Degree Lecture Notes - Building Material

Page 1

Matter Matters!

It’s hot and humid. The light is harsh and bright on the kind of summer afternoon one fears that the sun may never set. I enter the cool, dim foyer of the silent villa and walk toward the marble stairs but pause before I reach them. I lean on to the freshly plastered wall. Standing up, I lie against the wall, pressing one hot, wet cheek and then the other and then my forehead against its cool velvet surface, the colour of fresh creamy milk. I run my hands along it. It is deeper than velvet and far cooler, not completely flat but slightly molded so that I feel its shape, its flesh. Its softness invites my embrace.

• Senses – touching, hearing, smelling, seeing • Other qualities to create the experience..how sun enters over the day, be away from traffic sound, capture a view-skyline… light&colour, sound&texture, expression&compression of spaces, • The functional nourishes our physical need; relates to people as objects and machines • The poetic nourishes our soul; relates to us as living human beings

Kings never touch doors. They’re not familiar with this happiness: topush, gently or roughly before you one of these great, friendly panels, to turn towards it to put back in place – to hold a door in your arms. The happiness of seizing one of these tall barriers to a room by the porcelain knob of its bell;this quick hand-to-hand during which your progress slows for a moment, your eye opens up and your whole body adapts to its new apartment. With a friendly hand you hold on a bit longer, before firmly pushing it back and shutting yourself in – of which you are agreeably assured by the click of the powerful well-oiled latch. (Francis Ponge, “The Pleasures of the Door”)

Building Materials [ARC 1513]/[BLD 60103] Concrete: Man made stone

Composition • Concrete is heterogeneous material that is composed of 3 materials:

–Cement [as the binding agent] –Aggregate • Coarse aggregate [gravel,stones] • Fine aggregate [sand]

–Water

• Sometimes 4th material, an admixture is added

• Admixtures are added to the concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. • Examples of admixtures: – – – – –

1. Accelerators 2. Retarders 3. Air entrainers - Wood resins/soaps, fats and oils 4. Water reducers (plasticisers) 5. Others – eg: Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures

Introduction • Concrete is effectively an artificial stone or rock. • Its primary properties are that it is – workable before hardening, – strong in compression – stays strong for extremely long timescales. • Concrete is a strong hard building material composed of sand and gravel and cement and water. • It is used for making buildings, roads, bridges, vessels pipes etc . • To enable concrete to withstand tensile loads it is often reinforced with steel rebars or with natural or artificial fibres...

Composition • A typical composition is about 7-15% cement, 14-21% water and the rest aggregate. • The water/cement ratio (w/c) of the mixture has a control over the final properties of the concrete. • Selection of a w/c ratio affects two desirable properties: strength and workability. • A mixture with a high w/c will be more workable than a mixture with a low w/c: it will flow easier. • But the less workable the mixture, the stronger the concrete will be. • The water/cement ratio needs to be about 0.25 to complete the hydration reaction. • Typical values of w/c are between 0.35 and 0.40 because they give a good amount of workability without sacrificing a lot of strength.

Physical properties • Typical properties of normal strength Portland cement concrete are indicated below: • Density : 2240 - 2400 kg/m3 • Compressive strength : 20 - 40 MPa • Flexural strength : 3 - 5 MPa • Tensile strength : 2 - 5 MPa

[A] Cement • Cement is a mixture of limestone, clay, silica and gypsum. • It is a fine powder which when mixed with water sets to a hard mass as a result of hydration of the constituent compounds. • It is the most commonly used construction material

Definition of Cement In BS EN 197-1, ‘cement’ is defined as: • “ … A hydraulic binder, i.e. a finely ground inorganic material which, when mixed with water, forms a paste which sets and hardens by means of hydraulic reactions and processes and which, after hardening, retains its strength and stability even under water.”

History of Cement • In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a British(Leeds) stone mason, obtained a patent for a cement he produced in his kitchen. • The inventor heated a mixture of finely ground limestone and clay in his kitchen stove and ground the mixture into a powder create a hydraulic cementone that hardens with the addition of water.

• Aspdin named the product Portland cement because it resembled a stone quarried on the Isle of Portland off the British Coast. • With this invention, Aspdin laid the foundation for today's Portland cement industry.

• The raw materials required to produce Portland cement are found and exploited in nearly all parts of the world, which is a significant reason for its universal importance as a building material.

• Unlike wood & stone that has to be carved, concrete is molded • Shape& texture determined by mold and the constituent elements of mix • By changing the proportions and consistency of these elements – the gloomy grayness and aggressiveness are replaced by delicate,light surface, rich in nuance

• Concrete is the most plastic of traditional building material. • Space can be made organic & dynamic.

Flexibility of Concrete

Kiasma Museum of Contermporary Art, Helsinki (Steven Holl)

Feeling of roughness & angularity

Yale Center for British Art and Studies, New Haven, Connecticut (Louis Kahn)

Common concrete types: • • • •

Mud Concrete Lime Concrete Cement Concrete Polymer Concrete

[B] Aggregate • the inert filler materials, such as sand or stone, used in making concrete • added up to 80% by volume in ordinary concrete to provide bulk

Coarse aggregate

Fine aggregate

Aggregates • Gravels, crushed rock, and sands, etc, which are mixed with cement and water to make concrete. • Will influence all aspects of the concrete, eg – Durability – Structural performance – Cost

• Two main categories – Fine < 5mm – Coarse > 5mm

Characteristic • Must clean & durable & Free from organic impurities & dust (WHY?) • It may prevent the cement paste from coating the aggregate properly – preventing bonding – reduce strength of the concrete

Aggregate Quality • Aggregate should not contain materials which are likely to – Decompose/change in volume (eg coal, clay) – React with cement paste (eg certain siliceous compounds (ASR)) – Affect appearance of concrete (eg salt, pyrites)

Aggregate Cleanliness • Should be free from dust, clay, etc • Sea dredged aggregate may be contaminated with chlorides • Excessive washing is costly and may wash away fines • Shape will affect workability and durability • Grading - involves seiving to find out the proportions of different sized aggregate (eg continuously-graded, gapgraded etc)

[C] Water in Concrete • Water is a key reactant in cement hydration. • The incorporation of water into a substance is known as hydration. • Water and cement initially form a cement paste that begins to react and harden (set). • This paste binds the aggregate particles through the chemical process of hydration. • In the hydration of cement, chemical changes occur slowly, eventually creating new crystalline products, heat evolution, and other measurable signs

• most drinking water is suitable for use in concrete! • Almost any natural water that is drinkable and has no pronounced taste or odor may be used as mixing water for concrete.

• Excessive impurities in mixing water may affect setting time and concrete strength and cause:– efflorescence, – staining, – corrosion of reinforcement, – volume instability, and – reduced durability.

Efflorescence

Staining

However.. • Staining concrete is one of the most popular applications for transforming concrete slabs. [done intentionally using chemical stains] • Often referred to as colored concrete, stained concrete are often used because of the unique outcome that can be achieved combining colors, application techniques, etc., on cement flooring and other substrates. • Because of concrete's porous qualities and neutral tone, it is the perfect blank canvas for topically applied color. • Using acid-based chemical stains, decorative concrete contractors have been able to achieve rich, earth-toned color schemes resembling natural stone, marble, wood, or even leather, giving a completely custom look to cement floors, concrete driveways, patios, walkways, pool decks, concrete walls and more.

Corrosion of Reinforcement

Application of Concrete Cement Concrete

• This is the most common type of concrete and is made mostly from portand cement, sand, aggregate and water. • It is used reinforce and un-reinforce for structures, roads, foundationa. • The compositions of cement, sand and aggregate vary from 1:1:2 ( a richest practical mixture) to 1:3 :6 (a lean mixture used for concrete filling)

Reinforced Concrete

• Lightweight concrete of such a quality that it is suitable for loadbearing members of structures. • If it is a compact concrete made with stone aggregate , it is of comparatively high density ( about 2.4 ) and great strength. • If it is based on lightweight aggregate then high strengths are available but the design generally requires special considerations

Prestressed Concrete

Structural concrete which is subjected to compression in those parts which in service are subjecte to tensile forces so that generally,the concrete is nowhere is a state of tension under the working load.

Cast in Place /Cast in Situ Concrete

• This is deposited in its permanent position to harden. • This is the most common method of construction and when to concrete is not deposited on the ground as for roads and similar it is generally placed in temporary moulds or is contained within formwork or shuttering.

Formwork for floors

Ledger

Scaffolding as props

Fork head

Formwork components

Slab Edge Forms

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•

The cleats nailed to the deck ply to stop the bottom from kicking out, and on the top of the formwork at the corners. Where the depth of the concrete is less, another way of holding the edges is a bit easier. The formwork are held up with timbers to the ground.

•

•

•

They are held tight into the wall by tie wire that is tied around the vertical reinforcing bars that are already concreted into the block walls. The sketch shows the way of forming an edge to a slab that is sitting on a wall. If it is a previously poured concrete wall, the same bolt holes that were used in the wall pour are used. example of slab edge formwork for corefilled concrete blocks

Precast Concrete

• This is concrete which placed in separate moulds, under controlled factory conditions, to harden and when required transferred to site for final erection. • This procedure allow high quality concrete castings to be made at low relative costs. • This method is used for the production of paving slabs, bricks, road channels , kerbs lintels, fence posts, bridge beams etc. • Precast units can include reinforcement and Engineered steel inserts.

Concrete: Common Types & Innovative Concretes

Types on Concrete

Prestressed Concrete • Prestressing concrete involves applying a permanent compressive stress to it during manufacture. • This increase in compression will counteract the tensile stresses that will be generated by the loads acting on the structure (dead load, operating load, weather load).

• The concrete will therefore remain in a permanently compressed state, which means the best aspects of its performance are used. • Prestressing has been responsible for considerable progress regarding the use of concrete in bridges, cast in-situ structures or structures made from pre-cast units. • Prestressed concrete is used to construct a wide range of civil engineering structures

High Performance Concrete [HPC] • •

• •

• •

Has many outstanding properties: * Exceptional properties in the fresh state * Good early age characteristics * High long-term mechanical strength Which mean it has unique qualities as regards: * Optimization of structures * Reduction in maintenace costs * Permanence of architectural structures * Increased durability HPC is charaterized by: * 28-day compressive strength of more than 50 MPa * A water/cement ratio of less than 0.40

Shotcrete • Shotcrete is a type of concrete that is placed with a hose. • Compressed air is used to spray the concrete onto a surface.

• Two spraying techniques have been developed: • Dry spraying: the mixture of cement, aggregate and, possibly, additives, is manufactured dry in a mixer. • It is driven by compressed air along pipes to the hose where it is mixed with an adjustable quantity of water. • Wet spraying: The mixture of aggregate, cement and water is mixed in a mixing plant. • It is then pumped along pipes to the spraying hose. • Compressed air, sometimes mixed with liquid additives, is used for spraying.

• The type of cement is selected according to the aggressiveness of the structure’s environment. • Metal fibres can be added to the concrete. • These improve the cohesion of the concrete and its bonding with the substrate. • Shotcrete can be used to produce thin layers of concrete (a few centimetres thick) which perfectly follow the shape of the substrate. • It is used particularly for undergound works (supporting walls, tunnels, shafts or the faces of tunnels during digging) or for constructing or repairing drainage structures.

Self-placing and self-levelling concretes [concrete that is placed without vibration] • Knowledge acquired in the course of research into HPC and increasing expertise in the use of the new superplasticers • Made it possible to develop a new type of concrete: self-placing concrete. • Making it possible to make structures with complex forms and a large amount of reinforcement. • At the same time, the facings are of high quality and the comfort and safety of workers is improved (elimination of vibration).

• Self-placing concretes are extremely fluid, homogeneous and stable (free from segregation) and are placed without vibration. • They are marked by a great capacity to flow without losing stability, pumpability and longlasting fluidity and differ from ordinary concretes • When hardened their performance is similar to that of conventional vibrated concrete. • Self-levelling concretes are a type of self-placing concrete suitable for horizontal surfaces (slabs). • Self-placing concretes have many advantages: – Thorough coating of reinforcement and optimal filling of formwork – Improved working comfort and safety at worksites – Increased productivity and labour savings – Aesthetically pleasing appearance.

Self-placing concretes are particularly appropriate for structures: • Where high quality facings are required (no variations in colour or texture, perfectly smooth, absence of segregation and blowholes). • high densities of reinforcement (bridge decks) • complex shapes • narrow high shells (bridge piers) • places where access in order to perform vibration would be difficult or impossible • complex shells with many re-entrants.

Ultra-high performance fibrereinforced concrete • Ultra-high performance fibre-reinforced concrete is a type of reinforced concrete with exceptional performance. • Its mix design makes use of superplasticizers, specific types of aggregate, ultrafine particles and fibres (metal or polymer). • The presence of fibres and the tensile performance make passive reinforcement unnecessary.

• Concrete of this type has exceptional performance: – Very good workability, – Compressive strength of between 150 and 200MPa (1.5 to 2 tonnes per cm²) (the strength of ordinary concrete is 35MPA) – Very high durability (which means it can be used in very aggressive environments) – High ductility (it is deformed prior to failure).

Fibre-reinforced concrete • Unlike reinforcing bars, fibres are distributed within the mass of the concrete. • They have the effect of producing a material whose performance is homogeneous. • The commonest fibres are made of glass, synthetic substances or metal.

Fibre Reinforced Concrete

Glass Fibres

• Glass fibre-reinforced concrete (or glass-cement composite - GCC) is used, amongst other things, to make decorative panels, industrial cladding and street furniture. • Metal fibre-reinforced concrete has excellent tensile and flexural strength and is used to make shotcrete coatings for vaults. • Polypropylene fibres can be used to make very detailed patterns and are used to make decorative panels.

Other types of Innovative Concrete • Autoclaved Aerated Concrete [AAC] • Foamed Concrete

Autoclaved Aerated Concrete [AAC] • AAC is essentially concrete made from fine raw materials entrained with tiny air bubbles and cured under high pressure and temperature

LIGHTWEIGHT FOAMED CONCRETE

A type of lightweight concrete Mixing stable aqueous foam into slurry of cement, sand and water. Small-enclosed air bubbles within mortar / concrete (cellular material) Densities range from 300kg/m3 to 1800kg/m3 .

Materials for Foamed Concrete Fine Sand

Water

Foamed Concrete

Stable Foam

Cement Air cells

Cement/ sand / water 40-45 %

Less solid materials per unit volume of final concrete

55- 60%

Typical Foam concrete composition

Stable Aqueous Foam Water based foams generated from a foam machine and lance

Main Properties / Characteristics • • • •

Lightweight Good thermal insulation Good fire resistance Highly floawable with no vibration or compaction • Self leveling

Other properties • • • • •

fairly good sound insulation low water absorption Kinetic energy absorbing characteristic Low requirement for raw material per volume unit High Shrinkage

Typical Properties of Foamed Concrete Dry Density (Kg/m3)

Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

Thermal Conductivity (W/mK)

Modulus of Elasticity (KN/mm2)

Drying Shrinkage (%)

400

0.8

0.14

0.44

0.3

500

1

0.175

0.65

0.28

550

1.1

0.19

0.9

0.25

600

1.4

0.2

1.2

0.24

700

1.7

0.215

1.65

0.22

800

2.0

0.245

2.2

0.2

900

2.8

0.265

2.9

0.18

1000

3.0

0.31

3.7

0.16

1200

4.0

0.39

4.0

0.11

1400

6.0

0.52

6.0

0.09

1500

12.0

0.59

10.0

0.07

Chemicals

Foaming agents • Noraite PA-1(protein) • Noraite SA-1(synthetic) Protein based foams tend to give higher strength concrete than synthetic foams Synthetic foams give a finer bubble structure and generally lower shrinkage values

Chemical comparison

Synthetic foams have higher expansion but less stable Protein foams are more stable but with lower expansion

Typical Sand Grading Typical sand grading for foamed concrete mix. Seive Size

Percent retained

Cumulative retained

Cumulative passing

10 mm

0

0

0

4.76 mm

1.6

1.6

98.4

2.36 mm

14.2

15.8

84.2

1.18 mm

32.4

48.2

51.8

600 microns

26.9

75.1

24.9

300 microns

17.3

92.4

7.6

150 microns

7.6

100

0

Cements & Binders • • • •

OPC Rapid Hardening Blended Cements – Slag cements, Fly ash cements Gypsum

Some types of cements are incompatible with the foaming agent that is used causing unstable foams and collapse in the wet mix ( increase in density

Quality control measurement for foams

Density of foam measurement using 5 lit container Stability test = 0 ml premix liquid accumulation for 5 min after exit at atmospheric pressure

Foam expansion = 1 liter + 33 liters water = 34 lit premix x 12.5 expansion = 425 liters stable foam

WET CONCRETE QUALITY

Flow table measurement according to ASTM standards

COMPATIBLE FLOW MEASUREMENT ONSITE

Foamed Concrete Production Stable aqueous foam used to make foamed concrete (protein based)

Aqueous foam introduced into the slurry of cement, sand and water

Placing of foamed concrete

Crane Bucket Direct placement

Method of placing with respect to quality and cost benefit Special Pumps

Building & Construction Practice

Detailing walls / panels and floor toppings, roof panels

BRIDGE ABUTMENTS

Wet foamed concrete self leveling characteristics for a bridge abutment job

Foamed concrete fill reduces pressure on abutment and also to underlying soil

Road Base Construction

Embankment constructed with lightweight foamed concrete reduce settlement problems

Pumping foam for Large Volume Production

Layout & preparation for large volume production

Checking machines, compressors and other accessories

Checking bucket size and position relative to foam generator and truck

Hoisting & placement Portafoam Foam generator

0.5 m3 bucket – crane lift placement

Pump placement

- Introduction -Manufacturing -Properties -Application

Foreign captives employed in making bricks at Thebes

Masonry Materials • A mason is one who builds with bricks, stones, and blocks. • Masonry is the part of a building or structure that is made from combining the masonry units: stone, block or brick, and mortar. • Egyptians built their pyramids (called mastabas) first using mud brick masonry and later (around 2500 B.c.) with stone masonry using gypsum mortar. • Romans employed a type of masonry construction for walls in which the space between two parallel layers of burned brick was filled with concrete. • Mortar from bitumen was used to bond the bricks in some early masonry construction. • Masonry was also used for building columns and towers, such as the Tower of Pisa, and arches, such as the 83-ft span semicircular arch in the Basilica of Constantine (A.D. 313).

• Masonry walls are erected today using the same two types of materials: masonry units & mortar. • The common masonry units are clay bricks & concrete blocks, although stones, mud bricks, and fly ash bricks can also be used. • Masonry units can be solid (such as burned clay bricks) or hollow (such as hollow concrete blocks). • The hollow spaces, called cells, in hollow-block masonry can be kept hollow or filled with grout.

• Mortar from bitumen was used to bond the bricks in some early masonry construction. • Masonry was also used for building columns and towers, such as the Tower of Pisa, and arches.

Masonry Materials • Masonry walls are erected today using the same two types of materials: masonry units & mortar. • The common masonry units are clay bricks & concrete blocks, although stones, mud bricks, and fly ash bricks can also be used. • Masonry units can be solid (such as burned clay bricks) or hollow (such as hollow concrete blocks). • The hollow spaces, called cells, in hollow-block masonry can be kept hollow or filled with grout.

Hagia Sophia, Istanbul

Beauvais Cathedral

• Partial collapse in 1284

Beauvais Cathedral

•Tower built in 1569 •Height of 153 m •Supported on piers •Tower collapsed 1573

Grand Central Station, New York, 1913

Putrajaya

Curtin University, Sarawak

Types of Bricks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Common Fired Clay Bricks Sand Lime Bricks (Calcium Silicate Bricks) Engineering Bricks Concrete Bricks Fly ash Clay Bricks

Sand brick, clay brick and aerated foam concrete block

1) Common Fired Clay Bricks • Common fired clay bricks are formed by pressing in molds. • Then these bricks are dried and fired in a kiln. • Common burnt clay bricks are used in general work with no special attractive appearances. • When these bricks are used in walls, they require plastering or rendering.

2) Sand Lime Bricks • Sand lime bricks are made by mixing sand, fly ash and lime followed by a chemical process during wet mixing. • The mix is then molded under pressure forming the brick.

• These bricks can offer advantages over clay bricks such as: – Their color appearance is grey instead of the regular reddish color. – Their shape is uniform and presents a smoother finish that doesn’t require plastering. – These bricks offer excellent strength as a loadbearing member.

3) Engineering Bricks • Engineering bricks are bricks manufactured at extremely high temperatures, forming a dense and strong brick, allowing the brick to limit strength and water absorption. • Engineering bricks offer excellent load bearing capacity ,damp-proof characteristics and chemical resisting properties.

4) Concrete Bricks • Concrete bricks are made from solid concrete. • Concrete bricks are usually placed in facades, fences, and provide an excellent aesthetic presence. • These bricks can be manufactured to provide different colors as pigmented during its production.

5) Fly Ash Clay Bricks • Fly ash clay bricks are manufactured with clay and fly ash, at about 1,000 degrees C. • Raw materials for fly ash brick are: fly ash, sand/stone dust, lime, gypsum and cement. • Fly ash bricks are lighter than clay bricks

Bricks Advantages (clay brick) • Aesthetic – Bricks offer natural and a variety of colors, including various textures.

• Strength – Bricks offer excellent high compressive strength.

• Porosity – The porosity of bricks in attributed to its fine capillaries. The ability to release and absorb moisture is one of the most important and useful properties of bricks, regulating temperatures and humidity inside structures.

• Fire Resistance – When prepared properly a brick structure can give a fire protection maximum rating of 6 hours.

• Sound Insulation – The brick sound insulation is normally 45 decibels for a 4.5 inches brick thickness and 50 decibels for a nine inch thick brick. • Insulation – Bricks can exhibit above normal thermal insulation when compared to other building materials. – Bricks can help regulate and maintain constant interior temperatures of a structure due to their ability to absorb and slowly release heat. – This way bricks can produce significant energy savings, more than 30% of energy saving, when compared to wood. • Wear – A brick is so strong, that its molecular composition provides excellent wear resistance.

Classification of Clay Bricks • Clay bricks can be classified according to their varieties, qualities, and classes.

Manufacturing Process of Clay Bricks • • • • • •

1) mining and storage of raw materials 2) preparing raw materials 3) forming the brick 4) drying 5) firing and cooling 6) de-hacking and storing finished products

Clay or Shale Being Crushed and Transported to Storage Area

Clay is Thoroughly Mixed with Water in Pug Mill Before Extrusion

After Mining, Clay is Extruded Through and Trimmed to Specified Dimension Before Firing

Brick Enter Tunnel Kiln for Firing

Some Brick Textures are Applied by Passing Under a Roller After Extrusion

Properties • All properties of brick are affected by raw material composition and the manufacturing process. • Most manufacturers blend different clays to achieve the desired properties of the raw materials and of the fired brick. • This improves the overall quality of the finished product. • The quality control during the manufacturing process permits the manufacturer to limit variations due to processing and to produce a more uniform product.

The most important properties of brick are: • • • • • •

1) durability 2) color 3) texture 4) size variation 5) compressive strength 6) absorption.

Durability • The durability of brick depends upon achieving incipient fusion and partial vitrification during firing. • Because compressive strength and absorption values are also related to the firing temperatures, • these properties, together with saturation coefficient, are currently taken as predictors of durability in brick specifications. • However, because of differences in raw materials and manufacturing methods, a single set of values of compressive strength and absorption will not reliably indicate the degree of firing.

Colour • The colour of fired clay depends upon its chemical composition, the firing temperatures and the method of firing control. • Of all the oxides commonly found in clays, iron probably has the greatest effect on colour. • Clay containing iron in practically any form will exhibit a shade of red when exposed to an oxidizing

• When fired in a reducing atmosphere, the same clay will assume a dark (or black) hue. Creating a reducing atmosphere in the kiln is known as flashing or reduction firing. • Given the same raw material and manufacturing method, darker colors are associated with higher firing temperatures, lower absorption values and higher compressive strength values. • However, for products made from different raw materials, there is no direct relationship between strength and color or absorption and color.

Bond

A

D

B

E

C

F

A. B. C. D. E. F.

Running bond Common Bond English Garden wall Bond English Bond Flemish Bond Monk Bond [flemish bond with 2 stretchers between headers]

Joint

Recycling Clay Bricks Possible uses for recycled clay building materials: • Reclaim as bricks and tiles • Filling and stabilizing material for infrastructure works • Aggregates for in-situ and precast concrete and mortars • Aggregates for calcium silicate bricks • Tennis sand • Plant substrates • Other options

Reclaimed Bricks • Salvaged bricks. Bricks rescued from old buildings and cleaned up,. • Their charm is undeniable, when laid by a good mason, but there can be a high level of wastage. • Cleaning them up and sorting them is a labour intensive task and they can cost twice the price of a quality facing or a 'reproduction' reclaimed.

• Timber is one of the most popular material in light construction because of : a) simplicity in fabrication b) lightness c) reusability d) insulation from heat. sound & electricity e) aesthetically pleasing appearance f) resistance to oxidation, acid attack & salt attack and salt water g) environmental compatibility 10/10/2014

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Terminologies • Timber – wood suitable for use as building material • Wood – the tough, fibrous cellular substance that makes up most of stem and branches of tree behind the bark • Log – a length of trunk of a felled tree ready for sawing • Lumber (timber) – timber product manufactured by sawing, re-sawing, planed, cutting to length and grading • Dressed lumber (dressed timber) – lumber or timber that has been smoothed by planing machine and of uniform size • Undressed lumber (undressed timber) – lumber that is sawn edged and trimmed, but not planed smooth • Treated wood – wood that has been coated or impregnated with chemicals to resist decay and insects infestation • Fire-retardant wood – wood impregnated with mineral salt under pressure to reduce flammability or combustibility

Tree growth • New wood on outside of tree – – – –

oldest wood on the inside youngest wood on the outside diameter largest at the base one ring (layer) per growing season

• Tree in forest grows toward light – trunk is straight – lower branches die – leaving small knots in wood

• Bark protects wood from damage – the tree sheds bark each year

Production of wood Pith - the start of growth in the tree • the original sapling

Cambium - growth cells • wood cells created on the inside • bark cells created on the outside

Sapwood - newest wood • on the outside of tree (~ 1-3 cm) • takes nutrients from root to leaves

Heartwood - older wood • cells closed - can’t pass nutrients • storage for waste - extractives

Classification of Timber • Softwood – usually found in temperate countries (cooler climate) • Hardwood – usually found in tropical countries (warmer climate) Softwood >> conifers / cone bearing plants, needle shaped leaves, naked/exposed seed Hardwood >> broad-leaved plants, seed enclosed in pods

Variation: fibre & grain vessels

hardwood

earlywood rays

fibres

softwood

cells latewood

rays

rays

• The cell structure is designed to serve particular functions in a tree. • Its properties vary in different directions.

Variation: species & growth • Species and genetics: – selected stock or natural seed.

• Climate: – wet or dry, cold or warm.

• Arrangement: – native forest or plantation.

Each piece is unique

Quarter sawn hardwood

Myrtle burl veneer

Annual Rings Cambium Layer Bark

Pith

STRUCTURE OF WOOD 10/10/2014

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STRUCTURE OF WOOD “Bark” is a thin, rough and dense covering that surrounds the trunk. “Cambium” is a thin (microscopic) layer of wood cells exists inside the bark. The growth of wood takes place continuously under the bark in the cambium layer resulting ring knowns as “Annual ring”. Width of ring depends on the rate of growth of the tree. 10/10/2014

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“Pith” is the center of the log surrounded by the annual rings. The number of rings approximately represents the age of the tree. “Heartwood” is the inner part of the trunk is made of dead tissue which primary function is to provide mechanical support to the tree. Heartwood that is the older wood is darker, drier and harder than the outer part. “Sapwood” is the outer part and it contains living cells. 10/10/2014

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The trunk place the role to convey a solution called sap to the leaves & also to support the crow at such a height as to ensure a sufficiency of air & light. As one layer of woods succeeds another, the cell in the layers die, cease to function for food storage and only useful to give the tree stiffness.

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• Heartwood & Softwood 10/10/2014

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Properties are variable • • • •

Drying (seasoning) & shrinkage Strength & hardness Durability Appearance

Timber & Timber by-products • Timber is available in a wide range of products and species including: – Solid sawn, moulded pieces; – laminated timber; – Veneer; – Plywood; and – Wood panels.

Solid Timber: sawn timber (lumber) • Hardwood or softwood. • Solid timber cut from a log and dried. • It is a versatile material used for moulding, frames and exposed structures. • Size is restricted.

Solid Timber: mouldings • Hardwood or softwood. • Solid seasoned timber milled to a wide variety of shapes.

Timber products: glue laminated (glulam) beam

bench top

• Small pieces of timber glued together to form a larger element. • Used as both a structural and finishing element. • Size is limited only by transport capacity.

curved glulam Glue laminated material can be curved. Curved bar

Timber products: veneer • Thin layers of solid wood sliced from a flitch or peeled from a log and dried. • High quality material is used as a decorative finish. • Lower grade material is used to make plywood, LVL (laminated veneer lumber) and similar products. Veneer leaf

Timber products: plywood • Layers of veneer glued together so that the grain direction alternates between layers. • Usually produced in sheets. • Very good in a structure, as a lining and as a flooring surface.

Timber products: manufactured panels • Panels made from wood or wood fibres bound together with glue, or other binder:

MDF sheet

– Particleboard / woodchip board – Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) – Hardboard – Core board

Advantages of Timber • Environmentally friendly material • Good appearance, aesthetic appeal • Low weight to strength ratio • Light, easy to handle, easily joined • Suitable for prefabrication of components (reduce amount of site work)

• Dry construction, faster completion period • Good sound, thermal and electrical insulation property • Capacity to withstand shock / vibration

Disadvantages of Timber • Subjected to rot – dry rot / wet rot • Is a combustible material • Being a living material, it is subjected to attack by insects / termite

Traditional usage of timber • Main structure of Malay house made of “heavy hardwood” – such as “cengal”, “cengal mas”, “cengal batu” and “balau” • Floor of “balau”, “cengal”

• Walls made of “medium hardwood” – such as “meranti” • Colonial buildings – other species of timber such as “keruing” and “merbau” for structures

Timber usage in brick buildings • FLOOR – floor beams / bearers, floor joist, floor boards • WALL – studs, wall panel / sheathing • CEILING – beams, ceiling joists

• ROOF – beams, rafters, trusses, purlins, battens • DOOR & WINDOW – frames, door panels, window leaves, sills • VERANDA – balusters, handrails, flooring, stairs, columns

Physical & mechanical properties of wood differ from species to species & also within species. Among the factor influencing it’s properties are climate, density of the surrounding forest, character of the soil, moisture content, defects and the area in the log from which the lumber is derived.

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FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF TIMBER • • • • • • • •

Density Moisture Content Temperature Grain structure Position in tree Condition of growth Defects Creep

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• DENSITY Density of wood is defined as the mass or weight per unit volume. Moisture in wood has a very large effect on the specific gravity as well as the density. Timbers of young tree has a very low density, therefore reduced stresses used for such material. Weight of timber reduced by drying while most strength properties are increased. The higher the density, so the higher it’s mechanical properties. 10/10/2014

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• MOISTURE CONTENT Moisture content in a living tree varies with the species. Even in the same species, variation in moisture content depends on the age & size of the tree and its location. Mechanical properties of wood influenced by moisture content but modulus elasticity is less affected by changes in moisture Strength of wood increase as the moisture content decreases 10/10/2014

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Moisture content determined by oven-dry method or by electric moisture-meter method Drying of timber from the green condition as cut to constructional usable content of say, 18% moisture content will cause shrinkage.

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• TEMPERATURE Strength of timber decreases, together with increasing temperature Permanent loss of strength may happen if wood is held at high temperature for a long period.

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• POSITION IN TREE In the early tree’s life, wood often tends to become stronger with increasing distance from the pith

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• CONDITION OF GROWTH Environmental factor such as height above the sea level, temperature, type of soil, rainfall, spacing between the trees have effect on the strength of the properties of the timber

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• DEFECTS Common defect are cracks, knots and slope of grain and occur principally during the growing period and the drying process. It can be classified: a) knots b) shake c) split d) check

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Knots It is a cross-section or longitudinal section of a branch that was cut with the lumber It could affect the mechanical properties of wood Also allow stress concentration to occur Effect of knots depends on their position in the section. Knots are harder, denser and possess different shrinkage characteristics than those of wood tissue. 10/10/2014

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Live Knots 10/10/2014

Dead Knots sanjeh raman

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• Shake Shakes are lengthwise separations in the wood occurring between and parallel to annual rings

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Split It’s a complete separation of wood fibers usually at the ends, throughout the thickness of lumber and parallel to the fiber direction. could affect the durability of timber.

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Check It’s a lengthwise separation of wood occurring across or through the annual ring usually as a result of seasoning. It can occur anywhere on a piece of lumber.

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• TIMBER DEFECTS 10/10/2014

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• DECAY or DESTRUCTION Decay is a decomposition of the wood substances caused by fungi Wood suffered fungal attack can becomes brittle or weak. Destruction is done by insects or marine borers Termites normally found in warmer climates & wood beetles in conditions of high humidity 10/10/2014

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Timber construction

•

•

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The traditional Malay house relies for its strength on a complex jointing system made rigid by the use of timber wedges. [‘tanggam’ joints] This allows the house to be easily taken apart and reassembled elsewhere [use of prefabrication…eg: walls, roof]

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Example of Malay House from the East-Coast [strong Thai & Cambodian influences] 10/10/2014

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Physical elements of Traditional Malay House Abidin, W.B.b.W. (1981). The Malay House: Rationale and Change. MIT,Cambridge

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Section of basic Traditional Malay House

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Model of Traditional Malay House

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Engineered wood products Products manufactured from timber fibres using gluing to produce large sections or long lengths Portal frames under construction –Glued strand products (OSB, LSL, ESL, …) Photo: TRADAC –LVL - I beams –Box beams - Glulam –Plywood

Often used when large sections are not available. Efficient material use!

Benefits • Engineered timber products, such as Ibeams, glulam beams and plywood offer the builder/designer: – design flexibility – good environmental performance – increased structural ability

Design flexibility • Engineered wood products can be manufactured to suit a specific design. • The properties of the timber are optimised to suit the particular design. Timber house of the Future

Uses • large cross-sections for large span beams or truss elements • panel members - bracing, architectural • curved or unusual shapes • large panel elements - floor, roof, ceiling cladding (minor axis bending)

Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) • Made by laminating thin (3 to 5 mm thick) sheets together to form long, deep sections. • Most often used as beams • Often used where appearance is not important or where long straight lengths are required.

Plywood • Made by laminating thin (3 to 5 mm thick) sheets together to form sheets. • Laminates have alternate directions for each layer • High shear properties – suitable as bracing and webs

St Brigid Chapel Slavin Architects

Glulam • Made by laminating sawn timber together to form deep sections with potential for manufacturing curved shapes • Most often used as beams • Often used where appearance is important or where interesting forms are needed.

House, Cairns, Qld Photo: Debbie Falck

Jarrah GL potash storage shed, Cape Cuvier, WA Photo: Bunnings

Glulam has been a part of that history for many years and has been used on some very unique projects in many part of developing countries

Glulam • In Europe and North America there exists: • A cultural attitude towards a preference for timber in both structural and non-structural uses. • Climatic conditions that forces sporting activities indoors • There is an established and recognised third party certification schemes providing the customer with confidence in both the image of the industry and the quality of Glulam.

CSIRO Aquaculture Architect: Architectus Engineer: Bligh Tanner • Avoidance of steel in the marine environment • Robustness/longevity/low maintenance • Flexibility for future alteration • Low embodied energy

Architect: BCC City Projects Office Engineer: AURECON (formerly Connell Wagner) National Award Sustainable Projects – Australian Institute of Project Management The use of deep section laminated timber beams was identified very early in the design process as a means of providing an efficient and low maintenance structural system to span over the salt water laden indoor pool enclosures.

Timber Performed Well in a devastating church fire

High Strength to weight with added aesthetic appearance

Glulam Structural Glulam Should Be Considered for: • Primary structural members in domestic Buildings •

Bearers, Beams, Columns, Features

• Commercial and Industrial • • • • •

Portal Frames Columns Beams Purlins and Girts Features

Timber as a sustainable building material

Sustainable building materials • The materials used to build our homes can have significant health and environmental effects • When choosing materials for environmentally sustainable buildings we must consider: 1. The processes used to harvest raw material 2. Processing of material 3. Transport to site

So, what is timber? • Timber is a material which can be used for building or carpentry and is derived from trees. It is organic and renewable and can be used in a wide range of applications. • In order to make best use of timber in environmental buildings we must understand how timber is produced and how its natural properties effect it as a building material.

Managed native forests • • • • •

Managed for: Species conservation Water harvesting Timber harvesting Public education Recreation

Plantations In plantations trees are specifically planted and nurtured for timber production.

A plantation coup • Most commonly plantations have only a single species is planted. However plantations can be several species.

Timber - environment 1. Growing and harvesting timber • Low energy of production • Carbon stored in timber away from atmospheric cycle

2. Managed Forests • Plantations - single species farmed for timber • Native forests managed for many uses species conservation / biodiversity water harvesting timber harvesting public education recreation

Timber is cellular! vessels earlywood

fibres

rays

cells latewood

rays

hardwood

softwood

rays

Grading for forest products

Grading for forest products • Only some part of any log or tree can be used for sawn or veneer products. The remainder can be used for sheet products, paper or cardboard.

• Sawlogs – Approximately 30% of the tree goes to producing sawlogs • Pulp • Veneer

• Timber is a light construction material with a high strength to weight ratio. • Economic and easy to use, it is available as a structural and appearance product, and suitable for a wide range of uses. Hardwood in a drying yard

Some considerations when selecting materials! • • • • • • •

Clean materials Healthy Materials Renewable materials Natural materials Abundant materials Durable materials Resource efficient materials and material usage • Reusable and recyclable material • Energy Efficient material

Durability issues • Timber has natural durability to some hazards. This can be due to the chemicals stored in the wood structure, or in some cases it may be due to the wood structure itself. 700 year old grain store, France

Durability issues • Hazard - biological or physical • Natural durability of timber • Treatment of Timber • Design for Durability • Fire

Durability Biological/ Physical Hazards: Weathering Fire Chemical Fungi Termites / borers Marine

Maintenance ensures protection remains functional

Design Detailing Minimises exposure to hazards

Treatment enhances durability of sapwood

Timber: Species Natural durability of heartwood

Timber can be durable by design • Correctly specify species and treatment to match function and environment • Keep timber dry • Protect timber from weathering • Detail connections to avoid trapped water • Use corrosion resistant fasteners • Isolate timber from termites - inspect regularly • Maintain timber regularly use good quality paints, stains, • Protect structural timber from fire

STONES

BY ALIA AHAMAD

S T O N E S l definition •

Refers to natural rocks after their removal from the earth’s crust

•

The significance of stone as building material is illustrated by widespread prehistoric evidence and its sophisticated use in the early civilization of the world, including the Egyptians, the Mayans of Central America.

•

Now, widely used for finishes, which provide beautiful colors, textures & effects in building

S T O N E S l components

Stones are made up of a mosaic interlocking mineral grains that have definite chemical compositions which are :

• SILICATES Which contain silica are generally the harder minerals & the most common minerals

• CARBONATES Are the next most important minerals. This mineral group generally contains the softer minerals

S T O N E S l characteristics •

STRENGTH : most types of stone have more than adequate compressive strength. The shear strength of stone, however is usually about 1/10 of its compressive strength.

•

HARDNESS : hardness is important when stone is used for flooring, paving and stair treads

•

DURABILITY : resistance to the weathering effects of rain, wind, heat and frost action is necessary for exterior work.

•

WORKABILITY : a stone’s hardness & grain texture must allow it to be quarried, cut & shaped

•

DENSITY : a stone’s porosity affects its ability to withstand frost action & staining

S T O N E S l characteristics •

Porosity of stones : 24-hours water absorption of stones by volume

Types of Stone

Water absorption (% not greater than)

GRANITE

1

SANDSTONE

10

LIMESTONE

10

SLATE

1

QUARTZITE

3

S T O N E S l characteristics

S T O N E S l quarrying process

S T O N E S l quarrying process

S T O N E S l quarrying process

S T O N E S l types

IGNEOUS granites

SEDIMENTARY sandstone limestone

METAMORPHIC Slates marbles quartzite

S T O N E S l rock cycles

S T O N E S l types - IGNEOUS

IGNEOUS Formed from molten or partly molten material (ie from magma). Lava is a form of magma that has cooled & solidified on the surface of the earth. Example – GRANITE

S T O N E S l types - IGNEOUS

GRANITE

• Is an igneous rock that has cooled & crystallized below the earth’s surfaces, having a fine to coarse-grained mineral crystal structure. It is a ‘Siliceous’ based stone. • Composed primarily of quartz, feldspar & other accessory minerals.

• Denser and stronger than all natural stones, granite is an excellent choice for high traffic areas where class & style is desired. • Used for flooring, wall cladding, column, mullion facing, stair treads, flagstone

S T O N E S l types - IGNEOUS

GRANITE – characteristics •

Hard

•

Porosity : quite low

•

Absorption : 0.2% - 0.5%

•

Tendencies : absorb oils & some other liquids

•

Weathering Characteristics : discolorations & tendency to fade

S T O N E S l types - IGNEOUS GRANITE – characteristics •

Colors : more than hundred distinct colors with varying patterns

S T O N E S l types - IGNEOUS GRANITE – characteristics •

Finishes : Polished, Honed, Textured

polished

honed

textured

S T O N E S l types - IGNEOUS GRANITE – occurrences India

Chimakurthy Mandal, Prakasham Dist., Andhra Pradesh Elandur, Kollegal Taluk, Chamarajanagar District Chinnanagarm Village, Nellikuduri Mandal, Warangal Dist, Andhra Pradesh Kulathur Taluk, Pudukkottai District of Tamil Nadu Bolangir Taluk, Bargadh District in Orissa White Granite quarry at Jalampaly, Vizag Dist. Andhra Pradesh Yellow Granite quarry at Palghot, Kerala Yellow Granite quarry at Bolangir, Orissa Kummam, Karsanur, Tindivanam, Paitur, Atur in Tamil Nadu

China

Shanxi and Shandong : Hongtang, Tongian, Xiamen

Brazil

Giallo Veneziano quarry Nova Venec, Vila Pavao - 145 miles north of Vitoria, the capital of Espirito Santo Sta. Cecilia Dourado quarry, located near the village of Vila Pavao, Espirito Santo Viana, Espirito Santo

Scotland

Bunessan , Ross of Mull : Aberdeen, Grampian : St. Andrews, Fife

S T O N E S l types - IGNEOUS GRANITE – examples

S T O N E S l types - IGNEOUS GRANITE – examples

S T O N E S l types - IGNEOUS GRANITE – examples

S T O N E S l types - IGNEOUS GRANITE – examples

Mount Rushmore, a granite monument in the Black Hills of South Dakota is a tribute to George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln that is carved directly into the mountain.

S T O N E S l types - IGNEOUS GRANITE – examples

The new Scottish Parliament, Edinburgh, completed in 2004, clad mostly using variable sized panels of pale colored granite from Kemnay quarry in Aberdeenshire

S T O N E S l types - IGNEOUS GRANITE – examples

Tower Bridge, London, completed in 1894, using Cheesewring granite from Cornwall.

Main entrance to St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh), constructed with polished granite used for the columns

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY

SEDIMENTARY Produced by the weathering & erosion of older rocks. Example – LIMESTONES

SANDSTONES

&

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY

SANDSTONE • Depends on nature of original sand deposits – sandstone maybe fine or coarse in texture • Produced by weathering process Red sandstone interior of Lower Antelope Canyon, Arizona, worn smooth by erosion from flash flooding over thousands of years

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY

SANDSTONE – characteristics •

Hard & compact

•

Fine grained

•

Porosity : low to very low

•

Absorption : 1.0% - 1.2%

•

Weather Impact : resistant

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY SANDSTONE – characteristics •

Colors : sandstone may be any colour, but the most common colours are tan, brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white & black.

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY SANDSTONE – characteristics •

Finishes : Natural, Flamed, Polished, Honed, Sandblasted, Bush hammered, Sawn

flamed

sandblasted

bush hammered

sawn

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY SANDSTONE – occurrences India

Bari Railway station in Bharatpur district Jodhpur, Kota, Sawai, Madhopur, Bundi, Bikaner, & Bhilwara Indore, Damoh, Bilaspur, Rewa, Nimar, Sagar, Satna, Raigar,& Shahdol districts in Madhya Pradesh Dholpur, Sawaimadhopur, Chittorgarh, Nimbhahera, Jhalawar, Pali & Jaisalmer in Rajasthan Kynshi River, West Khasi Hills district, Meghalaya Bagia Nala, Bargarh district in Chattisgarh Sitla Mata, Gwalior district, Madhya Pradesh Dhaula dhar & siwalik range of the himalayan in Hinachal Pradesh

Scotland

Watlen, Caithness Elgin, Moray Byness, Lothian Lockerbie, Dumfries & Galloway

Algeria

Jurjura and Shellata

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY SANDSTONE – examples

The Chief Secretary’s Building is an historic Sydney landmark

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY SANDSTONE – examples

Humayun's Tomb. Islamic mausoleum, Delhi India Large red sandstone building decorated with inlaid marble and topped with white dome.

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY SANDSTONE – examples

Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY SANDSTONE – examples

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY SANDSTONE – examples

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY

LIMESTONE •

Composed largely of the minerals calcite & aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate.

•

Formed at the bottom of lakes & seas with the accumulation of skeletal fragments; marine organism such as coral or foraminifera

•

Used for wall & floor surfaces

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY LIMESTONE – characteristics •

Hard & compact

•

Fine to very fine grained

•

Porosity : quite low

•

Absorption : less than 1.0%

•

Weather Impact : resistant

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY

LIMESTONE – characteristics •

Colors : variable, but generally light colored, grey through yellow.

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY

LIMESTONE – characteristics •

Finishes : seamless, textured

seamless

textured

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY LIMESTONE – occurrences Texas

Lampasas River area

India

Khasi, Jayantia and Garo Hills of Meghalaya Satna limstone belt, Madhya Pradesh

United Kingdom

United Kingdom Alston, Cumbria
Stockfield, Northumberland
Doncaster, South Yorkshire
Moelfre, Gwynedd
Ancaster, Lincolnshire
Lincoln, Lincolnshire
Oakham, Leicestershire
Peterborough, Northamptonshire
Grantham, Lincolnshire
Stamford, Lincolnshire
Linby, Nottinghamshire

New Zealand

Airedale Road Weston

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY LIMESTONE – examples

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY LIMESTONE – examples

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY LIMESTONE – examples

The exterior of the building was built using Indiana limestone panels

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY LIMESTONE – examples

S T O N E S l types - SEDIMENTARY LIMESTONE – examples

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC • Derived from the Greek meta denoting a change & morph meaning a change of form. This changing of one rock type into another new type takes place by an increase in temperature or pressure or a combination of both.

• The original minerals of the stone recrystallize, small crystals merge to form larger crystals with no changes in the mineral chemistry, fine-grained calcite in limestone re-crystallizes to a coarse grained calcite crystal structure in marble; or there may by a transformation into a different set of metamorphic minerals. • Example – SLATE, MARBLE & QUARTZITE

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC

SLATE •

Slate with its natural colors, varied multicolored patterns & textures provide this stone with a distinctive appearance.

•

Composition – muscovite, chlorite, kaolinite, micas, quartz & other accessory minerals

•

Used for roofing, flooring, window sills, stair treads & facing

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC SLATE – characteristics •

Moderately hard & compact

•

Fine to medium grained

•

Less homogenous with varying textures & shades

•

Porosity : low to very low

•

Absorption : 1.5% - 2%

•

Weather Impact : resistant

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC SLATE – characteristics •

Colors : The color of slates are generally gray, red, brown and green ranging from dark to light

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC SLATE– occurrences Wales

Corris, Gwynedd Llangollen, Clwyd Neath, Mid Glamorgan Blaenau Ffestiniog, Gwynedd Clynderfen, Dyfed

India

Khanyara slate quarries are situated 11 to 15 Km. North East of Dharamshala, Distt. Kangra (Himachal Pradesh) Chamba district Himachal Pradesh

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC SLATE – examples

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC SLATE – examples

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC SLATE – examples

Slate is sometimes used as facing stone on building exteriors.

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC SLATE – examples

LASALLE College of the Arts, 1 McNally Street, Singapore

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC

MARBLE •

Is a beautiful & exciting material with its varieties of veining, patterns and palette of colors.

•

This stone communicates permanence, integrity, quality & elegance.

•

Composition – calcite, dolomite or a combination of both & accessory minerals acting as coloring agents. Veining minerals range from calcite, quartz & other minerals

•

Used for flooring, wall & column facing

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC MARBLE – characteristics •

hard & compact

•

Fine to very fine grained

•

Capable of taking shining polish

•

Porosity : quite low

•

Absorption : 0.5%

•

Weather Impact : resistant

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC MARBLE – characteristics •

Colors : every color is possible due to the variability of accessory minerals

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC

MARBLE – characteristics •

Finishes : polished, honed

polished

honed

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC MARBLE – occurrences India

Masaron Ki Obri, Rishabhdeo (Kesariyaji), Udaipur, Rajasthan Nai Parbati, Amet, Dist. Rajsamand, Rajasthan Manpura, Dhariyawad, Dist. Udaipur Sidhavatam, Kadapa Dist., Andhra Pradesh Umpavally, Koraput Dist., Orissa

Spain

Andalucia region El Monte Coto

Australia

Buchan in Victoria, Bathurst/Orange in N.S.W., Ulan in Queensland

Italy

Carrara

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC MARBLE – examples

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC MARBLE – examples

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC MARBLE – examples

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC MARBLE – examples

GianLorenzo Bernini, David, 1623-1624, Marble Sculpture

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC MARBLE – examples

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC MARBLE – examples

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC MARBLE – examples

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC MARBLE – examples

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC MARBLE – examples

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC

QUARTZITE •

96% silica

•

Harder than granite & extremely durable

•

Quartzite tends to have a sugary appearance, and when broken the fractures cut through the sand grains, not around them as with a sandstone.

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC QUARTZITE – characteristics •

Very hard & compact

•

Fine grained

•

They are highly resistant to acids, alkalis and thermal impact. Insolubility in acids and alkalis is about 97%.

•

Porosity : low to very low

•

Absorption : 1% - 1.2%

•

Weather Impact : resistant

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC QUARTZITE – characteristics •

Colors : Minor color tonal variations exist but within the tolerance limit.

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC QUARTZITE – occurrences Italy

Cuneo, Piedmont Region, Snive Quarry, Robilante

Sweden

Wasa Sten

Norway

Austertena (largest in world)

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC QUARTZITE – examples

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC QUARTZITE – examples

The 1884 Syndicate Block is the largest and oldest Sioux quartzite building in the historic district.

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC QUARTZITE – examples

Old Minnehaha County Courthouse, Sioux Falls, SD, which has been converted to museum

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC QUARTZITE – examples

Therme Vals,Graubünden, Switzerland Built using locally quarried Valser quartzite slabs

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC QUARTZITE – examples

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC QUARTZITE – examples

S T O N E S l types - METAMORPHIC QUARTZITE – examples

S T O N E S l construction

Stone is used in construction in the following forms: • Rubble

• Dimension stone • Flagstone • Crushed stone

• Pavers

S T O N E S l construction

Rubble •

consist of rough fragments of broken stone that have at least one good for exposure in a wall

•

Random & no attempt to produce an orderly course either horizontal or vertical.

•

Small spaces are filled with smaller stones

S T O N E S l construction

Dimension stone • is quarried & squared stone 2’ or more in length & width & of specified thickness, used commonly for wall paneling, cornices, copings, lintels & flooring

S T O N E S l construction

Dimension stone • Running bond – a masonry bond formed when all units are laid in stretcher position, with half-unit overlap. • Stack bond – a masonry bond formed when there is no overlapping of all units & all horizontal & vertical joints are aligned

S T O N E S l construction

Flagstone

• refers to flat stone slabs used for flooring & horizontal surfacing

S T O N E S l construction

Crushed stone • is used as aggregate in concrete products

S T O N E S l construction

Pavers • Cobble stone – used in paving. It may be rectangular or naturally rounded

• Durex blocks – roughly cubed, usually granite block used for paving

PLASTICS

compiled by alia ahamad

The Eco Ark Building in Taipei is made with PLASTIC bottles

The Eco Ark Building in Taipei is made with PLASTIC bottles

The Eco Ark Building in Taipei is made with PLASTIC bottles

What is plastic ?

An organic material derived from petroleum. Plastics are being increasingly used in the construction industry for the reasons that they are

lightweight, flexible, low cost & easy to use.

Definition

OIL – the raw material for plastics • We obtain crude oil from underground, either on land or at sea. • After it has been pumped, it is heated in a fractioning tower and broken down into chemicals. • The chemicals consist of nitrogen, carbon, chlorine, sulphur and water

Definition

Origins of Plastics – SYNTHETIC PLASTICS •

The main source of synthetic plastics is crude oil

•

Coal & natural gas are also used

•

Petrol, paraffin, lubricating oils & high petroleum gases are bi-products, produced during the refining of crude oil.

•

These gases are broken down into monomers. Monomers are chemical substances consisting of a single molecule.

•

A process called Polymerization occurs when thousands of monomers are linked together. The compounds formed as called polymers.

•

Combining the element of carbon with one or more other elements such as oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine and nitrogen makes most polymers. Definition

CATEGORIZATIONS OF PLASTICS

THERMOPLASTIC PLASTICS

THERMOSETTING PLASTICS SPECIAL PLASTIC (EFTE)

Categorization

THERMOPLASTIC PLASTICS The word ‘plastic’ means ‘easily shaped or molded’

Made of long polymer chains with few cross links

Formed by heat

Soften when heated

Can be reheated & reshaped Mostly recyclable Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics

THERMOPLASTIC PLASTICS Plastics are made of long chains of polymers which don’t cross over very often. When heated, the molecules slip easily over one another There are a wide range of thermoplastics, some that are rigid & some that are extremely flexible.

The molecules of thermoplastics are in lines or long chains with very few entanglements.

When heat is applied the molecules move apart, which increases the distance between them, causing them to become untangled. This allows them to become soft when heated so that they can be bent into all sorts of shapes Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics

THERMOPLASTIC PLASTICS When they are left to cool the chains of molecules cool, take their former position & the plastic becomes stiff and hard again. The process of heating, shaping, reheating & reforming can be repeated many times, provided they are not heated beyond the temperature that could cause degradation. For the above reason, thermoplastics should not be used near sources of heat. Thermoplastics vary from hard and rigid to soft and pliable. Nearly all thermoplastics are prefixed ‘poly’ Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics

THERMOPLASTICS & PLASTIC MEMORY Each time a thermoplastic is reheated it will try and return to its original shape, unless it has been damaged due to overheating or overstretching. This property is called plastic memory. This is why a shape formed in thermoplastic becomes flat when reheated.

Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics

TYPES OF THERMOPLASTICS

Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics l Types

TYPES OF THERMOPLASTICS

Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics l Types

TYPES OF THERMOPLASTICS 1. POLYETHYLENE • It is made in high density & low density • Properties : a) high thermal movement b) extremely resistant to many chemicals at room temperature c) good electrical insulators d) high impermeability to water & water vapor

Polyethylene has been used to manufacture milk crates, bottles, buckets, bowl & gear wheels

• Uses include cold water cisterns, water pipes, damp-proof membranes, chemical-resisting membranes Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics l Types

TYPES OF THERMOPLASTICS 1a. HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE • High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) piping is normally used for high pressure applications

• Available from 16mm to 1000mm OD with pressure rating up to 16 bar. • Stiff, hard, can be sterilized and is extremely dense

Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics l Types

TYPES OF THERMOPLASTICS 2. POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC)

• Can be rigid in natural form (uPVC) or made flexible by the addition of plasticizers (plasticized PVC). • Properties : a) very good weathering properties b) unaffected by acids & alkalis c) Soften at about 70 degree Celsius

Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics l Types

TYPES OF THERMOPLASTICS 2a. UNPLASTICIZED (rigid) PVC (uPVC) • Example: soil & waste pipes, rain water piping, water mains, transparent & translucent sheets in roofing, electrical conduits & accessories, floor tiles (PVC floor tiles)

2b. PLASTICIZED (flexible) PVC • Made flexible with the addition of plasticizers.

• Examples: floor coverings (vinyl sheets & floor tiles), water stops, electrical cable insulation, transparent swing doors, Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics l Types

TYPES OF THERMOPLASTICS 2c. MOLECULAR – ORIENTATED PVC • Known as MPVC has much potential in the building industry • Provides higher strength for the given specification as compared to the regular grade of PVC, resulting in lesser wall thickness for walls that include piping & larger internal pipe diameters

Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics l Types

TYPES OF THERMOPLASTICS uPVC & PVC • uPVC & PVC are largely made of the same material. Polyvinylchloride is a polymer that can be heated & molded to create very hard, strong compounds such as piping.

• Because of its rigid properties once its formed, manufacturers frequently blend additional plasticizing polymers into PVC. • These polymers make PVC pipe more bendable & generally easier to work with than if it remains plasticized. • Those plasticizing agents are left out when uPVC is manufactured Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics l Types

TYPES OF THERMOPLASTICS 3. NYLON • There are many forms of nylon, the most important being Nylon 6, Nylon 66, Nylon 11 • Properties : a) tough b) high strength c) excellent wear resistant d) low coefficient of friction e) better resistance to high temperature than other thermoplastics Image : a nylon castor. Nylon is hard, tough, self-lubricating, has a high melting point & has very good resistance to wear and tear

• Examples : nuts & bolts, castors, curtain rail & sliding door fittings, coatings for railings & outdoor furniture Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics l Types

TYPES OF THERMOPLASTICS

4. POLYCARBONATES

• Dense, hard and tough • They are the strongest transparent materials, with tensile strength & ductility similar to metals. As such they have uses in vandalresistant and glazing

Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics l Types

TYPES OF THERMOPLASTICS 5. ACRYLIC • Available in many different colours • Stronger than glass, but scratches easily • It is also used to make many outer cases for toys • It can be softened & bent, blown or twisted into many different shapes. It comes in sheets or as round rods. Hence ideal for shop signs • Resist the weather very well • Clear Acrylic (Perspex) was first used to make aircraft canopies. It is ten times more impact resistant than glass. Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics l Types

EXAMPLES OF COMMON PRODUCTS MADE FROM THERMOPLASTICS

polypropylene

high density polythene

ABS

low density polythene

Categorization l Thermoplastic Plastics l Examples

THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

Initially set by heat

Strong & durable

Common in powder or resin forms

Consist of polymer chains with strong bonds between each chain

Cannot be reshaped once set

Can be reused Categorization l Thermosetting plastics

THERMOSETTING PLASTICS The molecules of thermosetting plastics are heavily cross-linked. They form a rigid molecular structure. The molecules in thermosetting sit end-to-end and side-by-side.

Although they soften when heated the first time, which allows them to be shaped, they become permanently stiff & solid & cannot be reshaped. Thermosetting remain rigid & nonflexible even at high temperatures. Polyester resin are examples of thermosetting plastics Categorization l Thermosetting Plastics

THERMOSETTING PLASTICS In thermosetting plastics, a chemical curing agent (hardener) produces a characteristically rigid structure. These are stronger & harder than thermoplastics. They resist heat & fire and are often used for objects like pan handles & electrical fittings

Categorization l Thermosetting Plastics

TYPES OF THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

Categorization l Thermosetting Plastics l Types

TYPES OF THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

1. MELAMINE-FORMALDEHYDES (MELAMINES) & UREA-FORMALDEHYDES (UREAS) • Used in electrical plugs & sockets because it can be cast and it is an excellent insulator • These thermosetting plastics, also called amino resins, are clear & colourless • Melamine is one of the thermosetting plastics that can be made in a large range of colours.

• Articles fabricated from melamines are rigid and have one of the hardest surface finishes of any plastic material. Because of this they are widely used for the production of decorative laminates, and used in such items as counter, cabinet or table tops. Categorization l Thermosetting Plastics l Types

TYPES OF THERMOSETTING PLASTICS 1. MELAMINE-FORMALDEHYDES (MELAMINES) & UREA-FORMALDEHYDES (UREAS) (cont’d) • Melamine plastics have similar properties to Bakelite. However, they have the added advantage of being able to be coloured during processing. • Melamine formaldehyde & ureas formaldehyde are two types of melamine plastics

Categorization l Thermosetting Plastics l Types

TYPES OF THERMOSETTING PLASTICS 2. POLYESTER RESIN •

If resins are combined with a material such as fibre glass the result is a very tough material that can resist impact.

•

Polyester resin is a chemical hardener.

•

It will set at room temperature

•

When set, the plastic is stiff, hard and brittle.

•

Polyester resin can be reinforced with glass fibre.

•

Glass-reinforced polyester resin or glassreinforced plastic (GRP) is used for making motor cycle fairings & boats Categorization l Thermosetting Plastics l Types

TYPES OF THERMOSETTING PLASTICS 3. EPOXY

•

Reinforced plastics based on epoxy resins have better mechanical strength, chemical resistance, electrical insulating properties and environmental stability than those made with conventional unsaturated polyesters.

•

Because of their combination of properties epoxy resins are used in a number of heavy-duty applications in building and construction: for wearresistant terrazzo, industrial flooring and for filling potholes and repairing cracks on highways & bridges Categorization l Thermosetting Plastics l Types

EXAMPLES OF COMMON PRODUCTS MADE FROM THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

epoxy resin

melamine formaldehyde

urea formaldehyde

GRP

Categorization l Thermosetting Plastics l Examples

SPECIAL PLASTIC EFTE (ethylene tetrafluoroethylene)

Beijing National Aquatics Center

•

The building material of the future. Its a transparent plastic, and is just 1% the weight of glass, but it transmits more light, is a better insulator.

•

It is a fluorocarbon based polymer, aka ‘fluoropolymer’ – a type of plastic.

•

Key characteristics: a) relatively high melting point (270 degree Celsius)

Clarke Quay, Singapore: These transparent ETFE cushion street roofs, provide shading & cooling between shops & houses

b) high use temperature c) good abrasion resistance d) good impact strength Categorization l Special Plastic

SPECIAL PLASTIC EFTE (ethylene tetrafluoroethylene) Beijing National Aquatics Center

Categorization l Special Plastic l Example

SPECIAL PLASTIC EFTE (ethylene tetrafluoroethylene) Beijing National Aquatics Center

Categorization l Special Plastic l Example

SPECIAL PLASTIC EFTE (ethylene tetrafluoroethylene) Beijing National Aquatics Center

Categorization l Special Plastic l Example

SPECIAL PLASTIC EFTE (ethylene tetrafluoroethylene) Beijing National Aquatics Center

Categorization l Special Plastic l Example

SPECIAL PLASTIC EFTE (ethylene tetrafluoroethylene) Beijing National Aquatics Center

Categorization l Special Plastic l Example

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS Properties of plastics vary widely depending on: 1. The type & basic formulation of the plastics.

2. The presence of additives such as stabilizers, fire retardants, reinforcements, plasticizers, fillers & pigments. 3. Some general properties : strength, behavior at elevated temperature & in fire, thermal conductivity, electrical properties, thermal movement, durability, flexible & cost effective

Properties

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS STRENGTH • Plastics have tensile strength to weight ratio higher than those of some metals, but they cannot be used for load bearing beams for the following reasons: a) low modulus of elasticity

b) tendency of thermoplastics to creep under sustained loading c) serious loss of strength at elevated temperatures

Properties

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS BEHAVIOR AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES • Creep & degradation are more rapid at high temperatures & strength properties are reduced • Thermoplastics soften at points which are not well-defined, in most cases between 60 – 110 degree Celsius

Properties

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS BEHAVIOR IN FIRE • Spread of flame over the surface of plastics is high, and burning plastics generally produce large volumes of smoke (the worst menace to life in a fire). Burning plastics also produce toxic gases.

• No treatment can make any plastics material noncombustible. However, by reason of the molecular characteristics of some plastics (like PVC) and by the inclusion of fire-retardant additives, many plastics are difficult to ignite & some are self-extinguishing.

Properties

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY & CAPACITY • Thermal conductivity of plastics is similar to wood, but their thermal capacity is higher.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES • Plastics are excellent insulators of electricity.

Properties

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS THERMAL MOVEMENT • Thermal expansion of plastics is generally several times higher than that of steel DURABILITY • Plastics do not rot or corrode & in general they have good resistance to chemicals normally encountered in building work. • However, sunlight particularly its ultra-violet component is the single factor responsible for the breakdown of plastics & for producing colour changes. • Moist salt-laden air combined with a high ultra violet light intensity, warmth & moisture in coastal exposure present severe conditions which lead to rapid deterioration of plastics Properties

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS FLEXIBLE & COST EFFECTIVE

• Can be molded to any desired shape or size. • Easy to work upon. • Light in weight & a few varieties are glossy like glass. • Available in desired colour & texture. • Require little maintenance.

• Can be sawn, drilled & punched and welded easily. • Decorative surface effect – painting or polishing of the surface is not required.

• Low manufacturing cost, hence cheap. Properties

APPLICATION OF PLASTICS Use of plastics in different aspects of the Construction Industry :

a) b) c) d) e) f) g)

Flooring Roofing Insulation Wall Pipes Windows Doors

Application

APPLICATION OF PLASTICS FLOORING

• Plastic materials like PVC & polyethylene are used to make flooring less prone to wear & tear.

Wood Plastic Flooring for outdoor area

• It also decreases the sound pollution level & can be cleaned easily. • Flooring Tiles Polyvinyl chloride synthetic resins used for floor tiles are non absorbent, resistant to abrasion, wear & tear

Vinyl Carpet Tile

• Flooring Sheets Mastics, prepared from synthetic resins such as polyvinyl acetate with suitable plasticizers form decorative linoleum floor coverings Application l Flooring

APPLICATION OF PLASTICS ROOFING

Polyurethane Foam

•

To protect the outer surface of the roof from damage, two layers of different plastic materials are required.

•

The upper part is made of colored thermoplastic olefin or vinyl while the lower part consists of polyurethane foam which consumes less energy & keeps the interior of a house cooler

•

Water-proofing membrane polythene & polyvinyl resins with suitable fillers & plasticizers, oils & antipyrene compounds are used to make films which have high elastic strength, rupture value & acid resisting properties.

•

These films are used for damp proofing courses, covering of concrete for curing, temporary protection from rain & wind Application l Roofing

APPLICATION OF PLASTICS INSULATIONS • Polyurethane spray is frequently used for insulation when constructing green or low energy building.

• Rigid polyurethane foam is known for its high thermal resistance which promotes temperature consistency. • Polyurethane foam is also popular because it is lightweight, chemical resistant & flame retardant.

Polyurethane Foam used as insulation foam

• Due to its closed cell nature, polyurethane insulation performs as an air barrier, resulting in significant energy savings. Application l Insulation

APPLICATION OF PLASTICS PIPES PVC

• Commonly made of PVC, CPVC, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) or polyethylene. • Plastic pipes are flexible & very light in weight, making them easy to install.

CPVC

ABS

• All of these plastic materials are also highly chemical & water resistant, making them suitable for many extreme environments

Application l Pipes

APPLICATION OF PLASTICS WINDOWS • Polycarbonate is used to manufacture building windows.

• This plastic material is strong, clear & very light in weight. • Considered more burglar-proof than regular glass windows. • Two plastics materials, vinyl & fiberglass are used commonly in the production of window frames. • Fiberglass is extremely strong while vinyl is quite durable & also inexpensive. Application l Windows

APPLICATION OF PLASTICS DOORS

• Some construction projects use doors made from a stiff polyurethane foam core with a fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) coating. • The sandwich structure of these doors make them incredibly strong.

Application l Doors

Why we use plastics ?

Why we use plastics ?

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Building Material ARC1512 Metal

mĂŠtallon, "mine, quarry, metal"

A hard, opaque, shiny, and has good electrical and thermal conductivity.

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Building Material ARC1512

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Building Material ARC1512 Properties of Metal

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Building Material ARC1512

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Building Material ARC1512 Properties of Metal

Chemically, the metals differ from the nonmetals in that they form positive ions and basic oxides and hydroxides. Upon exposure to moist air, a great many undergo corrosion, i.e., enter into a chemical reaction; e.g., iron rusts when exposed to moist air, the oxygen of the atmosphere uniting with the metal to form the oxide of the metal while potassium burns in seconds. Aluminum and zinc do not appear to be affected, but in fact a thin coating of the oxide is formed almost at once, stopping further action and appearing unnoticeable because of its close resemblance to the metal.

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Building Material ARC1512 Some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their surface which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades like aluminium, magnesium, some steels, and titanium while palladium, platinum and gold, do not react with the atmosphere at all. Tin, lead, and copper react slowly under ordinary conditions.

Silver is affected by compounds such as sulfur dioxide and becomes tarnished when exposed to air containing them. The metals are combined with nonmetals in their salts, as in carbides, carbonates, chlorides, nitrates, phosphates, silicates, sulfides, and sulfates.

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Building Material ARC1512 Types of Metal used in Construction Lead Lead has been a popular roofing material for centuries, being used for roofing, flashing, gutter, rainwater downpipes, and conductor heads. Lead was also frequently used for window panes in skylights and stained glass. It was also used for small pieces of sculpture and garden ornamentation. Lead was frequently added to paint, with red lead used as an anti-corrosive pigment for iron, and white lead used as paint for wooden houses. Lead-based paint was one of the most durable materials developed as a protective exterior coating. The use of lead paint has been restricted on most buildings, due to concerns of lead poisoning. Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Tin The principal architectural uses of tin fall into two categories: the alloying of tin with other metals such as copper to form bronze, and the coating of tin on harder metals, such as tinplated iron or steel. Tinplate was also used for decoration, such as ornamental windows and door lintels.

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Building Material ARC1512 Zinc Pure zinc is subject to creep (deformation) at ordinary temperatures. Zinc is still used in alloys such as brass and nickel silver, and in the electroplating of steel as well. Creep has been reduced by the introduction of titanium in most architectural zinc. Architectural grade zinc is 90 to 95% recycled. At the end of its service life, zinc building products can be recycled indefinitely without loss to chemical or physical properties.

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Copper and its alloys Copper is a very durable metal, withstanding corrosion . The initial cost of copper was traditionally high, but its length of service more than compensated for the price. Copper could also be shaped to the bends and angles around chimneys and at roof edges and dormers. was also used for decorative purposes, including architectural ornaments or sculptures. One famous example is the Statue of Liberty. Copper alloys used in architecture include bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, and brass, an alloy of copper and zinc. Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Nickel and its alloys Nickel is been used for plating architectural details. Nickel is most frequently used for building components in the form of alloys: nickel silver, Monel metal, and stainless steel. Different percentages result in a range of colors, including silvery-white, yellow, slight blue, green or pink. Nickel silver hardware was popular during the Art Deco and Depression Modern periods. Architects and designers preferred nickel silver because it could take and retain appropriate finishes, and it resisted corrosion. Monel metal is an alloy of approximately two-thirds nickel and one-third copper. It is similar to platinum in color. Following the war, stainless steel and aluminium replaced Monel because of lower production costs. Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512

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Building Material ARC1512 Iron and its alloys Iron has become an important architectural building component. It has been used in four common forms: wrought iron, cast iron, sheet iron, and steel.

Wrought iron : the use of wrought iron in buildings was generally limited to small items such as tie rods, straps, nails, and hardware, or to decorative ironwork in balconies, railings fences and gates.

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Building Material ARC1512 Iron and its alloys Cast iron : Although brittle, it is remarkably strong in compression. It was frequently used for structural purposes, such as columns, building fronts, domes and light courts. Decorative uses have included stairs, elevators, lintels, grilles, verandas, balconies, railings, fences, streetlights, and tombs. Today, cast iron is used for plumbing fixtures and piping in new construction.

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Building Material ARC1512 Iron and its alloys Steel : The development of structural steel in the mid-19th century allowed construction of tall buildings. Builders and manufacturers turned to steel, which was stronger than cast iron in compression and wrought iron in tension. Bridges, railroad companies, and skyscrapers were among the first large-scale uses of structural steel. Although iron and steel are not combustible, they lose strength in a fire if they are not protected from the heat. Almost all structural steel must be “fireproofed�. Reinforced concrete, was developed in the late 19th century when steel wire was added to concrete.

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Building Material ARC1512 Decorative

steels used in buildings

include: Stainless steel, a chromium-nickel steel. Its most important property is its resistance to corrosion. It contains about 18% chromium and 8-12% nickel. Stainless steel is expensive, so it was used primarily as a nonstructural metal or where there is a high potential for corrosion. One of the most extensive early uses of stainless steel was in the Chrysler Building. Copper-bearing steels, containing from .15% to .25% copper, develop increased resistance to atmospheric corrosion, when compared to ordinary steel, by forming a protective oxide coating, having a uniform deep brown color and texture. Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

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Aluminium Much like copper, Aluminium is highly resistant to corrosion. It also has the added benefit of being a third lighter than steel with comparable strength. Aluminium can also be easily and repeatedly recycled. It can used for roofing, flashing, gutters, rainwater downpipes, wall panels, and spandrels. Art Deco designs frequently used aluminum for ornamental features. Today, aluminum is used frequently in construction except major structural members. Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

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Building Material ARC1512

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Building Material ARC1512 Advantages & Disadvantages of Metal in Building Construction

ADVANTAGES •

• • • • • • • •

Better life cycle return-on-investment than other materials: today's metal construction products are protected by highly durable paints and coatings that can ensure a service life of 40 years or more Extremely durable and typically last longer than other types of buildings Lower maintenance cost – long term Can be designed to withstand severe acts of nature Saves time on installation Sustainable – can be recycled, help reduce energy consumption Versatile building material, flexible Can be used for retrofitting, giving a better look to building envelope design options Diverse choices of metals in the market these days

DISADVANTAGES • • •

Upfront cost Corrosion – requires maintenance Performance in fire – strength can be weakened by sustained high temperatures – which require fire-proofing measures

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Building Material ARC1512 Application of Metals in Buildings In architectural designs, metal can be applied on both the exterior and interior depending on its usage and purposes. Metal can be part of a building component such as:

• • • • • • • • •

Walls Floors Ceilings Partitions Doors Windows Building Facades Roofs Staircase/ Railings

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Building Material ARC1512 WALLS – for interior and exterior

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Building Material ARC1512 FLOORS – for structural and aesthetics

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Building Material ARC1512 CEILINGS – functionality, aesthetics, maintenance

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PARTITIONS – functionality, aesthetics, maintenance

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DOORS – functionality, aesthetics, security, robustness

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Building Material ARC1512 BUILDING FACADE

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Building Material ARC1512

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Building Material ARC1512 ROOF

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SPR Building, Putrajaya Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

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Building Material ARC1512

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Building Material ARC1512 Glass

ɡlɑːs/

noun a hard, brittle substance, typically transparent or translucent, made by fusing sand with soda and lime and cooling rapidly. It is used to make windows, drinking containers, and other articles. Basic ingredients: • Limestone (CaCO3) • Soda ash (Na2CO3) • Sand (SiO2) the ingredients are heated to a high temp of for certain hours ie 24 hours and then cooled to a workable temperature. Once the glass cools to a certain point, it hardens. Therefore all molding, shaping, blowing, etc. must be done while it is still hot enough to work with. Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Properties of Glass Chemical Resistance

• • •

Weight

• •

•

resist most acids with the exception of hydrofluoric, and at high temperatures phosphoric acid. alkalis will attack the surface of unprotected glass. General water-born materials from surrounding surfaces and the atmosphere may leave deposits on glass (should be removed for longevity and optimal performance) Glass, like water, can be deceptively heavy even in relatively small physical sizes. Glass has a density of 2,500 kilograms per cubic meter, making it approximately 2.5 times heavier than the equivalent volume of water and heavier for its size than many other building materials. The weight aspect of glass means that window frames and other structural elements need to be specifically designed for their glazing role. Specialist products, laminate units and double glazing can be exceptionally heavy in large units and need specific safety, handling, mounting and engineering consideration.

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Building Material ARC1512 Properties of Glass (Cont’d) Strength

• •

Conductivity

• •

Glass is a strong building material with greater capacity to resist compression than stretching or sudden impact. Typical float glass may have the following properties: – Compressive strength – Tensile strength – Impact strength – Highly variable depending upon shape, hardness and velocity of impacting object. Glass is generally a poor conductor of electricity Glass is a better conductor of heat. The thermal conductivity of standard glass is a potential problem for energy efficient building that is addressed by coating technology and double glazing

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Building Material ARC1512 Properties of Glass (Cont’d) Light Transmission

• •

Temperature Performance

• • •

Clear glass is not completely transparent, almost as though it was created for our viewing pleasure and natural light transmission. Transmission varies with glass type and thickness Glass is created at high temperature and will return to liquid form if heated sufficiently. This can be a problem for fireresistance. Glass products made for fire protection are enhanced with the addition of substrates, laminates and other technologies to maintain rigidity at high temperature. The most common temperature issue with glass is not ‘high temperature’ but ‘thermal endurance’. For this reason many glass products are toughened.

Other properties include elasticity, resonating frequencies, dielectric constant and a range of other performance properties required for complex engineering and construction purposes.

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Building Material ARC1512 Types of Glass Flat glass is used mainly in windows. It is also used in mirrors, room dividers, and some kinds of furniture. All flat glass is made in the form of flat sheets. But some of it, such as that used in automobile windshields, is reheated and sagged (curved) over molds. Glass containers are used for packaging food, beverages, medicines, chemicals, and cosmetics. Glass jars and bottles are made in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and colors. Others are made from special glass formulas to make sure there will be no contamination or deterioration of blood plasma, serums, and chemicals stored in them.

Optical glass is used in eyeglasses, microscopes, telescopes, camera lenses, and many instruments for factories and laboratories.

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Fiberglass consists of fine but solid rods of glass. Can serve as heat insulation. They also can be used like wool or cotton fibers to make glass yarn, tape, cloth, and mats, electrical insulation, chemical filtration, and firefighters' suits. Combined with plastics, fiberglass can be used for airplane wings and bodies, automobile bodies, and boat hulls. Fiberglass is a popular curtain material because it is fire-resistant and washable.

Laminated safety glass is a “sandwich� made by combining alternate layers of flat glass and plastics. The plastic holds the broken pieces of glass together and keeps them from flying in all directions. Laminated glass is used where broken glass might cause serious injuries, as in automobile windshields. Bullet-resisting glass is thick, multilayer laminated glass. This glass can stop even heavy-caliber bullets at close range. Bullet-resisting glass is heavy enough to absorb the energy of the bullet, and the several plastic layers hold the shattered fragments together. Such glass is used in bank teller windows and in windshields for military tanks, aircraft, and special automobiles. Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Tempered safety glass, is a single piece that has been given a special heat treatment. It is several times stronger than ordinary. Tempered glass is used widely for all-glass doors in stores, side and rear windows of automobiles, and basketball backboards, and for other special purposes. It is hard to break even when hit with a hammer. When it does break, the whole piece of glass collapses into small, dull-edged fragments.

Colored structural glass is a heavy plate glass, available in many colors. It is used in buildings as an exterior facing, and for interior walls, partitions, and tabletops.

Opal glass has small particles in the body of the glass that disperse the light passing through it, making the glass appear milky. The ingredients necessary to produce opal glass include fluorides (chemical compounds containing fluorine). This glass is widely used in lighting fixtures and for tableware.

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Foam glass, when it is cut, looks like a black honeycomb. It is filled with many tiny cells of gas. Foam glass is so light that it floats on water. It is widely used as a heat insulator in buildings, on steam pipes, and on chemical equipment. Foam glass can be cut into various shapes with a saw. Wired Glass, fine twisted hexagonal wire netting or mesh inserted during the process of rolling. Used primarily in fire rated windows, doors, skylights and applications requiring a safety glazing material. When broken, loose pieces of glass are held by the wire netting.

Glass building blocks are made from two hollow half-sections sealed together at a high temperature. Glass building blocks are good insulators against heat or cold because of the dead-air space inside. The blocks are laid like bricks to make walls and other structures.

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Heat-resistant glass is high in silica and usually contains boric oxide. It expands little when heated, so it can withstand great temperature changes without cracking. This quality is necessary in cookware and other household equipment, and in many types of industrial gear.

Laboratory glassware includes beakers, flasks, test tubes, and special chemical apparatus. It is made from heat-resistant glass to withstand severe heat shock (rapid change in temperature). This glass is also much more resistant to chemical attack than ordinary glass.

Glass for electrical uses. Glass has properties that make it useful in electrical applications: ability to resist heat, resistance to the flow of electric current, and ability to seal tightly to metals without cracking. Because of these properties, glass is used in electric light bulbs and for picture tubes in television sets. Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Glass optical fibers are glass fibers used to transmit information as pulses of light. Thin, extremely pure optical fibers are used to carry telephone and television signals and digital (numeric) data over long distances. Glass optical fibers are also used in control board displays and in medical instruments. Glass tubing is used to make fluorescent lights, neon signs, glass piping, and chemical apparatus. Glass tubing is made from many kinds of glass and in many sizes.

Glass-ceramics are strong materials made by heating glass to rearrange some of its atoms into regular patterns. These partially crystalline materials can withstand high temperatures, sudden changes in temperature, and chemical attacks better than ordinary glass can.

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Radiation-absorbing and radiation-transmitting glass can transmit, modify, or block heat, light, X rays, and other types of radiant energy. For example, ultraviolet glass absorbs the ultraviolet rays of the sun but transmits visible light. One-way glass is specially coated so that a person can look through a window without being seen from the other side. Photochromic glass darkens when exposed to ultraviolet rays and clears up when the rays are removed. Photochromic glass is used for windows, sunglasses, and instrument controls. Can be more expensive but saves energy in the long run. Sol-Gel glass can be used as a protective coating on certain solar collectors or as an insulating material. It is also used to make short, thick tubes that are drawn into optical fibers. To make Sol-Gel glass, workers dissolve the ingredients in a liquid. They then heat the liquid. The liquid evaporates, leaving behind small particles of glass. Heating these particles fuses (joins) them to form a solid piece of glass. The temperatures involved in Sol-Gel processes are often lower than those needed to make ordinary glass. Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Advantages & Disadvantages of Glass in Building Construction

ADVANTAGES • •

• • • •

• •

It adds to the beautification of the facade of a building It is useful for ornamental and decorative purposes both for interiors and exteriors of buildings It helps in space saving in interiors It performs the purposes of heat retention, lighting and energy saving It conveys a sense of openness, harmony and accord It is a versatile material that can be used for making transparent stairways, colored shelves and other design features like dividers and cubicles It saves on air conditioning costs as glazed windows are bad conductors of heat It is lightweight and a designer’s dream material

DISADVANTAGES • • • •

It is costly and may increase construction costs Not advised for use in earthquake prone areas High maintenance costs Security concerns

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Application of Glass in Buildings In architectural designs, glass can be applied on both the exterior and interior. Hence, the types of glass to be used will depend on its usage. Glass can be part of a building component such as:

• • • • • • • • •

Walls Floors Ceilings Partitions Doors Windows Building Facades Roofs Staircase/ Railings

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 WALLS – flat glass, tempered glass, coloured structural glass, glass blocks etc

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Building Material ARC1512 FLOORS – structural glass, laminated, tempered and varies in thickness

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Building Material ARC1512 CEILINGS – laminated, tempered, flat/ annealed glass and varies in thickness

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Building Material ARC1512

PARTITIONS – tempered, flat/ annealed glass and varies in thickness

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Building Material ARC1512

GLASS DOORS – flat/ annealed glass and varies in thickness

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Building Material ARC1512 Types of Glass Doors

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Building Material ARC1512 Types of Glass Windows

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Building Material ARC1512 BUILDING FACADE

Suruhanjaya Tenaga @ Energy Commission, Putrajaya a.k.a ‘The Diamond Building’  earned Platinum Rating (Malaysia GBI)  Inverted Diamond shape, to allow more roof space for solar panel, as well water catchment, giving it more green space at the ground level

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 BUILDING FACADE

Petronas Twin Towers KL

Sephora KL

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Building Material ARC1512 ROOF

tampered glass video

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Building Material ARC1512 ‘GREEN’ ROOF

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Building Material ARC1512

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Building Material ARC1512

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Ceramics The word ceramic comes from the Greek word "κεραμικός" (keramikos), "of pottery" or "for pottery",[2] from "κέραμος" (keramos), "potter's clay, tile, pottery". It is inorganic and non-metallic materials, may be crystalline or partly crystalline, formed by actions of heat and subsequent cooling. Traditional ceramics are mainly made from clay, silicate glass and cement while while advanced ceramics consist of carbides (SiC), pure oxides (Al2O3), nitrides (Si3N4), nonsilicate glasses and many others. Due to its wide range of properties, ceramics are being used in many product areas, from domestic to industrial, and even in space technology. Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Properties of Ceramics Density

in general, ceramics are lighter than metals and heavier than polymers

Melting Temperatures

higher than for most metals. Some ceramics decompose rather than melt

Electrical and thermal conductivities

lower than for metals; but the range of values is greater, so some ceramics are insulators while others are conductors

Thermal expansion

somewhat less than for metals, but effects are more damaging because of brittleness

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Types of Ceramic Products • Structural, including bricks, pipes, floor and roof tiles • Refractories, such as kiln linings, gas fire radiant, steel and glass making crucibles

• White wares, including tableware, wall tiles, pottery products and sanitary ware • Technical, is also known as Engineering, Advanced, Special, and in Japan, Fine Ceramics. Such items include tiles used in the Space Shuttle program, gas burner nozzles, ballistic protection, nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets, bio-medical implants, jet engine turbine blades and missile nose cones.

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Production of Ceramic Tiles Batching Mixing & Grinding Spray Drying Forming Wall and floor tile used for interior and exterior decoration belongs to a class of ceramics known as whitewares.

Drying Glazing

Firing Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Homogeneous Tile Homogeneous tile is a form of ceramic tile composed of fine porcelain clays but fired at much higher temperatures than ceramic tile. This process makes homogeneous tiles denser, harder, less porous and therefore less prone to moisture and stain absorption than ceramic tiles. They have a consistent property throughout the entire section of the tile. For these reasons, most homogeneous tiles are suitable for both indoor and outdoor use. However they are harder to cut due to their density and hardness. It is 30%-50% more expensive than ceramic tiles. Categorized as advanced ceramics.

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

Durability Ceramic surfaces have a relatively longer life if compared to most of the other materials used for floor and wall covering. Fire resistance Ceramic tiles are fireproof. They do not burn, nor give off smoke or toxic fumes. Moisture Resistance They are an excellent choice for use in wet areas, if properly installed and grouted. Some of the types (porcelain) are also impervious, i.e. they have a less than 0.5% moisture absorption rate. Resistance to abrasion and tread wear They are easily used as floor tiles at busy commercial locations and residential sites. Ceramic tiles can withstand heavy foot traffic due to their resistance to abrasion and tread wear.

Temperature Warmer climate - will retain heat in warmer climates, making it more difficult to cool the area where the tile has been installed. Colder climate - because of the density of ceramic, it takes longer to heat or cool than other flooring materials. Hardness While most consider the hardness of ceramic to be an added value, there is also a downside. A heavy glass item may not break if dropped on a floor of a different material but will most likely shatter if dropped on ceramic. In addition, because the ceramic material has no flexibility, the ceramic itself is more prone than other floor types to surface cracking when heavy items are dropped.

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

Slip resistance Ceramic tiles are treated to prevent slipping either by adding an abrasive grit to the glaze or texture to the surface such as ribs, studs or orange peel finish. This anti-slip factor is also particularly defined and rated in tile flooring. Frost resistance Vitreous ceramic tiles and all of the porcelain tile types are frost resistant. These tiles come up to the need of frost resistant exterior applications. Thermal shock resistance A properly laid ceramic tile floor will neither deform nor break in extreme temperature conditions. Stain resistance and easy maintenance To keep a ceramic tile surface clean, all you need to do is sweep, vacuum and wash them regularly with water.

Permanence Once ceramic has been installed, it cannot be changed; messy and costly renovation project to have it removed and replaced. Likewise, if a tile is cracked or broken, it will be difficult to replace. Maintenance While ceramic is fairly easy to maintain, the grout lines between the tiles are susceptible to stains, mold and mildew and must be periodically sealed to maintain the integrity of the grout lines. In addition, ceramic in wet areas may require caulking where the ceramic meets another construction material, and the caulk will need to be replaced when it no longer seals the seam due to aging or cracking.

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 ADVANTAGES Chemical resistance Ceramic tile materials are highly resistant to chemical agents. Color permanence Direct exposure of ceramic tiles to sunlight neither alters their color, nor causes them to fade. Hygiene Being hygienic and easy to clean, ceramic tiles are recommended for all areas where high sanitary standards are a must.

DISADVANTAGES -

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Application of Ceramics and its Products Because they typically possess many advantages for its durability, resistance towards moisture and heat, easy to maintain, non-corrosive, they are also generally hard and brittle with very good chemical and thermal stability, and relatively affordable to many, use of ceramic in the building industry is widely used.

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Walls Floors Ceilings Building Facades Roofs Sanitary wares etc.

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Application of Ceramics in Buildings

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Building Material ARC1512

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Building Material ARC1512

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Building Material ARC1512

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Building Material ARC1512 Ceramic – the perfect choice Technical ceramic materials feature high hardness, physical stability, extreme heat resistance and chemical inertness. As such, they are highly resistant to melting, bending, stretching, corrosion and wear – and ideal for use in environments of extreme heat and aggressive chemicals, like that of TFPV deposition.

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Paint Use of paint has started centuries ago during the Ancient Egyptian, Greeks and Roman using the natural resources, essentially lead. They started mixing with wine or vinegar. It is in liquid form, water and oil based which when applied to a surface, will convert it into a solid form. Commonly used to protect, color, or provide texture to objects, decoration, sanitation and identification.

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 3 main PARTS of paint

PIGMENT

VEHICLE/ BINDER

SOLVENT

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 PIGMENT

Pigment is the color. This is an important paint ingredient. It is actually a solid, even in the wet paint, but the pieces are too small that they seem to be part of the liquid. Usually these pigments are different minerals or other chemicals that are very colorful.

VEHICLE

Liquid is known as the ‘vehicle’ because it actually transports the pigment. From the paint can, the pigment goes to the object we are painting with the help of the vehicle. Some common vehicles are acrylics and oils. Vehicles are made of resins (sticky substances that form a film with the colorful pigment). Resin also acts as binder to hold the pigment particles together as well as to provide adhesion to the surface painted.

SOLVENT

This solvent is used so that the paint is so easy to work with because it thins it (make the liquid less viscous and more easily flowing) therefore makes it easier to apply. This is why paint solvents are often called thinners. In waterbased paints, water is the solvent.

Apart from the solvent, binder and pigment, many paints also have chemical additives of various kinds. For example, to improve durability and strength you can add ceramic substances to paints while to make them glow in the dark, fluorescent pigments can be added. Certain additives in paint can also help things rustproof and waterproof therefore protecting it against sunlight and frost, and keep it free of mold and mildew. Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 ADVANTAGES • • • •

• •

Paint can be formulated to meet any color specification for your project. Paint is available in a wide assortment of colors and paint types - Arcylics, Kynar's - 50% & 70% PVDF coatings, Polyesters, Silicone Polyesters. Paint acts as an excellent protectant against the harsh elements. Liquid coatings can be smoother than powder coatings, which exhibit some fine "orange peel" effect. Bright metallic color based on aluminum flake is better in liquid technology. Two-coat formulations containing 50% & 70% kynar (polymer coating) provide excellent corrosion resistance.

DISADVANTAGES •

•

• •

Paints are typically environmentally unfriendly to both the atmosphere and humans, due to the hazardous VOC's (Volatile Organic Compounds) they contain. Color and finish appearance may vary upon factory application due to differences in spray equipment, line conditions or day-to-day process variations. It is strongly recommended that final color approval be made with actual production line samples or mock-ups, not laboratory prepared panels. More waste is generated during application due to overspray. Peeling, Cracking, Chalking, Erosion

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Types of Paints • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Primer – first coating before applying the actual choice of paint Emulsion – water based Flat Finish Matte Finish Gloss Finish Pearl Satin Finish Varnish/ Shellac – protective coating Wood Stain Lacquer – solvent-based paint or varnish that produces an especially hard, durable finish with rapidly-drying formulation Enamel Paint – formulated to give an especially hard, usually glossy, finish Roof Coating – provides UV protection to polyurethane foam and is widely used in roof restoration Anti-Graffiti – protection from vandalism Anti-Climb Anti-Fouling – applied to ships, protection against marine organism Insulative Paint – reduces the rate of thermal transfer through a surface it's applied to Anti-Slip Road Marking Paint – road signs, safety signs etc.

Prepared by : Ar. Sateerah Hassan

Building Material ARC1512 Equipments

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Building Material ARC1512

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Building Material ARC1512 Designs and Techniques

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Building Material ARC1512

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Building Material ARC1512

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Building Material ARC1512

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