western Niger Delta is north westerly. The eastern Niger delta from Akassa Point to the Calabar estuary is characterized by a west to east flowing long shore current direction (Awosika et al 2010). Longshore current is primary responsible for the distribution of sediments along the coast.

Tides: This is the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces

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exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth. The tides occur with a period of approximately 12 hours and 25 minutes, and with an amplitude that is influenced by the alignment of the sun and moon and the shape of the earth. The Niger Delta coastal areas experience two high and two low tides per day, with a tidal range which varies across the Niger Delta and has average value of 1.8 m. Tidal forces play a significant role in shaping the coastline with respect to determination of deposition or erosion is resultant or whether the coastline is prograding or regressing. See figure 2 showing inland limit of tidal forces:

FIG. 3 NIGER DELTA SHOWING DRAINAGE PATTERN AND LIMIT OF TIDAL INFLUENCE

Data and Methodology In order to achieve the objectives of the research work, the methodology employed involved mainly satellite image processing and GIS analysis. This involves the use of multi-temporal Landsat MSS(1972-1976), Landsat TM(1986-1988), Spot 4(1998-2000) and Landsat ETM(2007-2008) images to monitor coastline change. Image classification, image differencing, post classification combination overlaying, image fusion/ mosaicing, and image interpretation were applied. In addition to the satellite image datasets SRTM 30 digital elevation model was also utilized to provide insight into the morphology of the coastline.

The following methodology was applied to the four epoch of satellite image datasets in order the perform the change detection: •

Image processing: Radiometric, correction and georectification.

Geometric

•

Image processing: Spectral enhancement, generation of colour composites, digital elevation model extraction.

•

Image classification: Differentiation of land 43

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cover types and water •

Post Classification: Image fusion, Image Differencing, change detection and Statistical analysis.

•

GIS Analysis: Vectorization, Change mapping, and quantification.

The 450 km coastline for each dataset were digitized and extracted, and 34 transects running angularly to the extracted coastline data designed. These transects were used to qualitatively and quantitatively detect and analyze the changes in coastline position for each epoch of imagery acquisition.

morphology as derived from the STRM DEM. Finally using geographic information system changes in land cover along each transect line was extracted and quantified.

Results Significant geomophological changes: there are some major changes in geomorphology such as the gradual developments of spits and bars. There are also areas of lagoonal formation along the beach fronts. See figures below:

FIG. 5 SPIT AND ISLAND DEVELOPMENT AROUND DODO RIVER

FIG. 6 SPIT DEVELOPMENT CLOSE TO RAMOS RIVER FIG. 4 COASTLINE OF THE NIGER DELTA SHOWING SELECTED TRANSECT LINES

The colour composites were generated using the parameters below:

Significant land gain/loss: there are several areas of well over 1 sqKm land gain due to accretion. Same applies to land loss due to the erosive power of the Atlantic ocean. See figures below:

TABLE 1 COLOUR COMPOSITES GENERATED FOR THE IMAGES USED

Image Type Landsat MSS Landsat TM Spot 4 Landsat ETM Landsat ETM+

Band Combination 1,2,3 5,4,3 4,3,2 5,4,3 5,4,3

Colour Composite False Colour Natural colour Natural colour Natural colour Natural colour

Remarks High Cloud Excellent Hazy Fairly Cloudy Cloudy

While the image classification used the following TABLE 2 PARAMETERS USED FOR IMAGE CLASSIFICATION FOR IMAGES USED

Image

No. of Iterations

% Unchanged

Landsat MSS Landsat TM Spot 4 Landsat ETM Landsat ETM+

1200 1000 1000 1000 1000

98 98 98 98 98

Maximum Minimum standard distance b/w deviation class mean 4.2 4.0 4.2 4.2

3.0 2.8 3.0 3.0

The image classification and change detection were performed using unsupervised classifications model.

This allows for classification to be done without prior knowledge of the landcover class and hence the flexibility of assigning land cover type to each class after assessment of its spectral signature and 44

FIG. 7 SIGNIFICANT LAND GAIN ALONG ESCRAVOS RIVER

1.8K

FIG. 8 SIGNIFICANT LAND GAIN OFF THE SHORE OF ESCRAVOS

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Distributary mouth bars: offshore islands have appeared and disappeared at the mouth of the Bonny river and also the San Bathelomeo river. See figure below

FIG. 9 OFFSHORE ISLAND EMERGING OFF BONNY COASTLINE

FIG. 10 OFFSHORE ISLAND EMERGING OFF ST.NICHOLAS RIVER

Analysis of the results from colour composites, change detection and image differencing across each transect line reveals that the change along the coastline is not uniform, which involves an interplay of erosion and accretion at different points and to different degrees as showing in the table below: TABLE 3 QUANTITATIVE NIGER DELTA COASTLINE CHANGES 1972 - 2008

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Discussion Impacts of the Fluvial Processes As a wave dominated delta, the fluvial influence on the development of the Niger delta is relatively weak.

However river forces have been responsible for the transport and deposition of sediments especially in areas where there have been accretion and significant land growth, and other phenomena such as the vegetation of previously bare land and waterbodies.

This situation is quite evident in the section between Dodo and the Escravos river. The development and disappearance of near offshore in the mouth of the San Bathelomeo river is also a possible consequence of sediment discharge into the Atlantic ocean. Hence the nature of the River Niger system, and its main tributraries of the Nun and Forcados river is an important player in coastline dynamics.

Impacts of the Marine Processes The Niger Delta is a wave dominated delta, and marine processes are the major players in influencing coastline change. Tides play a significant role but highly complicated role because tide changes. In addition wave, current and longshore drift are primary responsible for shaping the coastline, most evidently in area where spits and bars have developed.

It should be noted that the marine forces are more erosive in nature. Their effect is prominent between Imo river and Dodo river. The erosive forces in the marine environment is less potent between the Forcados and the Benin river due to the presence of the offshore Mahin canyon.

S/N

Transect

Location

State

Epoch1-2

Epoch2-3

Epoch3-4

Epoch4-5

Net Shift

1

A-A'

Agansa

Akwa Ibom

+ 172m

- 33m

+ 102m

- 42m

199

2

B-B'

Obianga

Akwa Ibom

+ 494m

- 61m

- 46m

+ 112m

499

3

C-C'

Abazi

Rivers State

+ 526m

+ 253m

- 11m

+ 114m

882

4

D-D'

Amaetuk

Rivers State

-133m

+ 58m

- 16m

0m

-91

5

E-E'

Ama remer

Rivers State

-201m

- 127m

- 55m

+ 238m

-145

6

F-F'

Agaja

Rivers State

-2m

+ 93m

+ 24m

+ 278m

393

7

G-G'

Bonny

Rivers State

-795

- 200m

- 137m

+ 56m

-1076

8

H-H'

Bonny

Rivers State

400m

- 27m

+ 14m

0m

387

Impacts of Human Activities

9

I-I'

Amalinakiri

Rivers State

-215m

- 3m

0m

0m

-218

10

J-J'

Ifoko

Rivers State

-137m

- 383m

- 8m

400m

-128

11

K-K'

Kpogakiri

Rivers State

-1700m

- 243m

- 67m

375m

-1635

12

L-L'

Sangakiri

Rivers State

No data

- 60m

0m

0m

60

13

M-M'

Kula

Rivers State

No data

+ 172m

+ 400m

+ 275m

847

The impacts human activities on the delta include dredging of river mouths, shore protection and heavy marine transport equipment. These activities are most prominent in the Bonny river, Brass river, Forcados river and Escravos river, and are closely related to the activities of oil and gas exploration companies.

Daming in the upper and lower River Niger system also has a strong impact on sediment transport and deposition, as river discharge is altered.

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N-N'

Otukiri

Bayelsa

-400m

- 25m

+ 36m

0m

-389

15

O-O'

Diema

Bayelsa

-330m

- 17m

- 2m

0m

-349

16

P-P'

Brass

Bayelsa

0m

- 26m

- 22m

- 30m

-78

17

Q-Q'

Liama

Bayelsa

No Data

+ 0m

0m

+ 41m

41

18

R-R'

Sangana

Bayelsa

-1064m

+ 10m

- 46m

+ 18m

-1082

19

S-S'

Foniweiforo

Bayelsa

+ 815m

- 106m

- 102m

+ 64m

671

20

T-T'

Pepegbene

Bayelsa

+ 258m

- 78m

- 55m

0m

125

21

U-U'

Erebugbene

Bayelsa

+ 385m

0m

0m

- 35m

350

22

V-V'

Egbeletobo

Bayelsa

+ 825m

+ 96m

- 260m

- 39m

622

23

W-W'

New Amatu

Bayelsa

no data

- 68m

0m

- 38m

-106

All these human activities play a highly complicated role in the alteration on of natural fluvial and marine processes that model the coastline. While some of these activities favour accretion, while others favour erosion. However these processes happen sometimes simultenously and to varying degrees thus making their effect difficult to model..

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International Journal of Remote Sensing Applications Volume 4 Issue 1, March 2014

Conclusions This study has two objectives. One is to explore the applicability of satellite imagery in the context of a GIS for the monitoring of the coastline change of the entire Niger Delta coastline. The second aim is to deal with assessment of the vulnerability of sections of the coastline to physical processes around the coastline of the Niger Delta.

Geographic information system has been proved to be a very useful tool in assessing the vulnerability of the Niger Delta coastline to physical processes impacting it. Sea level rise scenarios not used for the vulnerability analysis as only wide estimates uniform across the Niger Delta have been proposed by earlier studies.

For images with the same tidal level, image differencing and image overlaying based on postclassification images are very useful and efficient techniques to monitor coastline change. Due to tidal effect, for coastal water and land classification, it is always difficult to identify whether the classified coastline represents the low tidal line or occurring between the two.

For the interpretation and on-screen digitization, the high tidal line is defined as the coastline to detect the coastline change. As tideland slope data are not available, more attention should be paid to coastline interpretation. Due to tidal change, ocean wave movement, beach gentle slope, soil and air moisture, water quality, water substratum and habitats, inaccuracies are introduced into interpretation of the coastline.

The entire Niger Delta coastline is not entirely eroding or accreting over the 36 year study period. Also almost no section of the coastline that has consistently been eroding or accreting from 1972 to 2008, but have all had periods of erosion and periods of accretion at one time or another.

Generally, accretion is more predominant from Sangana river to Benin river in the western Niger Delta. While erosion is generally more predominant from the New Calabar river mouth to the Nun river.

Human activities play an important but complicated role in the coastline change of the Nigeria Delta. The impact of human activities on the delta may include damming, artificial diversion of water courses, pumping of ground fluids, shore protection, dredging and engineering structures such as oil and gas pipeline across waterways. However in terms of unavailability of requisite 36 year data on the operations of dams in

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the upper and lower River Niger and also the operations and activities several oil and gas companies along the coastline, these effects cannot be accurately modeled.

Oil and gas facilities such as the Agip Brass terminal, Shell Forcados terminal, Olokola LNG and their associated facilities are located along highly vulnerable coastlines. Hence shore protection should be in the short, medium and long term plans of the oil and gas companies responsible for these facilities.

Coastal settlements between New Calabar river and Sangana river are ranked as generally highly vulnerable to the negative effect of coastline change.

While positive effects of coastline change, such as increase in economically useful land are evident around the mouth of the Escravos river.

There is lack of available data to quantitatively determine potential capital loss to communual and industrial infrastructure due to the effect of a highly vulnerable and unchecked erosive coastline.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Special appreciation was given to Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd and US Geological society for the provision of satellite image datasets critical for this work.

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Chituru D. Obowu was born on the 20th of January 1973 in Port Harcourt Nigeria.

He holds Degree in Surveying and Geodesy from the Rivers State University of Science and Technology Port Harcourt, Nigeria and has completed his research work in Environmental Management for an Masters in Philosophy Degree.

He is currently the Remote Sensing focal foint for Shell Nigeria with over 15 years of local and international Geomatics expertise in oil and gas exploration and production. He has published several local and international technical articles and papers in the area of Remote Sensing and GIS in oil and gas exploration and production.

Mr Obowu is a member of several local and international bodies among which are the Nigerian Institution of Surveyors, IEEE Geosciences and Remote Sensing Society.

He has received several local and international awards for work in the area of oil and gas including the Shell Chief Executive Officer’s HSSE & SP Award for excellence in Social Performance.

Tamuoene K. S. Abam was born on the 4th of July 1957 into the Abam-Ado royal family of Okirika in Rivers State Nigeria. He attended the University of Ibadan Nigeria, University of Nigeria and Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, University of London. He holds a Bachelors Degree in geology, a Master of Science Degree in Applied Geology and a Doctorate in Environmental Geotechnics.

He is currently the Director of the Institute of Geosciences and Space Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt Nigeria. He has served as a consultant to various local, multi-national and international organizations including the World Bank, EuroConsult, SPDC, NAOC, NEPA and the Niger Delta Environmental Survey.

Professor Abam is a member of several reputed national and international organizations, including the Nigerian Mining and Geosciences Society, International Association of Hydrological Sciences, New York Academy of Sciences, American Association for the Advancement of Science and Ecological Society of Nigeria.

Professor Abam has extensively published in local and international technical journals and is a recipient of the prestigious United Kingdom Cambridge based international Biographical Centers 21st Century Award for Achievement.

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