Zafiris Nikitas, «From Brecht to Jelinek: German-Speaking Playwrights in Perspective»

Zafiris Nikitas

From Brecht to Jelinek German-Speaking Playwrights in Perspective

ZafirisNikitas

“FortschreitenvonderMenschheit”:IdeologyandDialecticsinBertoltBrecht’sPlays(1928-1939)

“IndividuumundGesellschaft”:ClassandSocietyin ÖdönvonHorváth’sVolksstücke(1926-1932)

“EinsinnlichesParadox”:TheGrotesqueinFriedrich Dürrenmatt‘sPlays(1956-1973)

“Unmenschenzuwerden”:ParableandSkepticismin MaxFrisch’sPlays(1953-1961)

“EinTheaterderBerichterstattung”:DocumentaryTheatreandDramaticFictioninPeterWeiss’sPlays (1963-1969)

“SchauspieleohneBilder”:LanguageandMeaningin PeterHandke’sSprechstücke(1966-1967)

““DieRuinenvonEuropa”:HistoryandAestheticsin HeinerMüller’sPlays(1965-1984)

“EinPorträtdesKünstlers”:ActorsandArtistsinThomas Bernhard’sPlays(1977-1988)

Introduction

TheaimofthisbookistheexaminationoftenGerman-speaking playwrightsfromthe1920stothe2010s.FromtheWeimar RepublictotheperiodofthetwoGermaniesandthepost-Wende era.FromtheLehrstückofBrechttotheVolksstückofHorváth andfromtheSprechstückofHandketotheTextflächenofJelinek. Inthecourseofthenextchapterswewilllookintothedramaturgy andthetheoryofthetenplaywrights.Wewillilluminatethe themes,theaestheticsandtheideologyoftheirplays.Aspects oftheperformancesoftheplaysandtheirreceptionwillalsobe addressed.Apriorityofthemonograph,atalltimes,willbe thehistoricalcontextoftheplaywrights.Thesocial,culturaland politicalparametersthatinfluencedtheirwork.Theinnovativeplays inthebookwillbereflectedpersistentlyinthemirrorofhistory.The dramaticoeuvreunderexaminationincludesplaysthatbecamemajor referencepointsoftheGerman-speakingandglobaldramaturgyof the20th century.Theplaywrightswewillplaceunderthelensof themonographenrichenedtheiroutlookwithabundantpoliticaland philosophicalreferences.Severalperformancesoftheplaysbecame milestonesintheatrehistory,fromthepremiereof TheThreepenny Opera inBerlinin1928tothepremiereof Heldenplatz inVienna in1988.

ThefirstplaywrightisBertoltBrecht(1898-1956).Hewas borninAugsburg,closetoMunich.In1918hestartedhisfirst fulllengthplay, Baal,andfouryearslaterhisplay Drumsinthe Night premieredattheMunichKammerspiele.In1933hewent intoexileandin1949heestablishedtheBerlinerEnsemblein EastBerlinthatpremieredwith MotherCourageandHerChildren. ThesecondplaywrightisÖdönvonHorváth(1901-1938).He

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wasborninFiumeoftheAustro-HungarianEmpireofthetime. Hisearlyplay TheCableCar wasproducedattheVolksbühne inBerlinin1929and TalesfromtheViennaWoods atthe DeutschesTheaterinBerlinin1931.HeleftGermanyin1933 whiletheNaziprohibitedhisplays.ThethirdplaywrightisFriedrich Dürrenmatt(1921-1990).HewasborninKonolfingen,atownin Switzerland.Hisfirstplay, ItisWritten,wasproducedinZürich’s Schauspielhausin1947andcausedanuproar.Hisinternational reputationstartedgrowingwithhisfirstGermanpremierewith The MarriageofMr.Mississippi in1952buttherealbreakthrough camewith TheVisit in1956.ThefourthplaywrightisMaxFrisch (1911-1991).HewasborninZürich.Hisfirstplay, SantaCruz, waswrittenin1944andproducedattheSchauspielhausinZürich twoyearslater.Thesametheatrepresentedthepremiereofhis acclaimedplays TheFireRaisers in1958and Andorra in1961. ThefifthplaywrightisPeterWeiss(1916-1982).Hewasbornin Nowawes,adistrictnearBerlin.In1964 Marat/Sade premieredat theSchillertheaterinWestBerlinaswellastheAldwychTheatre inLondondirectedbyPeterBrook(receivingaTonyin1966).In 1965 TheInvestigation premieredsimultaneouslyinsixteenstages inWestandEastGermanyandinastageinLondon.ErwinPiscator directedtheplayattheFreieVolksbühneinWestBerlinandBrook presenteditattheAldwychTheatrewhileIngmarBergmandirected itthenextyearinStockholm.

ThesixthplaywrightisPeterHandke(b.1942).Hewasborn inGriffen,atownintoday’sAustria.Hisfirstplay, Offendingthe Audience,premieredin1966(makingmembersoftheaudience stormonstage)and Kaspar in1967,bothattheTheateram TurminFrankfurt.Severalofhislaterplayswerepresentedat theBurgtheaterinViennaandtheSalzburgFestival.Theseventh playwrightisHeinerMüller(1929-1995).HewasborninEppendorfinSaxony.Hisfirstplay, TheScab,premieredin1957in EastBerlin.TheEastGermanauthoritiesbannedtheproduction of TheResettledWoman in1961andcancelledthepremiereof TheConstructionSite in1965.Müllerwaswelcome,however, inWestGermany,withperformancesof Philoctetes in1968and GermaniaDeathinBerlin in1978,bothinMunich.Theeighth playwrightisThomasBernhard(1931-1989).Hewasbornin

Heerlen,Holland.Hisfirstplay, APartyforBoris,premieredin Hamburgin1970withmoderatesuccesswhilehissecondplay, TheIgnoramusandtheMadman,premieredattheSalzburgFestivalin1972leadingtoascandal(becauseofthedemandfor two-minutesoftotaldarknessthatwasrejectedbythefestival). Anothermajorscandalwouldfollowsixteenyearslaterbecauseof Heldenplatz.TheninthplaywrightisBothoStrauss(b.1944). HewasborninNaumburg-SaaleincentralGermany.Hisfirstplay, TheHypochondriac,premieredin1973inHamburg.Twoofhis nextplays, TrilogyofReturn and BigandLittle,weredirected byPeterSteinattheSchaubühneinWestBerlin,bothin1978. ThetenthplaywrightisElfriedeJelinek(b.1946).Shewasborn inMürzzuschlaginAustria.Herfirstplay, WhatHappenedAfter NoraLeftHerHusband,premieredin1979inGraz.Hernext playswerepresentedinestablishedtheatresinGermany,Austria andSwitzerland,fromMunichKammerspieletoBurgtheaterand Zürich’sSchauspielhaus.

ThePlays

Theplaysanalyzedinthecaseofeachplaywrightextendina selectedperiodandreflectaspecificthematic,aestheticorideological aspect.Thedramaturgyisalwaysrelatedtoitswidersociocultural andhistoricalconnotations.InthecaseofBrechtweilluminatehis dramaticworkintheperiod1928-1939focusingontheemergence ofideologyandsocialdialectsinanumberofhisLehrstücke (TheMeasuresTaken, TheExceptionandtheRule, HeWho SaysYes/HeWhoSaysNo),hisanti-operaticexperiment The ThreepennyOpera andotherplays(LifeofGalileo and Mother CourageandHerChildren).InthecaseofHorváthweinvestigate hisVolksstückeintheperiod1926-1932(TheCableCar, Italian Night, TalesfromtheViennaWoods, CasimirandCaroline and Hope,FaithandCharity)presentingthedepictionofclassand society.InthecaseofDürrenmattwelookintohisthree-play “canon”andanaddedplayfrom1956to1973(TheVisit, The Physicists, TheMeteor, TheCollaborator)analyzingthegrotesque

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asanaestheticapproachandapost-warworldview.Inthecase ofFrischweexaminetheconstructionofdramaticparablesand thereflectionofskepticisminhistwomostwell-knownplays(The FireRaisers and Andorra)intheperiod1953-1961.Inthecase ofWeisswelookintohisturntoDocumentaryTheatreandthe incorporationofdramaticfictioninhisplaysfrom1963to1969 (Marat/Sade, TheInvestigation, TrotskyinExile).Inthecaseof HandkeweexaminehisSprechstückeintheyears1966-67that includefourshortplaysandafull-lengthvariation(Offendingthe Audience, Self-Accusation, Prophecy, CallingforHelp, Kaspar), withanemphasisontheuseoflanguageandtheemergence ofmeaning.InthecaseofMüllerwefocusontheconnection betweenhisaestheticsandhisconceptofhistoryinplaysfrom1965 to1984startingwithhiscritiqueontheLehrstück(Philoctetes, The Horatian, Mauser)andmovingtohisnextexplorations(Germania DeathinBerlin, Hamletmachine, TheMission, Descriptionofa Picture).InthecaseofBernhardweinvestigatethefigureof theactorandtheartistinselectedplaysfrom1977to1988 (Minetti, TheTheatre-Maker, Ritter,Dene,Voss and Heldenplatz). InthecaseofStraussweilluminatethethemeofreligionandits connectionwithidentityinplaysfrom1978to2005(Bigand Little,ThePark, SevenDoors, TheOneandtheOther).Lastly,in thecaseofJelinekwefocusonthereflectionofpoliticalfeminism andtheimplementationofintertextualstrategiesinplaysfrom1979 to2003(WhatHappenedAfterNoraLeftHerHusband, Illness orModernWomen, SnowWhite, SleepingBeauty, Jackie).

TheTheory

Thetheoryoftheplaywrights,systematicallyinvestigatedineach chapterofthemonograph,informsdecisivelythechoicesintheir dramaturgy.Atthesametime,itreflectsthewiderperspectiveofthe playwrightsonthesocial,culturalandpoliticalfunctionoftheatre. Itilluminatesthecontinuitiesandtheruptureswiththetheatreof theirtimes.Anevenmorecrucialaspectistheperformativedimensionandtheaestheticdiscoursethatemergesfromthesetheoretical

texts.Thetenplaywrightsunderinvestigationwriteplaysforthe stage,notforbookshelves.Theyarewellawarethattheirplayscan functioneffectivelyonlywhentheyarereinforcedthroughmechanismsthatengagetheaudiencerationallyoremotionally.Their theoryisthetooltoclarifytheirperformativeandsocioculturaloutlookandittakestheformofshortnoteswithinthepublication oftheirplays,autonomousarticlesinjournalsorcompletetreatises. Manyofthemaremanifestosoftheirproposedtheatre(interms ofwritingandoftenstaging)andanti-manifestosagainsttraditions andtendenciestheydesiretodisrupt.Brechtpublishesaseriesof seminalessayssuchas“NotesontheOpera RiseandFallofthe CityofMahagonny”,“Notesto TheThreepennyOpera”and“On theUseofMusicinanEpicTheatre”.Thesetextsareessentialin ordertounderstandhisanti-Wagnerianoutlookagainstatheatre ofsensoryhypnosisandthegradualformationofhisepicaesthetics.Histheoreticalwritingsthatfollow,suchas TheMessingkauf Dialogues (withtheK-TypusandtheP-Typusoftheatre)and,of course, AShortOrganumfortheTheatre (reflectinghisvision for“ascientificage”),arealsoexamined.MovingontoHorváth. Essayssuchas“CensorshipandtheProletariat”illuminatehisearly politicalviews,beforehebecameamoredistanced“chroniclerof histimes”.TheformationandtheaimsofthenewVolksstück heconstructedaremadeclearinvarioustextswhilehisnotein Hope,FaithandCharity addsperspectivetohisviewsonsociety. Dürrenmatt’stheoryonthegrotesqueisclarifiedinthreeseminal essays,“NoteonComedy”,“ProblemsoftheTheatre”and“21 Pointsto ThePhysicists”.Inthesecondheframesthegrotesque inthecontextofthepost-warworldwherethefearofnuclearwar loomedliketheswordofDamocles.Inthethirdhegetstechnical, addressingthetwistsheincorporatedinhisplottorevealhisnotion ofreality.Frischexpressedhisskepticismonhumanityinhisessay “CultureasAlibi”.Andwentontoproduceseveraltheoreticaltexts suchas“TheatreWithoutIllusion”,“SecondDegreeIllusion”and (mostimportantly)“TheAuthorandtheTheatre”,takingdistances fromBrecht’soutlook.Hisspeech“Emigrants”isalsoaddressed.

Weisscontributeddecisivelytotheformationofatheoryon theGermanDocumentaryTheatreofthe1960swithhisfourteenpointtreatise“TheMaterialandtheModels:NotesTowardsa

DefinitionofDocumentaryTheatre”.Histhoughtsinhisnotebooks makelightoftheburdenofcollectiveguiltinpost-warGermany. Handke’stheoreticalwritingsareessentialinordertoframethe linguisticandperformativefunctionofhisSprechstücke.Theseare textssuchas“NoteonmySprechstücke”and“RulesfortheActors”.Wittgenstein’s TractatusLogico-Philosophicus andAustin’s HowtoDoThingswithWords arecomplimentaryreadingtograsp fullytheinnovativeandinfluentialformproposedbytheplaywright. In“OntheMeetingofGroup47intheUSA”Handketouched againonthelimitsoflanguage.HisdistancefromBrechtwasexpressedinthecharacteristicallytitledessay“HorváthisBetterthan Brecht”and“Steet-TheatreandTheatre-Theatre”.Hisnotebooks andinterviewsareequallyenlightening.Müller’saestheticsofdestructionarebestunderstoodwhenonetakesintoconsiderationhis reflectionsonBenjamin’s“ThesesonthePhilosophyofHistory”. His“LucklessAngel”emergeswiththe“angelofhistory”inmind. Hisautobiographythatspokeinitstitleona“warwithoutbattle” addsfurthercontextalongwithhisinterviews(oftenexplainingless andinsinuatingmore).Bernhardaddressedininterviewshisaestheticsandsocioculturaloutlookfromthemusicalityinhisplaysto hisvitrioliccritiqueagainstAustria’snationalandculturalarrogance. Afterall,hewascalleda“Nestbeschmutzer”forareason.His autobiographyaddscontextonhisstanceagainsttheNational SocialisttendenciesinAustria.Strausssparkedadivisivepublic discoursewithhisessay“SwellingSongoftheGoat”thatpraised premodernmythoverconsumerism.Histheoryon“pluralistic chaos”,histreatise Beginninglessness (blendingcosmologyand RadicalConstructivism)andMartinHeideggeraddinvaluablecontextfortheculturaloutlookoftheplaywright.Jelinek’stheoryis crucialforhertextualandperformativepreferences.In“IWantto BeShallow”sherejectsthenotionofthe“character”,in“Sense Whatever.BodyUseless”shechoosesthe“speaker”overthe character(echoingHandke’sfootsteps),in“ToBrecht”shetouches ontheLehrstückandin“TextSurfaces”shepresentsheravantgardeaestheticsthatdisruptthedramaticformwithanArtaudian anti-literaryoutlook.

TheThemes

Intermsofthemes,let’slookinitiallyintotheplaysfrom1918 to1939.ThisistheperiodfromtheestablishmentoftheWeimar Republicin1918tothebeginningofWWIIin1939(whilethe NaziDictatorshipin1933functionsasaseminalturningpoint). Theseplaysillustrateachanginglandscape.Thetwoplaywrights examinedinthishistoricalandtheatricalcontextareBrechtand Horváth.Brechtchoosesapoliticallyengagedtheatreandappliessocialisticideals.Hetouchesonthemessuchascommunist discipline,theclassinjusticereflectedinthejudicialsystem,thecorruptionofthebourgeoisie,thedominanceofcapitalistmechanisms, thefunctionofscienceinsocietyandtheburdenofwar(whichis alsoreflectedasacapitalistendeavor).IntheGermanplaywright’s caseitisessentialtounderlinethathisLehrstückeexplorethetensionsinasocietytransitioningtosocialismwhilehisepicapproach (inhisdramaticparables)maintainsapoliticaloutlookturningtothe democraticidealsinacapitalistsociety.Hisevolvingsocialdialectics areinfusedinthecharactersofhisplays,fromtheyoungcomrade thatfaceshispersonalsacrificeforthecommoncommunistgood in TheMeasuresTakes (reflectingtheBrechtianEinverständnis)to MacktheKnifewhomirrorswithhisbusiness-likeapproachthe corruptionofthepetitebourgeoisie(whichisequaltotheoneof theupperclasses).ClosertothetimeofWWII,Brechtcreates complexdramaticfigureslikethescientistGalileo(whoenjoysthe hedonismofgluttonyandtheepistemologyofastronomyideasas well)andthemother(butalsomerchant)MotherCouragewho placessurvivalaboveherblood.Horváthchoosestoabstainfrom apoliticalstanceinfavorofamoredetachedsocialcritiqueinhis playsafter1929.Althoughtheearlier TheCableCar reflectsthe struggleoftheproletariat,inhisnextVolksstücketheplaywright transitionstothedepictionofthepetitebourgeoisie.Hisplays became“chroniclesofforeboding”inthedemiseoftheWeimar Republicfromtheeconomiccrisisof1929totheNazidictatorship. Theirthemesarethemendacityofthepetitebourgeoisieandits shallowGemütlichkeit,theriseofFascism,thejudicialandbureaucraticinjusticeandthepositionofwomaninsociety.FromSimon (aworkerwhobelievesinchange)toarepublicanmayor(who

choosestooverlookthefascistthreat)andfromZauberkönig(a small-timebusinessmanwhowantstoreinstatehiseconomicstability throughthemarriageofhisdaughter)toCaroline(whobecomesa “Wiesenbraut”toachievehersocialclimbingdreams)andElisabeth (whofightsagainstthesystemforsomepettycrimesonlytodance a“littledanceofdeath”)Horváthshowcasesthesocialstruggles ofhisera.AfterhisexileDonJuanandFigaroenterhisdramatic universethatismovingtoanewdirection.

Theplaysfrom1945to1968turnthematicallytowardsadifferentperspective.ThisistheperiodfromtheendofWWIIto thestudentmovementinWestGermany.Thesetwodecadesare characterizedbythe“Wirtschaftswunder”,theeconomicreconstructionthattookplaceinGermanyandAustriaafterthewar.Atthe sametime,thisistheunresolvedepochofthe“Vergangenheitsbewältigung”,thestruggleofGermanytocomeintermswiththe collectiveguiltafterthecrimesoftheNaziandtheHolocaust.The fearofthenuclearwarinthecontextoftheColdWarisanother tensionofthistime.Thefirsttwoplaywrightsthatemergeinthe German-speakingdramaturgyafterthewarareSwiss.Theoneis DürrenmattandtheotherisFrisch.Dürrenmattincorporatedin histragicomicplaystheaestheticsofthegrotesquetoreflectthe uncertaintiesofthepost-warworld.Thecorruptionofjustice,the misuseofscience(reflectingthefearofnuclearwar),thedisintegrationofreligion,thecollectiveguilt(touchingontheburdenof theNazicrimes)andtheambiguityoftheartisticfunction(with theartistbalancingbetweenanegocentricpretenderandazealous truth-seeker)aremajorthemesinhiswork.Therelentlessmission ofamultimillionairetotakerevengeforinjustice(Clairein The Visit),theattemptofanuclearphysicisttokeephisknowledge awayfromthespiesoftheColdWar(Möbiusin ThePhysicists), thedenialofaNobel-winningplaywrighttoaccepthisresurrection (Schwitterin TheMeteor)andthechoiceofabiologisttosellhis knowledgetoacrimeboss(Docin TheCollaborator)reflectDürrenmatt’sdeepdisbeliefinhumanandsocialprogress.Frischresists pessimisminhisinitialpost-warplaysthatcallforreconciliationand historicalchangebeforemovingtomorepersonalplaysandthento dramaticparables(thatoffersocialmodelsinfusedwithdeepskepticism).Socialhypocrisy,theprevailingofprejudice,thestereotypes

of“image-making”,thesecularizationofChristianity,antisemitism, thecollectiveculpabilityfortheNazicrimes,theatomicbomband theuncertaintiesofthemaleidentity(inautobiographyandfiction) arehiscentralthemes.TheresponsibilityofGottfriedBiedermann in TheFireRaisers andthepersecutionofAndriin Andorra depict adishonestpost-warEuropewherethecitizenstakenoblamefor theiractions,preferringscapegoatsinstead.

The1960sarecharacterizedbyanexpansionofGermanspeakingdramaturgyinformandcontent,bothinWestand EastGermany.TheDocumentaryTheatre(byWeiss,Kipphardt, Hochhuthandothers)thatreflectsontheGermanpastandon globalissuessuchasAmericanimperialism,theexaminationoflanguagepowerdynamics(byHandke)andthereframingofBrecht’s Lehrstücke(byMüller)reinvigoratethesocial,linguisticandpolitical perspectiveofthedramaturgy.WeisswasinterestedintheTheatre ofCrueltyandDocumentaryTheatre,subversiveslapstickandfactualmaterial.Histhemesfocusontheideaoftherevolutioninthe pastandthepresent(withtheindividualandsocietyintension), thecollectiveburdenoftheHolocaustandissuesofglobalimperialism(fromAmerica’swarinVietnamtoPortuguesecolonialism). Weisspresentsopposingsidesinhistoricaldiscourses:Sade’s individualismagainstMarat’sdedicationtotheFrenchRevolution,Trotsky’sinternationalrevolutioninoppositiontoStalinism, thewitnesses(andsurvivors)ofAuschwitzagainsttheNaziaccusedperpetrators.HandkefocusedwithhisSprechstückeon thepowerful(andmanipulative)functionoflanguageinsociety aimingtoleadtheaudiencetoamoreinformeduseofspeech. Theuseoflanguageassheerviolence,thelinguisticevolutionof theindividual,thesocialconditioningandtheclichésoflanguage (throughmassmedia,television,popculture,musicandreligion), theconformityoftheaudienceandthecritiqueoftheatreasa bourgeoisinstitutionarehismajorthemes.His“speakers”confront theaudienceforitspassivityintheillusionarytheatreofthe“fourth wall”(in OffendingtheAudience),confesstheirsocialandlinguistic“sins”intheformofaCatholicconfession(in Self-Accusation), employtautologicalpropheciesthatleadtonowhere(in Prophecy), andreflectonlanguageasarelentless“speechtorture”againstthe individual(in Kaspar).InEastGermanyMüllerrealizesathree-play

seriesthatcritiquestheLehrstückandaddressesthecontradictions oftherevolutionwithinthesocialistregime.TheviolenceofStalinism,therelationoftheindividualwithsocietyandtheindividual’s actofkillingforthecommunalgood(withvictoryandmurder beingdangerouslyclose)arehismajorthemes.Threemalefigures areemployedbyMüllertoposehispressingquestions:Philoctetes strandedinLemnos(suspendedbetweenhimselfandthecollective),theHoratianwhokillsforthecollective(butalsocrossesthe lineofhisduty)andfinally“A”,amemberoftherevolution,that becomesakillingmachineexceedingalldutifullimitsin Mauser. Müllerexpandedtonewthemesfromthe1970stothe1990s. TheplaywrightexploredtheGermannationalidentitywith“synthetic fragments”thatbroughtonstageNibelungenwarriorsfightingStalingradsoldiers(in GermaniaDeathinBerlin),commentedonthe demiseofWesternculture(in Hamletmachine),critiquedimperialismintheCaribbean(in TheMission)anddeliveredaBeckettian textonviolenceandhistoricalprogress(in DescriptionofaPicture).Handkelefthislinguisticexperimentsbehindaftertheend ofthe1960s.Hisnewplays,thatexpandedintothe21stcentury, addressedthemesrangingfromfamily(threesiblingsdisputeover aninheritedhousein ThroughtheVillages)totheburdenofthe Germanpast(withthebattleoftheSloveneminorityagainstNazism andautobiographicalstrokesin StormStill).

ThreemajorGerman-speakingplaywrightsmadetheirdebutduringthe1970s.ThefirstonewasBernhardwith APartyforBoris in1970,thesecondwasStrausswith TheHypochondriac in1972 andthethirdwasJelinekwith WhatHappenedAfterNoraLeft HerHusband in1979.Theseplaywrightsextendedtheirdramatic productioninthenextdecadescontinuingthepublicationoftheir workinthe21stcentury(exceptforBernhardwhodiedin1989). Bernhardexploredsystematicallythefigureoftheartistaddressing themessuchasthesolitarylifeoftheactor,theyearningforfame andacceptance,thelifeoftravellingactors,thebourgeoisartistic complacencyandtheintellectual’sinabilitytoexpressreality.He alsoimplementedasocioculturalcritiqueonAustrianissuessuchas nationalpridefulness,tracesofNationalSocialismandantisemitism andtouchedontheVergangenheitsbewältigungdiscourse.The agingactorwhoyearnstoresurfaceasKingLear(in Minetti),the

middleagedactorandstagemanagerwhoorchestrateshisfamily travellingtroupe(in TheTheatre-Maker),thetwobourgeoisactresses(andsisters)whoperformoutofboredom(in Ritter,Dene, Voss)andtheAustrian-JewishProfessorwhocontemplatesthesuicideofhisbrother(thatwascommittedonthefiftiethanniversary oftheAnschluss)(in Heldenplatz)reflectBernhard’sexplorations. Straussdepictsthereligious,socialandpersonalalienationthat emergesinamodernsocietyofconsumerism.Hisplayslament thedisconnectionfromthedivineandthemythicandincorporatethemessuchasthelackoftraditionalvalues,theinabilityof communication,thedesacralizedworld,thesociopoliticalbanality, theshallowentertainmentandthenegativeeffectsoftechnology. Lotte,theyoungwomanunabletoconnectwithhumananddivine love(in BigandLittle),OberonandTitania,theKingandQueen ofFairieswhowanttoreinspirepassioninthehumanheart(in The Park),BrotherJohannandBrotherFreddy,themonkswhocommentonpicturesofHell(in SevenDoors)andElaineandTimm, thetwoyoungsterswhogrowwithnopaternalguidance(in The OneandtheOther)showcaseStrauss’ssocioculturalcommentary. Jelinekimplementsherfeministcritiqueaddressingthemessuch astheobjectificationofwomenincapitalistsociety,theneedfor femaleself-actualizationbeyondtheprincess-like“doll-stage”,the destabilizationoffemalestereotypes(relatingtosexuality,family, bodyimageandpornography)andthedepictionofandrocentric clichés.AplaywrightwithMarxistviews,Jelinekalsoexpandsinto furthersociopoliticalthemesofnationalism,fascism,antisemitism, consumerism,imperialismandxenophobia.HerversionofNorain theGermanyofthe1920s,EmilyandCamilla(thetwovampire womenwhoengageinarelationshipin IllnessorModernWomen), herversionofSnowWhiteandSleepingBeautyandherreflection onJackieKennedyimplementherdramaticreconstructionsofthe femaleidentity.

TheAesthetics

Theaestheticsoftheplaysareexaminedconsistentlyinthe tenchaptersofthemonograph.Amajoraesthetictendencyof

theGerman-speakingdramaturgyunderexaminationistheuseof distancingmechanisms.Thesedramaturgicalandperformativetechniquesdispelledtheillusionismoftheaudienceandpromoteda rationaland,atothertimes,sensoryalienationofthespectator. Brechtisthedecisivefactorfromthisperspective,followedby Dürrenmatt,Frisch,WeissandJelinek.Brechtemployedthe“Verfremdungseffekt”asamajordramaticandperformativedevicein thecontextoftheEpicTheatre.TheEpicTheatreimplemented theseparationofthetheatricalelementsandreinforcedthecritical thinkingofthespectatorthroughtheillustrationofthesocialdynamicsandcontradictions.Brecht’sfirstessayontheconceptof the“Verfremdung”waspublishedin1936.Thetermhasreceived varioustranslations(alienation,estrangement,defamiliarization,disillusionanddistancing).TheVerfremdungseffektwasachieved throughvarioustechniquesinthetextualmaterialandtheperformativeandstagingchoices.Thetechniquesincludedtheinterplay ofdramaticandnarrativemethods,theuseofsongsandmusic,the presentationoftextsandimagesonplacardsandprojections,the presenceofacommentingchorus,therole-playingoftheactors andtheuseofthesetting,thecostumesandthelightinginan anti-illusionarymanner.In MotherCourageandHerChildren the Verfremdungseffektisevidentintheuseofsongsascommentary andtheemblematicwagon(thatintertwinestheclothesofdomesticity,thecommerceofprofitandthecanonofthewar).The performanceoftheBerlinEnsemblein1949reinforcedthe(musical,scenicandperformative)effectwithaplethoraofchoicesand mechanisms(suchasprojectionsandplacards,acyclorama,antiillusionarywhite-light,avisibleorchestraplayingDessau’satonal musicandthedrawingofacurtainbetweenthescenes).Dürrenmatt’saestheticsofthegrotesquewereimplementedthrougha seriesofmechanisms.Theparadoxappearanceofthecharacters, thedemonicplace,theunexpectedtwistsoftheplotandtheuseof themacabrewereseminaltools.Thegrotesquedisruptedillusionismandreinforcedthespectator’sdetachment.Theaudiencewas confrontedwithanillogicalrealityreflectingtheuncertaintiesofthe post-warera.Frisch,inhistwowell-knownplays(TheFireRaisers and Andorra)aimedtocreate“models”oftheworldtoilluminate themisgivingsofhumanity.Thisapproachwasappliedinthechar-

acters(whobalancedbetweenaspecifiedcharacterandageneric type)andtheplace(thatwasmoreallegoricalthanliteral).Frisch reinforcedthedistancingoftheaudiencewithaddeddramaturgicalmechanismssuchasthe“foregroundscenes”thatcommented betweenthescenesofdramaticaction.Weissachievedalienation withvariousmechanisms.In Marat/Sade heemployedafusionof theTheatreofCruelty(expandedinBrook’sdirectingchoices)and Brechtiantechniques(suchassongs).The“cruelty”emergedin thesettingandthescenesoftheguillotineandflagellation.In The Investigation theaestheticdistancewasachievedbythedramatic form(thatpresentedtestimonieswithnocommentsandnonames forthewitnesses).Theavoidanceofthereconstructionofthecourt roomwasunderlinedbyWeissandreinforcedbyPiscator’sdirectingchoices.Jelinekemployedapost-Brechtiandefamiliarization approachinplayssuchas WhatHappenedAfterNoraLeftHer Husband and IllnessorModernWomen rejectingthepsychological developmentofcharactersandconstructinganintertextualcollage. HerworkreflectsMarxisttheoriesofalienationthroughlaborand feministtheoriesofalienationinpatriarchy.

Theimportanceofmusicandsoundisanotherseminalcharacteristicoftheplaysunderexamination.Brecht,Horváth,Handke andBernhardarethemostdecisivecontributorsinthisregard. Brechtrealizedaseriesofanti-operaticexperimentsthatexplored theepicapproachandfoughtagainsttheWagnerianaesthetics. Theplaywrightabidedtoarationalizingmusicalfunctionthatpromotedcriticalthinking(aspartoftheseparationofthetheatrical elements).Herejectedtheseductiveempathyproducedbythe operaticvisionoftheGesamtkunstwerk.TwoofBrecht’splays, TheThreepennyOpera andthe RiseandFalloftheCityofMahagonny presentedhisviewsinpractice.Theplaywrightmadea cleardistinctionbetweenthe“dramaticopera”andthe“epicopera” inhisessay“NotestotheOpera RiseandFalloftheCityof Mahagonny”.HisLehrstückealsoincorporatedelementsofmusic. Aftertheinitialanti-operaticexplorations,theuseofsongsand musicbecameacrucialdeviceinBrecht’splays(andperformative approach),aspartofthedistancingmechanicsoftheVerfremdungseffekt.TheuseofmusicisdecisiveinHorváth’sVolksstücke. Theplaywrightemployedmusicasatoolofsocioculturalcommen-

tary.Forexample,in TheCableCar theworkerssingasong reflectingtheirdesireforfreedomfromcapitalisticoppression,in ItalianNight therepublicansdancewaltzesoverlookingthethreat ofFascismandin TalesfromtheViennaWoods thereference toStrauss’swaltzinsinuatesthattheoldflourishingViennaislong gone.Weissturnedtoamusicalreferenceinhisplay TheInvestigation,titled“anoratorioinelevencantos”.Eachoftheeleven partsoftheplaywasnameda“canto”(referencingDante’s Divine Comedy andhis“Gesänge”).Anoratorioisalargemusicalcompositionusuallywithasacredthemeandperformedwithnoaction, costumeandscenery.Theselectionoftheterm“oratorio”reflected thegravityoftheplay’sthemeandthepreferredaustereaesthetics. SoundandmusicareadominantfactorinHandke’sSprechstücke. OffendingtheAudience isa“verbalrockconcert”employinga rockmusicalstructureinsteadofaplotwhileinthe“Rulesforthe Actors”theplaywrightclarifiedthatthe“speakers”shouldprepare bylisteningtosoundsoftheirsocioculturalsurroundings(fromrock songstopublicdebates).In Kaspar thevoicesofthe“Einsager” emergethroughmechanicalmeansconnectedtomassmediaand dailyusedtechnologicaldevices(e.g.television,radio,telephone). Theplaywrightcommentedinthiswayonthesoundsthatconditionthepublicandpersonalperceptioninmodernsociety.Lastly, musicalityisakeyelementinBernhard’swriting.Languageis usedintermsofsound.Thetextinhisplaysisconstructedina musicalverbalstylewithnopunctuationandtheformemployed isanunrhymedfreeverse.Theplaywrightfunctionsasacomposerthatselectstonesfocusingonsound,notjustmeaning.A seriesofmusicalreferences,fromclassicalmusictotheworkofthe modernistNewViennaSchoolinfluencehisplays.Thedominant musicalityincorporatedinthetextofBernhard’splaysreliesonthe auralperformativityoftheactortobefullyrealized.

Alastaesthetictendencyexaminedreflectsthecharacteristics ofpostmodernism.Müller,StraussandJelinekimplementaseries ofdisruptivestructural,textualandlinguisticstrategies.Theirwork reflectswhatLyotarddescribedastheendofthe“grandnarratives” andincorporatespostmoderncharacteristicssuchasculturalindeterminacyandtechnologicalimmanencealongwithfragmentationand intertextuality.Tacticsofironyandkitscharealsousedregularly.

Theintertextualpoeticsofcreationanddestructionaredominant inMüller’s Hamletmachine.UsingShakespeare’s Hamlet asa startingpoint,heconstructsatextualcollagefullofliteraryand philosophicalreferencesfromMarx,Benjamin,Eliot,Sartre,Warhol andtheBible.ReflectinganArtaudiananti-literaryoutlookMüller turnsthedramatictextintofragmented“material”.Similarstrategies areimplementedinhis“syntheticfragments”withaddedtouchesof kitsch,forexampleinhissarcasticviolentscenesin GermaniaDeath inBerlin.Straussimplementsaspectsofavisionaryaestheticism thatsupersedesrealityinplaysfullofironicsubversion,intertextuality,looselydisjointedscenesandsubtledistancingmechanisms. In BigandLittle heselectstheformofthe“stationdrama”to illustrateawoman’sjourneyinanalienatedsociety.Theironyis elevatedthroughvisualelements.ThestatueoftheMaterDolorosainafamilygardenfunctionsbothasreligiousiconography andakitschgardenornament.AndtheslideshowofthereenactmentoftheCrucifixioninsomeurbangatheringissarcastically underminedbyaneighborboastingforhisperformanceintherole ofChrist.The SevenDoors areconstructedinseparatevignettes whileShakespeare’s AMidsummerNight’sDream becomesanode tothelovelessbanalityofashallowsocietyin ThePark.Jelinek implementstoolssuchasironicparody,textualsurfacesandintertextualitythatblendshighandlowculture.Herplaysdisruptthe representativebourgeoistheatreandunderminethemale-dominant languagehierarchy.Theactorsperforminginherworkarespeakers ratherthancharactersasJelinekdismantlestheunificationoftext, voiceandembodiment.In WhatHappenedAfterNoraLeftHer Husband thecharactersfromIbsen’s ADoll’sHouse emergein anintertextualfabricwhereFreudandHitlercoexistwithquotes fromadvertisements.In IllnessorModernWomen genderparody prevailstroughthefemalevampires.Lastly,ironickitschtriumphs inherversionoftheSnowWhite(whoisagiantdollstanding onstage)whileherPrincewhokissestheSleepingBeautywears acostumeofsexualappetite.

ThePerformances

Thebookalsoaddressesaspectsrelatedtotheperformances oftheplaysandtheirreception.Inthiswaytheexaminationof theplaywrightsisenrichenedwiththeperformativeimpactoftheir work.In1928thesuccessfulpremiereof TheThreepennyOpera attheTheateramSchiffbauerdamminBerlinwasdirectedbyErich Engel(whoalsodirected ManEqualsMan attheVolksbühnein Berlinthesameyear)andledtoaninternationalhit.Morethan twodecadeslater,in1949,thepremiereof MotherCourageand HerChildren inEastBerlinwasfollowedbythepresentationat theParisInternationalFestivalin1954.Theplayreceivedthefirst prizeforbestplayandbeststagingestablishingtheinternational fameoftheBerlinerEnsemble.In1932thestagingofHorváth’s CasimirandCaroline receivedmixedreviewsattheKomödienhaus inBerlinandattheLeipzigerSchauspielhausinLeipzig.Inthe firstcasethecriticismfocusedontherhythmoftheperformance whileinthesecondontheplayitself.In1935thestagingofthe playattheWienerKammerspieleinViennareceivedmorepositive feedback.Theplay,implementingmusicelements,wascompared toBrecht’s TheThreepennyOpera.In1966thepremiereof Dürrenmatt’s TheMeteor inZürich(attheSchauspielhaus)andin London(attheAldwychTheatre)failedtoimpresstheaudience andthecritics.Theplay,thatwasalreadysatirizingtheplaywright’s strainedrelationwiththecritics,concludedhis“canon”.In1958 Frisch’s TheFireRaisers madetheirAustrianpremiereinZürich buttheaudiencerelatedtheplaywiththedangerofCommunism, notthecrimesofNazism.Theplaywrightwrotea“Nachspiel”that clarifiedhisintentions(andexplainedinatextBiedermann’srelation withtheNazis)fortheGermanpremiereinFrankfurtthesame year.In1966Hanke’s OffendingtheAudience premieredduring thefestival“ExperimentaI”attheTheateramTurminFrankfurt (apioneeringtheatreforthenewwritingofthe1960s)andmade Handkeknownovernight.ThedirectorwasClausPeymanninhis firststeps.Peymannwouldgoontodirectmanyotherpremieresof

playsbyBernhard(APartyforBoris in1970inHamburg),Weiss (Hölderlin in1971inStuttgart)andStrauss(TheHypochondriac in1973inHamburg).In1968Müller’s Philoctetes premieredin WestGermany,attheResidenzTheaterinMunich,withpositive reception.Theplaywrights’impactwasnowgrowingoutsideEast Germanyjustsevenyearsaftertheperformanceof TheResettled Woman thatwasbannedintheGDR.In1984Müllercollaborated forthefirsttimewithRobertWilsoninCologneandtwoyearslater Wilsondirectedthe DescriptionofaPicture asaprologueof Alcestis attheAmericanRepertoryTheatre.Peymannbecamethedecisive directorofBernhard’splays.In1976hedirected Minetti (with BernhardMinetti,aclassicalactor)inStuttgart.Thiswasalready hissixthBernhardpremiere.Tenyearslaterhedirected Ritter, Dene,Voss attheSalzburgTheatreFestival(withthehomonymous actorsIlseRitter,KirstenDeneandGertVossperforminginthe roles).In1988thepremiereof Heldenplatz attheBurgtheaterin Viennabecameahugescandalbecauseoftheplay’scontroversial contentinrelationtotheAnschluss.In1978PeterSteindirected BigandLittle attheSchaubühneinWestBerlin.Therehearsal processattheendof1977hadbegunwiththereadingofa letterwrittenbytheactorWernerRehmwhichpraisedtheplay notingthatitsaysalotaboutwomen,alittleaboutmenand morethanalotforrelationships.Theproductionbecamethefirst criticalsuccessofStrauss.In1998thepremiereofJelinek’s Sports Play directedbyEinarSchleefattheBurgtheaterinViennawas monumental.Theperformanceincludedonehundredandforty-two performers(morethanahundredinachorus)andlastedforseven hours,whileashorterversionextendedinfive.Theperformative marathonincludedchoreographedscenesofthirty-fiveminutesthat reflectedwithphysicalitytheconflictbetweentheindividualandthe collective.In2013,ontheotherhand,theNewYorkpremiereof Jackie demandedjustoneactress.

The aim of this book is the examination of ten Ger man-speaking playwrights from the 1920s to the 2010s. From the Weimar Republic to the period of the two Germanies and the post-Wende era. From the Lehrstück of Brecht to the Volksstück of Horváth and from the Sprechstück of Handke to the Textflächen of Jelinek. In the course of the next chapters we will look into the dramaturgy and the theory of the ten playwrights.

Introduction, p. 11.