Zafiris Nikitas, «From Stanislavsky to Grotowski: Theatre Directors in Europe»

ZafirisNikitas

KonstantinStanislavskyinMoscow

MaxReinhardtinBerlinandSalzburg

VsevolodMeyerholdinMoscowandSt.Petersburg

JacquesCopeaufromParistoBurgundy

Introduction

Theaimofthisbookistheexaminationoftentheatredirectors inEuropefromtheendofthe19th centurytotheendofthe 20th century.FromtheestablishmentofThéâtreLibrebythe FrenchdirectorAndréAntoinein1887totheperformative Action bythePolishdirectorJerzyGrotowskiin1995.Fromthetimethat Naturalismarrivedonstagecausingcriticalturbulencetotheeraof PostdramaticTheatre.TheevolutionoftheatredirectinginEurope isahistorical,aestheticandsocioculturalphenomenon.Wewilltake intoconsideration,throughoutthemonograph,alltheserelevantparameters.MovingfromBelleÉpoque,RealismandSymbolismto theInterwarperiod(withtheriseofEpicTheatreandtheTheatre ofCruelty)andtheColdWarera(withthetideofDocumentary Theatre),weilluminateperformancesthatbecamelandmarks.The readerofthisbookmaybeinformedinadvance:thehistoryof theatredirecting,asexaminedinthenextchapters,isanAriadne’s threadwithconstantrupturesandcontinuities.Thecompanyof theDukeofSaxe-MeiningenandRichardWagnerlurkwiththeir influencewhenAndréAntoine,KonstantinStanislavskyandMax Reinhardtarriveatthescenetomaketheirdistinctmark.Political theatrebecomesaseminalideologicalpracticeforVsevolodMeyerholdandErwinPiscator.ThephilosophicalmusingsofGnosticism seepthroughtheoutlookofAntoninArtaudandPeterBrook.And theendofthe“grandnarratives”bringsJerzyGrotowskiagainsta secularworldwherethe“holyactor”fightsthecommercialtheatre. ThefirstofthetendirectorsisAndréAntoine.TheFrenchmanwasboldenoughtosendalettertoMounet-Sullyatthe ageofeighteentodiscussmattersofacting.Hiscareerstartedat theinfluentialThéâtreLibrewithdaringrepertoirechoicessuchas

Ibsen,Hauptmann,TolstoyandStrindberg.Butthatwasjustthe startforthedirectorofthe“fourthwall”andthe“sliceoflife”. HiscareercontinuedattheThéâtreAntoineandmovedtothe so-called“secondComédie-Française”,theThéâtredel’Odéon.His explorationonShakespearewiththefluidityofaction,hisreconstructionsofthe“originalconditions”inCorneilleandRacineandhis versionofMolièremadeamark.TheseconddirectorisKonstantin Stanislavsky.Theprivatetheatreinstalledinhisfamily’scountry estateallowedhisfirstexplorationsandStanislavskaya,aBolshoiballerina,inspiredhisstagename.Aco-founderoftheMoscowArt Theatre,Stanislavskydirected(famously)Chekhov,Ibsen,Hauptmann,TurgenevbutalsoMaeterlinck.Thecreatorofthe“System” andthe“MethodofthePhysicalActions”extendedhisendeavorsat theOperaStudiooftheBolshoiTheatre.ThedoctrineofSocialist Realismturnedamaterialistversionofhismethodintoacommunisttool.ThethirddirectorisEdwardGordonCraig.Withfamous actressHelenTerryasamotherandstaractorHenryIrvingasa fatherfigureCraigdecided(attheageoftwenty-five)torejectacting.Andcarvehisownpathasascenicdesigneranddirectorwho exploredlightandspacelikenoother.Theoperaticexperiments atthePurcellOperaSocietywerejustthestart.Yetpresenting IbsenandShakespearewithhismotherfailedeconomicallyandhis attempttoworkwithOttoBrahmwasadisaster.Thecollaboration withEleonoraDuseonIbsenandwithStanislavskyon Hamlet stoodoutforthesupporterofthe“Über-marionette”andpublisher of TheMask.ThefourthdirectorisMaxReinhardt.Attheage ofthirty-twohesucceededOttoBrahmattheDeutschesTheater. The“GreatMagician”,ashewouldbecomeknownforhisdirecting dexterity,directedIbsenandWedekindinthesmallKammerspiele, GothicspectaclesandGreekTragedyinhugearenas,Sorge’sexpressionistic TheBeggar andHofmannsthal’s Jedermann,thelast oneattheSalzburgFestival(whichheco-founded).Theclassics, ShakespeareandGoethe,turnedintosensoryexperiencesinhis affectiveperformancesbeforehebecameaHollywoodfilmdirector. ThefifthdirectorisVsevolodMeyerhold.AfterperformingasTreplevattheMoscowArtTheatreheembarkedinhisdirectingcareer. ExperimentswithstylizationattheTheatreStudiowerefollowedby hiscollaborationwithVeraKomissarzhevskaya’scompany.Ibsen

andMaeterlinckwerefollowedbyBlokandSologub.Thenext stopwastheImperialAlexandrinskyTheatrewithMolièreandLermontovandtheImperialMaryinskyOperawithWagnerandGluck (whileDoctorDappertutto,hisartisticDoppelgänger,exercisedtheatricalitywith Columbine’sScarf).MayakovskyandVerhaerengave thefirstrevolutionaryspark.Thedirectorintroduced“biomechanics” andbroughtmachinesonstage: TheMagnanimousCuckold connectedwithConstructivismand Tarelkin’sDeath withEccentrism. TheRussianclassics,Gogol’s TheInspectorGeneral,Ostrovskyand Griboyedovwerehisfinaldecisivetouch.

ThesixthdirectorisJacquesCopeau.Attending UbuRoi’s premiereatageseventeenandworkinglaterasatheatrecriticserved asapreludebeforeheestablishedThéâtreduVieux-Colombierat agethirty-four.ThefirstseasonstartedwithMolièreandendedwith Shakespeare.Thenthedirectorofthe“barestage”broughtMolière andMaeterlincktoNewYork.ThereturntoPariswasinitiatedwith ShakespearewhileVildracaddedachallenge.Thatwastheendof the“dispositifscéniquefixe”andthestartto“comédienouvelle”. CopeaumovedtoBurgundywithagroupofcollaborators,“Les Copiaus”,andpresentedimprovisedandnon-improvisedpieces. Theendcamewiththesearchfor“sacreddrama”and“popular theatre”.TheseventhdirectorisErwinPiscator.Afterhisfirsttaste inactinginaKleistplayhebecameamemberoftheCommunist Party.HepresentedagitpropperformanceswiththeProletarian Theatreandpoliticalrevueswiththeuseofdocumentarymaterial andslides.HiscollaborationwiththeVolksbühnestartedwithan “epicdrama”byPaquet(forebodingBrecht’saesthetics)andended withahistoricaldramabyWelk,whereaSovietStarroseoverthe stage.In TheRobbers Leninhimselfappearedonstageintheguise ofacharacter.AtthePiscator-Bühne(firstandsecond)heusedfilm projectionsandcomplexstagestructures.AfterhisstayatNewYork hedirectedDocumentaryTheatreplaysbyWeiss,Hochhuthand KipphardtattheFreieVolksbühne.TheeighthdirectorisAntonin Artaud.Hecollaborated,asanactor,withDullinandPitoëffand appearedonthebigscreenaswell.HejoinedpassionatelyBreton’s Surrealistmovementonlytobeexpelledsoon.Heco-foundedthe AlfredJarryTheatrewherehedirectedplaysbyVitrac,Claudeland Strindbergwithsuccessemployingobjects,lightandmusicina

hauntinganddisruptivemanner.Hiswell-advertisedproductionof TheCenci washisfirstattempttoimplementthe“TheatreofCruelty” onstagebutfailedtoimpress.Thepsychologicalcollapsefollowed soonafter.TheninthdirectorisPeterBrook.Atayoungagehe wroteascriptentitled“Hamlet byWilliamShakespeareandPeter Brook”proclaiminghisartisticaffinity.HedirectedShakespeare withactorssuchasOlivier,GielgudandScofieldimpressingJan Kott.Aftera“TheatreofCruelty”projectheturnedtoWeissand aperformanceonVietnamWarthatflirtedwiththe“happening”. Thesuccessof AMidsummerNight’sDream markedachange ofdirection.ThedirectormovedtoParis,establishedtheCentre InternationaldeRechercheThéâtraleandfoundhisnewhome, theThéâtredesBouffesduNord.Multiculturallyorientedprojects (suchas Orghast and TheMahabharata)andnewexplorationson Shakespearefollowedbeforethedirectoropenedhisfinalcycle,this timeonthehumanbrain.ThetenthdirectorisJerzyGrotowski. AtagetenhewasintriguedbytheteachingsofaHinduMystic (besidestheGospels)andafterhistheatrestudieshetraveledto CentralAsiatomeet“holyfools”.IntheLaboratoryTheatrein PolandhepresentedperformancesonthetraumaofAuschwitzand theblasphemous“returnofChrist”withtheholyactorinsearch ofthe“totalact”.Inhis“Paratheatre”phasehecreatedcollective excursionstonatureandinhis“TheatreofSources”phasehe turnedtothediscoveryoftechniquesbeyondthewesternworld (meetingwithvoodoopractitionersandexploringpeyoterituals). Inhislastyearsheconstructed Action foranew“priest”:the Performer.

ThePerformances

Thebookpresentsaseriesofkeyperformancesthatstandout fortheiraesthetic,culturalorpoliticalimportance.Theexploration ofthesetheatricaleventswithinthetotalityofeachdirector’s repertoireandthehistoricalcontextoftheiremergenceilluminates thesewell-knownperformanceswhilealsoreinstatingthelesserknownperformancesaspartofthedirector’scontribution.Through

theselectedperformancesofeachdirectorpresentedintheten chaptersthatfollowthehistoryofEuropeantheatreemergesas ahistoryofperformance,notjustdrama.Antoinestaged Ghosts in1890atatimewhenthis“studyonheredity”createdan uproarthroughoutEurope,fromBerlinwhereitwasstagedatthe FreieBühnetoLondonwhereitwasstagedattheIndependent TheatreSociety.Theperformanceresultedinthepersistentnotion oftheobscure“fogoftheNorth”butIbsen’sdaringplaysbecame soonmodernclassics.Stanislavskydirected TheSeagull in1898 andmanagedtoreflectIbsen’s“hiddenpoetry”onthestage.It tookalotoflettersfrom(andto)Nemirovich-Danchenkoalong withaproductionplanwithmeticulousdetailsoneverylevel (characters,setting,sound)toachieveit.Elevenyearslaterthe directormovedtohisfirstimplementationoftheSystemin A MonthintheCountry.In1906aratherextraordinaryevent tookplace.Threedifferentpioneeringdirectors,Meyerhold,Craig andReinhardtdirectedIbsenwithanantirealisticoutlook,thefirst with HeddaGabler,thesecondwith Rosmersholm andthethird with Ghosts.Thissynchronicityreflectedtherisingtidetowards aplethoraofantirealisticexplorations.Craig,collaboratingwith Stanislavsky,presentedhisstageproposalfor Hamlet in1912.In this“monodrama”(accordingtoCraig)wherethestagehosteda projectionofHamlet’smindthe“goldenpyramid”oftheopening andtheversatilestagescreensmadeanimpression.Reinhardt’s Jedermann attheSalzburgFestivalin1920becameiconic(anda yearlyeventatthefestivaluntiltoday)withtheuseofthecomplete cityasabackground.TheDevilcamefromtheaudience,Angels emergedfromthecathedralandthewholecitywasastage. Meyerholddirected TheMagnanimousCuckold in1922and placedonthestageaconstructionwithplatformsconnectedby stepsandwalkwaysalongwiththehugeletters“CR-ML-NCK” (forCrommelynck,theplaywright).NowtheatreConstructivism wasarealityandthedemandingacrobaticswererealizedbythe well-trainedactorsofthedirector’s“biomechanics”.

Copeaudirected TheTricksofScapin in1917.Asmall,raised platformonthecenterofabarestageturnedalltheattentionof theaudiencetotheplasticityoftheactors’movementandfootwork. ActingasScapinthedirectorwasbreathtaking,partharlequin,part

athlete,partcomedian.Molièrewasnowpresentedinadifferent waythatthetraditionalattheComédie-Française.In1926the directordrewagainfromtheclassics(thistimeCorneille)with The Illusion inBurgundy.Piscatorpresentedin1927 Hoppla,We’re Alive! byToller.Theactorsperformedinamulti-storiedstructure thatreflectedwithitslevelsthepyramidofthesocialstructureand theactingilluminatedsocialclassesaswell.Thefilmprojectedin theprologuepresentedtanks,machinegunsandtherippingof medalsfromthechestofageneraltoshowcasethelifeofthe protagonist,apostwarrevolutionary.Afterhispoliticalrevuesforthe CommunistParty, RedRiotRevue and InSpiteofEverything!,the directorhadnowachievedaperformancethatwonoverallclasses. Artaudstaged TheCenci in1935.Thedirectorwasinspiredby the“gravitation”ofearthtoorchestratethewhirlingmotionofthe characterstowardsCountCenci,whowasconceivedasa“forceof nature”.Hewasafigurespreadingcrueltyandplague(according toArtaud’sconception)ratherthanatypicalcharacter.Aseriesof miscalculations,fromthecasting(mainlyArtaudasCenciandthe LadyAbdyasBeatrice)tothechoiceofthevenue,ledtocritical andfinancialfailureinaperformancethatwasnotbannedascruel, butnotcruelenough.Brookdirected Marat/Sade in1964drawing inspirationfrombooksbyArtaudandpaintingsbyBreughel.The settingwasavastbathhousewithduckboardsthatallowedtheactors toappearasifbeheadedandintheguillotinescenebucketsof paintrepresentedblood.TheacclaimwasundeniableandaTony Awardfollowed.Twodecadeslater,in1985,hepresented The Mahabharata emphasizingphysicalelementsandusingcarpets. Simplepropssuchassticksanddustwereemployedtocreate stunningimages.Grotowskipresented Akropolis in1962withthe performerswearingcampuniformsandstageobjectsremindinga concentrationcampinAuschwitz(suchasstovepipesthatinsinuated gaschambers).Followingthe“leaderofthedyingtribe”carrying the“Savior”(whowasnothingbutaragdoll)theperformersentered aconstructionevocativeofacrematoriumoragrave.Hedirected ApocalypsiscumFiguris sevenyearslaterbringingonstage(among others)Judas,MaryMagdaleneandSimpleton(afigurereflecting Christ).ImagessuchastheCrucifixionwererecreatedsuggestively onthebarestageyetnowtheperformersdidnotdrinkbloodfrom

Christ’ssidebutliquor.ThesonofGodwasnolongerwelcome inasecularage.

TheTheory

Ineachchapterweexaminethecrucialtheoreticalwritingsof thedirectors.Theatredirectingispredominantlypracticeyetitis morethanoftenreinforcedbythereadingsandthewritingsofthe directors.Thetheoryinvestigatedaddressesaseriesofmatterssuch astheconstructionofthemise-en-scèneingeneral,theapproachto actingtechniques,theuseofelementssuchasthesettingandthe lighting,thehierarchyoftheelements(e.g.theimportanceofthe text),theoutlookofatheatreorganization(intermsofartisticaims, repertoire,financingetc.),thesourcesofinspiration(e.g.Eastern Theatre)andthepoliticalandculturalimportanceoftheatre.These theoreticaltextsfunctionedasdisruptivemanifestos,pedagogical tools,meansofpublicityorreflectiverehearsalnotes.Someof thedirectorsexaminedinthemonographaresystematictheorists thatexercisedtheirthoughtsinjournalsorbooks.Stanislavsky,for example,startedtakingnotesonhisactingveryearly,in1877, whenheactedintheone-actfarces ACupofTea and The OldMathematician fortheAlekseyevCircle.Andfrom1906to 1912heturnedtotheworkoftheFrenchpsychologistThéodule Ribotaswellasyoga,todrawinspirationfortheformationof hisactingapproach.Meyerholdproducedanextensivebodyof invaluabletheoreticalwritingsconcerningallfacetsoftheatreas wellashisperformances.Artaudwasprofoundlyinfluentialthrough hisfierywritings,notthespecificperformanceshedirected.Brooke wasconsistentindocumentingandpresentinghisworkintheory. Otherdirectors(suchasReinhardt)wroteless(intermsofsystematic theoriesontheirwork)anddirectedmore.Yettheirvariouswritings (letters,articles,etc.)aremorethanilluminatingandprovidetothe theatrescholar(forexampleinthecaseofAntoineandCopeau) multipleoverviewed“gems”ontheatredirecting.Anotherimportant aspectisthetheorythatinfluencedthedirectors,suchastheseminal book TheTheatreoftheFuture byGeorgFuchs,publishedin

1905,thataffectedMeyerhold(whoreaditshortlyafter),whilethe writingsofGeorgeIvanovichGurdjieffinfluencedBrook’soutlook. Suchaspectsarealsoexaminedinthebook.

AntoineexpressedtheoutlookofThéâtreLibreinaseries ofbrochuresthatwerepublishedduringitsfunction.Themost extensive(anduseful)istheonepublishedin1890withchaptersonmise-en-scène,acting,financingaswellasthe(desired) ThéâtreLibreofthefuture(thatwasneverrealized).Hisletter toFrancisqueSarceyin1888deliversinformationonhisthoughts onthecompanyoftheDukeofSaxe-Meiningen,hisletterto CharlesLeBargyin1893illuminatesaspectsonactingandhis article“Causeriesurlamiseenscène”(1903)providesinformationonhisthoughtsonthe“fourthwall”andacting.Hisarticle “MonsieurDePourceaugnac”(1910)providesinsightonhistime atThéâtredel’Odéon.Hislaterarticlesinthe1920sonCraig, StanislavskyandMeyerhold(lessknown)reinforceourunderstandingonhisaestheticsatatimethathehadretiredfromtheatre. StanislavskypublishedhisfirstbookontheSystem(intheformof afictionaljournal)onlytowardstheendofhislife,with AnActor Prepares in1936.Thesecondpart, BuildingaCharacter,was publishedin1949,whilehisautobiography MyLifeinArt was publishedearlier,in1924.Hisproductionplansthatsurvived,such astheoneon TheSeagull,areilluminatingforhisapproachto directingalongwithhisletters.Craigproducedusefultheoretical writingssuchas TheArtoftheTheatre (1905),“TheActorand theÜber-marionette”(1908), OntheArtoftheTheatre (1911) andmanymorein TheMask (1908-1929).Hisautobiography is IndextotheStoryofmyDays (1957).Reinhardtexpressed hiscondensedtheoreticaloutlookintheessay“OntheSearch foraLivingTheatre”(1924)andthespeech“AbouttheActor” (1928)attheColumbiaUniversitywhileequallyenlighteningare thearticlesinthejournalofDeutschesTheater DieBlätterdes DeutschenTheaters (especiallybyhisdramaturgsArthurKahane andFelixHollaender).Meyerholddeliveredseminalessayssuchas “FirstAttemptsataStylizedTheatre”(1907),“TristanandIsolde” (1910),“TheFairgroundBooth”(1913),“TheActoroftheFutureandBiomechanics”(1922)andthebooks OnTheatre (1913) and TheReconstructionofTheatre (1930).Hisaccountsonhis

commediadell’arteapproachesarepublishedinhisjournal The LoveofThreeOranges.CopeauwrotethemanifestoofThéâtre duVieux-Colombiertitled“AnAttemptatDramaticRenovation” (1913)and ThePopularTheatre (1942),whilethejournalof LesCopiaus(authoredbyLéonChancerelandeditedbySuzanne Bing)offersinformationforBurgundy.Piscatorpublishedtheessay “AbouttheFundamentalsandTasksoftheProletarianTheatre” (1920),thebook PoliticalTheatre (1929),theessay“Objective Acting”(1949)andhiscompletewritingsinmultiplevolumesfill intheblanks.Artaudpublishedaseriesofarticlesfrom1931to 1935suchas“OntheBalineseTheatre”(1931),“TheTheatreof Cruelty”(FirstManifesto)(1932),“TheTheatreandthePlague” (1934),allcollectedin TheTheatreanditsDouble (1938).The manifestoshewrote(alongwithVitrac)fortheAlfredJarryTheatre earlier(1926-29)areilluminatingforthecompleteunderstanding ofhiswork.Brookpublishedtheessay“StyleinShakespeare Production”(1948),latertheinfluential TheEmptySpace (1968), TheShiftingPoint (1988), TheOpenDoor:ThoughtsonActingandTheatre (1995)and TheQualityofMercy:Reflections onShakespeare (2013).Grotowski’sphasesareilluminatedby keywritings,namely TowardsaPoorTheatre (1968),“Holiday” (1972),“WanderingTowardsaTheatreofSources”(1980)and “Performer”(1988).

TheAesthetics

Anotheraspectthatisinvestigatedinthebookconcernstheaestheticsofthedirectors.NaturalismwascloselyrelatedwithAntoine andThéâtreLibrethatwassoonconsideredbyadissatisfiednumberofitscontemporarycritics(likethesupporterofthe“well-made play”FrancisqueSarcey)an“organ”ofNaturalismanditsdespicable “rosserie”.FromauthenticRussianclothesin ThePowerofDarkness andbeefcarcassesin TheButchers (aswellaslivechickensin TheEarth attheThéâtreAntoine)tolow-tonespeakingactorsthat turnedtheirbacktotheaudiencetoreinforcenaturalness(making CoquelintheEldercommentthateventhemusclesoftheirback

“acted”)AntoinemadechoicesthatfortifiedwhatJulliencalledin 1892“tranchedevie”.StanislavskyinvestigatedfacetsofRealism attheMoscowArtTheatre(instagingaswellasacting).After presentingthesymbolistic TheBlueBird withsuccess,thedirector proclaimedin1908thathewascontinuinghisrealisticexplorations. Chekhov,distancinghimselffromStanislavsky’semphasisonrealistic details,famouslystatedduringtherehearsalsof TheSeagull that stageisart.Andheaddedthatanoseonapaintingismore realisticmadewithbrushesthanwithflesh.Craig’sideasin The ArtoftheTheatre rejectedRealismandillusion.Elementssuch aslight,sceneryanddancingwerehighlightedasthecoreofthe theatreofthefuture.StagepractitionersandwritersalloverEurope, fromMeyerholdtoYeats,applaudedtheEnglishman’sdistastefor naturalistictheatre.AntoinewasnotinfavorofCraig’sapproachas hemadeclearinanarticlein1920wherehetookastanceasa“realist”.Reinhardt,succeedingthenaturalisticallyinclinedOttoBrahm attheDeutschesTheater,waswillingtomovetoanotherdirection, onereinforcedbyRichardWagner.Hisvisionwastotransportthe GesamtkunstwerknotionfromtheGermanlegendtothemodern experience.Hiseclecticismsteeredtoimpressionistictendencieseven whenheturnedtoplays(andstagingchoices)thatrelatedtoRealism andExpressionism.SiegfriedJacobsohncalledhimcharacteristically a“master-Impressionist”.Oneofthemajortoolsheintroduced,the “Regiebuch”,detailedhisspecificpreferencesonthemise-en-scène. MeyerholdexploredstylizationandSymbolisminTheatreStudio withMaeterlinck’s“staticdrama”inmindyetmovedonsoonto Pierrot’stheatricalityandthegrotesqueduringhiscollaborationwith thecompanyofKomissarzhevskaya.Theexplorationofcommedia dell’arteandimprovisationalongwiththeconnectionwiththeaudiencebecamevitalforthedirectorofthe“TheatreoftheStraight Line”.Constructivism,Cubism,FuturismandEccentrismlayeredthe aestheticsofhissettingchoicesinpoliticalperformancesafter1917 whiletheuseofepisodicstructureandtherhythmicmovementthat developedintothe“biomechanics”reinforcedhistextualandacting outlook.

Copeauturnedtothe“interpretation”ofthetextfocusingon themasterpiecesofEuropeantheatre.Hisprioritywasthe“sincerity”against“cabotinage”.InhismanifestoforThéâtreduVieux-

ColombierhenotedthetheatredirectingtendenciesinEurope(e.g. byStanislavsky,Meyerhold,Reinhardt,CraigandGranville-Barker) andunderlinedthathisaimwassimplicityonthebarestagewith no“effects”.WithLesCopiausheturnedtoimprovisation,then hisopen-airspectaclesrelatedto“sacreddrama”and,finally,he envisioneda“populartheatre”which,asheclarifiedtoTairovin 1934,wasmeantforeveryman,MarxistorChristian.Piscator developedastageapproachthatincorporatedthe“epic”aesthetics thatwouldbecomemoreknown(andsystematized)throughBrecht. The“fourthwall”,thatAntoineloved,wasshattered.Healsomade anextensiveuseoftechnologyandwasapioneerintheuseof filmprojectionsandDocumentaryTheatre(evenbringingexperts onvarioussubjectonthestage).Hisvisionfora“TotalTheatre” broughtthedirectorintheforefrontofadominantspectaclewith machineryandaudiovisualforce.Artauddirectedperformancesat theAlfredJarryTheatrethatbroughtonstageplaysrelatedtoSurrealismandSymbolism.Hisdirectingapproachintheseproductions createdahauntingandthreateningatmospherethroughtheuseof objects,lightandsound.Theaestheticstrategyofchoreographed movement,asoundscapeandacaptivatingsettingcharacterizedhis TheatreofCrueltyimplementationwith TheCenci.Brookreinforced,initially,thestagingofShakespeareplayswithvisualand performativechoicesinsettingandactingthatenrichedthetextorientedemphasisoftheBardontheEnglishstage.Afterwards,in hiscollaborationwithmajorEnglishactors,hereframedtheacting approachinaseriesofseminalrolesoftheShakespeareanoeuvre whilestillmakingrejuvenatingvisualandauralchoices.Turning towardsamoreavant-gardeperspectivehethenexperimentedwith performativetools(mostlyinactingandalsointhemise-en-scène) thatdrewfromtheTheatreofCruelty,epicaestheticsandtheTheatreoftheAbsurd.ThenextturningpointwashismovetoParis andtheexplorationofamulticulturalapproachwithasubtractive aestheticandthedominanceofhumanpresence.Finally,heturned towardsamorescientificallyorientedtheatre(thematically)without alteringhisaesthetics.Grotowskirealizedinitiallya“PoorTheatre” thatemphasizedthepresenceoftheholyactor(throughrigorous actingtraining),therelationshipwiththeaudienceandtheuse ofselectedstageobjects.Thetextualmontageheimplemented

(drawingfromoneormoretextsources)didnotseekrepresentationbuttheestablishmentofameetingwiththeaudiencethrough anarchetypicalconfrontation.Aseminallayerofthemise-enscènewasasuggestivevisualdramaturgy(e.g.relatingtoChristian iconography)constructedbytheactors’motion.Inhis“Paratheatre”phasehemovedto“environmental”collaborativeeventsthat implementede.g.exercisesoftheparticipantsinthenature(in ordertoachievetheirsocioculturaldeconditioning)anddisrupted theusualtoolsoftheatredirectingandtheatre.Inhis“Theatreof Sources”thedirectorbecameananthropologicalresearcherandhis finalcontributionwith Action reinforcedthepostdramatictendencies ofthe“Performer”(notthe“actor”).

TheActing

Themonographimplementsalsoanexplorationrelatedtothe actingapproachesofeachdirector.Ahistoryoftheatredirecting isahistoryofactingaswell.Thedirectorsexaminedproposed systematictheoriesofactingorappliedempiricaltools.Antoine envisionedtheactorasa“marvelouslytunedinstrument”.Ashe proclaimedinhisThéâtreLibrebrochurein1890theactorsshould abidetoauthenticitybecoming“livingbeings”.Thekeyforthe actorwasthedirectobservationofrealityandmodernlifeand theuseofnaturalgesturesandlife-likepositioning(e.g.turning thebacktotheaudience),aspeakingvoice(notdeclamation)and hisconnectiontothesetting(thatshouldalsoreflectdailylife). Stanislavskyformedacompletemethodonrealisticacting,known asthe“System”.Thelastfiveyearsofhislifehedevelopedthe “MethodofPhysicalActions”,asequenceofphysicalactionsinthe firststepsoftherehearsaltoengagefullythephysicalandemotional presenceoftheactorinaunifiedmanner.TheactingtoolsprovidedbyStanislavskywiththeSystemallowtheconstructionofthe internalstateofthecharacter(withtechniquessuchasthe“Magic If”,the“GivenCircumstances”andthe“EmotionalMemory”)aswell astheexternalstateandthephysicalcharacterization.Craigbegun withastylizedapproachtowardstheactor,whowascomplimentary

totheelementsheprioritized(suchaslight)andreinforcedthe resultofthemise-en-scène.Musicoftenfunctionedasaunifying elementoftheactor’smotion.However,inhisessay“TheActor andtheÜber-marionette”hispolemictowardstheactor(afactor ofinstabilityandimperfection)ledtotheproposalofhisreplacementwiththefigureoftheÜber-marionette.Helaterexplained thatthiswasnotaliteralmarionettebutanactorthattranscends imitationandportraysthe“emotionsofthesoul”.Reinhardt’sviews onactingwereinfluencedbytheAustrianactorJosefKainz,the leadingactoroftheDeutschesTheater.Kainz’sactingtechnique, describedas“impressionistic”,combinedvariousstylesprioritizing physicaldexterityandaflexiblevoice(withatendencyrhetoric). Theimplementationofexternalmovementandtheuseofthevoice tosuggestaninnerworld(withouttheneedtorevealindetailthe character’spsychologicallife)wasReinhardt’sidealstyleofacting. ReinhardtalsofacedExpressionism.Thegoaloftheexpressionistic actorwastheecstatic“Schrei”,anintenseemotional“cry”.The rhythmofSchreiactingmovedfromreductiontoexpansionusing wordsandgesturesexplosivelyreleasedonstage.Meyerholdstarted with“stylization”wheretheuseofgesturesopposedrealisticillusion infavorofasuggestivequality(alongwithameasureddiction). Thegesturesevokedinnermeaningsthroughgeneralizationreinforcingthespectator’sinterpretation.Thenheturnedtotheatricality andimprovisationaltechniquesrelatedtocommediadell’arte.The actorwasabletochoosemetaphorical“masks”andchangemoods inaneverchanging“theatreofmask”.Thetempo-rhythmicalphysicalityoftheperformersinrelationtomusicwasalsoemployed. Lastly,the“biomechanics”wasamethodoforganizedmuscular workthatelevatedtheactor’scontroloverhisbody,emotionand intellect.Theactorwasunderstoodastheoperatorofhisbody whichwashismachine.Centralexercisessuchas“Shootingfrom theBow”and“ThrowingtheStone”builtthephysicalagilityand thegracefulnessoftheactorwhilealsoreinforcingexpressiveness.

Copeauimplementedanensembleapproachwithactorsofevolved physicalskill(kinetic,rhythmicandimaginative)whorealizedthestage interpretationofthetext.Hedevelopedanactingstylethatlinked theexternalactionwiththeinternalstateofmind.Thephysical motionoftheactorwasconnectedtoastateofconsciousnessfor

hismovement.Anothertoolforactor’strainingwasthe“noble”or “neutral”mask.Themaskmadetheperformerfeelfreeandallowedhimtoexplorethelimitsoftheexpressedfeelingthroughthe simplificationbutalsoextensionofhisgestures.Toolsofimprovisationinspiredbycommediadell’artewerealsoemployed.Piscator outlinedhisapproachtoactingin“ObjectiveActing”.Theactor shouldteardowntheillusionistic“fourthwall”andturnhisattention totheaudience.Theaimoftheactorwasnottoconveyemotionsbutprovidesociopoliticalcommentary.Heshouldbecomea “mirror”thathelpstheaudiencereachtherightconclusions.The director’sapproachreflectedthe“epic”aestheticswithaMarxist lens.Inhisperformancesheaskedfromtheactorstocomprehendthesocialclassoftheircharactersand,attimes,engagewith theaudience.Artauddemandedfromtheactoraphysicaland emotionalself-controlemployedtoimmersetheaudienceintothe TheatreofCruelty.Theactorshouldbeincontroloftheorganic basisofemotionsthroughthepressurepointsinhisbodytolead theaudiencetoasensorytrance.Theactorwasakindof“heart athlete”whousedhisemotionsjustlikeaboxeruseshismuscles. Thisactingapproachwasan“affectiveathleticism”andoneofits majortools,inspiredbyKabbalah,wasbreathingcontrol.Interms ofvoiceArtaudreinforcedtheuseofthecryandrejectedthe dominationoftalking.TheactorwasinstrumentalfortheTheatre ofCrueltybutwasdeniedindividualinitiative.PeterBrookacting approachwasbasedontheensembleprincipleandimplementeda seriesoftools.The“transparency”istheactor’sability(andprocess)usedtoconveyinnerimpulseswithexternalformswithaclear andimmediatemannerandthe“distillation”reinforcessimplicityand economy.Thecentraltechniqueof“inside/outside”allowstheactor toengageinternallythroughexternalstimulations.Theaimofthe actingprocesswastomaketheinvisiblevisiblebylinkingfeelings withgestures.Theexplorationofthetextwasdonephysicallyand emotionally,notintellectually.Thelinguisticmodelwasalsomusical andtransculturalbasedonemotionalresponseratherthanintellect. Grotowskipresentedtheconceptofthe“holyactor”,anactorwho sacrificeshisbodythroughademandingprocessofself-penetration. Theholyactorabidedto“vianegativa”,atechniqueofelimination toovercomehisorganism’sresistancetothepsychophysicalprocess

ofplayingarole.Theactor,integratinghispsychicandbodily powers,shoulddeliveraseriesof“visibleimpulses”totheaudience.Thedesired“totalact”wasatranscendentstatewherethe actorpenetrateshisexperienceandbecomesaphenomenonofthe presentthatexceedsactingandillusion.

Scenography,Lighting,Sound

Theaspectofscenographyisanothervitalelementthatis investigatedinthenextchapters.Stagedesignerscontributeddecisivelytotherealizationoftheapproachofthedirectors.Lucien JusseaumeprovidedinAntoine’s KingLear settingswithscenery onpainteddropsandafewprops.Thesettingscouldswiftrapidly behindacurtain(whiletheactorskeptperformingattheproscenium)creatinguninterruptedfluidity.ViktorSimovconstructedin Stanislavsky’s TheThreeSisters asettingthatgavetheillusionof awholeapartment.Craigusedin Hamlet screensthataddeda monumentalabstraction.His“goldenpyramid”receivedastanding ovation.EdvardMunchdesignedinReinhardt’s Ghosts asimplifiedroomandstressedvisualmotifstodepictaninnermood.In oneofhissketchesablackarmchairstoodinthecenterlikea darkomen.ClemensHolzmeisterconstructedinReinhardt’s Faust a“Fauststadt”,awholecity.Meyerhold’sdesignersweredecisive. VladimirDmitrievturnedin TheDawn totheCubo-Futuristapproach,LyubovPopovaofferedin TheMagnanimousCuckold the epitomeofstageConstructivismandVarvaraStepanovashowcased in Tarelkin’sDeath thenotionof“Eccentrism”.TraugottMüller presentedinPiscator’s Hoppla,We’reAlive! afour-tieredstructure symbolizingthesocialstructureandin Rasputin a“Globus-Bühne” coveredwithsilverfabric.WalterGropiusdesignedthe“TotalTheatre”(atechnologicalmarvelwithtwothousandseats,adjustable performanceareasandseventeenboothsoffilmandslideprojection).Balthusconstructedin TheCenci acastlewithItalianate stairways,columnsandarches.SalvadorDaliprovidedinBrook’s Salome intriguingeroticstageandcostumedesignswhileSallyJacobscreatedinBrook’s AMidsummerNight’sDream awhitebox remindingacircustent.

Elementsrelatedtotheuseoflightingarealsoaddressed.The endoftheepochofthefootlightsmarkednewchoicesforthe directors.Antoineintroducedin1888thecompletedarkeningof theauditoriuminFrance.Theinnovativetechniquesofoverhead lightingexploredbyHubertvonHerkomeropenedthewayfor Craig,amaestroofflickeringlightsandimposingshadows.Inhis AcisandGalatea thetwoloversappearedonthecenterofthe stagewithshadesofpinkandpurplelightuponthemwhiledark faceswereloominginthebackground.Thenthegiantshadowof Polyphemushoveredoverthemanddescendedtospreadterror. Acriticstatedthatthiswasthemost“realgiant”hehadeven witnessed.In Bethlehem theHolyChildwasrepresentedthrough thelightthatshoneontheshepherdslookingtowardsthecradle. In AMidsummerNight’sDream Reinhardtmadeahugeimpression withtheuseofanoverlightthatshoneinthespacealongwithan addedmoonlight.Acriticclaimedfascinatedthatthedirectorhad delivered“avasthorizonofheaven”.Later,Reinhardtwouldusea spotlighttolightthefacesoftheperformersintheexpressionistic contextof TheBeggar,makingthemappearlikeimposing“chalk ghosts”.In Jedermann,ontheotherhand,itwastheuseofnatural lightthatprevailed.CopeauinstalledinThéâtreduVieux-Colombier (withJouvet’scontribution)asystemoflightinginspiredbytheideas ofCraigandAppia.Thesystemallowedhimtoemphasizethe movementsoftheactors.Acriticnotedin TheTricksofScapin thatthestagewaslit“ruthlessly”.Artaudturnedtotheuseoflight withsinistertendencies.In AcidStomachorTheMadMother a piercingvioletspotlightkilledthecharactersonstage.

Thefunctionofsoundisanotherelementexamined.Besides theuseofmusicthisaspectincludesallthevariationsofauralapplications.Intheperiodunderexaminationsounddevelopedfrom acomplimentaryrealisticlayertoapowerfulsensorytoolforaudienceimmersion.Antoineusedtheoffstagesound(implemented bythecompanyoftheDukeofSaxe-Meiningen)in TheWeavers andasuddengunshotthatshutteredawindow(killingalsoOld Hilse)madeevenSarceyadmirethescene.Stanislavskyincorporateddistantsoundsaswellinordertocreatetheatmosphericaura ofhisChekhovperformances.In TheSeagull thedirectornoted inhisproductionplanthefarawaysoundssuchasahowlingdog

andcroakingfrogs.Andaddedsoundsofcreakinglandrailsand churchbells.Meyerholdusedmusictoreinforcethecoordination ofmovementin TristanandIsolde.In Columbine’sScarf the musicalrhythmproducedbytheKapellmeisterandhisbandlayeredthetempoofaseductiveperformance.Artaudconstructeda completesoundscapein TheCenci.Withstereophonicsoundfrom fourloudspeakersintheauditoriumhestrivedfortheimmersion oftheaudienceintheTheatreofCruelty.Thesoundmaterialhe incorporated(withtheinputofthecomposerRogerDésormière) includedmusic,vocalizationsandsoundeffects.Amongtheprerecordedsoundstherewerecathedralbells,factorysoundsbymetal objects,metronomes,thundersandwhispers.Thehauntingsoundscapewascomparedbyonecriticwiththesirensinanairraid. Piscatorraisedthetechnologicalambitionevenhigherin KingLear withthirty-twoloudspeakersontheceilingthatechoedmournful crieswhileLearwaswanderingthroughthestorm.

Text,Audience,Pedagogy

Therelationshipoftheatredirectorswiththetextisanaxis thatpermeatesthefunctionofstagedirectinginEurope.Attimes respectful,othertimesadversarialandonsomeoccasionsfully antithetical,thisparametershowcasesthetensionforthehierarchy betweenthedirectorandtheplaywright.Antoineabidedfullyto textualintegrity.In ThePowerofDarkness hecommissioneda translationthatreflectedthepeasantdialect,in TheWildDuck thetranslationbyArmandEphraimwasfaithfultotheNorwegian text,in Ghosts hebendedhisrulesandmadecuts(toavoidpublic reactions)yetreinstatedthetextinfuturerevivals.Copeau,who applaudedtheuncutversionof KingLear usedbyAntoineabided toasimilarapproach.Hehailedtheclassic“masterpieces”andthe dramaticqualityoftheplays.Craigdisruptedthepriorityofthe textandlookedbeyondwordsforhisideal“dramaofsilence”.In TheSteps hecreatedaseriesofstudiesinsceneandmovement freefromdialogueandstagedirections.Meyerholdturnedtoan episodicstructurein Columbine’sScarf,aformwithasimilareffect

withcinematicmontage.Heimplementedthesameapproachin manyofhisproductions,from Masquerade to TheForest and The GovernmentInspector.InGogol’splayhemadeextendedtextual changesdrawingfromthefirstdraftoftheplayaswellasthe novel DeadSouls.Piscatorturnedtothenotionof“TotalTheatre” wherethetextwasjustoneelementamong(moredominant)others, visualandtechnological.Hemadeextendedtextualchangesin TheRobbers reframingitsepicenter.Grotowskiimplementedinhis productionsatextualmontageandin ApocalypsiscumFiguris used excerptsfromtheGospels,DostoyevskyandT.S.Eliot.

Theoutlookofthedirectorsconcerningtheaudienceofa performanceisanothercomponentwewillilluminate.Fromthe risingofthe“fourthwall”toitsdisruptionwithEpicTheatredirectors inEuropeexploredtheaudience’sfunctioninthetheatreevent. Antoineusedinitiallythe“fourthwall”inThéâtreLibrekeeping theaudienceinastateofillusionarysuspensiontowardsthestage. InThéâtrel’Odéonheturnedtheboxseatstowardsthestageto elevatethespectator’sviewership,demolishingremnantsofsocial hierarchy.Meyerholdexpressedtheconceptofthe“Theatreof theStraightLine”thatlinkedthedirector,theactor,theauthor andthespectatorrejectingthe“theatre-triangle”thatexcludedthe spectator.In TheDawn hecreatedtheatmosphereofalive politicalassemblyandin §218 actorswereseatedintheauditorium anddebatedwiththeaudience.Artaudprioritizedtheimmersion oftheaudienceinhisTheatreofCrueltythroughthesensesof thebodyandBrook,inthe“carpetshows”hepresentedinAfrica, lookedfortheconnectionwiththeaudienceona“crudelevel”, nota“sophisticatedlevel”.Grotowskiemphasizedtheconnection withtheaudience.In Kordian thespectatorsweresittingamong theperformersandin Akropolis theywereclosetotheperformance area,yettheperformersabstainedfromcontacttoblendtensionand intimacy.Finally,theaudienceoftenenergizedthetheatreevent withoutthedirector’sconsent,fromspectatorsjokinginAntoine’s NellHorn tosurrealistsdisruptingArtaud’s ADreamPlay

Thedirectorsunderexaminationdidnotrestraintheirartistic visiontothepresentationofperformancestothepublic.They alsoaspiredtoestablishpedagogicalparadigmswiththecreation ofschools.Intheshortperiod1912-1913aseriesofrelated

initiativesemergedsimultaneouslyopeningnewhorizonsfortheatre pedagogy.StanislavskyestablishedtheFirstStudioin1912andthe SecondStudioin1916.CraigfoundedtheSchoolfortheArtof theTheatreattheArenaGoldoniinFlorencein1913.Theschool consistedoftwodivisions,onewithartistsandtheotherwithstudents.Thecurriculumincludedstagedesigning,costumedesigning, mimodrama,dancingandmarionettedesigning.Meyerholdestablishedin1913apermanenttheatrestudioinSt.Petersburg.The curriculumincludedclassesonvoiceandmovementtraining,theatre historyandacourseoncommediadell’artetaughtbyV.N.Soloviev. Thedirectortrainedyoung“Meyerholdites”attheFreeMeyerhold Workshopanddemonstrated“biomechanics”withhisstudentsin anexhibitiontothepublicin1922.CopeauopenedL’Écoledu Vieux-Colombierin1920.Thecurriculumincludedimprovisation, lessonsoncommediadell’arteandmask-makingaswellasphysical educationclasses.Lastly,PiscatorlaunchedtheDramaticWorkshop oftheNewSchoolforSocialResearchinNewYorkin1940.The curriculumincludeddirecting,acting,design,productionandmotion picturewriting.SomeofthestudentswereMarlonBrandoand TonyCurtiswhileTennesseeWilliamsalsoattended.

EasternTheatreandCommediadell’Arte

Anotheraspectexaminedthroughoutthebookistheinfluenceof EasternTheatreintheworkofthedirectors.Stanislavskyturnedto yogaandEasternphilosophytodrawinspiration.In1909heused thenotionsof“communion”and“radiation”astoolsforhisactors’ approachin AMonthintheCountry.Acopyof HathaYoga with variousnotesbyStanislavskyispreservedattheStanislavskyArchive attheMoscowArtTheatreMuseum.Craigwasalsoacquaintedwith EasternTheatreanddeliveredseveralrelatedarticlesin TheMask. From1900,whenhewatchedaperformancebyJapaneseperformer KawakamiSadayakkoattheBuckinghamPalace,to1935,whenhe metthefamousChineseactorMeiLanfang,heobservedaspectsof Easterntheatre.MeyerholdwasinspiredbyFuchsandhis Theatre oftheFuture fortheincorporationofrhythmicalmovement(an

aspectthatdrewfromEasternTheatre)whileNohtheatreoffered toCopeauamodelforthesynthesisofphysicaltechniquewithart. ArtaudhadhisfirstexperienceofEastAsianperformancein1922 whenheattendedCambodianandVietnamesedanceperformances andthesecondin1931whenhewatchedBalinesedancers.He foundinBalineseTheatreanexampleofthetheatreheenvisioned andexpressedhisthoughtsinhisessays“OntheBalineseTheatre” and“OrientalandWesternDance”.Brookwasfascinatedbya demonstrationofKathakalidancehesawbyanIndianperformer inthelate1960s.DuringhistimeinIranin1971healsocame intouchwiththelocalformsoftraditionaltheatrebeforedirecting theIndianepic TheMahabharata.Grotowskiwasinterestedin HinduMystics,madearadioproductionof Shakuntala (astory from TheMahabharata)andwasinspiredfromCaribbean,African andMiddleEasternsourcesinhislastphase.

Theappealofcommediadell’artetotheatredirectorsinEuropeduringthe20th centuryisanotherfacetexamined.From MeyerholdtoCopeaucommediadell’artebecameasourceofinspiration.Theimprovisationaldynamicsandthestockcharacters suchasthecomictricksterHarlequinenrichedtheexplorationsof thedirectorsintheatricalityandacting.Meyerholdwasinterested incommediadell’artethroughtheprismofthe“balagan”,thetraditionalRussianfairgroundbooth.Hisrelevantinterestwasreflected inperformancessuchas TheFairgroundBooth, Columbine’sScarf and DonJuan whileinhisessay“TheFairgroundBooth”noted thatthecentraldeviceofthisform(thatmixedfarcewithtragicelements)wasthe“grotesque”.Theinfluenceofthebalaganallowed himtobreakawayfromstylizationandexplorethefluidmoods ofacharacter’s“masks”aswellastheplayfulconnectionwiththe audience.Thecommediadell’artefeverwasrisinginRussia,intheoryandpractice.In1914Evreinov’stheoreticalbook ProScena Sua waspublishedwithaHarlequinonthetitlepage,in1920 Tairovpresented PrincessBrambilla withcommediadell’artemotifs andtechniqueswhilein1922Vakhtangov’smasterpiece Princess Turandot echoedsimilarinfluences.Craigwasalsointriguedby commediadell’artebothasatypologyandahistoricalentity.In 1912hepublishedthearticle“TheCharactersoftheCommedia dell’Arte:AListCompleted”.Tenyearslater,in1923,hewent

further.Inhiswell-illustratedbook Scene hepresentedthefour phasesoftheatre’sevolutionandcommediadell’artedominatedthe thirdphase.Copeauwasalsointerestedincommediadell’arteand thepossibilitiesofitsuseinarenewedapproach.Thisnotion, sharedbyDullinandMartinduGard,wascirculatinginFrancein theearlyyearsofWWI.Thespontaneity,simplicityandhumor ofcommediadell’artecouldfunctionasanantidoteindarktimes. Atthesametimethiswasavitalproposalagainsttheworn-out conventionsoftheboulevardtheatreandtheausteretraditionofthe Comédie-Française.Copeauappliedtheactingdynamicsofferedby commediadell’arteintheperformanceswithhisVieux-Colombier company,forexamplein TheTricksofScapin whereswiftphysicalityprevailed.Inaddition,thedirectorinvestigatedwithLesCopiaus hisvisionforanewimprovisationalcomedytitled“comédienouvelle”.Hiscollaboratorsinventedtypesthroughimprovisationand woremasks.Thestocktypesofcommediadell’artewerealsoexploredinBurgundy,withCopeauturningtoPantalon,JeanVillard toPedrolinoandJeanDastétoHarlequin.

The aim of this book is the examination of ten theatre directors in Europe from the end of the 19th century to the end of the 20th century. From the establishment of Théâtre Libre by the French director André Antoine in 1887 to the performative Action by the Polish director Jerzy Grotowski in 1995. From the time that Naturalism arrived on stage causing critical turbulence to the era of Postdramatic Theatre.

Introduction, p. 9.