A small book about Humor by Slava Bikhovsky

A Small Book about Humor Just to Start

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Contents Articles Humour

Comedy

Laughter

Irony

Joke

Sarcasm

Satire

References Article Sources and Contributors

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Article Licenses License

Humour

Humour Humour or humor (see spelling differences) is the tendency of particular cognitive experiences to provoke laughter and provide amusement. The term derives from the humoral medicine of the ancient Greeks, which taught that the balance of fluids in the human body, known as humourous (Latin: hĂşmor, "body fluid"), control human health and emotion. People of all ages and cultures respond to humour. The majority of people are able to experience humour, i.e., to be amused, to laugh or smile at something funny, and thus they are considered to have a sense of humour. The hypothetical person lacking a sense of humour would likely find the behaviour induced by humour to be inexplicable, strange, or even irrational. Though ultimately decided by personal taste, the extent to which an individual will find something humorous depends upon a host of variables, including geographical location, culture, maturity, level of education, intelligence and context. For Smiling can imply a sense of humour and a state example, young children may favour slapstick, such as Punch and Judy of amusement, as in this painting of Falstaff by puppet shows or cartoons such as Tom and Jerry. Satire may rely more Eduard von GrĂźtzner. on understanding the target of the humour and thus tends to appeal to more mature audiences. Nonsatirical humour can be specifically termed "recreational drollery".[1] [2]

Theories of humour Many theories exist about what humour is and what social function it serves. The prevailing types of theories attempting to account for the existence of humour include psychological theories, the vast majority of which consider humour-induced behaviour to be very healthy; spiritual theories, which may, for instance, consider humour to be a "gift from God"; and theories which consider humour to be an unexplainable mystery, very much like a mystical experience.[3]

Humour

Understanding humour Some claim that humour cannot or should not be explained. Author E.B. White once said, "Humor can be dissected as a frog can, but the thing dies in the process and the innards are discouraging to any but the pure scientific mind."[4] Arthur Schopenhauer lamented the misuse of the term "humour" (a German loanword from English) to mean any type of comedy. However, both "humour" and "comic" are often used when theorising about the subject. The connotations of "humour" as opposed to "comic" are said to be that of response versus stimulus. Additionally, "humour" was thought to include a combination of ridiculousness and wit in an individual; the paradigmatic case being Shakespeare's Sir John Falstaff. The French were slow to adopt the term "humour"; in French, "humeur" and "humour" are still two different words, the former referring to a person's mood or to the archaic concept of the four humours.

Ancient Greece

Surprise is a type of humour

Western humour theory begins with Plato, who attributed to Socrates (as a semihistorical dialogue character) in the Philebus (p. 49b) the view that the essence of the ridiculous is an ignorance in the weak, who are thus unable to retaliate when ridiculed. Later, in Greek philosophy, Aristotle, in the Poetics (1449a, pp. 34–35), suggested that an ugliness that does not disgust is fundamental to humour.

India In ancient Sanskrit drama, Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra defined humour (hāsyam) as one of the nine nava rasas, or principle rasas (emotional responses), which can be inspired in the audience by bhavas, the imitations of emotions that the actors perform. Each rasa was associated with a specific bhavas portrayed on stage. In the case of humour, it was associated with mirth (hasya).

Arabia The terms "comedy" and "satire" became synonymous after Aristotle's Poetics was translated into Arabic in the medieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon by Arabic writers and Islamic philosophers such as Abu Bischr, his pupil Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes. Due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy from Greek dramatic representation, and instead identified it with Arabic poetic themes and forms, such as hija (satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension" and made no reference to light and cheerful events or troublous beginnings and happy endings associated with classical Greek comedy. After the Latin translations of the 12th century, the term "comedy" thus gained a new semantic meaning in Medieval literature.[5]

Humour

Incongruity theory The Incongruity Theory originated mostly with Kant, who claimed that the comic is an expectation that comes to nothing. Henri Bergson attempted to perfect incongruity by reducing it to the "living" and "mechanical".[6] An incongruity like Bergson's, in things juxtaposed simultaneously, is still in vogue. This is often debated against theories of the shifts in perspectives in humour; hence, the debate in the series Humor Research between John Morreall and Robert Latta.[7] Morreall presented mostly simultaneous juxtapositions,[8] with Latta countering that it requires a "cognitive shift" created by a discovery or solution to a puzzle or problem. Latta is criticised for having reduced jokes' essence to their own puzzling aspect. Humour frequently contains an unexpected, often sudden, shift in perspective, which gets assimilated by the Incongruity Theory. This view has been defended by Latta (1998) and by Brian Boyd (2004).[9] Boyd views the shift as from seriousness to play. Nearly anything can be the object of this perspective twist; it is, however, in the areas of human creativity (science and art being the varieties) that the shift results from "structure mapping" (termed "bisociation" by Koestler) to create novel meanings.[10] Arthur Koestler argues that humour results when two different frames of reference are set up and a collision is engineered between them.

Metaphor and metonymy Tony Veale, who takes a more formalised computational approach than Koestler, has written on the role of metaphor and metonymy in humour,[11] [12] [13] using inspiration from Koestler as well as from Dedre Gentner's theory of structure-mapping, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson's theory of conceptual metaphor, and Mark Turner and Gilles Fauconnier's theory of conceptual blending.

Social demographics As with any form of art, acceptance depends on social demographics and varies from person to person. Throughout history, comedy has been used as a form of entertainment all over the world, whether in the courts of the Western kings or the villages of the Far East. Both a social etiquette and a certain intelligence can be displayed through forms of wit and sarcasm. Eighteenth-century German author Georg Lichtenberg said that "the more you know humour, the more you become demanding in fineness."

Evolutionary explanation of humour Alastair Clarke explains: "The theory is an evolutionary and cognitive explanation of how and why any individual finds anything funny. Effectively, it explains that humour occurs when the brain recognises a pattern that surprises it, and that recognition of this sort is rewarded with the experience of the humorous response, an element of which is broadcast as laughter." The theory further identifies the importance of pattern recognition in human evolution: "An ability to recognise patterns instantly and unconsciously has proved a fundamental weapon in the cognitive arsenal of human beings. The humorous reward has encouraged the development of such faculties, leading to the unique perceptual and intellectual abilities of our species."[14]

Humour

Humour formula Humour can be verbal, visual, or physical. Nonverbal forms of communication - for example, music or art - can also be humorous.

Root components • being reflective of or imitative of reality • surprise/misdirection, contradiction/paradox, ambiguity.

Methods • • • • •

hyperbole metaphor farce reframing timing

Behaviour, place and size Rowan Atkinson explains in his lecture in the documentary "Funny Business"[15] that an object or a person can become funny in three different ways. They are: • By behaving in an unusual way • By being in an unusual place • By being the wrong size Most sight gags fit into one or more of these categories.

Gallery

The late Dave Allen, Irish comedian

Rowan Atkinson, British comedian, dressed as one of his characters, Mr. Bean

Ellen DeGeneres, American comedienne

Humour

Humour and culture Different cultures have different expectations of humour so comedy shows are not always successful when transplanted into another culture. Two well-known sayings in Britain are "Americans don't do irony" and Germans have no sense of humour. Whether these sayings have any validity has been discussed on a BBC webpage.[16]

References [1] Seth Benedict Graham A cultural analysis of the Russo-Soviet Anekdot (http:/ / etd. library. pitt. edu/ ETD/ available/ etd-11032003-192424/ unrestricted/ grahamsethb_etd2003. pdf) 2003 p.13 [2] Bakhtin, Mikhail. Rabelais and His World [1941, 1965]. Trans. Hélène Iswolsky. Bloomington: Indiana University Press p.12 [3] Raymond Smullyan, "The Planet Without Laughter", This Book Needs No Title [4] Quotationspage.com (http:/ / www. quotationspage. com/ quote/ 984. html) [5] Webber, Edwin J. (January 1958), "Comedy as Satire in Hispano-Arabic Spain" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 470561), Hispanic Review (University of Pennsylvania Press) 26 (1): 1–11, doi:10.2307/470561, [6] Henri Bergson, Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic (1900) English translation 1914. [7] Robert L. Latta (1999) The Basic Humor Process: A Cognitive-Shift Theory and the Case against Incongruity, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3110161036 (Humor Research no. 5) [8] John Morreall (1983) Taking Laughter Seriously, Suny Press, ISBN 0873956427 [9] Brian Boyd, Laughter and Literature: A Play Theory of Humor Philosophy and Literature - Volume 28, Number 1, April 2004, pp. 1-22 [10] Koestler, Arthur (1964): "The Act of Creation". [11] Veale, Tony (2003): "Metaphor and Metonymy: The Cognitive Trump-Cards of Linguistic Humor" (Afflatus.uce.ie) (http:/ / afflatus. ucd. ie/ Papers/ iclc2003. pdf) [12] Veale, Tony (2006): "The Cognitive Mechanisms of Adversarial Humor" (http:/ / afflatus. ucd. ie/ Papers/ Journal_of_Humor_Research_2006_trumping. pdf) [13] Veale, Tony (2004): "Incongruity in Humour: Root Cause of Epiphenomonon?" (Afflatus.ucd.ie) (http:/ / afflatus. ucd. ie/ Papers/ fest2004. pdf) [14] http:/ / www. eurekalert. org/ pub_releases/ 2008-06/ ph-maf062708. php [15] Rowan Atkinson/David Hinton, Funny Business (tv series), Episode 1 - aired 22 November 1992, UK, Tiger Television Productions [16] http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ magazine/ 3433375. stm

Further reading • Alexander, Richard (1984) Verbal humor and variation in English: Sociolinguistic notes on a variety of jokes • Alexander, Richard (1997) Aspects of verbal humour in English (http://books.google.es/ books?id=zioy07JVHcwC) • Basu, S (December 1999), "Dialogic ethics and the virtue of humor" (http://www.anthrosource.net/doi/abs/ 10.1525/var.2006.22.1.14) (Abstract), Journal of Political Philosophy (Blackwell Publishing Ltd) Vol. 7 (No. 4): 378–403, doi:10.1111/1467-9760.00082, retrieved 2007-07-06 (Abstract) • Billig, M. (2005). Laughter and ridicule: Towards a social critique of humour. London: Sage. ISBN 1412911435 • Bricker, Victoria Reifler (Winter, 1980) The Function of Humor in Zinacantan (http://links.jstor.org/ sici?sici=0091-7710(198024)36:4<411:TFOHIZ>2.0.CO;2-7&size=LARGE) Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 411–418 • Buijzen, Moniek; Valkenburg, Patti M. (2004), "Developing a Typology of Humor in Audiovisual Media" (http:// www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s1532785xmep0602_2?prevSearch=allfield:(buijzen)), Media Psychology Vol. 6 (No. 2): 147–167, doi:10.1207/s1532785xmep0602_2(Abstract) • Carrell, Amy (2000), Historical views of humour (http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de/WWW/MathNat/Ruch/ PSY356-Webarticles/Historical_Views.pdf), University of Central Oklahoma. Retrieved on 2007-07-06. • García-Barriocanal, Elena; Sicilia, Miguel-Angel; Palomar, David (2005) (pdf), A Graphical Humor Ontology for Contemporary Cultural Heritage Access (http://is2.lse.ac.uk/asp/aspecis/20050064.pdf), Ctra. Barcelona, km.33.6, 28871 Alcalá de Henares (Madrid), Spain,: University of Alcalá, retrieved 2007-07-06 • Goldstein, Jeffrey H., et al. (1976) "Humour, Laughter, and Comedy: A Bibliography of Empirical and Nonempirical Analyses in the English Language." It's a Funny Thing, Humour. Ed. Antony J. Chapman and Hugh

Humour

• • • • • • • •

C. Foot. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press, 1976. 469-504. Holland, Norman. (1982) "Bibliography of Theories of Humor." Laughing; A Psychology of Humor. Ithaca: Cornell U P, 209-223. Luttazzi, Daniele (2004) Introduction to his Italian translation of Woody Allen's trilogy Side Effects, Without Feathers and Getting Even (Bompiani, 2004, ISBN 88-452-3304-9 (57-65). Martin, Rod A. (2007). The Psychology Of Humour: An Integrative Approach. London, UK: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN 13: 978-0-12-372564-6 McGhee, Paul E. (1984) "Current American Psychological Research on Humor." Jahrbuche fur Internationale Germanistik 16.2: 37-57. Mintz, Lawrence E., ed. (1988) Humor in America: A Research Guide to Genres and Topics. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1988. ISBN 0313245517; OCLC: 16085479. Mobbs, D.; Greicius, M.D.; Abdel-Azim, E.; Menon, V.; Reiss, A. L. (2003), "Humor modulates the mesolimbic reward centres", Neuron 40 (5): 1041–1048, doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00751-7, PMID 14659102. Nilsen, Don L. F. (1992) "Satire in American Literature." Humor in American Literature: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1992. 543-48. Pogel, Nancy, and Paul P. Somers Jr. (1988) "Literary Humor." Humor in America: A Research Guide to Genres and Topics. Ed. Lawrence E. Mintz. London: Greenwood, 1988. 1-34.

• Roth, G., Yap, R, & Short, D. (2006). "Examining humour in HRD from theoretical and practical perspectives". Human Resource Development International, 9(1), 121-127. • Smuts, Aaron. "Humor". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/humor.htm) • Wogan, Peter (Spring 2006), "Laughing At First Contact" (http://www.anthrosource.net/doi/abs/10.1525/ var.2006.22.1.14) (Abstract), Visual Anthropology Review Vol. 22 (No. 1): 14–34, online December 12, 2006, doi:10.1525/var.2006.22.1.14, retrieved 2007-07-06 (Abstract)

External links • Humor (http://www.dmoz.org/Recreation/Humor//) at the Open Directory Project • International Society for Humor Studies (http://www.hnu.edu/ishs/index.htm)

Comedy

Comedy Comedy (from the Greek: κωμῳδία, kōmōidía), as a popular meaning, is any humorous discourse generally intended to amuse, especially in television, film, and stand-up comedy. This must be carefully distinguished from its academic definition, namely the comic theatre, whose Western origins are found in Ancient Greece. In the Athenian democracy, the public opinion of voters was remarkably influenced by the political satire performed by the comic poets at the theaters.[1] The theatrical genre can be simply described as a dramatic performance which pits two societies against each other in an amusing agon or conflict. Northrop Frye famously depicted these two opposing sides as a "Society of Youth" and a "Society of the Old",[2] but this dichotomy is seldom described as an entirely satisfactory explanation. A later view characterizes the essential agon of comedy as a struggle between a relatively powerless youth and the societal conventions that pose obstacles to his hopes; in this sense, the youth is understood to be constrained by his lack of social authority, and is left with little choice but to take recourse to ruses which engender very dramatic irony which provokes laughter.[3] Much comedy contains variations on the elements of surprise, incongruity, conflict, repetitiveness, and the effect of opposite expectations, but there are many recognized genres of comedy. Satire and political satire use ironic comedy to portray persons or social institutions as ridiculous or corrupt, thus alienating their audience from the object of humor. Satire is a type of comedy. Parody borrows the form of some popular genre, artwork, or text but uses certain ironic changes to critique that form from within (though not necessarily in a condemning way). Screwball comedy derives its humor largely from bizarre, surprising (and improbable) situations or characters. Black comedy is defined by dark humor that makes light of so called dark or evil elements in human nature. Similarly scatological humor, sexual humor, and race humor create comedy by violating social conventions or taboos in comic ways. A comedy of manners typically takes as its subject a particular part of society (usually upper class society) and uses humor to parody or satirize the behavior and mannerisms of its members. Romantic comedy is a popular genre that depicts burgeoning romance in humorous terms, and focuses on the foibles of those who are falling in love.

Thalia, muse of comedy, holding a comic mask detail of “Muses Sarcophagus”, the nine Muses and their attributes; marble, early second century AD, Via Ostiense - Louvre

Charlie Chaplin

Etymology The word "comedy" is derived from the Classical Greek κωμῳδία kōmōithía, which is a compound either of κῶμος kômos (revel) or κώμη kṓmē (village) and ᾠδή ōidḗ (singing); it is possible that κῶμος itself is derived from κώμη, and originally meant a village revel. The adjective "comic" (Greek κωμικός kōmikós), which strictly means that

Comedy

which relates to comedy is, in modern usage, generally confined to the sense of "laughter-provoking".[4] Of this, the word came into modern usage through the Latin comoedia and Italian commedia and has, over time, passed through various shades of meaning.[5] Greeks and Romans confined the word "comedy" to descriptions of stage-plays with happy endings. In the Middle Ages, the term expanded to include narrative poems with happy endings and a lighter tone. In this sense Dante used the term in the title of his poem, La Divina Commedia. As time progressed, the word came more and more to be associated with any sort of performance intended to cause laughter.[5] During the Middle Ages, the term "comedy" became synonymous with satire, and later humour in general, after Aristotle's Poetics was translated into Arabic in the medieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon by Arabic writers and Islamic philosophers, such as Abu Bischr, his pupil Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes. Due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy from Greek dramatic representation and instead identified it with Arabic poetic themes and forms, such as hija (satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension", and made no reference to light and cheerful events, or troublous beginnings and happy endings, associated with classical Greek comedy. After the Latin translations of the 12th century, the term "comedy" thus gained a more general semantic meaning in Medieval literature.[6]

History Comedy is one of the original four genres of literature defined by the philosopher Aristotle in the work Poetics. The other three genres are tragedy, epic poetry, and lyric poetry. Literature in general is defined by Aristotle as a mimesis, or imitation of life. Comedy is the third form of literature, being the most divorced from a true mimesis. Tragedy is the truest mimesis, followed by epic poetry, comedy and lyric poetry. The genre of comedy is defined by a certain pattern according to Aristotle's definition. All comedies begin with a low, typically with an "ugly" guy who cannot do anything right. By the end of the story or play, the "ugly" guy has won the "pretty" girl, or achieved some other goal. Comedies usually also have elements of the supernatural, typically magic and, for the Ancient Greeks, the gods. Comedy includes the unrealistic in order to portray the realistic. For the Greeks, all comedies ended happily which is opposite of tragedy, which ends sadly. Aristophanes, a dramatist of the Ancient Greek Theater wrote 40 comedies, 11 of which survive and are still being performed. In ancient Greece, comedy seems to have originated in bawdy and ribald songs or recitations apropos of fertility festivals or gatherings, or also in making fun at other people or stereotypes.[4] Aristotle, in his Poetics, states that comedy originated in Phallic songs and the light treatment of the otherwise base and ugly. He also adds that the origins of comedy are obscure because it was not treated seriously from its inception.[7] That said, comedy had its own Muse: Thalia.

The Greco-Roman mask of Thalia, the Muse of comedy, in a Three Stooges 1935 short film title card.

In ancient Sanskrit drama, Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra defined humour (hﾄ《yam) as one of the nine nava rasas, or principle rasas (emotional responses), which can be inspired in the audience by bhavas, the imitations of emotions that the actors perform. Each rasa was associated with a specific bhavas portrayed on stage. In the case of humour, it was associated with mirth (hasya). The phenomena connected with laughter and that which provokes it have been carefully investigated by psychologists. They agreed the predominant characteristics are incongruity or contrast in the object and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject. It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential factor: thus Thomas Hobbes speaks of laughter as a "sudden glory". Modern investigators have paid much attention to the origin both of laughter and of smiling, as well as the development of the "play instinct" and its emotional expression.

Comedy

George Meredith, in his 1897 classic Essay on Comedy, said that "One excellent test of the civilization of a country ... I take to be the flourishing of the Comic idea and Comedy; and the test of true Comedy is that it shall awaken thoughtful laughter." Laughter is said to be the cure to being sick. Studies show that people who laugh more often get sick less.[8] [9]

Forms Comedy may be divided into multiple genres based on the source of humor, the method of delivery, and the context in which it is delivered. The different forms often overlap, and most comedy can fit into multiple genres. Some of the sub-genres of comedy are farce, comedy of manners, burlesque, and satire.

Performing arts Performing arts Major forms Dance · Music · Opera · Theatre · Circus Minor forms Magic · Puppetry Genres Drama · Tragedy · Comedy · Tragicomedy · Romance · Satire · Epic · Lyric

Historical forms • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Ancient Greek comedy, as practiced by Aristophanes and Menander Ancient Roman comedy, as practiced by Plautus and Terence Burlesque, from Music hall and Vaudeville to Performance art Citizen comedy, as practiced by Thomas Dekker, Thomas Middleton and Ben Jonson Clowns such as Richard Tarlton, William Kempe, and Robert Armin Comedy of humours, as practiced by Ben Jonson and George Chapman Comedy of intrigue, as practiced by Niccolò Machiavelli and Lope de Vega Comedy of manners, as practiced by Molière, William Wycherley and William Congreve Comedy of menace, as practiced by David Campton and Harold Pinter comédie larmoyante or 'tearful comedy', as practiced by Pierre-Claude Nivelle de La Chaussée and Louis-Sébastien Mercier Commedia dell'arte, as practiced in the twentieth-century by Dario Fo, Vsevolod Meyerhold and Jacques Copeau Farce, from Georges Feydeau to Joe Orton and Alan Ayckbourn Jester Laughing comedy, as practiced by Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Brinsley Sheridan Restoration comedy, as practiced by George Etherege, Aphra Behn and John Vanbrugh Sentimental comedy, as practiced by Colley Cibber and Richard Steele Shakespearean comedy, as practiced by William Shakespeare Stand-up comedy Dadaist and Surrealist performance, usually in cabaret form Theatre of the Absurd, used by some critics to describe Samuel Beckett, Harold Pinter, Jean Genet and Eugène Ionesco[10]

Comedy • Sketch comedy

Plays • Comic theatre • Musical comedy and palace

Opera • Comic opera

Improvisational comedy • Improvisational theatre • Bouffon comedy • Clowns

Joke • One-liner joke • Blonde jokes • Shaggy-dog story • Paddy Irishman joke

Stand-up comedy Stand-up comedy is a mode of comic performance in which the performer addresses the audience directly, usually speaking in their own person rather than as a dramatic character. • • • •

Impressionist (entertainment) Alternative comedy Comedy club Comedy albums

Events and awards • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

British Comedy Awards Canadian Comedy Awards Cat Laughs Comedy Festival The Comedy Festival, in Aspen, formerly the HBO Comedy Arts Festival Comedy Walk [11], monthly comedy festival in Los Angeles Edinburgh Festival Fringe Edinburgh Comedy Festival Halifax Comedy Festival Just for laughs festival Leicester Comedy Festival Melbourne International Comedy Festival New Zealand International Comedy Festival New York Underground Comedy Festival HK International Comedy Festival

• Vancouver Comedy Festival

Comedy

List of comedians • • • • • • • • • • •

List of stand-up comedians List of musical comedians List of Australian comedians List of British comedians List of Canadian comedians List of Finnish comedians List of German language comedians List of Indian comedians List of Italian comedians List of Mexican comedians List of Puerto Rican comedians

Mass media Literature • Comic novel • Light poetry

Film • Comedy film • • • • • •

Anarchic comedy film Gross-out film Parody film Romantic comedy film Screwball comedy film Slapstick film

Television and radio • Television comedy • Situation comedy • Radio comedy Lists of comedy television programs • • • • • • • • •

British sitcom British comedy Comedy Central - A television channel devoted strictly to comedy. German television comedy List of British TV shows remade for the American market Paramount Comedy (Spain). Paramount Comedy 1 and 2. TBS (TV network) The Comedy Channel (Australia)

• The Comedy Channel (UK) • The Comedy Channel (USA) not to be confused with HA! - channels that have merged into Comedy Central.

Comedy • The Comedy Network, a Canadian TV channel. • G.O.L.D

References Footnotes [1] Henderson, J. (1993) Comic Hero versus Political Elite pp.307-19 in Sommerstein, A.H.; S. Halliwell, J. Henderson, B. Zimmerman, ed (1993). Tragedy, Comedy and the Polis. Bari: Levante Editori. [2] (Anatomy of Criticism, 1957) [3] (Marteinson, 2006) [4] Francis MacDonald Cornford, The Origin of Attic Comedy, 1934. [5] Oxford English Dictionary [6] Webber, Edwin J. (January 1958). "Comedy as Satire in Hispano-Arabic Spain" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 470561). Hispanic Review (University of Pennsylvania Press) 26 (1): 1–11. doi:10.2307/470561. [7] Aristotle, Poetics, lines beginning at 1449a (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=Aristot. + Poet. + 1449a) [8] LENNY BRUCE (http:/ / www. ep. tc/ realist/ 15/ 03. html) (continued from cover) The Realist No. 15, February 1960 [9] Essay on Comedy, Comic Spirit, by George Meredith (http:/ / emotional-literacy-education. com/ classic-books-online-b/ esycm10. htm) from the Encyclopedia of the Self, by Mark Zimmerman [10] This list was compiled with reference to The Cambridge Guide to Theatre (1998). [11] http:/ / www. comedywalk. com

Notations • Aristotle. Poetics. • Buckham, Philip Wentworth (1827). Theatre of the Greeks (http://books.google.com/?id=IjAZAAAAYAAJ& printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Theatre+of+the+Greeks). • Marteinson, Peter (2006). On the Problem of the Comic: A Philosophical Study on the Origins of Laughter (http:/ /www.chass.utoronto.ca/french/as-sa/editors/origins.html). Ottawa: Legas Press. • Pickard-Cambridge, Sir Arthur Wallace

• • • • •

• Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy , 1927. • The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, 1946. • The Dramatic Festivals of Athens, 1953. Raskin, Victor (1985). The Semantic Mechanisms of Humor. Riu, Xavier (1999). Dionysism and Comedy (http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2000/2000-06-13.html). Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane (2003). Tragedy and Athenian Religion. Oxford University Press. Trypanis, C.A. (1981). Greek Poetry from Homer to Seferis. University of Chicago Press. Wiles, David (1991). The Masked Menander: Sign and Meaning in Greek and Roman Performance.

External links • Comedy (http://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Performing_Arts/Comedy/) at the Open Directory Project • A Vocabulary for Comedy (http://www.dbu.edu/mitchell/comedydi.htm) from a professor at Dallas Baptist University

Laughter

Laughter Laughing is a reaction to certain stimuli, fundamentally stress, which serves as an emotional balancing mechanism. Traditionally, it's considered a visual expression of happiness, or an inward feeling of joy. It may ensue from hearing a joke, being tickled, or other stimuli. It is in most cases a very pleasant sensation. Recent investigations by Robert Provine suggest that laughter is a form of communication, probably the first one in the human race, which later evolved, with the liberation of voice from walking and breathing, into human language.[1] Laughter is found among various animals, as well as in humans, although it is more rare in most mammals and animals overall. Among the human species, it is a part of human behavior regulated by the brain, helping humans clarify their intentions in social interaction and A man laughing providing an emotional context to conversations. Laughter is used as a signal for being part of a group—it signals acceptance and positive interactions with others. Laughter is sometimes seen as contagious, and the laughter of one person can itself provoke laughter from others as a positive feedback.[2] This may account in part for the popularity of laugh tracks in situation comedy television shows. Laughter is anatomically caused by the epiglottis constricting the larynx. The study of humor and laughter, and its psychological and physiological effects on the human body, is called gelotology.

Nature of laughter Laughter is an audible expression or appearance of excitement, an inward feeling of joy or humor. It may ensue from jokes, tickling, and other stimuli. Researchers have shown infants as early as 17 days old have vocal laughing sounds or laughter.[3] It conflicts with earlier studies indicating that infants usually start to laugh at about four months of age. Laughter researcher Robert R. Provine said: "Laughter is a mechanism everyone has; laughter is part of universal human vocabulary. There are thousands of languages, hundreds of thousands of dialects, but everyone speaks laughter in pretty much the same way.” Everyone can laugh. Babies have the ability to laugh before they ever speak. Children who are born blind and deaf still retain the ability to laugh. Laughter is a common response to

Provine argues that “Laughter is primitive, an unconscious vocalization.” tickling Provine argues that it probably is genetic. In a study of the “Giggle Twins”, two happy twins who were separated at birth and only reunited 43 years later, Provine reports that “until they met each other, neither of these exceptionally happy ladies had known anyone who laughed as much as she did.” They reported this even though they both had been brought together by their adoptive parents, who they indicated were “undemonstrative and dour.” He indicates that the twins “inherited some aspects of their laugh sound and pattern, readiness to laugh, and maybe even taste in humor.”[4]

Laughter

Norman Cousins suffered from arthritis and developed a recovery program incorporating megadoses of Vitamin C, along with hope, a positive attitude, and laughter induced by Marx Brothers films. "I made the joyous discovery that ten minutes of genuine belly laughter had an anesthetic effect and would give me at least two hours of pain-free sleep. When the pain-killing effect of the laughter wore off, we would switch on the motion picture projector again and not infrequently, it would lead to another pain-free interval."[5] [6] Two girls laughing

Scientists have noted the similarity in forms of laughter among various primates, which suggests that laughter derives from a common origin among primate species.[7] A very rare neurological condition has been observed whereby the sufferer is unable to laugh out loud, a condition known as aphonogelia.[8]

Laughter and the brain Neurophysiology indicates that laughter is linked with the activation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, that produces endorphins. Scientists have shown that parts of the limbic system are involved in laughter. This system is involved in emotions and helps us with functions necessary for human's survival. The structures in the limbic system that are involved in laughter: the hippocampus and the amygdala. The December 7, 1984, Journal of the American Medical Association describes the neurological causes of laughter as follows:

Principal fissures and lobes of the cerebrum viewed laterally. (Frontal lobe is blue, temporal lobe is green.)

"Although there is no known 'laugh center' in the brain, its neural mechanism has been the subject of much, albeit inconclusive, speculation. It is evident that its expression depends on neural paths arising in close association with the telencephalic and diencephalic centers concerned with respiration. Wilson considered the mechanism to be in the region of the mesial thalamus, hypothalamus, and subthalamus. Kelly and co-workers, in turn, postulated that the tegmentum near the periaqueductal grey contains the integrating mechanism for emotional expression. Thus, supranuclear pathways, including those from the limbic system that Papez hypothesised to mediate emotional expressions such as laughter, probably come into synaptic relation in the reticular core of the brain stem. So while purely emotional responses such as laughter are mediated by subcortical structures, especially the hypothalamus, and are stereotyped, the cerebral cortex can modulate or suppress them."

Laughter and health A link between laughter and healthy function of blood vessels was first reported in 2005 by researchers at the University of Maryland Medical Center with the fact that laughter causes the dilatation of the inner lining of blood vessels, the endothelium, and increases blood flow.[9] Drs. Michael Miller (University of Maryland) and William Fry (Stanford), theorize that beta-endorphin like compounds released by the hypothalamus activate receptors on the endothelial surface to release nitric oxide, thereby resulting in dilation of vessels. Other cardioprotective properties of nitric oxide include reduction of inflammation and decreased platelet aggregation.[10] [11]

Laughter

Causes Common causes for laughter are sensations of joy and humor; however, other situations may cause laughter as well. A general theory that explains laughter is called the relief theory. Sigmund Freud summarized it in his theory that laughter releases tension and "psychic energy". This theory is one of the justifications of the beliefs that laughter is beneficial for one's health.[12] This theory explains why laughter can be as a coping mechanism for when one is upset, angry or sad. Philosopher John Morreall theorizes that human laughter may have its biological origins as a kind of shared expression of relief at the passing of danger. Friedrich Nietzsche, by contrast, suggested laughter to be a reaction to the sense of existential loneliness and mortality that only humans feel. For example: a joke creates an inconsistency and we automatically try to understand what the inconsistency means; if we are successful in solving this 'cognitive riddle' and we realize that the surprise wasn't Late 19th century or early 20th century depiction of different stages of laughter on advertising dangerous, we laugh with relief. Otherwise, if the inconsistency is not cards resolved, there is no laugh, as Mack Sennett pointed out: "when the audience is confused, it doesn't laugh" (this is the one of the basic laws of a comedian, called "exactness"). It is important to note that sometimes the inconsistency may be resolved and there may still be no laugh. Because laughter is a social mechanism, we may not feel like we are in danger, and the laugh may not occur. In addition, the extent of the inconsistency (timing, rhythm, etc.) has to do with the amount of danger we feel, and thus how hard or long we laugh. This explanation is also confirmed by modern neurophysiology (see section Laughter and the brain). Laughter can also be brought on by tickling. Although it is found unpleasant by most people, being tickled often causes heavy laughter which is thought to be a reflex of the body, and is often uncontrollable.[13] [14]

References [1] Robert Provine. Laughter: a scientific investigation. 2001. [2] Camazine, Deneubourg, Franks, Sneyd, Theraulaz, Bonabeau, Self-Organization in Biological Systems, Princeton University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-691-11624-5 --ISBN 0-691-01211-3 (pbk.) p. 18. [3] doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2005.07.011 (http:/ / www. pri. kyoto-u. ac. jp/ ai/ papers/ ref3/ kawakami2006. pdf) [4] WebMD 2002 (http:/ / men. webmd. com/ features/ why-do-we-laugh) [5] Cousins, Norman, The Healing Heart : Antidotes to Panic and Helplessness, New York : Norton, 1983. ISBN 0-393-01816-4. [6] Cousins, Norman, Anatomy of an illness as perceived by the patient : reflections on healing and regeneration, introd. by RenĂŠ Dubos, New York : Norton, 1979. ISBN 0-393-01252-2. [7] "Tickled apes yield laughter clue" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 8083230. stm), News.BBC.co.uk, June 4, 2009. [8] Archneurpsyc.ama-assn.org (http:/ / archneurpsyc. ama-assn. org/ cgi/ content/ summary/ 25/ 1/ 157) [9] Miller M, Mangano C, Park Y, Goel R, Plotnick GD, Vogel RA.(2006). Impact of cinematic viewing on endothelial function.Heart.Feb;92(2):261-2.PMID [10] Miller M, Fry W.(2009).Medical Hypothesis.Nov;73(5):636-9.PMID [11] Vlachopoulos C, Xaplanteris P, Alexopoulos N, Aznaouridis K, Vasiliadou C, Baou K, Stefanadi E, Stefanadis C. (2009). Divergent effects of laughter and mental stress on arterial stiffness and central hemodynamics. Psychosom Med. May;71(4):446-53.PMID 19251872 [12] M.P. Mulder, A. Nijholt (2002) "Humor Research: State of the Art" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20041116165933/ http:/ / citeseer. ist. psu. edu/ 580062. html), citeseer.ist.psu.edu [13] "Physiology of laughter and tickling" (http:/ / www. tomveatch. com/ else/ humor/ paper/ node33. html). www.tomveatch.com. . Retrieved 2010-08-03. [14] Provine, Laughter (http:/ / cogweb. ucla. edu/ Abstracts/ Provine_96. html)

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Further reading • Bachorowski, J.-A., Smoski, M.J., & Owren, M.J. The acoustic features of human laughter. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 110 (1581) 2001 • Bakhtin, Mikhail (1941). Rabelais and His World. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253348307. • Chapman, Antony J.; Foot, Hugh C.; Derks, Peter (editors), Humor and Laughter: Theory, Research, and Applications (http://books.google.com/books?id=FSgteXd9HJUC&pg=PR22&dq=the+psychology+of+ humor+and+laughter#PPP1,M1), Transaction Publishers, 1996. ISBN 1-56000-837-7. Books.google.com • Cousins, Norman, Anatomy of an Illness As Perceived by the Patient, 1979. • Fried, I., Wilson, C.L., MacDonald, K.A., and Behnke EJ. Electric current stimulates laughter. Nature, 391:650, 1998 (see patient AK) • Goel, V. & Dolan, R. J. The functional anatomy of humor: segregating cognitive and affective components. Nature Neuroscience 3, 237 - 238 (2001). • Greig, John Young Thomson, The Psychology of Comedy and Laughter, New York, Dodd, Mead and company, 1923. • Marteinson, Peter, On the Problem of the Comic: A Philosophical Study on the Origins of Laughter (http:// french.chass.utoronto.ca/as-sa/editors/origins.html), Legas Press, Ottawa, 2006. utoronto.ca • Miller M, Mangano C, Park Y, Goel R, Plotnick GD, Vogel RA.Impact of cinematic viewing on endothelial function.Heart. 2006 Feb;92(2):261-2. • Provine, R. R., Laughter (http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Abstracts/Provine_96.html). American Scientist, V84, 38:45, 1996. ucla.edu • Quentin Skinner (2004) (PDF). Hobbes and the Classical Theory of Laughter (http://fds.oup.com/www.oup. co.uk/pdf/0-19-926461-9.pdf). Retrieved 2006-10-23. included in book: Sorell, Tom; Luc Foisneau (2004). "6" (http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-926461-9.pdf). Leviathan After 350 Years (http://www.oup. com/us/catalog/general/subject/Philosophy/History/?view=usa&ci=9780199264612). Oxford University Press. pp. 139–66. ISBN 0199264619. ISBN 9780199264612 ISBN 0-19-926461-9. • Raskin, Victor, Semantic Mechanisms of Humor (1985). • MacDonald, C., "A Chuckle a Day Keeps the Doctor Away: Therapeutic Humor & Laughter" (http://web. archive.org/web/20060925191607/http://www.psychnurse.org/view.asp?rID=4910) Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services(2004) V42, 3:18-25. psychnurse.org • Kawakami, K., et al., Origins of smile and laughter: A preliminary study (http://www.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ai/ papers/ref3/kawakami2006.pdf) Early Human Development (2006) 82, 61-66. kyoto-u.ac.jp • Johnson, S., Emotions and the Brain (http://web.archive.org/web/20031211162003/http://www.discover. com/issues/apr-03/features/featlaugh/) Discover (2003) V24, N4. discover.com • Panksepp, J., Burgdorf, J., “Laughing” rats and the evolutionary antecedents of human joy? (http://www.psych. umn.edu/courses/fall06/macdonalda/psy4960/Readings/PankseppRatLaugh_P&B03.pdf) Physiology & Behavior (2003) 79:533-547. psych.umn.edu • Milius, S., Don't look now, but is that dog laughing? (http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20010728/fob9. asp) Science News (2001) V160 4:55. sciencenews.org • Simonet, P., et al., Dog Laughter: Recorded playback reduces stress related behavior in shelter dogs (http:// www.petalk.org/LaughingDog.pdf) 7th International Conference on Environmental Enrichment (2005). petalk.org • Discover Health (2004) Humor & Laughter: Health Benefits and Online Sources (http://www.helpguide.org/ life/humor_laughter_health.htm), helpguide.org • Klein, A. The Courage to Laugh: Humor, Hope and Healing in the Face of Death and Dying. Los Angeles, CA: Tarcher/Putman, 1998. • Ron Jenkins Subversive laughter (New York, Free Press, 1994), 13ff • Bogard, M. Laughter and its Effects on Groups. New York, New York: Bullish Press, 2008.

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• Humor Theory. The formulae of laughter by Igor Krichtafovitch, Outskitspress, 2006, ISBN 978-1-59800-222-5 • Hans-Georg Moeller und Günter Wohlfart (Hrsg.): Laughter in Eastern and Western Philosophies. Verlag Karl Alber, Freiburg / München 2010. ISBN 978-3-495-48385-5

External links • The Origins of Laughter (http://french.chass.utoronto.ca/as-sa/editors/origins.html), chass.utoronto.ca • Human laughter up to 16 million years old (http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/news/2794/ human-laughter-16-million-years-old), cosmosmagazine.com • More information about Gelotology from the University of Washington (http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/ laugh.html), faculty.Washington.edu • WNYC's Radio Lab radio show: Is Laughter just a Human Thing? (http://www.radiolab.org/2008/feb/25/ is-laughter-just-a-human-thing/), wnyc.org • Transcriptions of laughter (http://www.writtensound.com/index.php?term=laughter), writtensound.com

Irony Irony (from the Ancient Greek εἰρωνεία eirōneía, meaning dissimulation or feigned ignorance)[1] is a rhetorical device, literary technique, or situation in which there is a sharp incongruity or discordance that goes beyond the simple and evident intention of words or actions. Ironic statements (verbal irony) typically imply a meaning in opposition to their literal meaning. A situation is often said to be ironic (situational irony) if the actions taken have an effect exactly opposite from what was intended. The discordance of verbal irony is created as a means of communication (as in art or rhetoric). Descriptions or depictions of situational ironies, whether in fiction or in non-fiction, serve a communicative function of sharpening or highlighting certain discordant features of reality. Other types of irony: Comic irony: Irony that is humorous (whereas much irony is not) Dramatic irony: When the audience (or reader) knows a fictional character is making a mistake, because the reader has more information than the character. Tragic irony: A type of dramatic irony. In tragic irony, a character's actions lead to consequences that are both tragic, and contrary to the character's desire and intentions. Historical irony: A kind of situational irony that takes a long period of years for the irony to become evident. Socratic irony: When a person asks questions, pretending not to understand, to lure the interlocutor into a logical trap. (Socrates, in Plato's dialogues, was a master of this technique.) Verbal and situational irony are often used for emphasis in the assertion of a truth. The ironic form of simile, used in sarcasm, and some forms of litotes emphasize one's meaning by the deliberate use of language which states the opposite of the truth — or drastically and obviously understates a factual connection. In dramatic irony, the author causes a character to speak or act erroneously, out of ignorance of some portion of the truth of which the audience is aware. In other words, the audience knows the character is making a mistake, even as the character is making it. This technique highlights the importance of truth by portraying a person who is strikingly unaware of it. In certain kinds of situational or historical irony, a factual truth is highlighted by some person's complete ignorance of it or his belief in the opposite of it. However, this state of affairs does not occur by human design. In some religious contexts, such situations have been seen as the deliberate work of Divine Providence to emphasize truths and to taunt humans for not being aware of them when they could easily have been enlightened (this is similar to human use of irony). Such ironies are often more evident, or more striking, when viewed retrospectively in the light

Irony

of later developments which make the truth of past situations obvious to all.

Definitions Henry Watson Fowler, in The King's English, says “any definition of irony—though hundreds might be given, and very few of them would be accepted—must include this, that the surface meaning and the underlying meaning of what is said are not the same." Also, Eric Partridge, in Usage and Abusage, writes that "Irony consists in stating the contrary of what is meant." The use of irony may require the concept of a double audience. Fowler's A Dictionary of Modern English Usage says: Irony is a form of utterance that postulates a double audience, consisting of one party that hearing shall hear & shall not understand, & another party that, when more is meant than meets the ear, is aware both of that more & of the outsiders' incomprehension.[2] The term is sometimes used as a synonym for incongruous and applied to "every trivial oddity" in situations where there is no double audience.[2] An example of such usage is: Sullivan, whose real interest was, ironically, serious music, which he composed with varying degrees of success, achieved fame for his comic opera scores rather than for his more earnest efforts.[3] The American Heritage Dictionary's secondary meaning for irony: “incongruity between what might be expected and what actually occurs.”[4] This sense, however, is not synonymous with "incongruous" but merely a definition of dramatic or situational irony. The majority of American Heritage Dictionary’s usage panel found it unacceptable to use the word ironic to describe mere unfortunate coincidences or surprising disappointments that “suggest no particular lessons about human vanity or folly.”[5]

Origin of the term According to the Encyclopedia Brittannica: The term irony has its roots in the Greek comic character Eiron, a clever underdog who by his wit repeatedly triumphs over the boastful character Alazon. The Socratic irony of the Platonic dialogues derives from this comic origin.[6] According to Richard Whately: Aristotle mentions..Eironeia, which in his time was commonly employed to signify, not according to the modern use of ‘Irony, saying the contrary to what is meant’, but, what later writers usually express by Litotes, i.e. ‘saying less than is meant’.[7] The word came into English as a figure of speech in the 16th century as similar to the French ironie. It derives from the Latin ironia and ultimately from the Greek εἰρωνεία eirōneía, meaning dissimulation, ignorance purposely affected.[8]

Irony

Types of irony Modern theories of rhetoric distinguish among verbal, dramatic and situational irony. • Verbal irony is a disparity of expression and intention: when a speaker says one thing but means another, or when a literal meaning is contrary to its intended effect. An example of this is when someone says "Oh, that's beautiful", when what they mean (probably conveyed by their tone) is they find "that" quite ugly. • Dramatic irony is a disparity of awareness between actor and observer: when words and actions possess a significance that the listener or audience understands, but the speaker or character does not, for example when a character says to another "I'll see you tomorrow!" when the audience (but not the character) knows that the character will die before morning. A "No smoking" sign surrounded by images of a

• Situational irony is the disparity of intention and result: when the smoking Sherlock Holmes at Baker Street tube result of an action is contrary to the desired or expected effect. station. Being "shot with one's own gun", or "hoisted with one's own petard" are popular formulations of the basic idea of situational irony. Cosmic irony is disparity between human desires and the harsh realities of the outside world. By some definitions, situational irony and cosmic irony are not irony at all.

Verbal irony According to A glossary of literary terms by Abrams and Hartman, Verbal irony is a statement in which the meaning that a speaker employs is sharply different from the meaning that is ostensibly expressed. The ironic statement usually involves the explicit expression of one attitude or evaluation, but with indications in the overall speech-situation that the speaker intends a very different, and often opposite, attitude or evaluation.[9] Verbal irony is distinguished from situational irony and dramatic irony in that it is produced intentionally by speakers. For instance, if a man exclaims, “I’m not upset!” but reveals an upset emotional state through his voice while truly trying to claim he's not upset, it would not be verbal irony by virtue of its verbal manifestation (it would, however, be situational irony). But if the same speaker said the same words and intended to communicate that he was upset by claiming he was not, the utterance would be verbal irony. This distinction illustrates an important aspect of verbal irony - speakers communicate implied propositions that are intentionally contradictory to the propositions contained in the words themselves. There are, however, examples of verbal irony that do not rely on saying the opposite of what one means, and there are cases where all the traditional criteria of irony exist and the utterance is not ironic. Ironic similes are a form of verbal irony where a speaker intends to communicate the opposite of what they mean. For instance, the following explicit similes begin with the deceptive formation of a statement that means A but that eventually conveys the meaning not A: • as soft as concrete • as clear as mud • as pleasant as a root canal • "as pleasant and relaxed as a coiled rattlesnake" (Kurt Vonnegut from Breakfast of Champions)

Irony

The irony is recognizable in each case only by using stereotypical knowledge of the source concepts (e.g., that mud is opaque, that root canal surgery is painful) to detect an incongruity. In The Unauthorized Autobiography of Lemony Snicket, this formulation is broken down by the construction of an ironic simile followed by a reversion of the meaning so the statement once again means A. • "Today was a very cold and bitter day, as cold and bitter as a cup of hot chocolate, if the cup of hot chocolate had vinegar added to it and were placed in a refrigerator for several hours." • "The day was as normal as a group of seals with wings riding around on unicycles, assuming that you lived someplace where that was very normal." Verbal irony and sarcasm A fair amount of confusion has surrounded the issue regarding the relationship between verbal irony and sarcasm. Fowler's A Dictionary of Modern English Usage states: Sarcasm does not necessarily involve irony and irony has often no touch of sarcasm. This suggests that the two concepts are linked but may be considered separately. The OED entry for sarcasm does not mention irony, but the irony entry reads: A figure of speech in which the intended meaning is the opposite of that expressed by the words used; usually taking the form of sarcasm or ridicule in which laudatory expressions are used to imply condemnation or contempt. The Encyclopædia Britannica has "Non-literary irony is often called sarcasm”; while the Webster's Dictionary entry is: Sarcasm: 1 : a sharp and often satirical or ironic utterance designed to cut or give pain. 2 a : a mode of satirical wit depending for its effect on bitter, caustic, and often ironic language that is usually directed against an individual. Partridge in Usage and Abusage would separate the two forms of speech completely: Irony must not be confused with sarcasm, which is direct: sarcasm means precisely what it says, but in a sharp, caustic, ... manner. The psychologist Martin, in The psychology of humour, is quite clear that irony is where “the literal meaning is opposite to the intended”; and sarcasm is “aggressive humor that pokes fun”.[10] He has the following examples: For irony he uses the statement "What a nice day" when it is raining. For sarcasm, he cites Winston Churchill who, when told by a lady that he was drunk, said "my dear, you are ugly ... but tomorrow I shall be sober", as being sarcastic, while not saying the opposite of what is intended. Psychology researchers Lee and Katz (1998) have addressed the issue directly. They found that ridicule is an important aspect of sarcasm, but not of verbal irony in general. By this account, sarcasm is a particular kind of personal criticism leveled against a person or group of persons that incorporates verbal irony. For example, a woman reports to her friend that rather than going to a medical doctor to treat her cancer, she has decided to see a spiritual healer instead. In response her friend says sarcastically, "Oh, brilliant, what an ingenious idea, that's really going to cure you." The friend could have also replied with any number of ironic expressions that should not be labeled as sarcasm exactly, but still have many shared elements with sarcasm. Most instances of verbal irony are labeled by research subjects as sarcastic, suggesting that the term sarcasm is more widely used than its technical definition suggests it should be (Bryant & Fox Tree, 2002; Gibbs, 2000). Some psycholinguistic theorists (e.g., Gibbs, 2000) suggest that sarcasm ("Great idea!", "I hear they do fine work."), hyperbole ("That's the best idea I have heard in years!"), understatement ("Sure, what the hell, it's only cancer..."), rhetorical questions ("What, does your spirit have cancer?"), double entendre ("I'll bet if you do that, you'll be communing with spirits in no time...") and jocularity ("Get them to fix your bad back while you're at it.") should all be considered forms of verbal irony. The differences between these tropes can be quite subtle, and relate to typical

Irony

emotional reactions of listeners, and the rhetorical goals of the speakers. Regardless of the various ways theorists categorize figurative language types, people in conversation are attempting to decode speaker intentions and discourse goals, and are not generally identifying, by name, the kinds of tropes used (Leggitt & Gibbs, 2000).

Dramatic irony Dramatic irony is the device of giving the spectator an item of information that at least one of the characters in the narrative is unaware of (at least consciously), thus placing the spectator a step ahead of at least one of the characters. Dramatic irony has three stages - installation, exploitation, and resolution (often also called preparation, suspension, and resolution) - producing dramatic conflict in what one character relies or appears to rely upon, the contrary of which is known by observers (especially the audience; sometimes to other characters within the drama) to be true. In summary, it means that the reader/watcher/listener knows something that one or more of the characters in the piece is not aware of. For example: • In City Lights the audience knows that Charlie Chaplin's character is not a millionaire, but the blind flower girl (Virginia Cherrill) believes him to be rich. • In North by Northwest, the audience knows that Roger Thornhill (Cary Grant) is not Kaplan; Vandamm (James Mason) and his accomplices do not. The audience also knows that Kaplan is a fictitious agent invented by the CIA; Roger (initially) and Vandamm (throughout) do not. • In Oedipus the King, the reader knows that Oedipus himself is the murderer that he is seeking; Oedipus, Creon and Jocasta do not. • In Othello, the audience knows that Desdemona has been faithful to Othello, but Othello does not. The audience also knows that Iago is scheming to bring about Othello's downfall, a fact hidden from Othello, Desdemona, Cassio and Roderigo. • In The Cask of Amontillado, the reader knows that Montresor is planning on murdering Fortunato, while Fortunato believes they are friends. • In The Truman Show, the viewer is aware that Truman is on a television show, but Truman himself only gradually learns this. • In Romeo and Juliet, the other characters in the cast think Juliet is dead, but the audience knows she only took a sleeping potion. • In Forrest Gump, the audience knows the historical significance of the characters and scenarios Forrest Gump finds himself in, but he often does not. Tragic irony Tragic irony is a special category of dramatic irony. In tragic irony, the words and actions of the characters contradict the real situation, which the spectators fully realize. The Oxford English Dictionary has: the incongruity created when the (tragic) significance of a character's speech or actions is revealed to the audience but unknown to the character concerned; the literary device so used, orig. in Greek tragedy.[11] Ancient Greek drama was especially characterized by tragic irony because the audiences were so familiar with the legends that most of the plays dramatized. Sophocles' Oedipus the King provides a classic example of tragic irony at its fullest. Colebrook writes: Tragic irony is exemplified in ancient drama ... The audience watched a drama unfold, already knowing its destined outcome. ... In Sophocles' Oedipus the King, for example, 'we' (the audience) can see what Oedipus is blind to. The man he murders is his father, but he does not know it.[12] Irony has some of its foundation in the onlooker’s perception of paradox that arises from insoluble problems. For example, in the William Shakespeare play Romeo and Juliet, when Romeo finds Juliet in a drugged death-like sleep, he assumes her to be dead and kills himself. Upon awakening to find her dead lover beside her, Juliet stabs herself

Irony

with a dagger thus killing herself.

Situational irony This is a relatively modern use of the term, and describes a discrepancy between the expected result and actual results when enlivened by perverse appropriateness. For example: • When John Hinckley attempted to assassinate Ronald Reagan, all of his shots initially missed the President; however, a bullet ricocheted off the bullet-proof Presidential limousine and struck Reagan in the chest. Thus, a vehicle made to protect the President from gunfire was partially responsible for his being shot.[13] • The Wonderful Wizard of Oz is a story whose plot revolves around irony. Dorothy travels to a wizard and fulfills his challenging demands to go home, before discovering she had the ability to go back home all the time. The Scarecrow longs for intelligence, only to discover he is already a genius, and the Tin Woodsman longs to be capable of love, only to discover he already has a heart. The Lion, who at first appears to be a whimpering coward, turns out to be bold and fearless. The people in Emerald City believed the Wizard to be a powerful deity, only to discover that he is a bumbling, eccentric old man. Irony of fate (cosmic irony) The expression “irony of fate” stems from the notion that the gods (or the Fates) are amusing themselves by toying with the minds of mortals with deliberate ironic intent. Closely connected with situational irony, it arises from sharp contrasts between reality and human ideals, or between human intentions and actual results. The resulting situation is poignantly contrary to what was expected or intended. The words ironic, irony, and ironically are sometimes used of events and circumstances that might better be described as simply "coincidental" or "improbable".[14] Some examples of situations poignantly contrary to expectation: In art: • In O. Henry's story The Gift of the Magi, a young couple are too poor to buy each other Christmas gifts. The wife cuts off her treasured hair to sell it to a wig-maker for money to buy her husband a chain for his heirloom pocket watch. She's shocked when she learns he had pawned his watch to buy her a set of combs for her long, beautiful, prized hair. • In the ancient Indian story of Krishna, King Kamsa is told in a prophecy that a child of his sister Devaki would kill him. To prevent this, he imprisons both Devaki and her husband Vasudeva, allowing them to live only if they hand over their children as soon as they are born. He murders nearly all of them, one by one, but the seventh and eighth children, Balarama and Krishna, are saved and raised by a royal couple, Nanda and Yashoda. After the boys grow up, Krishna eventually kills Kamsa as the prophecy foretold. Kamsa's attempt to prevent the prophecy led to it becoming a reality. Self-fulfilling prophecies are common motifs in Greek mythology as well. This story is similar to the story of Cronus preventing his wife from raising any children, the one who ends up defeating him being Zeus, the later King of the Gods. Other similar tales in Greek Mythology include Perseus (who killed his grandfather, Acrisius by accident with a discus despite Acrisius' attempt to avert his fate) and more famously Oedipus who killed his father and married his mother not knowing their relationship due to being left to die by his father to prevent that very prophecy from occurring. In history: • In 1974 the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission had to recall 80,000 of its own lapel buttons promoting "toy safety", because the buttons had sharp edges, used lead paint, and had small clips that could be broken off and subsequently swallowed.[15]

Irony â&#x20AC;˘ Introducing cane toads to Australia to protect the environment created worse environmental problems for Australia (and did not help with the original problem). â&#x20AC;˘ Kudzu - a vine imported to the United States in the 1930s and planted all over the South at the direction of the US Government in order to prevent soil erosion. Instead of preventing erosion, it climbs and chokes native trees and plants, thus causing even more erosion. Historical irony (cosmic irony through time) When history is seen through modern eyes, there often appear sharp contrasts between the way historical figures see their world's future and what actually transpires. For example, during the 1920s The New York Times repeatedly scorned crossword puzzles. In 1924, it lamented "the sinful waste in the utterly futile finding of words the letters of which will fit into a prearranged pattern." In 1925 it said "the question of whether the puzzles are beneficial or harmful is in no urgent need of an answer. The craze evidently is dying out fast." Today, no U.S. newspaper is more closely identified with the crossword than The New York Times.[16] In a more tragic example of historical irony, what people now refer to as "The First World War" was called by H.G. Wells "The war that will end war"[17] , which soon became "The war to end war" and "The War to End All Wars". Historical irony is therefore a subset of cosmic irony, but one in which the element of time is bound to play a role. Another example could be that of the Vietnam war, where in the 1960s the U.S.A. attempted to stop the Viet Cong (Viet Minh) taking over South Vietnam. However it is an often ignored fact that the U.S. originally supported the Viet Minh to prevent imperialist ambitions. Gunpowder was, according to prevailing academic consensus, discovered in the 9th century by Chinese alchemists searching for an elixir of immortality.[18] Historical irony also includes inventors killed by their own creations, such as William Bullock - unless, due to the nature of the invention, the risk of death was always known and accepted, as in the case of Otto Lilienthal.

Irony in use Ironic art One point of view has it that all modern art is ironic because the viewer cannot help but compare it to previous works. For example, any portrait of a standing, non-smiling woman will naturally be compared with the Mona Lisa; the tension of meaning exists, whether the artist meant it or not. While this does not appear to exactly conform to any of the three types of irony above, there is some evidence that the term "ironic art" is being used in this context.[19] This definition could extend to any sort of modern artistic endeavour: graphic design or music (sampling, for example). For example: A South African weekly published a cartoon by Zapiro of the Prophet Mohammad complaining that his followers lack a sense of humor, angering Muslims and raising fear of reprisal attacks during the 2010 World Cup.

Irony

Comic irony Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice begins with the proposition “It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.” In fact, it soon becomes clear that Austen means the opposite: women (or their mothers) are always in search of, and desperately on the lookout for, a rich single man to make a husband. The irony deepens as the story promotes his romance and ends in a double marriage proposal.

Metafiction Metafictions are kinds of fiction that self-consciously address the devices of fiction. It usually involves irony and is self-reflective. Metafiction (or “romantic irony” in the sense of roman the prose fiction) refers to the effect when a story is interrupted to remind the audience or reader that it is really only a story. Examples include Henry Fielding’s interruptions of the storyline to comment on what has happened, or J.M. Barrie’s similar interjections in his book, Peter Pan. The concept is also explored in a philosophical context in Sophie's World, by Jostein Gaarder. Notable attempts to sustain metafiction throughout a whole novel are Christie Malry's Own Double Entry by B.S. Johnson, in which none of the characters are real and exist only within the author's imagination, and In The Night Room by Peter Straub, in which the narrator is an author, whose fictional character comes to life and accompanies him through the book.

Socratic irony This is "The dissimulation of ignorance practised by Socrates as a means of confuting an adversary".[20] Socrates would pretend to be ignorant of the topic under discussion, in order to draw out the inherent nonsense in the arguments of his interlocutors. Chambers dictionary has: "a means by which a questioner pretends to know less than a respondent, when actually he knows more." Zoe Williams of The Guardian wrote: "The technique [of Socratic irony], demonstrated in the Platonic dialogues, was to pretend ignorance and, more sneakily, to feign credence in your opponent's power of thought, in order to tie him in knots."[19] A more modern example of Socratic irony can be seen on the 1970s American television show, Columbo. The fictional character, Lt. Columbo, is seemingly naive and incompetent. His untidy appearance adds to this fumbling illusion. As a result, he is underestimated by the suspects in murder cases he is investigating. With their guard down and their false sense of confidence, Lt. Columbo is able to solve the cases leaving the murderers feeling duped and outwitted.

Irony as infinite, absolute negativity Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, and others, see irony, such as that used by Socrates, as a disruptive force with the power to undo texts and readers alike.[21] The phrase itself is taken from Hegel's Lectures on Aesthetics, and is applied by Kierkegaard to the irony of Socrates. This tradition includes 19th century German critic and novelist Friedrich Schlegel ("On Incomprehensibility"), Charles Baudelaire, Stendhal, and the 20th century deconstructionist Paul de Man ("The Concept of Irony"). In Kierkegaard's words, from On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates: [Socratic] irony [is] the infinite absolute negativity. It is negativity, because it only negates; it is infinite, because it does not negate this or that phenomenon; it is absolute, because that by virtue of which it negates is a higher something that still is not. The irony established nothing, because that which is to be established lies behind it...[22] Where much of philosophy attempts to reconcile opposites into a larger positive project, Kierkegaard and others insist that irony—whether expressed in complex games of authorship or simple litotes—must, in Kierkegaard's words, "swallow its own stomach". Irony entails endless reflection and violent reversals, and ensures

Irony incomprehensibility at the moment it compels speech. Similarly, among other literary critics, writer David Foster Wallace viewed the pervasiveness of ironic and other postmodern tropes as the cause of "great despair and stasis in U.S. culture, and that for aspiring fictionists [ironies] pose terrifically vexing problems."[23]

Notes [1] Liddell & Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, v. sub εἰρωνεία. [2] Fowler, HW, A dictionary of modern English usage, 1926. [3] Gassner, J., Quinn, E., The Reader's Encyclopedia of World Drama, Courier Dover Publications, 2002, p.358. [4] ""irony" at dictionary.com" (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ irony). Dictionary.reference.com. . Retrieved 2010-12-23. [5] Quoted in The Free Dictionary under ironic: http:/ / www. thefreedictionary. com/ ironic. [6] Encyclopedia Britannica [7] Whately, R. Rhet. in Encycl. Metrop. (1845) I. 265/1 (cited in the OED entry) [8] Oxford English Dictionary [9] Abrams, M. H., & Harpham, G.G., A glossary of literary terms, 9th Ed., Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2009. [10] Martin, R.A., The psychology of humor: an integrative approach, Elsevier Academic Press, 2007. p13. [11] Oxford English Dictionary entry for irony [12] Colebrook, Claire. Irony. London and New York: Routledge, 2004, p. 14. [13] The Trial of John W. Hinckley, Jr. (http:/ / www. law. umkc. edu/ faculty/ projects/ ftrials/ hinckley/ hinckleyaccount. html) by Doug Linder. 2001 Retrieved 9 September 2008. [14] Quoted in The Free Dictionary under ironic: http:/ / www. thefreedictionary. com/ ironic. Accessed 11 Feb 2011. [15] Wall Street Journal, December 3, 2007, Page B1: It Dawned on Adults After WWII: 'You'll Shoot Your Eye Out!' (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB119664662089911293. html). Retrieved October 29, 2009. [16] Wordplay (http:/ / puzzles. about. com/ library/ weekly/ blwordplaydoc. htm) [17] Wells, H.G., The war that will end war, 1914. [18] Jack Kelly Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, and Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World, Perseus Books Group: 2005, ISBN :0465037224, 9780465037223: pp. 2-5 [19] "Online: The Final Irony" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ theguardian/ 2003/ jun/ 28/ weekend7. weekend2). Guardian. . Retrieved 2010-12-23. [20] Oxford English Dictionary under irony. [21] Kierkegaard, S, The concept of irony with continuous reference to Socrates (1841), Harper & Row, 1966, p. 278. [22] Quoted in (http:/ / sorenkierkegaard. org/ concept-of-irony. html) [23] Wallace, David Foster. "E Unibus Pluram: Television and U.S. Fiction". Review of Contemporary Fiction 13 (2): 151–194.

Bibliography • Bogel, Fredric V. "Irony, Inference, and Critical Understanding." Yale Review, 503-19. • Booth, Wayne C. A Rhetoric of Irony. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975. • Bryant, G. A., & Fox Tree, J. E. (2002). Recognizing verbal irony in spontaneous speech. Metaphor and Symbol, 17, 99-115. • Colebrook, Claire. Irony. London and New York: Routledge, 2004. • Gibbs, R. W. (2000). Irony in talk among friends. Metaphor and Symbol, 15, 5–27. • Hutcheon, Linda. Irony’s Edge: The Theory and Politics of Irony. London: Routledge, 1994. • Kierkegaard, Søren. On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates. 1841; Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992. • Lavandier, Yves. Writing Drama, pages 263-315. • Lee, C. J., & Katz, A. N. (1998). The differential role of ridicule in sarcasm and irony. Metaphor and Symbol, 13, 1–15. • Leggitt, J., & Gibbs, R. W. (2000). Emotional reactions to verbal irony. Discourse Processes, 29(1), 1–24. • Muecke, D. C. The Compass of Irony. London: Methuen, 1969. • Star, William T. "Irony and Satire: A Bibliography." Irony and Satire in French Literature. Ed. University of South Carolina Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina College of Humanities and Social Sciences, 1987. 183-209.

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External links • " The final irony (http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,,985375,00.html)"—a Guardian article about irony, use and misuse of the term • Article on the etymology of Irony (http://sc.tri-bit.com/Irony) • "Irony", by Norman D. Knox (http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaGenText/tei/DicHist2. xml;chunk.id=dv2-70), in Dictionary of the History of Ideas (1973) • " Sardonicus (http://afflatus.ucd.ie/sardonicus/tree.jsp)"—a web-resource that provides access to similes, ironic and otherwise, harvested from the web. • Excerpt on dramatic irony from Yves Lavandier's Writing Drama (http://www.clown-enfant.com/leclown/eng/ drama/livre.htm#IRO) • "American Irony" (http://www.danwallacemusic.com/2010/01/20/american-irony/) compared with British irony, quoting Stephen Fry • American and British irony (http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2007/feb/10/comedy.television) compared by Simon Pegg • Modern example of ironic writing (http://www.thespoof.com/news/spoof.cfm?headline=s2i36021)

Joke A joke is a story with a humourous twist. It can be in many different forms, such as a question or short story. To achieve this end, jokes may employ irony, sarcasm, word play and other devices. Jokes may have a punchline that will end the sentence to make it humorous. A practical joke or prank differs from a spoken one in that the major component of the humour is physical rather than verbal (for example placing salt in the sugar bowl).

Purpose Jokes are typically for the entertainment of friends and onlookers. The desired response is generally laughter; when this does not happen the joke is said to have "fallen flat" or "bombed". However jokes have other purposes and functions, common to comedy/humour/satire in general.

Antiquity of jokes Jokes have been a part of human culture since at least 1900 BC. According to research conducted by Dr Paul McDonald of the University of Wolverhampton, a fart joke from ancient Sumer is currently believed to be the world's oldest known joke.[1] Britain's oldest joke, meanwhile, is a 1,000-year-old double-entendre that can be found in the Codex Exoniensis. [2] A recent discovery of a document called Philogelos (The Laughter Lover) gives us an insight into ancient humour. Written in Greek by Hierocles and Philagrius, it dates to the third or fourth century AD, and contains some 260 jokes. Considering humour from our own culture as recent as the 19th century is at times baffling to us today, the humour is surprisingly familiar. They had different stereotypes, the absent-minded professor, the eunuch, and people with hernias or bad breath were favourites. A lot of the jokes play on the idea of knowing who characters are: A barber, a bald man and an absent minded professor take a journey together. They have to camp overnight, so decide to take turns watching the luggage. When it's the barber's turn, he gets bored, so amuses himself by shaving the head of the professor. When the professor is woken up for his shift, he feels his head, and says "How stupid is that barber? He's woken up the bald man instead of me."

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27 There is even a version of Monty Python's Dead Parrot sketch: a man buys a slave, who dies shortly afterwards. When he complains to the slave merchant, he is told: "He didn't die when I owned him." Comic Jim Bowen has presented them to a modern audience. "One or two of them are jokes I've seen in people's acts nowadays, slightly updated. They put in a motor car instead of a chariot - some of them are Tommy Cooper-esque."[3]

Psychology of jokes Why we laugh has been the subject of serious academic study, examples being: • Immanuel Kant, in Critique of Judgement (1790) states that "Laughter is an effect that arises if a tense expectation is transformed into nothing." Here is Kant's 220-year old joke and his analysis: "An Englishman at an Indian's table in Surat saw a bottle of ale being opened, and all the beer, turned to froth, rushed out. The Indian, by repeated exclamations, showed his great amazement. - Well, what's so amazing in that? asked the Englishman. - Oh, but I'm not amazed at its coming out, replied the Indian, but how you managed to get it all in. - This makes us laugh, and it gives us a hearty pleasure. This is not because, say, we think we are smarter than this ignorant man, nor are we laughing at anything else here that it is our liking and that we noticed through our understanding. It is rather that we had a tense expectation that suddenly vanished..." • Henri Bergson, in his book Le rire (Laughter, 1901), suggests that laughter evolved to make social life possible for human beings. • Sigmund Freud's "Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious". (Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum Unbewußten). • Arthur Koestler, in The Act of Creation (1964), analyses humour and compares it to other creative activities, such as literature and science. • Marvin Minsky in Society of Mind (1986). Marvin Minsky suggests that laughter has a specific function related to the human brain. In his opinion jokes and laughter are mechanisms for the brain to learn nonsense. For that reason, he argues, jokes are usually not as funny when you hear them repeatedly. • Edward de Bono in "The Mechanism of the Mind" (1969) and "I am Right, You are Wrong" (1990). Edward de Bono suggests that the mind is a pattern-matching machine, and that it works by recognising stories and behaviour and putting them into familiar patterns. When a familiar connection is disrupted and an alternative unexpected new link is made in the brain via a different route than expected, then laughter occurs as the new connection is made. This theory explains a lot about jokes. For example: • Why jokes are only funny the first time they are told: once they are told the pattern is already there, so there can be no new connections, and so no laughter. • Why jokes have an elaborate and often repetitive set up: The repetition establishes the familiar pattern in the brain. A common method used in jokes is to tell almost the same story twice and then deliver the punch line the third time the story is told. The first two tellings of the story evoke a familiar pattern in the brain, thus priming the brain for the punch line. • Why jokes often rely on stereotypes: the use of a stereotype links to familiar expected behaviour, thus saving time in the set-up. • Why jokes are variants on well-known stories (e.g. the genie and a lamp and a man walks into a bar): This again saves time in the set up and establishes a familiar pattern. • In 2002, Richard Wiseman conducted a study intended to discover the world's funniest joke [4]. Laughter, the intended human reaction to jokes, is healthy in moderation, uses the stomach muscles, and releases endorphins, natural "feel good" chemicals, into the brain.

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Jokes in organizations Jokes can be employed by workers as a way to identify with their jobs. For example, 9-1-1 operators often crack jokes about incongruous, threatening, or tragic situations they deal with on a daily basis.[5] This use of humor and cracking jokes helps employees differentiate themselves from the people they serve while also assisting them in identifying with their jobs.[6] In addition to employees, managers use joking, or jocularity, in strategic ways. Some managers attempt to suppress joking and humor use because they feel it relates to lower production, while others have attempted to manufacture joking through pranks, pajama or dress down days, and specific committees that are designed to increase fun in the workplace.[7]

Rules The rules of humour are analogous to those of poetry. These common rules are mainly timing, precision, synthesis, and rhythm. French philosopher Henri Bergson has said in an essay: "In every wit there is something of a poet."[8] In this essay Bergson views the essence of humour as the encrustation of the mechanical upon the living. He used as an instance a book by an English humorist, in which an elderly woman who desired a reputation as a philanthropist provided "homes within easy hail of her mansion for the conversion of atheists who have been specially manufactured for her, so to speak, and for a number of honest folk who have been made into drunkards so that she may cure them of their failing, etc." This idea seems funny because a genuine impulse of charity as a living, vital impulse has become encrusted by a mechanical conception of how it should manifest itself.

Precision To reach precision, the comedian must choose the words in order to provide a vivid, in-focus image, and to avoid being generic as to confuse the audience, and provide no laughter. To properly arrange the words in the sentence is also crucial to get precision. An example by Woody Allen (from Side Effects, "A Giant Step for Mankind" story [9]): Grasping the mouse firmly by the tail, I snapped it like a small whip, and the morsel of cheese came loose.

Synthesis That a joke is best when it expresses the maximum level of humour with a minimal number of words, is today considered one of the key technical elements of a joke. An example from George Carlin: I have as much authority as the Pope, I just don't have as many people who believe it.[10] Though, the familiarity of the pattern of "brevity" has led to numerous examples of jokes where the very length is itself the pattern-breaking "punchline". Numerous examples from Monty Python exist, for instance, the song "I Like Traffic Lights". More recently, Family Guy often exploits such humor: for example in the episode "Wasted Talent", Peter Griffin bangs his shin, a classic slapstick routine, and tenderly nurses it while inhaling and exhaling to quiet the pain, for considerably longer than expected. Certain versions of the popular vaudevillian joke The Aristocrats can go on for several minutes, and it is considered an anti-joke, as the humour is more in the set-up than the punchline.

Rhythm The joke's content (meaning) is not what provokes the laugh, it just makes the salience of the joke and provokes a smile. What makes us laugh is the joke mechanism. Milton Berle demonstrated this with a classic theatre experiment in the 1950s: if during a series of jokes you insert phrases that are not jokes, but with the same rhythm, the audience laughs anyway. A classic is the ternary rhythm, with three beats: Introduction, premise, antithesis (with the antithesis being the punch line). In regards to the Milton Berle experiment, they can be taken to demonstrate the concept of "breaking context" or "breaking the pattern". It is not necessarily the rhythm that caused the audience to laugh, but the disparity between the expectation of a "joke" and being instead given a non-sequitur "normal phrase." This normal phrase is, itself,

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29 unexpected, and a type of punchline -- the anti-climax.

Comic In the comic field plays the 'economy of ideative expenditure'; in other words excessive energy is wasted or action-essential energy is saved. The profound meaning of a comic gag or a comic joke is "I'm a child"; the comic deals with the clumsy body of the child. Laurel and Hardy are a classic example. An individual laughs because he recognises the child that is in himself. In clowns stumbling is a childish tempo. In the comic, the visual gags may be translated into a joke. For example in Side Effects (By Destiny Denied story) by Woody Allen: "My father used to wear loafers," she confessed. "Both on the same foot". The typical comic technique is the disproportion.

Wit In the wit field plays the "economy of censorship expenditure"[11] (Freud calls it "the economy of psychic expenditure"); usually censorship prevents some 'dangerous ideas' from reaching the conscious mind, or helps us avoid saying everything that comes to mind; adversely, the wit circumvents the censorship and brings up those ideas. Different wit techniques allow one to express them in a funny way. The profound meaning behind a wit joke is "I have dangerous ideas". An example from Woody Allen: I contemplated suicide again - this time by inhaling next to an insurance salesman. Or, when a bagpipe player was asked "How do you play that thing?" his answer was "Well." Wit is a branch of rhetoric, and there are about 200 techniques (technically they are called tropes, a particular kind of figure of speech) that can be used to make jokes.[12] Irony can be seen as belonging to this field.

Humour In the comedy field, humour induces an "economised expenditure of emotion" (Freud calls it "economy of affect" or "economy of sympathy". Freud produced this final part of his interpretation many years later, in a paper later supplemented to the book.).[11] [13] In other words, the joke erases an emotion that should be felt about an event, making us insensitive to it.e.g.: "yo momma" jokes. The profound meaning of the void feeling of a humor joke is "I'm a cynic". An example from Woody Allen: Three times I've been mistaken for Robert Redford. Each time by a blind person. This field of jokes is still a grey area, being mostly unexplored. Extensive use of this kind of humour can be found in the work of British satirist Chris Morris, like the sketches of the Jam television program. Black humor and sarcasm belong to this field.

Joke

Cycles Folklorists, in particular (but not exclusively) those who study the folklore of the United States, collect jokes into joke cycles. A cycle is a collection of jokes with a particular theme or a particular "script". (That is, it is a literature cycle.)[14] Folklorists have identified several such cycles: • the Helen Keller Joke Cycle that comprises jokes about Helen Keller[15] • Viola jokes[16] • the NASA, Challenger, or Space Shuttle Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster[17] [18] [19] • the Chernobyl Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to the Chernobyl disaster[20] • the Polish Pope Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to Pope John Paul II[21] • the Essex girl and the Stupid Irish joke cycles in the United Kingdom[22] • the Dead Baby Joke Cycle[23] • the Newfie Joke Cycle that comprises jokes made by Canadians about Newfoundlanders[24] • the Little Willie Joke Cycle, and the Quadriplegic Joke Cycle[25] • the Jew Joke Cycle and the Polack Joke Cycle[26] • the Rastus and Liza Joke Cycle, which Dundes describes as "the most vicious and widespread white anti-Negro joke cycle"[27] • the Jewish American Princess and Jewish American Mother joke cycles[28] • the Wind-Up Doll Joke Cycle[29] • The "Blond Joke" Cycle. Gruner discusses several "sick joke" cycles that occurred upon events surrounding Gary Hart, Natalie Wood, Vic Morrow, Jim Bakker, Richard Pryor, Princess Diana and Michael Jackson, noting how several jokes were recycled from one cycle to the next. For example: A joke about Vic Morrow ("We now know that Vic Morrow had dandruff: they found his head and shoulders in the bushes") was subsequently recycled about Admiral Mountbatten after his murder by Irish Republican terrorists in 1979, and again applied to the crew of the Challenger space shuttle ("How do we know that Christa McAuliffe had dandruff? They found her head and shoulders on the beach.").[30] Berger asserts that "whenever there is a popular joke cycle, there generally is some widespread kind of social and cultural anxiety, lingering below the surface, that the joke cycle helps people deal with".[31]

Types of jokes Jokes often depend on the humour of the unexpected, the mildly taboo (which can include the distasteful or socially improper), or playing off stereotypes and other cultural beliefs. Many jokes fit into more than one category.

Subjects Political jokes are usually a form of satire. They generally concern politicians and heads of state, but may also cover the absurdities of a country's political situation. A prominent example of political jokes would be political cartoons. Two large categories of this type of jokes exist. The first one makes fun of a negative attitude to political opponents or to politicians in general. The second one makes fun of political clichés, mottoes, catch phrases or simply blunders of politicians. Some, especially the "you have two cows" genre, derive humour from comparing different political systems. Professional humour includes caricatured portrayals of certain professions such as lawyers, and in-jokes told by professionals to each other. Mathematical jokes are a form of in-joke, generally designed to be understandable only by insiders. (They are also often strictly visual jokes.) Ethnic jokes exploit ethnic stereotypes. They are often racist and frequently considered offensive.

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31 For example, the British tell jokes starting "An Englishman, an Irishman and a Scotsman..." which exploit the supposed parsimony of the Scot, stupidity of the Irish or rigid conventionality of the English. Such jokes exist among numerous peoples. Racially offensive humour is often considered funny, but similar jokes based on other stereotypes (such as blonde jokes) are often considered even more funny. Religious jokes fall into several categories: • • • •

Jokes based on stereotypes associated with people of religion (e.g. nun jokes, priest jokes, or rabbi jokes) Jokes on classical religious subjects: crucifixion, Adam and Eve, St. Peter at The Gates, etc. Jokes that collide different religious denominations: "A rabbi, a medicine man, and a pastor went fishing..." Letters and addresses to God.

Self-deprecating or self-effacing humour is superficially similar to racial and stereotype jokes, but involves the targets laughing at themselves. It is said to maintain a sense of perspective and to be powerful in defusing confrontations. Probably the best-known and most common example is Jewish humour. The egalitarian tradition was strong among the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe in which the powerful were often mocked subtly. Prominent members of the community were kidded during social gatherings, part a good-natured tradition of humour as a levelling device. A similar situation exists in the Scandinavian "Ole and Lena" joke. Self-deprecating humour has also been used by politicians, who recognise its ability to acknowledge controversial issues and steal the punch of criticism - for example, when Abraham Lincoln was accused of being two-faced he replied, "If I had two faces, do you think this is the one I’d be wearing?". Dirty jokes are based on taboo, often sexual, content or vocabulary. The definitive studies on them have been written by Gershon Legman. Other taboos are challenged by sick jokes and gallows humour; to joke about disability is considered in this group. Surrealist or minimalist jokes exploit semantic inconsistency, for example: Q: What's red and invisible? A: No tomatoes.. Anti-jokes are jokes that are not funny in regular sense, and often can be decidedly unfunny, but rely on the let-down from the expected joke to be funny in itself. A question was: 'What is the difference between a dead bird ?. The answer came: "His right leg is as different as his left one'. An elephant joke is a joke, almost always a riddle or conundrum and often a sequence of connected riddles, that involves an elephant. Jokes involving non-sequitur humour, with parts of the joke being unrelated to each other; e.g. "My uncle once punched a man so hard his legs became trombones", from The Mighty Boosh TV series.

Styles The question / answer joke, sometimes posed as a common riddle, has a supposedly straight question and an answer which is twisted for humorous effect; puns are often employed. Of this type are knock-knock joke, light bulb joke, the many variations on "why did the chicken cross the road?", and the class of "What's the difference between a _______ and a ______" joke, where the punch line is often a pun or a spoonerism linking two apparently entirely unconnected concepts. Some jokes require a double act, where one respondent (usually the straight man) can be relied on to give the correct response to the person telling the joke. This is more common in performance than informal joke-telling. A shaggy dog story is an extremely long and involved joke with an intentionally weak or completely non-existent punchline. The humour lies in building up the audience's anticipation and then letting them down completely. The longer the story can continue without the audience realising it is a joke, and not a serious anecdote, the more successful it is. Shaggy jokes appear to date from the 1930s, although there are several competing variants for the "original" shaggy dog story. According to one, an advertisement is placed in a newspaper, searching for the shaggiest dog in the world. The teller of the joke then relates the story of the search for the shaggiest dog in extreme and

Joke

32 exaggerated detail (flying around the world, climbing mountains, fending off sabre-toothed tigers, etc.); a good teller will be able to stretch the story out to over half an hour. When the winning dog is finally presented, the advertiser takes a look at the dog and states: "I don't think he's so shaggy." Some shaggy dog stories are actually cleverly constructed stories, frequently interesting in themselves, that culminate in one or more puns whose first meaning is reasonable as part of the story but whose second meaning is a common aphorism, commercial jingle, or other recognisable word or phrase. As with other puns, there may be multiple separate rhyming meanings. Such stories treat the listener or reader with respect. (See: "Upon My Word!", a book by Frank Muir and Denis Norden, spun off from their long-running BBC radio show My Word!.)

Notes [1] 'World's oldest joke' traced back to 1900 BC (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ idUSKUA14785120080731). [2] Adams, Stephen (July 31, 2008). "The world's oldest jokes revealed by university research" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ uknews/ 2479730/ The-worlds-oldest-jokes-revealed-by-university-research. html). The Daily Telegraph (London). . [3] Classic gags discovered in ancient Roman joke book (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ newstopics/ howaboutthat/ 3454319/ Dead-Parrot-sketch-is-1600-years-old. html) March 13, 2009 [4] http:/ / www. laughlab. co. uk [5] "Tracy, S. J., Myers, K. K., & Scott, C. W. (2006). Cracking jokes and crafting selves: Sensemaking and identity management among human service workers. Communication Monographs, 73,283-308." [6] "Lynch, O. H. (2002). Humorous communication: Finding a place for humor in communication research. Communication Theory, 4,423-445." [7] "Collinson, D. L. (2002). Managing humour. Journal of Management Studies, 39,269-288." [8] Henri Bergson (2005) [1901]. Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic (http:/ / www. authorama. com/ laughter-9. html). Dover Publications. . [9] http:/ / jaiarjun. blogspot. com/ 2006/ 06/ recos-woody-allen-stories. html [10] George Carlin (2010). George Carlin Reads to You: Brain Droppings, Napalm & Silly Putty, and More Napalm & Silly Putty. Highbridge Company. [11] Sigmund Freud (missingdate). Wit and its relation to the unconscious (http:/ / www. victorianweb. org/ authors/ dickens/ kincaid2/ intro2. html). missingpublisher. pp. 180,371–374. . [12] Salvatore Attardo (1994). Linguistic Theories of Humour. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 55. ISBN 3-11-014255-4. [13] Sigmund Freud (1928). "Humour". International Journal of Psychoanalysis. [14] Salvatore Attardo (2001). "Beyond the Joke". Humorous Texts: A Semantic and Pragmatic Analysis. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 69–71. ISBN 311017068X. [15] K. Hirsch and M.E. Barrick (1980). "The Hellen Keller Joke Cycle" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 539874). Journal of American Folklore (The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 93, No. 370) 93 (370): 441–448. doi:10.2307/539874. . [16] Carl Rahkonen (Winter 2000). "No Laughing Matter: The Viola Joke Cycle as Musicians' Folklore" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 1500468). Western Folklore (Western Folklore, Vol. 59, No. 1) 59 (1): 49–63. doi:10.2307/1500468. . [17] Elizabeth Radin Simons (October 1986). "The NASA Joke Cycle: The Astronauts and the Teacher" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 1499821). Western Folklore (Western Folklore, Vol. 45, No. 4) 45 (4): 261–277. doi:10.2307/1499821. . [18] Willie Smyth (October 1986). "Challenger Jokes and the Humor of Disaster" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 1499820). Western Folklore (Western Folklore, Vol. 45, No. 4) 45 (4): 243–260. doi:10.2307/1499820. . [19] Elliott Oring (July – September 1987). "Jokes and the Discourse on Disaster" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 540324). The Journal of American Folklore (The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 100, No. 397) 100 (397): 276–286. doi:10.2307/540324. . [20] Laszlo Kurti (July – September 1988). "The Politics of Joking: Popular Response to Chernobyl" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 540473). The Journal of American Folklore (The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 101, No. 401) 101 (401): 324–334. doi:10.2307/540473. . [21] Alan Dundes (April – June 1979). "Polish Pope Jokes" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 539390). The Journal of American Folklore (The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 92, No. 364) 92 (364): 219–222. doi:10.2307/539390. . [22] Christie Davies (1998). Jokes and Their Relation to Society. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 186–189. ISBN 3110161044. [23] Alan Dundes (July 1979). "The Dead Baby Joke Cycle" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 1499238). Western Folklore (Western Folklore, Vol. 38, No. 3) 38 (3): 145–157. doi:10.2307/1499238. . [24] Christie Davies (2002). "Jokes about Newfies and Jokes told by Newfoundlanders". Mirth of Nations. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 0765800969. [25] Christie Davies (1999). "Jokes on the Death of Diana". In eJulian Anthony Walter and Tony Walter. The Mourning for Diana. Berg Publishers. pp. 255. ISBN 1859732380. [26] Alan Dundes (1971). "A Study of Ethnic Slurs: The Jew and the Polack in the United States" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 538989). Journal of American Folklore (The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 84, No. 332) 84 (332): 186–203. doi:10.2307/538989. .

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33 [27] Alan Dundes, ed (1991). "Folk Humor". Mother Wit from the Laughing Barrel: Readings in the Interpretation of Afro-American Folklore. University Press of Mississippi. pp. 612. ISBN 0878054782. [28] Alan Dundes (October – December 1985). "The J. A. P. and the J. A. M. in American Jokelore" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 540367). The Journal of American Folklore (The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 98, No. 390) 98 (390): 456–475. doi:10.2307/540367. . [29] Robin Hirsch (April 1964). "Wind-Up Dolls" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 1498259). Western Folklore (Western Folklore, Vol. 23, No. 2) 23 (2): 107–110. doi:10.2307/1498259. . [30] Charles R. Gruner (1997). The Game of Humor: A Comprehensive Theory of Why We Laugh. Transaction Publishers. pp. 142–143. ISBN 0765806592. [31] Dr Arthur Asa Berger (1993). "Healing with Humor". An Anatomy of Humor. Transaction Publishers. pp. 161–162. ISBN 0765804948.

References • Mary Douglas “Jokes.” in Rethinking Popular Culture: Contemporary Perspectives in Cultural Studies. [1975] Ed. Chandra Mukerji and Michael Schudson. Berkeley: U of California P, 1991.

Further reading • Cante, Richard C. (March 2008). Gay Men and the Forms of Contemporary US Culture. London: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0 7546 7230 1. Chapter 2: The AIDS Joke as Cultural Form. • Holt, Jim (July 2008). Stop Me If You've Heard This: A History and Philosophy of Jokes. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0393066738. • Grace Hui Chin Lin & Paul Shih Chieh Chien, (2009) Taiwanese Jokes from Views of Sociolinguistics and Language Pedagogies (http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ ERICServlet?accno=ED514738)

External links • Dictionary of the History of ideas: (http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-58) Sense of the Comic • Jokes (http://www.dmoz.org/Recreation/Humor/Jokes//) at the Open Directory Project – An active listing of links to jokes.

Sarcasm

Sarcasm Sarcasm is “a sharp, bitter, or cutting expression or remark; a bitter jibe or taunt.”[1] Though irony is usually the immediate context,[2] most authorities sharply distinguish sarcasm from irony;[3] however, others argue that sarcasm may or often does involve irony[4] or employs ambivalence.[5] Sarcasm has been suggested as a possible bullying action in some circumstances.[6]

Origin of the term It is first recorded in English in 1579, in an annotation to The Shepheardes Calender: October: Tom piper) An Ironicall [Sarcasmus], spoken in derision of these rude wits, whych make more account of a ryming rybaud,[7] then of skill grounded vpon learning and iudgment. —Edmund Spenser[8] The word comes from the late Greek σαρκασμός (sarkasmos) taken from the word σαρκάζειν meaning 'to tear flesh, gnash the teeth, speak bitterly'.[9] However, the ancient Greek word for the rhetorical concept of taunting was instead χλευασμός (chleyasmόs).

Usage Dictionary.com describes the use of sarcasm thus: In sarcasm, ridicule or mockery is used harshly, often crudely and contemptuously, for destructive purposes. It may be used in an indirect manner, and have the form of irony, as in “What a fine musician you turned out to be!” or it may be used in the form of a direct statement, “You couldn't play one piece correctly if you had two assistants.” The distinctive quality of sarcasm is present in the spoken word and manifested chiefly by vocal inflection ...[10] Hostile, critical comments may be expressed in an ironic way, such as saying "don't work too hard" to a lazy worker. The use of irony introduces an element of humour which may make the criticism seem more polite and less aggressive. Sarcasm can frequently be unnoticed in print form, often times requiring the inflection or tone of voice to indicate the quip.

Understanding Understanding the subtlety of this usage requires second-order interpretation of the speaker's intentions. This sophisticated understanding can be lacking in some people with certain forms of brain damage, dementia and autism,[11] and this perception has been located by MRI in the right parahippocampal gyrus.[12] [13] Cultural perspectives on sarcasm vary widely with more than a few cultures and linguistic groups finding it offensive to varying degrees. Thomas Carlyle despised it: "Sarcasm I now see to be, in general, the language of the devil; for which reason I have long since as good as renounced it".[14] Fyodor Dostoyevsky, on the other hand, recognized in it a cry of pain: Sarcasm, he said, was "usually the last refuge of modest and chaste-souled people when the privacy of their soul is coarsely and intrusively invaded."[15] RFC 1855, a collection of guidelines for Internet communications, even includes a warning to be especially careful with it as it "may not travel well".

Sarcasm

Vocal indication In English, sarcasm in amateur actors is often telegraphed with kinesic/prosodic cues[16] by speaking more slowly and with a lower pitch. Similarly, Dutch uses a lowered pitch; sometimes to such an extent that the expression is reduced to a mere mumble. But other research shows that there are many ways that real speakers signal sarcastic intentions. One study found that in Cantonese, sarcasm is indicated by raising the fundamental frequency of one's voice.[17]

Sarcasm punctuation Though in the English language there is no standard accepted method to denote irony or sarcasm in written conversation, several forms of punctuation have been proposed. Among the oldest and frequently attested are the percontation point--furthered by Henry Denham in the 1580s—and the irony mark--furthered by Alcanter de Brahm in the 19th century. Both of these marks were represented visually by a backwards question mark (unicode U+2E2E). A more recent example is the snark mark. Each of these punctuation marks are primarily used to indicate that a sentence should be understood at a second level. A bracketed exclamation point and/or question mark as well as scare quotes are also sometimes used to express irony or sarcasm. In certain Ethiopic languages, sarcasm and unreal phrases are indicated at the end of a sentence with a sarcasm mark called temherte slaq, a character that looks like an inverted exclamation point ¡.[18] In an increasingly technological world, the use of sarcasm in email, text messaging, message boards and blogs has often been misunderstood as ignorance or stupidity: comments meant to be sarcastic have been taken literally or seriously. A newer trend in using sarcasm in cyberspace is to use an italic font for the proposed sarcastic remark to quell any questions as to the intent of a comment or to enclose the sarcastic remark in sarcasm tags as a form of pseudo-HTML such as the following: <sarcasm>I'm sure they'll do great.</sarcasm>

References [1] Oxford English Dictionary [2] "Only people can be sarcastic, whereas situations are ironic", notes Diana Boxer, 2002. Applying Sociolinguistics: domains and face-to-face interaction, "'Yeah right:' sociolinguistic functions of sarcasm in classroom discourse", p. 100. [3] Eric Partridge, Usage and Abusage, Penguin, 1969. “Irony must not be confused with sarcasm, which is direct: sarcasm means precisely what it says, but in a sharp, caustic, ... manner." [4] H.W. Fowler, Modern English Usage, OUP, 1950. “sarcasm does not necessarily involve irony. But irony, or the use of expressions conveying different things according as they are interpreted, is so often made the vehicle of sarcasm…”; and “The essence of sarcasm is the intention of giving pain by (ironical or other) bitter words.” [5] Ambiguities in sarcasm are explored by Patricia Ann Rockwell, Sarcasm and other mixed messages: the ambiguous ways people use language (Edwin Mellen Press) 2006. [6] Lewis MA Nurse bullying: organizational considerations in the maintenance and perpetration of health care bullying cultures (http:/ / www. thepeoplebottomline. com/ research/ Health Sector/ Nurse bullying - organizational considerations - Lewis. pdf) - Journal of Nursing Management 14, Pages 52–58 (2006) [7] rybaud: ribald. [8] Oxford English Dictionary (http:/ / www. oed. com), Oxford University Press, 2008, ; ( Spenser, Shepheardes Calendar: on-line text of the passage (http:/ / www. luminarium. org/ renascence-editions/ october. html#Tom Piper)) [9] Oxford English Dictionary [10] http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ irony [11] S. G. Shamay-Tsoory, R. Tomer, J. Aharon-Peretz (2005), "The Neuroanatomical Basis of Understanding Sarcasm and Its Relationship to Social Cognition" (http:/ / www. apa. org/ journals/ releases/ neu193288. pdf), Neuropsychology 19 (3): 288–300, doi:10.1037/0894-4105.19.3.288, PMID 15910115, [12] Dan Hurley (June 3, 2008), The Science of Sarcasm (Not That You Care) (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 06/ 03/ health/ research/ 03sarc. html?em& ex=1213848000& en=79518c9f61e51946& ei=5087 ), New York Times, [13] J.W.Slap (1966), "On Sarcasm" (http:/ / www. pep-web. org/ document. php?id=paq. 035. 0098a), The Psychoanalytic Quarterly 35: 98–107,

Sarcasm

[14] Carlyle, Sartor Resartus. [15] Dostoyevsky, Notes from the Underground [16] Kinesic/prosodic cues are among five cues to sarcasm's presence noted by Diana Boxer, 2002:100; the other cues are counter-factual statements, extreme exaggeration, tag questions, and direct cues. [17] Cheang H.S., Pell M.D.. (2009). "Acoustic markers of sarcasm in Cantonese and English", Journal of the Acoustic Society of America 126(3):1394-405. PMID 19739753 [18] "A Roadmap to the Extension of the Ethiopic Writing System Standard Under Unicode and ISO-10646" (http:/ / yacob. org/ papers/ DanielYacob-IUC15. pdf) (PDF). 15th International Unicode Conference. p. 6. . Retrieved 22 January 2011.

External links â&#x20AC;˘ BBC News Magazine - The rules of sarcasm (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4384734.stm)

Satire

1867 edition of Punch, a ground-breaking British magazine of popular humour, including a great deal of satire of the contemporary social and political scene.

Satire

Performing arts Major forms Dance · Music · Opera · Theatre · Circus Minor forms Magic · Puppetry Genres Drama · Tragedy · Comedy · Tragicomedy · Romance · Satire · Epic · Lyric

Satire is primarily a literary genre or form, although in practice it can also be found in the graphic and performing arts. In satire, vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, ideally with the intent of shaming individuals, and society itself, into improvement.[1] Although satire is usually meant to be funny, its greater purpose is often constructive social criticism, using wit as a weapon. A common feature of satire is strong irony or sarcasm—"in satire, irony is militant"[2] —but parody, burlesque, exaggeration, juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, and double entendre are all frequently used in satirical speech and writing. This "militant" irony or sarcasm often professes to approve (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist wishes to attack. Satire is nowadays found in many artistic forms of expression, including literature, plays, commentary, and media such as lyrics.

Term The word satire comes from the Latin word satur and the subsequent phrase lanx satura. Satur meant "full," but the juxtaposition with lanx shifted the meaning to "miscellany or medley": the expression lanx satura literally means "a full dish of various kinds of fruits."[3] The word satura as used by Quintilian however, indicated a narrower genre than what would be later intended as satire; it denoted only works in strictly hexameter form, which were a distinctly Roman genre.[3] Quintilian famously said that satura, that is a satire in hexameter verses, was a literary genre of wholly Roman origin (satura tota nostra est). He was aware of and commented on Greek satire, but at the time did not label it as such, although today the origin of satire is considered to be Aristophanes' Old Comedy. The first critic to use satire in the modern broader sense was Apuleio.[3] The derivation of satire from satura properly has nothing to do with the Greek mythological figure satyr.[4] To Quintilian, the satire was a strict literary form, but the term soon escaped from the original narrow definition. Robert Elliott writes: "As soon as a noun enters the domain of metaphor, as one modern scholar has pointed out, it clamours for extension; and satura (which had had no verbal, adverbial, or adjectival forms) was immediately broadened by appropriation from the Greek word for “satyr” (satyros) and its derivatives. The odd result is that the English “satire” comes from the Latin satura; but “satirize,” “satiric,” etc., are of Greek origin. By about the 4th century AD the writer of satires came to be known as satyricus; St. Jerome, for example, was called by one of his enemies 'a satirist in prose' ('satyricus scriptor in prosa'). Subsequent orthographic modifications obscured the Latin origin of the word satire: satura becomes satyra, and in England, by the 16th century, it was written 'satyre.'"[5]

Satire

Satire and humour Satirical works often contain "straight" humour, usually to give relief from what might otherwise be relentless preaching. Although this has always been so, it is probably more marked in modern satire. Yet some satire is not "funny", nor is meant to be. Obviously, not all humour - even on such topics as politics, religion or art, or using the great satirical tools of irony, parody, and burlesque - is necessarily "satirical"; the most light-hearted satire always has a serious "after-taste". The Ig Nobel Prize satire on trivial scientific research describes this as "first make people laugh, and then make them think" - a fair definition of satire itself.

Types of Satire Satirical literature can commonly be categorized as either Horatian or Juvenalian, although the two are not entirely mutually exclusive.

Horatian Named for the Roman satirist, Horace, this playfully criticizes some social vice through gentle, mild, and light-hearted humour. It directs wit, exaggeration, and self-deprecating humour toward what it identifies as folly, rather than evil. Horatian satire's sympathetic tone is common in modern society. Examples of Horatian satire include: • • • • • •

Daniel Defoe's The True-Born Englishman Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock C.S. Lewis' The Screwtape Letters Matt Groening's The Simpsons Rick Mercer's The Rick Mercer Report The Ig Nobel Prizes.

Juvenalian Named after the Roman satirist Juvenal, this type of satire is more contemptuous and abrasive than the Horatian. Juvenalian satire addresses social evil through scorn, outrage, and savage ridicule. This form is often pessimistic, characterized by irony, sarcasm, moral indignation and personal invective, with less emphasis on humour. Strongly polarized political satire is often Juvenalian. Examples of Juvenalian satire: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Joseph Hall's Virgidemiarum Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal and The Predictions for the Ensuing Year (written as Isaac Bickerstaff). Samuel Johnson's London George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four and Animal Farm Bret Easton Ellis's American Psycho Ray Bradbury’s Fahrenheit 451 William Golding's Lord of the Flies Aldous Huxley's Brave New World Anthony Burgess' A Clockwork Orange Joseph Heller's Catch-22 William Burroughs' Naked Lunch Jon Stewart's The Daily Show with John Stewart

• Stephen Colbert's performance at the 2006 White House Correspondents Dinner

Satire

Development Ancient Egypt One of the earliest examples of what we might call satire, The Satire of the Trades,[6] is in Egyptian writing from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The text's apparent readers are students, tired of studying. It argues that their lot as scribes is useful, and their lot far superior to that of the ordinary man. Scholars such as Helck [7] think that the context was meant to be serious. The Papyrus Anastasi I[8] (late 2nd millennium BC) contains a satirical letter which first praises the virtues of its recipient, but then mocks the reader's meagre knowledge and achievements.

Greco-Roman world The Greeks had no word for what later would be called "satire", although the terms cynicism and parody were used. Modern critics call the Greek playwright Aristophanes one of the best known early satirists: his plays are known for their critical political and societal commentary,[9] particularly for the political satire by which he criticized the powerful Cleon (as in The Knights). He is also notable for the persecution he underwent.[9] [10] [11] [12] Aristophanes's bawdy style was adopted by Greek dramatist-comedian Menander. His early play Drunkenness contains an attack on the politician Callimedon. The oldest form of satire still in use is the Menippean satire by Menippus of Gadara. His own writings are lost. Examples from his admirers and imitators mix seriousness and mockery in dialogues and present parodies before a background of diatribe. The reader is meant to question approved truths in order to form a didactic set of knowledge. The first Roman to discuss satire critically was Quintilian, who invented the term to describe the writings of Lucilius. The two most prominent and influential ancient Roman satirists are Horace and Juvenal, who wrote during the early days of the Roman Empire. Other important satirists in ancient Latin are Lucilius and Persius. Satire in their work is much wider than in the modern sense of the word, including fantastic and highly coloured humorous writing with little or no real mocking intent. When Horace criticized Augustus, he used veiled ironic terms. In contrast, Pliny reports that the 6th century BC poet Hipponax wrote satirae that were so cruel that the offended hanged themselves.[13]

Medieval Islamic world Main articles: Arabic satire and Persian satire Medieval Arabic poetry included the satiric genre hija. Satire was introduced into Arabic prose literature by the Afro-Arab author Al-Jahiz in the 9th century. While dealing with serious topics in what are now known as anthropology, sociology and psychology, he introduced a satirical approach, "based on the premise that, however serious the subject under review, it could be made more interesting and thus achieve greater effect, if only one leavened the lump of solemnity by the insertion of a few amusing anecdotes or by the throwing out of some witty or paradoxical observations. He was well aware that, in treating of new themes in his prose works, he would have to employ a vocabulary of a nature more familiar in hija, satirical poetry."[14] For example, in one of his zoological works, he satirized the preference for longer human penis size, writing: "If the length of the penis were a sign of honor, then the mule would belong to the (honorable tribe of) Quraysh". Another satirical story based on this preference was an Arabian Nights tale called "Ali with the Large Member".[15] In the 10th century, the writer Tha'alibi recorded satirical poetry written by the Arabic poets As-Salami and Abu Dulaf, with As-Salami praising Abu Dulaf's wide breadth of knowledge and then mocking his ability in all these subjects, and with Abu Dulaf responding back and satirizing As-Salami in return.[16] An example of Arabic political satire included another 10th century poet Jarir satirizing Farazdaq as "a transgressor of the Sharia" and later Arabic poets in turn using the term "Farazdaq-like" as a form of political satire.[17]

Satire The terms "comedy" and "satire" became synonymous after Aristotle's Poetics was translated into Arabic in the medieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon by Islamic philosophers and writers, such as Abu Bischr, his pupil Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes. Due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy from Greek dramatic representation and instead identified it with Arabic poetic themes and forms, such as hija (satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension", and made no reference to light and cheerful events, or troubled beginnings and happy endings, associated with classical Greek comedy. After the Latin translations of the 12th century, the term "comedy" thus gained a new semantic meaning in Medieval literature.[18] Ubayd Zakani introduced satire in Persian literature during the 14th century. His work is noted for its satire and obscene verses, often political or bawdy, and often cited in debates involving homosexual practices. He wrote the Resaleh-ye Delgosha, as well as Akhlaq al-Ashraf ("Ethics of the Aristocracy") and the famous humorous fable Masnavi Mush-O-Gorbeh (Mouse and Cat), which was a political satire. His non-satirical serious classical verses have also been regarded as very well written, in league with the other great works of Persian literature. Between 1905 and 1911, Bibi Khatoon Astarabadi and other Iranian writers wrote notable satires.

Medieval Europe In the Early Middle Ages, examples of satire were the songs by Goliards or vagants now best known as an anthology called Carmina Burana and made famous as texts of a composition by the 20th century composer Carl Orff. Satirical poetry is believed to have been popular, although little has survived. With the advent of the High Middle Ages and the birth of modern vernacular literature in the 12th century, it began to be used again, most notably by Chaucer. The disrespectful manner was considered "Unchristian" and ignored but for the moral satire, which mocked misbehaviour in Christian terms. Examples are Livre des Manières (~1170), and some of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. The epos was mocked, and even the feudal society, but there was hardly a general interest in the genre. Two major satirists of Europe in the Renaissance were Giovanni Boccaccio and François Rabelais. Other examples of Renaissance satire include Till Eulenspiegel, Reynard the Fox, Sebastian Brant's Narrenschiff (1494), Erasmus' Moriae Encomium (1509) and Thomas More's Utopia (1516).

Early modern western satire Direct social commentary via satire returned with a vengeance in the 16th century, when farcical texts such as the works of François Rabelais tackled more serious issues (and incurred the wrath of the crown as a result). The Elizabethan (i.e. 16th century English) writers thought of satire as related to the notoriously rude, coarse and sharp satyr play. Elizabethan "satire" (typically in pamphlet form) therefore contains more straightforward abuse than subtle irony. The French Huguenot Isaac Casaubon pointed out in 1605 that satire in the Roman fashion was something altogether more civilised. Casaubon discovered and published Quintilian's writing and presented the original meaning of the term (satira, not satyr), and the sense of wittiness (reflecting the "dishfull of fruits") became more important again. 17th century English satire once again aimed at the "amendment of vices" (Dryden). In the 1590s a new wave of verse satire broke with the publication of Hall's Virgidemiarum, six books of verse satires targeting everything from literary fads to corrupt noblemen. Although Donne had already circulated satires in manuscript, Hall's was the first real attempt in English at verse satire on the Juvenalian model.[19] The success of his work combined with a national mood of disillusion in the last years of Elizabeth's reign triggered an avalanche of satire - much of it less conscious of classical models than Hall's - until the fashion was brought to an abrupt stop by censorship.[20] The Age of Enlightenment, an intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th century advocating rationality, produced a great revival of satire in Britain. This was fuelled by the rise of partisan politics, with the formalisation of the Tory and Whig parties - and also, in 1714, by the formation of the Scriblerus Club, which included Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, John Gay, John Arbuthnot, Robert Harley, Thomas Parnell, and Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke. This club included several of the notable satirists of early 18th century Britain. They focused their

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attention on Martinus Scriblerus, "an invented learned fool...whose work they attributed all that was tedious, narrow-minded, and pedantic in contemporary scholarship".[21] In their hands astute and biting satire of institutions and individuals became a popular weapon. Jonathan Swift was one of the greatest of Anglo-Irish satirists, and one of the first to practise modern journalistic satire. For instance, In his A Modest Proposal Swift suggests that Irish peasants be encouraged to sell their own children as food for the rich, as a solution to the "problem" of poverty. His purpose is of course to attack indifference to the plight of the desperately poor. In his book Gulliver's Travels he writes about the flaws in human society in general and English society in particular. John Dryden wrote an influential essay entitled "A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire" [22] that helped fix the definition of satire in the literary world. His satirical Mac Flecknoe was written in response to a rivalry with Thomas Shadwell and eventually inspired Alexander Pope to write his satirical The Rape of the Lock. Other satirical works by Pope include the Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot. Daniel Defoe pursued a more journalistic type of satire, being famous for his The True-Born Englishman which mocks xenophobic patriotism, and The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters - advocating religious toleration by means of an ironical exaggeration of the highly intolerant attitudes of his time.

Anglo-American satire Ebenezer Cooke, author of "The Sot-Weed Factor," was among the first American colonialists to write literary satire. Benjamin Franklin and others followed, using satire to shape an emerging nation's culture through its sense of the ridiculous. Mark Twain was a great American satirist: his novel Huckleberry Finn is set in the antebellum South, where the moral values Twain wishes to promote are completely turned on their heads. His hero, Huck, is a rather simple but goodhearted lad who is ashamed of the "sinful temptation" that leads him to help a runaway slave. In fact his conscience, warped by the distorted moral world he has grown up in, often bothers him most when he is at his best. Ironically, he is prepared to do good, believing it to be wrong. Twain's younger contemporary Ambrose Bierce gained notoriety as a cynic, pessimist and black humorist with his dark, bitterly ironic stories, many set during the American Civil War, which satirized the limitations of human perception and reason. Bierce's most famous work of satire is probably The Devil's Dictionary, in which the definitions mock cant, hypocrisy and received wisdom.

Satire in Victorian England Novelists such as Charles Dickens often used passages of satiric writing in their treatment of social issues. Several satiric papers competed for the public's attention in the Victorian era and Edwardian period, such as Punch and Fun. Perhaps the most enduring examples of Victorian satire, however, are to be found in the Savoy Operas of W. S. Gilbert and Sir Arthur Sullivan. In fact, in The Yeomen of the Guard, a jester is given lines that paint a very neat picture of the method and purpose of the satirist, and might almost be taken as a statement of Gilbert's own intent: "I can set a braggart quailing with a quip, The upstart I can wither with a whim; He may wear a merry laugh upon his lip, But his laughter has an echo that is grim!"

Satire

20th century satire In the 20th century, satire was used by authors such as Aldous Huxley and George Orwell to make serious and even frightening commentaries on the dangers of the sweeping social changes taking place throughout Europe and United States. The film The Great Dictator (1940) by Charlie Chaplin is a satire on Adolf Hitler. Many social critics of the time, such as Karl Kraus, Dorothy Parker and H. L. Mencken, used satire as their main weapon, and Mencken in particular is noted for having said that "one horse-laugh is worth ten thousand syllogisms" in the persuasion of the public to accept a criticism. Joseph Heller's most famous work, Catch-22, satirizes bureaucracy and the military, and is frequently cited as one of the greatest literary works of the twentieth century.[23] Novelist Sinclair Lewis was known for his satirical stories such as Babbitt, Main Street, and It Can't Happen Here. His books often explored and satirized contemporary American values. The film Dr. Strangelove from 1964 was a popular satire on the Cold War. A more humorous brand of satire enjoyed a renaissance in the UK in the early 1960s with the Satire Boom, led by such luminaries as Peter Cook, Alan Bennett, Jonathan Miller, and Dudley Moore, whose stage show Beyond the Fringe was a hit not only in Britain, but also in the United States. Other significant influences in 1960s British satire include David Frost, Eleanor Bron and the television program That Was The Week That Was. Paul Krassner's magazine The Realist was immensely popular during the 1960s and early 1970s among people in the counterculture and had articles and cartoons that were savage, biting satires of politicians such as Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon, the Vietnam War, the Cold War and the War on Drugs.

Contemporary satire Contemporary popular usage of the term "satire" is often very imprecise. While satire often uses caricature and parody, by no means are all uses of these or other humorous devices, satiric. Refer to the careful definition of satire that heads this article. Stephen Colbertâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s television program, The Colbert Report, is instructive in the methods of contemporary American satire. Colbert's character is an opinionated and self-righteous commentator who, in his TV interviews, interrupts people, points and wags his finger at them, and "unwittingly" uses a number of logical fallacies. In doing so, he demonstrates the principle of modern American political satire: the ridicule of the actions of politicians and other public figures by taking all their statements and purported beliefs to their furthest (supposedly) logical conclusion, thus revealing their perceived hypocrisy. Other political satire includes various political causes in the past, including the relatively successful Polish Beer-Lovers' Party and the joke political candidates Molly the Dog[24] and Brian Miner.[25] The television program South Park relies almost exclusively on satire to address issues in American culture, with episodes addressing anti-Semitism, militant atheism, homophobia, environmentalism, corporate culture, political correctness and Catholic sex scandals, among many other issues.

Stephen Colbert satirically impersonates an opinionated and self-righteous television commentator on his Comedy Central program in the United States.

In the United Kingdom, a popular modern satirist is Sir Terry Pratchett, author of the internationally best-selling Discworld book series. One of the most well-known and controversial British satirists is Chris Morris, co-writer and director of Four Lions. Satire is used on many UK television programmes, particularly popular panel shows and quiz shows such as Mock the Week, Have I Got News for You, and The Now Show. Similarly it is found on radio quiz shows such as The News

Satire Quiz. In Canada, satire has become an important part of the comedy scene. Stephen Leacock was one of the best known early Canadian satirists, and in the early 20th century, he achieved fame by targeting the attitudes of small town life. In more recent years, Canada has had several prominent satirical television series. Some, including CODCO, The Royal Canadian Air Farce, and This Hour Has 22 Minutes deal directly with current news stories and political figures, while others, like History Bites present contemporary social satire in the context of events and figures in history. The Canadian website The Daily Week combines social and political satire with absurdity. Canadian songwriter Nancy White uses music as the vehicle for her satire, and her comic folk songs are regularly played on CBC Radio. Cartoonists often use satire as well as straight humour. Al Capp's satirical comic strip Li'l Abner was censored in September 1947. The controversy, as reported in Time, centred around Capp's portrayal of the US Senate. Said Edward Leech of Scripps-Howard, "We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks... boobs and undesirables." [26] Walt Kelly's Pogo was likewise censored in 1952 over his overt satire of Senator Joe McCarthy, caricatured in his comic strip as "Simple J. Malarky". Garry Trudeau, whose comic strip Doonesbury has charted and recorded many American follies for the last generation, deals with story lines such as the Vietnam War (and now, the Iraq War), dumbed-down education, and over-eating at "McFriendly's". Trudeau exemplifies humour mixed with criticism. Recently, one of his gay characters lamented that because he was not legally married to his partner, he was deprived of the "exquisite agony" of experiencing a nasty and painful divorce like heterosexuals. This, of course, satirized the claim that gay unions would denigrate the sanctity of heterosexual marriage. Doonesbury also presents an example of how satire can cause social change. The comic strip satirized a Florida county that had a law requiring minorities to have a passcard in the area; the law was soon repealed with an act nicknamed the Doonesbury Act.[27] Like some literary predecessors, many recent television satires contain strong elements of parody and caricature; for instance, the popular animated series The Simpsons and South Park both parody modern family and social life by taking their assumptions to the extreme; both have led to the creation of similar series. As well as the purely humorous effect of this sort of thing, they often strongly criticise various phenomena in politics, economic life, religion and many other aspects of society, and thus qualify as satirical. Due to their animated nature, these shows can easily use images of public figures and generally have greater freedom to do so than conventional shows using live actors. Fake News is also a very popular form of contemporary satire, appearing in as wide an array of formats as the news media itself: print (e.g. The Onion, The Humour Times), radio (e.g. On the Hour), television (e.g. The Day Today, The Daily Show, Brass Eye) and the web (e.g. Mindry.in, Scunt News [28], Faking News, The Giant Napkin [29], Unconfirmed Sources [30] and The Onion's website). Other satires are on the list of satirists and satires. Another internet-driven form of satire is to lampoon bad internet performers. An example of this is the Internet meme character Miranda Sings.[31] [32] In an interview with Wikinews, Sean Mills, President of The Onion, said angry letters about their news parody always carried the same message. "It’s whatever affects that person," said Mills. "So it’s like, 'I love it when you make a joke about murder or rape, but if you talk about cancer, well my brother has cancer and that’s not funny to me.' Or someone else can say, 'Cancer’s hilarious, but don’t talk about rape because my cousin got raped.' Those are rather extreme examples, but if it affects somebody personally, they tend to be more sensitive about it."[33] Zhou Libo, a comedian from Shanghai, is the most popular satirist in China. His humour has interested the middle-class people and had sold out shows ever since his rise to fame. Primarily a theater performer, Zhou said his work is never scripted, allowing him to improvise jokes about recent events. He often mocks political figures he supports.

Satire

Perception of satire Because satire often combines anger and humour it can be profoundly disturbing - because it is essentially ironic or sarcastic, it is often misunderstood. Common uncomprehending responses to satire include revulsion (accusations of poor taste, or that "it's just not funny" for instance), to the idea that the satirist actually does support the ideas, policies, or people he is attacking. For instance, at the time of its publication, many people misunderstood Swiftâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s purpose in A Modest Proposal, assuming it to be a serious recommendation of economically motivated cannibalism. Again, some critics of Mark Twain see Huckleberry Finn as racist and offensive, missing the point that its author clearly intended it to be satire (racism being in fact only one of a number of Mark Twain's known concerns attacked in Huckleberry Finn).[34] [35] This same misconception was suffered by the main character of the 1960s British television comedy satire Till Death Us Do Part. The character of Alf Garnett (played by Warren Mitchell) was created to poke fun at the kind of narrow-minded, racist, little-Englander that Garnett represented. Instead, his character became a sort of anti-hero to people who actually agreed with his views. The same thing happened with conservative Americans in regard to the main character in the American TV Show All in the Family, Archie Bunker. The Australian satirical television comedy show The Chaser's War on Everything has suffered repeated attacks based on various perceived interpretations of the "target" of its attacks. The "Make a Realistic Wish Foundation" sketch (June 2009), which attacked in classical satiric fashion the heartlessness of people who are reluctant to donate to charities, was widely interpreted as an attack on the Make a Wish Foundation, or even the terminally ill children helped by that organisation. Prime Minister of the time Kevin Rudd stated that The Chaser team "should hang their heads in shame". He went on to say that "I didn't see that but it's been described to me....But having a go at kids with a terminal illness is really beyond the pale, absolutely beyond the pale."[36] Television station management suspended the show for two weeks and reduced the third season to eight episodes.

Satire under fire Because satire criticises in an ironic, essentially indirect way, it frequently escapes censorship in a way more direct criticism might not. Periodically, however, it runs into serious opposition, and people in power who perceive themselves as attacked attempt to censor it or prosecute its practitioners. In a very early instance of this, Aristophanes was persecuted by the demagogue Cleon. In 1599, the Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift and the Bishop of London George Abbot, whose offices had the function of licensing books for publication in England, issued a decree banning verse satire. The decree ordered the burning of certain volumes of satire by John Marston, Thomas Middleton, Joseph Hall, and others; it also required histories and plays to be specially approved by a member of the Queen's Privy Council, and it prohibited the future printing of satire in verse.[37] The motives for the ban are obscure, particularly since some of the books banned had been licensed by the same authorities less than a year earlier. Various scholars have argued that the target was obscenity, libel, or sedition. It seems likely that lingering anxiety about the Martin Marprelate controversy, in which the bishops themselves had employed satirists, played a role; both Thomas Nashe and Gabriel Harvey, two of the key figures in that controversy, suffered a complete ban on all their works. In the event, though, the ban was little enforced, even by the licensing authority itself. In 2005, the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy caused global protests by offended Muslims and violent attacks with many fatalities in the Near East. It was not the first case of Muslim protests against criticism in the form of satire, but the Western world was surprised by the hostility of the reaction: Any country's flag in which a newspaper chose to publish the parodies was being burnt in a Near East country, then embassies were attacked, killing 139 people in mainly four countries (see article); politicians throughout Europe agreed that satire was an aspect of the freedom of speech, and therefore to be a protected means of dialogue. Iran threatened to start an International Holocaust Cartoon Competition, which was immediately responded to by Jews with an Israeli

Satire Anti-Semitic Cartoons Contest. In 2006 British comedian Sacha Baron Cohen released Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan, a "mockumentary" that satirized everyone, from high society to frat boys. Criticism of the film was heavy, from claims of antisemitism (despite the fact Cohen is Jewish) to the massive boycott of the film by the Kazakh government; the film itself had been a reaction to a longer quarrel between the government and the comedian. In 2008, popular South African cartoonist and satirist Jonathan Shapiro (who is published under the pen name Zapiro) came under fire for depicting then-president of the ANC Jacob Zuma in the act of undressing in preparation for the implied rape of 'Lady Justice' which is held down by Zuma loyalists.[38] The cartoon was drawn in response to Zuma's efforts to duck corruption charges, and the controversy was heightened by the fact that Zuma was himself acquitted of rape in May 2006. In February 2009, the South African Broadcasting Corporation, viewed by some opposition parties as the mouthpiece of the governing ANC,[39] shelved a satirical TV show created by Shapiro,[40] and in May 2009 the broadcaster pulled a documentary about political satire (featuring Shapiro among others) for the second time, hours before scheduled broadcast.[41] Apartheid South Africa also had a long history of censorship. On December 29, 2009, Samsung sued Mike Breen, and the Korea Times for $1 million, claiming criminal defamation over a satirical column published on Christmas Day, 2009.[42] [43]

Satirical prophecy Satire is occasionally prophetic: the jokes precede actual events.[44] [45] Among the eminent examples are: • The 1784 presaging of modern daylight saving time, later actually proposed in 1907. While an American envoy to France, Benjamin Franklin anonymously published a letter in 1784 suggesting that Parisians economize on candles by arising earlier to use morning sunlight.[46] • In the 1920s an English cartoonist imagined a very laughable thing for that time: a hotel for cars. He drew a multi-story car park.[45] • The second episode of Monty Python's Flying Circus, which debuted in 1969, featured a skit entitled "The Mouse Problem" (meant to satirize contemporary media exposés on homosexuality), which depicted a cultural phenomenon eerily similar to modern furry fandom (which did not become widespread until the 1980s, over a decade after the skit was first aired) • The comedy film "Americathon", released in 1979 and set in the United States of 1998, predicted a number of trends and events that would eventually unfold in the near future, including an American debt crisis, Chinese capitalism, the fall of the Soviet Union, terrorism aimed at the civilian population, a presidential sex scandal, corporate takeover of the government, and the popularity of reality shows. • In January 2001, a satirical news article in The Onion, entitled "Our Long National Nightmare of Peace and Prosperity Is Finally Over" [47] had newly elected President George Bush vowing to "develop new and expensive weapons technologies" and to "engage in at least one Gulf War-level armed conflict in the next four years." Furthermore he would "bring back economic stagnation by implementing substantial tax cuts, which would lead to a recession." However, the article predicted the "deregulation of ... industries, and the defunding of ... social-service programs," which turned out to be erroneous, as the Administration dramatically increased such spending, including under a trillion dollar prescription drug program. • In 1975, the first episode of Saturday Night Live included an ad for a triple blade razor called the Triple-Trac; in 1998, Gillette introduced the Mach3. In 2004, The Onion satirized Shick and Gillette's marketing of ever-increasingly multi-blade razors with a mock article proclaiming Gillette will now introduce a five-blade razor.[48] In 2006, Gillette released the Gillette Fusion, a five-blade razor.

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References [1] Robert C. Elliott, Satire, in: Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 [2] Northrop Frye, literary critic, quoted in: Elliott, satire [3] Theodore D. Kharpertian, Thomas Pynchon and Postmodern American Satire pp.25-7, in Kharpertian A hand to turn the time: the Menippean satires of Thomas Pynchon (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=um0h0arlUdoC) [4] The Renaissance confusion of the two origins encouraged a satire more aggressive than that of its Roman forebearers, B.L. Ullman "Satura and Satire" Classical Philology 8:2 [5] Robert C. Elliott, The nature of satire, in: Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Satire", 2004 [6] M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, volume I, 1973, pp.184-193 [7] W. Helck, Die Lehre des DwA-xtjj, Wiesbaden, 1970 [8] Alan H. Gardiner, Egyptian Hieratic Texts - Series I: Literary Texts of the New Kingdom, Part I, Leipzig 1911 [9] Sutton, D. F., Ancient Comedy: The War of the Generations (New York, 1993), p.56. [10] Political and social satires of Aristophanes (http:/ / www. theatrehistory. com/ ancient/ aristophanes003. html) in: Alfred Bates (ed.), The Drama, Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, vol. 2.,London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906. pp. 55-59. [11] J. E. Atkinson Curbing the Comedians: Cleon versus Aristophanes and Syracosius' Decree (http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0009-8388(1992)2:42:1<56:CTCCVA>2. 0. CO;2-K& size=LARGE) The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 42, No. 1 (1992), pp. 56-64 [12] Aristophanes: the Michael Moore of his Day (http:/ / www. commondreams. org/ views04/ 0714-06. htm) by John Louis Anderson [13] Cuddon, Dictionary of Literary Terms, Oxford 1998, "satire" [14] Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1976). The Mediaeval Islamic Underworld: The Banu Sasan in Arabic Society and Literature. Brill Publishers. p. 32. ISBN 9004043926 [15] Ulrich Marzolph, Richard van Leeuwen, Hassan Wassouf (2004). The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 97–8. ISBN 1576072045 [16] Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1976). The Mediaeval Islamic Underworld: The Banu Sasan in Arabic Society and Literature. Brill Publishers. pp. 77–8. ISBN 9004043926 [17] Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1976). The Mediaeval Islamic Underworld: The Banu Sasan in Arabic Society and Literature. Brill Publishers. p. 70. ISBN 9004043926 [18] Webber, Edwin J. (January 1958). "Comedy as Satire in Hispano-Arabic Spain" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 470561). Hispanic Review (University of Pennsylvania Press) 26 (1): 1–11. doi:10.2307/470561. [19] DAVENPORT, A., ed: The Poems of Joseph Hall, Liverpool University Press, 1969:"...Hall's Virgidemiae was a new departure in that the true Juvenalian mode of satire was being attempted for the first time, and successfully, in English." [20] The Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London, the censors of the press, issued Orders to the Stationers' Company on June 1st and 4th, 1599, prohibiting the further printing of satires - the so-called 'Bishop's Ban'. DAVENPORT, A: The Poems of Joseph Hall, Liverpool University Press, 1969. [21] "The Broadview Anthology of British Literature: The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century" Vol. 3 pp. 435 [22] http:/ / andromeda. rutgers. edu/ ~jlynch/ Texts/ drydendiscourse2. html, ed. Jack Lynch [23] (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ uk/ 1868619. stm)"What is Catch-22? And why does the book matter?" BBC [24] Molly the Dog 2008 (http:/ / www. mollythedog2008. com) [25] http:/ / www. brianminer2008. com [26] Monday, Sep. 29, 1947 (1947-09-29). "Tain't Funny - ''Time''" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,804275,00. html). Time.com. . Retrieved 2009-08-29. [27] Melnik, Rachel. A picture is worth a thousand politicians, Cartoons catalyze social justice (http:/ / media. www. mcgilltribune. com/ media/ storage/ paper234/ news/ 2007/ 01/ 23/ Features/ A. Picture. Is. Worth. A. Thousand. Politicians-2667563. shtml?sourcedomain=www. mcgilltribune. com& MIIHost=media. collegepublisher. com), McGill Tribune (2007-01-23), Retrieved on 2007-01-25. [28] http:/ / www. scunt. co. uk [29] http:/ / www. thegiantnapkin. com [30] http:/ / www. unconfirmedsources. com [31] Ng, David. "YouTube sensation Miranda seduces Broadway", (http:/ / latimesblogs. latimes. com/ culturemonster/ 2009/ 05/ miranda-sings-colleen-ballinger-jim-caruso-cast-party-jersey-boys-daniel-reichard. html) Los Angeles Times, May 11, 2009 [32] This Week, (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2009/ 10/ 04/ PKGE19REP8. DTL) San Francisco Chronicle, October 4, 2009 [33] An interview with The Onion, David Shankbone, Wikinews, November 25, 2007. [34] Leonard, James S.; Thomas A. Tenney and Thadious M. Davis (December 1992). Satire or Evasion?: Black Perspectives on Huckleberry Finn (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=fdrBtpSSCisC& pg=RA1-PA116& lpg=RA1-PA116& dq=hemingway+ "huckleberry+ finn"+ "green+ hills"). Duke University Press. pp. 224. ISBN 9780822311744. . [35] Shelley Fisher Fishin, Lighting out for the Territory: Reflections on Mark Twain and American Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).

Satire [36] "'Hang your heads' Rudd tells Chaser boys" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ stories/ 2009/ 06/ 04/ 2589532. htm). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2009-06-04. . Retrieved 2009-06-05. [37] A Transcript of the Registers of the Company of Stationers of London, 1554-1640, Vol. III, ed. Edward Arber (London, 1875-94), p.677. [38] "Zuma claims R7m over Zapiro cartoon" (http:/ / www. mg. co. za/ article/ 2008-12-18-zuma-claims-r7m-over-zapiro-cartoon). . [39] "Mail and Guardian interview with Democratic Alliance spokesperson Helen Zille" (http:/ / www. mg. co. za/ articlePage. aspx?articleid=248529& area=/ breaking_news/ breaking_news__national/ ). . Retrieved August 2005. [40] "ZNews: Zapiro's puppet show" (http:/ / www. dispatch. co. za/ article. aspx?id=308632). . [41] "SABC pulls Zapiro doccie, again" (http:/ / www. mg. co. za/ article/ 2009-05-26-sabc-pulls-zapiro-doccie-again). . [42] http:/ / www. techdirt. com/ articles/ 20100510/ 1820159367. shtml [43] Glionna, John M. (2010-05-10). Los Angeles Times. http:/ / www. latimes. com/ news/ nationworld/ world/ asia/ la-fg-korea-samsung-20100510,0,7395282,full. story. [44] Paul Krassner (2003) Reality or satire, what’s the difference? (http:/ / www. nypress. com/ print. cfm?content_id=8774) New York Press, Volume 16, Issue 35, August 26, 2003 [45] Daniele Luttazzi Lepidezze postribolari (2007, Feltrinelli, p.275) (Italian) [46] Benjamin Franklin, writing anonymously (1784-04-26). "Aux auteurs du Journal" (in French). Journal de Paris (117). Its first publication was in the journal's "Économie" section. The revised English version (http:/ / webexhibits. org/ daylightsaving/ franklin3. html) (retrieved on 2007-05-26) is commonly called "An Economical Project", a title that is not Franklin's; see A.O. Aldridge (1956). "Franklin's essay on daylight saving". American Literature (American Literature, Vol. 28, No. 1) 28 (1): 23–29. doi:10.2307/2922719. JSTOR 2922719. [47] http:/ / www. theonion. com/ content/ node/ 28784 [48] http:/ / www. theonion. com/ content/ node/ 33930

Bibliography • Lee, Jae Num. "Scatology in Continental Satirical Writings from Aristophanes to Rabelais" and "English Scatological Writings from Skelton to Pope." Swift and Scatological Satire. Albuquerque: U of New Mexico P, 1971. 7-22; 23-53. • Jacob Bronowski & Bruce Mazlish, The Western Intellectual Tradition From Leonardo to Hegel, p. 252 (1960; as repub. in 1993 Barnes & Noble ed.). • Theorizing Satire: A Bibliography (http://www2.oakland.edu/english/showcase/satbib.htm#Classical), by Brian A. Connery, Oakland University • Bloom, Edward A. . "Sacramentum Militiae: The Dynamics of Religious Satire." Studies in the Literary Imagination 5 (1972): 119-42. • The Modern Satiric Grotesque. Lexington: U of Kentucky P, 1991. Theories/Critical approaches to satire as a genre: • Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism. (See in particular the discussion of the 4 "myths"). • Udo Kindermann, Satyra. Die Theorie der Satire im Mittellateinischen. Vorstudie zu einer Gattungsgeschichte. Nürnberg 1978. • Emil Draitser. Techniques of Satire: The Case of Saltykov-Shchedrin. (Berlin-New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994) ISBN 3110126249. • Hammer, Stephanie. Satirizing the Satirist. • Highet, Gilbert. Satire. • Kernan, Alvin. The Cankered Muse The Plot of Satire. • Seidel, Michael. Satiric Inheritance. • Entopia: Revolution of the Ants (2008), by Rad Zdero.

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