Journal of International Buddhist Studies (JIBS)

ISSN 1906-6244 VOL.7 NO.2/2016

JOURNAL

OF INTERNATIONAL BUDDHIST STUDIES (JIBS)

Buddhist Research Institute

Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University

Thailand

Journal of International Buddhist Studies (JIBS) is published in June and December by Buddhist Research Institute. The journal features articles and research notes/articles in the fields of Buddhist Studies and the Social Sciences and Humanities. Its aim is to encourage and disseminate scholarly contributions by the University’s faculty members and researchers.

Well researched, innovative works by other scholars are welcome. A review committee consisting of academic experts in the relevant fields will screen all manuscripts, and the editorial board reserves the right to recommend revision/alteration, if necessary, before their final acceptance for publication.

Advisory Board

Prof.Dr.Phra Brahmapundit Rector of Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University

Dr.Phra Rajworamethee Vice-Rector for Administration, MCU Asst. Prof.Dr.Prasuwanmethaphorn Vice-Rector for Planning and Development, MCU Phra Rajavoramuni Vice-Rector for Student Affairs, MCU Phra Sophonvachiraphorn Vice Rector for Foreign Affairs, MCU

Editor-in-Chief

Dr.Phramaha Suthit Aphakaro Director of Buddhist Research Institute, MCU

Assistant Editors

Phramaha Kriangsak Inthapanyo Assoc.Prof.Antikar Rongsa-ard Asst.Prof.Jaruwan Ploydongrat Dr.Apissada Srikhruedong Miss.Amonnat Faikure

Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Chulalongkorn University King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University

Editorial Board Members Prof.Dr.Phrarajapariyatkavi

Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Assoc.Prof.Dr.Phra Suthithammanuwat Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Assoc.Prof.Dr.Phramaha Boonlert Inthapanyo Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Dr.Phrkhruphiphitsutathorn Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Pro.Dr.Boonthan Dokthaisong Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Assoc.Prof.Dr. Suraphon Suyaphrom Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Prof.Dr.Chamong Adiwathanasit Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Asst.Prof.Dr.Banjob Bannaruji Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Prof.Dr.Anurak Panyanuwat Chiang Mai University

Prof.Dr.Surichai Wankaew Prof.Dr.Kanchana Ngourungsi Assoc.Prof.Dr.Jaruwan Khampetch Asst.Prof.Dr.Suvin Raksat Asst.Prof.Dr.Cholvit Jearajit Asst.Prof.Chawalit Khaokhiew Asst.Prof.Dr.Chainarong Klinnoy Asst.Prof.Dr.Sombat Mangmeesukhsiri Dr.Amnaj Buasiri Asst.Prof.Dr.Vuthinant Kantatian

Chulalongkorn University Naresuan University Srinakharinwirot University Mahamakut Buddhist University Srinakharinwirot University Silpakorn University Silpakorn University Silpakorn University National Buddhist Office Mahidol University

International Editorial Board Prof.Dr.Yukio Hayashi Prof.Dr.Vibhash Chandra Jha Prof.Kate Crosby

Dr.Shi Jing Peng

Dr.Tin Tin Lay

Administration Phramaha Serichon Narisaro Phramaha Chutipak Aphinando Phrapalad Precha Chotipanyo Phramaha Nanthawit Thirapattho Phramaha Somyot Suthisiri Mr.Bordinphat Saibut Mr.Thananrat Phrasertsil

Kyoto University, Japan VISVA-BHARATI, India King’s College London, UK Southwest University, China International Theravada Missionary Buddhist University, Myanmar

Table of contents 1. Phrakru Pariyatkkittithamrong................................................................. 1 The effects of alcohol consumption in Thai society 2. Pairor Makcharoen ................................................................................... 12 The Buddhist Concept as a Solution to the Environmental Crisis 3. W.M. Dhanapala ....................................................................................... 21 A Study on the Impacts of Religious Response to the Repercussions of War 4. Phaitoon Suanmafai .................................................................................. 33 A Pattern of the Dhamma Practice toward the Buddhist Quality of Life Development in Roi-Et 5. Phrarajapariyatti....................................................................................... 42 The Religion Educational Management for Buddhism Propagation in the Greater Mekong Sub-region Country 6. Wongsakorn Permphol ............................................................................. 57 The Transfer Pattern of Culture, Customs, Belief of Birth, Old Age, Sickness and Death Effected the Mutual Support in the Community of Wat Kalaya District, Thonburi Amphur, Bangkok Metropolitan 7. Panya namsanga......................................................................................... 66 The Concept of Charity in Buddhism Philosophy 8. Phramaha Khittithanade Ananda............................................................ 78 The Application of Buddhist Participation to the Conflict Managementin Wat Noi Nang Hong Community, Singburi Province 9. Kirtiraj D C ............................................................................................... 88 Scheduled Castes, Conversions and Socio-economic differentials :A Comparative Study of two social Groups in Maharashtra State 10. Budi Hermawan......................................................................................... 98 Borobudur Temple as Buddhist Pilgrimage Destination in Indonesia: An Analysis of Factors that Affect Visit Intention 11. Ida Bagus Putu Suamba.......................................................................... 111 Dang Hyang Astapaka And His Cultural Geography In Spreading Vajrayana Buddhism In Medieval Bali 12. Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani ..................................................... 123 Sukhothai Kingdom: The Golden Age of Buddhism 13. Nipapat Yoophum .................................................................................... 133 Buddhist Wisdom Health Care- Identities in the Cultural Geography of the ASEAN Community 14. Nimanong Treekasem ............................................................................ 140 The Management of Dhamma Retreat Affected Theologians’ Satisfaction at Wat Pradu Song Tham in Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Province 15. PhramahaKraisron Sotipanyo................................................................ 150 Buddhist Promoting Mental Health of the Elderly in the Community.

16. Tayat Sriplung ............................................................................ 154 Buddhist Psychology Past Life Regression Therapy 17. Review of Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse(1961)......................................163 "What makes you not a Buddhist"

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 1

The effects of alcohol consumption in Thai society Phrakhrupariyattikittithamrong

Faculty of Social Science Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand.

Author for correspondence; e-mail: pariyatikittithamrong@homail.com

Abstract

The purpose of this research; The effects of alcohol in Thai socciety, is to study alcohol-related behaviors in Thai citizens and how this action affects their lives on daily basis, to learn about the withdrawal process, to suggest preventions to decrease alcoholic habits and to support life improvement of the residents who reside in Saodiew Subdistrict, Nhonghong District Burirum Province. The founding results regarding habitant’s alcohol behavior suggest that 100% of those people were former drinkers, 60% initially started drinking when they were under the age of twenties.

A motive of attempt the first alcohol consuming is socialization and a personal desire. Alcohol-related behaviors lead to health problems such as hypertension, alcoholism, and vehicle accidents, that could also result in the absence in workplace, family arguments, aggressive actions like; destroying objects in houses, fighting with neighbors. However, after discussing about the problems and solution, there were some helpful activities created in order to help drinkers’ reduce their alcoholic habits, for example, the village have granted several activities such as a campaign to prevent alcohol problems, a project called Sila 5 Village, severself organisation according to the village constitution or Thammanoon choomchon, a course for alcohol withdrawal guideline, Buddhism teachings, which can be applied in our everyday life, and activities to establish relationships in the village. The alcohol withdrawal practices and the principle improvement of people includes 1) Buddhist practices (The Five Percepts) 2) Health principles 3) Local supports from temples institution, the village, Local Administrative Organization and 4) activities for village relation. Those four items mentioned are positively influential in people’s alcohol habits; they help improve health conditions and quality of life.

Keywords : the effects of alcohol consumption, alcohol withdrawal, Buddhist Practices Introduction

Nowadays, our world has always been involved with constant evolutions and developments. There are plenty of changes in term of economics, societies, politics, technology improvements and so on. Those changes somehow have a great impact on how Thai people live their lives,

2: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

they also allow Thai people to re-create and construct life practices in order to conform global changes. However, some actions might not give the positive results due to the changes. To illustrate, Thai people are likely to get infected by incommunicable disease such as smoking, drinking, energy drink consumption, unhealthy diets, obesity, being overweighed, so on and so forth. There are possibilities that in a near future, the incommunicable illnesses may high up its levels into some other disease, which are more complicated and hazardous such as Stroke, Heart Disease, High blood pressure, Diabetes etc. The health problems mentioned are the consequences of ill-usage intoxicants. At present, the United States of American, Canada, Norway, and United Kingdom see the importance of citizens’ wellbeing and they are constantly looking for new solutions to cope with these incommunicable sicknesses. Moreover, excessive alcohol consumption can cause negative results, for example, if someone has a hangover, or temporary sickness from drinking alcohol, they would not be able to be responsible for their duties at work. They can also cause harms to other people. This report discusses physical illness of excessive drinker in the next section. A serious outcome of alcohol consumption is a severe injury from a car accident. People should bear in mind that the measured amount of alcohol concentration in the blood will decrease the capability of body movements, which can generate narcosis and indecisive opinions and decisions, therefore, drinkers tend to have unexpected incidents such as car accidents.

In Thailand, it was found that incommunicable disease is a silent disaster, which negatively causes a great deal depletion of Thai citizens. The number of patients suffering from Diabetes, Stroke, High blood pleasure and Heart disease, have been consistently increased. The symptoms itself also intensify day-by-day, the consequence of those illnesses, therefore, by no means, lead to deaths. Worl Healt Organization (WHO) suggests that the solution of incommunicable diseases is to have evidence-based practices. They are included 4 factors, 1) The adjustment of environment that helps distant people from the disease 2) The adjustment of behaviors and way of life 3) The encouragement of raising awareness by the village principles 4) The protection and disease control, in order to lessen the risk of being sick, to minimize negative effects of the illness, to prevent disability from complication diseases, to prolong lives of the patients. This factor alone, can reduce medical fees in a long term.

Alcoholic drink can cause tremendous amount of problems, which are associated with health conditions, domestic issues in family, vehicle accidents, and crimes. They also destroy economically and socially overall image of the nation. In order to control alcohol consumption of the citizens, and reduce the negative effects in term of Economics, emotions, and spirits, there should be some means to promote people’s heaths; constructing a strong awareness of the disadvantage of alcohol and, abstaining the youths from drinking. The effects of alcohol drinking, apart from physical

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 3

problems, is Cirrhosis, liver cancer or heart disease. Moreover, there is also mental illness that stems from drink too much alcohol.

The environment of where the people reside in can also indicates negative behaviors and outcomes, such as the loss of asset from the accidents, family problems, bad health condition, crime and the absence at work.

In Saodiew sub-district, Nhonghong district Burirum province, there are various kinds of Buddhist activities such as religious ceremony, which can be held occasionally at the house or at the temple. However, these religious practices have always been involved with alcoholic drinks. To solve the problem, the abbot of Nayao temple, Asst. Prof.

Prakrupriyatkittithamrong, together with the committee, who are also abbots from other temples, Subdistrict Headman, Village Headman, Assistant Village Headman, Member of the Subdistrict Council and principles of every school, granted a meeting in order to discuss about the alcohol issues in the religious events. They came up with many campaigns to practically reduce any alcohol consumption in religious events. This also generated a certain awareness in other village, that people from neighbor village has adopted the campaign and applied successfully as well.

In Saodiew sub-district, Nhonghong district Burirum province can be addressed as a significant role model regarding their distribution for minimizing alcoholic actions. Especially, in Nayao temple. For example, in Nayao temple, alcoholic consumption is strictly prohibited both inside and outside the temple.

Alcoholic effects and problems mentioned above drew the author’s intention to initiate doing this research. However, the author scoped the dimension of this report, to focus more about the effects of Alcohol drinking in Thai people’s everyday life. In doing so, the author’s expectation is to find the way to diminish violence within family institution, vehicle accidents, and other problems, which are caused by alcohol consumption in order to improve Thai citizens’ way of life.

Purposes 1. To study alcoholic behaviors of Thai people 2. To study the effects of alcohol consumption in Thai society 3. To study an alcohol withdrawal procedure and life developments of villagers who live in Saodiew sub-district, Nhonghong district Burirum province Methodology

The research The effects of alcohol consumption in Thai society was conducted by the methods of documentary research, qualitative research, and quantitative research, which is also involved with mixed methodology research.

1) Documentary study, in this method, the author studied and collected a great deal of relevant documents needed such as Tripitaka, exegesis,

4: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

books, researches, reports, meeting minutes, and other evidences, which are related to the concept of alcohol withdrawal. Moreover, this research also studied Five Percepts in Buddhism in order to explore more about the methods to reduce alcohol consumption.

2) Quantitative Research was involved with action research, which allowed the author to take actions in a real environment in order to improve the process of alcohol withdrawal in the village. The author also became a member of Sila 5 Village project and had an opportunity to collect information from monks, village headmen, government and private representatives, in total 21 persons. They were regarded as representatives of the targeted group people. Purposive sampling method was conducted relatively to the significance of the research, which can be summarized as followwas Results 1. Alcoholic condition of the representative samples.

According to the survey of 150 participants, which contained males 69.34 %, 46.66% is at the age of 31 – 40 years old, 64% of participants worked as farmers, 78.66% has families with more than three members.

Morever, 60% of the representatives were former drinkers and 60% started drinking when they were under 20 years old. The incident that had them attempt the first try was the fact that they were curious about how did it taste like, and what was the effect of it. Rice whiskey was found the majority liquor of their first try. During the interviews and some conversation with monks, village headmen, government and private representatives, it was discovered that alcoholic habits of people in the village costing a lot of money.

Number of participants 200

Expenses for buy alcohol 56,000 Baht

House-blessing ceremony

150

40,000 Baht

Wedding ceremony

200

60,000 Baht

Religious ceremony

350-500

30,000-50,000 Baht

30-50

15,000 Baht

1 (Adult)

2,000 Baht

Activities Funeral

Party Expenses for buy a alcohol per month

The record of a conversation with the leaders of the village, March 25, 2014

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 5

The alcohol-related situation in Saodiew sub-district, Nhonghong district Burirum province, costing a highly amount of money, is one of the social values that is quite difficult to wear away from the society.

Nevertheless, all the leaders are still working at their best in order to solve this alcohol problem.

2. Reasons for drinking alcohol

1) Curiosity to try

It is an instinct of human beings that they always want to try something, which they have never tried or experienced before, especially among teenagers. They see alcoholic use as a part of the normal teenage experience that is; new, fun and excited. They also see their parents or other adults enjoy drinking as something normal.

2) Friend encouragement

Sometimes when ones are urged by their friends to try alcohol, it is not easy for them to say no, especially when those people want to fit in in the community. They do not dare to reject the invitation; moreover, some people think that drinking is an important element to unitize the friendship.

3) The ability to produce liquor by oneself.

Some family has their business, which is involved with producing alcoholic drinks, rice whiskey. Therefore, alcohol consumption takes part in their life unavoidably.

4) The idea that alcohol is legal.

Many people have a wrong perception of alcohol, for example, they think that alcohol is legal. Unlike any other substance abuse such amphetamine that is strong prohibited by law and can be considered as crime, hence, the amount of alcohol consumption level is higher than other substance abuse.

5) Social value and traditional belief

Since in the past, alcohol drinks have been seen as a symbol of cerebration, even in religious events in Buddhist realm. For example, in House-blessing ceremony, wedding, ordination ceremony, and funeral, the host of the occasion often prepares alcohol drink for the guests. Therefore, for those people who were born and raised in this society see that drinking alcohol is socially acceptable and normal.

6) The belief that liquor can represent power of male

In many societies, it is quite usual that men always drink and partake in substance use. In doing so, it shows that men in the society are courage, powerful and admirable. Hence, people tend to believe that drinking could make them dominant and outstanding in the community and family institution.

7) Tension

One of the reason of drinking alcohol is they believe that drinking can relive stress and minimize the pain in some sickness after harvesting.

Moreover, the effect of liquor is known for a temporary treatment that can bring the drinkers joys and relaxation. So, drinking for reliving stress has

6: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

become a reason that people continue drinking.

8) Marketing strategies and commercial.

Recently, there are a lot of distributions and promotions from the merchandise, for example, buy 1 beer get 1 soda for free or buy 1 liquor get 1 liquor, in both a small and big market. This strategy of marketing works successfully that it has a long-term effect in encouraging people to drink continuously.

3. The effects of alcohol consumption in Thai society

According to a meeting and a conduction of in-depth interview, the author discovered the details of alcoholic effects in Thai society as follows

1. The effects of alcohol consumption on individuals and family, as stated in a group interview, they share some similarities.

1) The major problems, which are caused by drinking, are hangover, nauseous and can get angry easily.

2) Health problems such as gastritis, physical injury, and cirrhosis.

3) Mental health crisis such as depression, suicidal thought,and physical harms of others.

4) Family argument

5) Economic issues, it is mostly because of a redundant amount of money that is spent on buying alcohol. Sometimes, too much alcoholic expense can lead to being in debt.

6) The most problems found in the society is, verbally poor behaviors such as yelling, hurting people, being rude, and being aggressive.

2. The effects of alcohol consumption in the village, according to a group interview, it was found that, in Nhonghong district, there was some patients suffering from chronic illness in total 1,384 people. As matter of fact, the majority of those people were elderly. Small quarrels amongst drinkers occurred from time to time. Crime took place approximately 7 – 9 cases a year. Also, there were cases that the government has taken a fully responsibility, such as substance abuse, vehicle accidents, and drunk driving.

4. Alcohol withdrawal procedures and life-quality development of the villagers in Saodiew subdistrict, Nonghong district, Burirum Province.

After studying causes and problems of alcohol consumption, as well as the effects and behaviors, working with the leaders and headmen in a district level, the author discovered that monks, the leaders and the villagers have a strong attempt to get rid of alcohol drinking in the community. The methods include;

1) Campaign for supporting alcoholic withdrawal

2) Participation of Sila 5 Village project

3) Setting a policy and managing it in accordance with Community Charter

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 7

4) A course for educating and rasing awareness of the disadvantges of alcoholic drinks

5) Buddhism teaches

6) Activity of Community Relation

7) Evaluations and results

Each procedure is associated with Buddhism practices and local knowledge selected partially in order to meet the purpose of alcohol withdrawal principles. After following those schemes, the tendency of alcohol consumption has been declined. Additionally, the main purpose of this study is to see the improvement of the residents’ lives, to perceive that 350 people in the community pragmatically gain some knowledge and be able to understand the disadvantages of drinking alcohol, also to be able to adapt Buddhism practices to apply to their lives on daily basis.

On acting upon the alcohol-related project of withdrawal, the temples and community initiated certain procedures.

1. Conducting educational sessions, for example, this process provides proper knowledge of alcohol-related facts, job consultation, local regulations, sufficiency economy strategies and Buddhism principles.

2. Undertaking a practical session, this, includes chant routine, praying, meditation in different gestures, toleration training, public relations, rhetoric skills and the ability to abstain a desire for drinking.

3. Community relation practices, such as imposing a policy by having the leaders of each village apply to their administrative districts.

Some of the policy is the activity to support morality and virtue, action for public interest, primary health care service, movements against substance abuse, and other religious activities.

Successful results of these procedures vary in different dimension, for example, the residents tend to have better knowledge about negative effects of the alcohol and the leaders finally pay important roles in convincing their people to lessen their alcoholic habits, in their everyday lives and in Buddhism events. Moreover, it can also be set as community regulation in the village.

5. Procedures and guidance for alcohol withdrawal and life-quality development of the residents in Saodiew subdistrict, Nonghonh district, Burirum province.

According to the outcomes of the process, we perceive that those methods are associated highly with Buddhism principles and concepts, such as Sila 5 Village project. Being a part in this project allows the villagers to be more aware of the drinking effects. Eventually, people would resign for this kind of habit.

8: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

The results are also found effectively positive, which can be summarized as follows;

1) Buddhism practices (the Five Percepts) and Buddhsim lifestyle.

The residents adopted various kinds of Buddhism principles in order to help them abstaining from intoxicants like alcohol. Moreover, monks were encouraged to work and people ware supported to join occasional religious events such as Buddhist holy days, Visakabucha day, the Buddhist lent day, and the end of Buddhist lent day.

2) Health principles practices. Such as maintaining a healthy life mentally and physically, promoting a development of one’s life in order to have a better quality of life, reducing alcohol-related behaviors would help in this part.

3) Local Administrative Organization’s supports. The department has set regulations, community constitution, which is relative to Buddhism principles encouragement that the provincial government is responsible for.

As well as, the support on occupation and the strength of the community

4) Activities for community relations such as the celebration of the Auspicious of His Majesty the King’s Birthday, national days, and other community improved events. The leaders’ propose of granting the events as such are to promote a unity of the residents.

Discussion

According to what this research has found, the amount of alcohol

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 9

consumption amongst adults and teenagers in this village is in a high level, therefore, there is various of negative effects; financial issues, daily routines activities, and work life. The results of this study are relative to Swannee Sangartit’s research, discussing about predictable factors lead to a consumption of substance abuses among teenagers. It was found that young participants in this study had more risky behaviors in term of taking intoxicants than other teenagers. 66.89 % and 55.45 % of the participants were suffering from chronic illness.

The causes of obtaining substance abuse such as smoking, drinking and drug addiction is sex relationship in the family, and friends support.

Meanwhile, Sirinut Suguntha and et al studied about behaviors of alcohol consumption of Chiangmai residents. The results were found that the majority of drinkers was males, whose ages were about 18-60 years old and 93.3% taking alcohol drinks of socialization. Their first try took place in festivals, or religious events.

The effects of alcohol consumption, 45.5% of drinkers, once encountered vehicle accidents, and 35.3% admitted that they were physically harmed. Also, 63.7% of the participants regarded drinking was a waste-of-money behaviors, 48.7% said drinking help relieving stress.

Additionally, there was majority of participant, who were not likely to stop consuming alcoholic drink, though, they know that such a behavior was terribly dreadful and could lead to many unfavorable outcomes.

The problems, obstacles, and alcohol withdrawal procedures as follows;

1) At present, alcohol consumption rate has been raising drastically, especially amongst teenagers whose ages are under 20 years old. This brings to a great deal of drawbacks in their health and life quality.

2) Alcohol supplementary prepared for festivals and religious events, which is socially considered as one of the social value. As a result, it can be seen as a hard work to drop down this action entirely.

3) Alcohol accessibility is mightily convenient. In the village, the merchandisers are encouraged to sell alcohol by the manufactured company. They are offered a lot of promotions and good deals. Therefore, it benefits greatly for the costumers.

4) There is a liquor and rice whiskey company in the village, so it is easy to buy alcoholic drinks.

5) Although, being aware and realize the disadvantages of alcohol consuming such as High blood pressure disease and other negative actions like being in unconscious state, fights and arguments, accident proneness, people in the village still drink alcohol.

Solutions of alcohol-related problems

1) Parents should be role models for their children. To illustrate, they should not display such a behavior like consuming alcohol in front of their kids. Alcohol consumption within family can be a huge impact on how the youth make decision on drinking.

2) Young people should be cultivated and educated about the skill

10: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

of self-control, and the awareness of alcohol-related damaging effects.

Being able to stay conscious and know what is right will be prevention for imitative behaviors of family members, who consume alcohol drinks.

Additionally, young people will also be able to make better decision when they encounter alcohol-related occasions.

3) Family agreement should be taken up. If each family member set domestic rules; alcohol consumption is strictly prohibited among every family members. The amount of this intoxicated use will be decreased. If this rule is applied in real situation, it will strengthen alcohol withdrawal campaign and make it more effective.

4) Building a foundation of a strong healthy family can be a good protection against risky alcoholic behaviors. To illustrate, if family members are happy and get along well, they will tend to solve problem and go through a hard times together without depending on alcohol-related use.

5) Alcohol withdrawal should be applied and supplemented in every organization in other area.

6) All residents should be part of the alcohol withdrawal procedures.

In doing so, it will help finding practical methods for better outcomes regarding the reduction of alcoholic behaviors found in festivals and religious events.

7) All organizations should perform and make more efforts in order to lessen the use of alcoholic beverages. Organization should corporately create campaign, which is involved with a skill of self-control, communication skill, and promotion of healthy relationship in family Suggestion

1) Community and temples should further this research in order to apply the results to other Buddhist organizations, villages, or communities.

They can join Sila 5 Village project and also form their own relevant methods themselves.

2) Government sector, local administrative organization and others associations should sustain this research, or even supplement the study in relation to what they have done, especially the section for raising awareness of the alcohol-related effects

3) Temples, educational institutions and community should publicize guidebooks or small alcohol-effect document to promote alcohol withdrawal.

4) Researchers and scholars should study this subject, specifically, about ongoing results of Sila 5 Village project in other areas, for the benefits of associated organizations. Moreover, the improvement of community activity should be acted upon; there should be practices that related to Buddhist principles.

5) There should be the study of alcohol-related effects in provincial areas of Thailand. This is, for learning more about similarities, in-depth

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 11

information, and the updates of the procedures.

6) There should be the study of the effects of alcohol consumption in young Thai people or working-aged group of people. In order to see the differences that can lead to development of better and worthier life.

7) There should be the study of alcoholic effects in festivals, important days and other events in Thailand.

References Bandit Sornpaisan et al.(2553 BE). Annual Report the situation Liquors Bangkok: Research Center Alcohol problems.

Callinicos, A.(2007). Social Theory. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Polity.

Chambers, R.(2005) Ideas for Development. London: Earthscan.

Farmer, P.(2004).Pathologies of Power: Health, Human Rights and the New War on the Poor. University of California Press.

Koon Thokan.(2545 BE).Buddhism Sociall and Culture in Thailand.

Bangkok: Publisher Odeon store.

Narayan, D. and Petesch, P.(2002). Voices of the Poor from Many Lands.

New York: Oxford University Press.

Pitak Suriyajai.(2548 BE) Causes of Alcoholism Causes of Alcoholism and Access to the treatments of the Alcoholics Drugs Treatment Center Chiang Mai. Chiang Mai. Ministry of Health Department of Medical.

Pisit Sriprasert et al.(2548 BE).The solution problem of drug an Integrative Project Center Kwan Nan. Nan Provincial Health Office.

Pra Dhammapitaka (P.O Prayutho).(2546 BE).Dictionary of Buddhism Version total Dhamma Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University.

Schumacher, E.F.(1975).Buddhist Economics: an Economics of Permanence, Institute for the Study of Nonviolence. New York: Harper & Row.

12: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

The Buddhist Concept as a Solution to the Environmental Crisis Dr. Pairor Makcharoen

Nakhon Pathom Rajabhat University,Thailand Author for correspondence; e-mail: m.pairor@gmail.com

Abstact The Buddhist concept and the mainstream economy concept derive from “craving”, both of them are totally different in every dimension.

Buddhist concept can cover flaws and propose better ways to conserving the environment and solving environmental crisis. The Buddhist concept is proposed to replace mainstream economy concept and the paradigm shift should be implemented as fast as possible. New paradigm shift will systematically lead to the new form of economy and society which are environmentally friendly, induce sustainable development and strike a balance between body and mind later.

Keyword : Buddhist Concept, Solution, the Environmental Crisis Introduction

At present, the environment crisis is one of the most important problems affecting both economy and society. The devastation of the environment is not a problem of one particular country but it is a global phenomenon (D. Pearce, J.J. Warford as cited in Preecha Piampongsan,1997).

According to the Limits to Growth Model of MTI University which was the most famous economic and environmental model presented in 1972 by D.H. Meadow and improved in 1992 under the name “Beyond the LimitGlobal Collapse of Sustainable Future”, this research team concluded that the Limits to Growth Model can be used for forecasting although it has been 20 years. From this model, there were three conclusions (D.H. Meadows,et. al as cited in Preecha Piampongsan,1997) ; 1. If the expansion of world population, industries, pollution, food producing and deterioration of resources continue, the limit of the growth will be reached within 100 years. The consequence is the prompt recession in terms of population and industrial production capacity.

2. The way to change this expansion is to create the conditions for stability in terms of economy and sustainable ecology. The development and the use of new technology can not help people get away from the crisis.

3. The major characteristic of the model is the “overshoot” or the development that is beyond the limit, leading to the collapse. If people decide to follow the means of sustainable development, it should be implemented very fast.

From the conclusion of the Limits to Growth Model, it can be seen

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 13

that the current methods to solve the environmental problem using science and technology tackle only at the end of the root causes. Besides, the conclusion of this model allows us to realize that the sustainable solution to the environmental crisis requires paradigm shift of economic system.

The report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) under the name “Brundtland Report” proposes that, to achieve sustainable development, economy and environment can not be separated.

Because they have interaction, the sustainable development is possible when the means are different from nowadays. The environmental issues must be incorporated with the planning of macroeconomics and microeconomics (Preecha Piampongsan,1997) policies. Moreover, Peter Russell mentioned in “Waking Up in Time” that the exact root cause of the environmental problem is the wrong consciousness. The solution to the crisis we are facing does not depend on material change or external mechanism, but on the change from inside or conscious.

He proposed concrete methods for an extension of conscious; from narrow-minded to the change of consciousness (Sorrayut Ratanapojnard,1997).

This information emphasizes that the root cause of environmental crisis derives from the concept which people pay attention to their physical existence and try to find things to serve their needs stimulated by mainstream economic trend. The more the influence of consumerism becomes stronger following globalization, the more people are self-centered and consume unthinkingly. This brings about the lack of consciousness and the lack of the sense of belonging for the environment. Besides, people think that the environment is to respond to people’s needs and satisfaction. This concept leads to the exploitation of resources and the destruction of the environment without awareness of bad results.

The major cause of environmental crisis is from the economic system based on the concept about relationship between human and environment.

This is influenced by mainstream economics and consumerism leading to the false paradigm. The change of concept about relationship between human and environment to create new world view in terms of economy and environment to solve problems in the long term must be done instantly before it is too late. James Lovelock, owner of the Gala Theory mentioned in “The Revenge of Gala: Earth’s Climate in Crisis and the Fate of Humanity” published in B.E. 2549 that ecological system has passed the crisis or the point of no return. Henceforth, even though people attempt to solve the problem, they cannot get away from the enormous ecological disaster.

Within this century, billion of people will die from natural disaster owing to an enormous change of world’s climate.

However, Irvin Laszlo, author of the book “The Chaos Point : The World at the Crossroads” who exhibits Chaos Theory predicts that humans still have little times to change their behavior contributing to our changing planet to bring about sustainable development. If humans still neglect and adhere to their familiar behavior and use a lot of energy, the world will permanently fall (Sawai Boonma,2007).From the mentioned predictions, the

14: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

two academics have the same opinion that the world has come to crisis and there is an urgent need to a large-scale change in the concept about humans and environment to create new consciousness enhancing sustainable development.

This new concept should not rely only on the environmental-friendly activities but also correct mistakes due to the mainstream concept. In this article, the writer will present the new concept based on Buddhist Teachings as an option for sustainable development and criticize the problem of the old concept from the mainstream economy that leads to the environmental problem. The details are as follows; Mainstream Concept

E.F. Shumacher, ecological economist mentioned in the book “Small is Beautiful” that the environmental deterioration comes from people’s lifestyles in the new era based on some basic beliefs. This fact specifies that environmental crisis occurring around the world comes from views and ethics existing in the mainstream economics.(E.F. Schumacher as cited in Preecha Piampongsan , 1997) From E.F. Shumacher, mainstream economic system is a free-trade economy based on the economic system of Neoclassical school ( This is an economics school which has been founded and developed at the end of 19 th century. Major concept of Neoclassic school mostly has been carried on and adapted from the concept of classic school led by Adam Smith.) highly influenced by Utilitarianism. This system is taking humanity to critical conditions because mainstream economics emphasize the achievement of economical goal by individual’s decision. It focuses on personal benefits based on consumption and quantity. Therefore, it creates a conflict between personal ethics and social ethics which cannot be compatible. When there is an ethical conflict, especially the one that is relevant to the environment, individual will select to protect their personal benefits rather than public benefits.

In addition, the concept of Neoclassical economics has a view on humans as machines or small mechanisms in the society which tend to be selfcentered and express themselves in doing something for their own benefits which is called “selfishness”. Individual will seek the most satisfied things.

Consequently, this concept has an opinion that humans have a reason to select the best method to receive the best thing with the least loss. The best human qualification indicator is quantitative indicator measured from prosperity or property. Social benefits are measured from the national income, public utilities and material prosperity, etc.( Soontaraporn Techapalokul,1990 :11-13)

The perfect humans in this concept are the ones who judge logically based on complete information responsive to their needs. They think simply about effectiveness, perceive life merely as a labor or one of production materials. They are not interested in methods but ultimate goal they would like to achieve; prosperity. This perfect human being is specifically called Economic Man or Homo Economicus (Piti Srisangnam Retrieved 12 March

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 15

2009. From http://mblog.manager.co.th/piti31/th-18607/) It can be seen that this concept focuses on the responses to individual’s needs. They believe that prosperity is the real happiness and is able to be measured from quantity and objects.

Jeremy Benthem influenced by John Locke believed that desire is the feeling that creates pain. Although Locke did not clearly understand desire, he said that humans need to compensate their pain with pleasure (For more details, see John Locke, Essay on Human Understanding.) which lead to Bentham’s concept that human rationale push human forward to perform to seek happiness and avoid pain .(Soontaraporn Techapalokul,1990 :59-61) This leads to the creation of Utilitarianism. Later, it was improved

by John Stuart Mille who took spiritual value into consideration. He considered short-term and long-term consequences and explain the Greatest Happiness Principle. It is said that people do something aiming for benefits or happiness. The right action is the one that brings about the largest amount of happiness. This happiness is not only for oneself but also for the public.

Although the Utilitarianism is not famous nowadays, this concept is still a mechanic behind the decision making of individual and collective group such as government in terms of economy, politics and society which induce environmental crisis. This is because this concept is related to common sense of humans with desires. The clear example is the government’s decision to deforest so as to construct a dam. This is the decision for benefits of majority and majority’s types of happiness are to have good public utilities from the dam construction. This can be seen even the economic and social policy of every Thai government. This happiness should be concrete, touched by our senses, focusing on physical appearance, measured by quantity and provide fast outcomes. They do not consider abstract happiness, happiness of other lives or protection of global benefits or descendant’s benefits in the future.

If we consider carefully, even the solution to environmental crisis at present occur because humans need to survive and live happily. Therefore, we cannot deny that the solution to the problem is based on beneficial concept aiming at physical happiness of humans. Therefore, it is not possible to solve the environmental problem sustainably, if we adhere to the mainstream economy concept which considers the importance of human.

Additionally, the concept of mainstream economy leads to social concept which considers the human nature as power and picture of the society. When humans are machines and small mechanics, the society is a large machine which combines small mechanics together. The power controlling humans to move and attract each other is “will” of human which creates the harmony of mutual benefits. This concept contributes to free- trade economy system (Soontaraporn Techapalokul,1990: 11). It can bee seen that this concept do not mention environment, nature or other value apart from humans. If something else is mentioned, these are only tools to conduct activities in response to human’s needs. Therefore, there is unsurprisingly the crisis of environmental problem. Because people

16: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

focus on themselves, activities are for creating happiness and relieving individual distress. This concept leads to methods, theories, procedures and creation of economy and social system which have been harming the environment. Knowledge of science and technology are merely the tools to create happiness for humans. People dominated by this mainstream economy believe that the economic prosperity, the large consumption of materials and the high profits are the ultimate success and goal. This contributes to the view that sees things separately. G.T. Miller, an ecologist, mentions about the view of people in the new industrial society is “Throwaway world view” or “frontier world view”. It is believed that humans are separate from nature and are superior to other living things. Human has a role to defeat and force the nature to be under his power and use it for his own benefits. Resources are abundant without limit. If they are insufficient, people are able to seek for new things to compensate. The important people are those who are able to control and make the best use of resources.

The more they manufacture and consume, the more they receive because it shows more progress. (George Tyler Miller as cited in Preecha Piampongsan, 1997 :190)

Not only Miller, T.O’Riordan, a political ecologist, has the same concept. He believes that the principle view dominaing the industrial society is Technocentrism. It is based on 4 concepts; progress, rationality, managerial efficiency and control (Timothy O’Riordan as cited in Preecha Piampongsan, 1997 :191). It can be seen that the two concepts pay most attention to humans. They believe that humans are superior to nature.

Importantly, they believe that people and nature are separated. It can be concluded that the two views perceive human as master and nature as servant. According to a recent movement about environmental conservation, a new view occurs under the name “Space-ship earth world view”. This view perceives that the world is the big spaceship with life-support system.

We need to take care of it and protect it carefully otherwise the spaceship will face problems and collapse (George Tyler Miller as cited in Preecha Piampongsan, 1997 :192).This view pays attention to nature and environment more than the two above mentioned views does. However, this view is based on the old view focusing on humans as much important. Humans can manage and control the environment.

From the abovementioned explanation, there is the complexity of the concepts which are overlapped. It begins with Lock’s concept mentioning about desire and search for happiness to eliminate pain from desire. Then it becomes the foundation of Utilitarianism in accordance with Bentham’s concept. This was improved by Mille and become an ideology of classic and neoclassic economics which are the mainstream economics system.

This is the basis of free-trade economy system which creates capitalism and consumerism system. Its strength depends on the power of industrial system, science and technology. This creates the aforementioned view which can be presented as a diagram as per below;

From the diagram, although the concept has been developed

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 17

into complex economic and social procedures, the concept behind this development is still the old concept whose emphasis is on the responses to human needs. No matter how this procedure has been developed to create economic and social system which is enormous and complex, there will be no sustainable solution to environmental crisis if the concept remains unchanged. This is because human needs are unlimited and motivated to strive for more as a result of globalization and consumerism. From a long history and development of humanity, it cannot be seen that human needs has decreased but increased continuously in accordance with technological development. For example, when cars were able to be manufactured, they almost become the 5th factors of human needs. With the telecommunication advancement, mobile phones become things everyone must have. Therefore, if the belief in the concept of responding the human needs to release pain from desire continues and no change of view that leads to human paradigm shift occurs, the collapse of global ecological system is inevitable.

Buddhist Concept

As mentioned, the concept of mainstream economy which is the cause of environmental crisis starts from John Locke’s concept. It is about the way to stop pain and torment from desire by creating happiness and satisfaction which lead to Utilitarianism and philosophy of economics. The beginning of the concept is from desire. However, with incomprehension and unclear acknowledgement of the feeling of desire, John Locke proposed the wrong solutions eventually.

In Buddhism, it is also mentioned about the feeling called “craving”.

It means need, desire, craving for pleasure and escape from painful feeling (Phra Dhammapidok (P.A. Payutto),1990: 110). It is a characteristic of mind that struggles for what it longs for. After getting what it wants, it will be relaxed and happy. There are 3 types of craving (Phra Dhammapidok (P.A. Payutto),1990: 115);

1) craving for sensual pleasures

2) craving for existence

3) craving for non-existence; craving for self-annihilation. It can be shown as rough feeling such as boredom, loneliness and self-hatred.

Buddhism has the same view as John Locke that craving is an origin of activities around the world. Every types of desire share common characteristic; clinging to oneself and doing everything for oneself. Activities are pushed by craving. Buddhism shares the same opinion as mainstream economics that resources are limited but humans’ desires are unlimited.

It can be seen from the words of the Lord Buddha that “No river is equal to desires” (Thaweewat Pundrarikwiwat,1998). However, Buddhism does not seek to meet the desire by creating happiness through responding the people’s needs like John Locke’s concept and Utilitarianism. The concept of desire in Buddhist Teachings is perceived as a kind of sensualities which creates oneself and leads to endless sufferings. Therefore, Buddhism chooses to find the means to reduce and control desire from temporal to permanent

18: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

levels instead. Besides, Buddhism explains an origin of desire through the wheel of existence called “the dependent origination�. It means the status of dependent things which will happen upon depending on other things.

Everything in the world cannot originate and exist without the dependent origination. They depend on each other. The dependent origination concept brings about practical teaching; the noble Eightfold Path and other Buddhist Teachings.

From the dependent origination, everything both living and non-living things is relevant to each other, under the power of birth and death and is impermanent. Thus the dependent origination is in the middle of Eternalism and Nihilism. Therefore, the phenomena are in the middle of absolute existence and nothingness.

The dependent origination consists of; 1. Ignorance 2. Kamma-formations 3. Consciousness 4. Mind and matter; mind consists of feeing, perception, intention, contact, attention. Matter consist of 4 principle elements (earth, wind, fire, water) 5. Six Sense-Bases; internal and external 6. Contact 7. Feeling 8. Craving 9. Clinging 10. Becoming 11. Birth 12. Decay and Death The twelve elements of the dependent origination are reasoned attention of each other and connected like a wheel. In the wheel of the dependent origination, an origin of craving is the contact between internal sense-fields and external sense-fields, which leads to contact/ sense-impression. Then sense-impression create feeling; a mood of happiness, sadness, or neutral.

After that craving which is desire of feeling will happen.

When craving leads to suffering, Buddhist Teachings and practices focus on ending the suffering by mainly reducing craving. This is for mental happiness which is beyond the worldly emotions, lasting and more delicate than physical happiness. Certainly, there are no indicators that can measure the amount of this happiness. This is opposite to the mainstream economics concept which satisfies human needs with materials which is definitely never fulfilled. Besides, physical happiness does not last forever.

Therefore, Buddhism concept is different from the old concept thoroughly.

Buddhist concept sees craving as a factor leading to sufferings which needs to be reduced. The individuals who uphold to this concept shall consume less and use things valuably. This is not in response to needs but to consume for a normal and happy life. This method will reduce selfness and people will be less selfish and see values of things. People feel less

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 19

isolated and become a part of nature. Restraint of senses; eyes, ears, nose, and solitary are practices of this concept. This can greatly reduce the utilization of resources. If this is the major concept of our society, it can lead to massive change in ecological system.

In addition, the concept of dependent origination allows people to think in Buddhist ways that they do not have great selfness but they are originated by reasoned attention called craving. Generally acknowledged or supposed, humans exist. However, in the ultimate reality, humans do not exist. This concept cannot only reduce selfness which lead to selfishness, but can also make people realize that humans and nature depend on each other because they are reasoned attention of each other. Humans are not great but only the small elements of the world. Humans cannot control or defeat the nature because they are under natural law; impermanence, state of suffering and soullessness.

Although the Buddhist concept and the mainstream economy concept derive from “craving”, both of them are totally different in every dimension.

Although Buddhism concept can cover flaws and propose better ways to conserving the environment and solving environmental crisis, someone may wonder whether this concept is possible in terms of practices. This is not a difficult issue because the suitable one is Buddhist Economics. Many western and eastern academics have proposed this concept such as E.F. Shumacher, Phra Bhramagunabhorn (P.A. Payutto) and Buddhadasa Bhikkhu. In the writer’s opinion, the economics system which is in line with Buddhist concept is Sufficiency Economy.

However, some may pose question that how Buddhist Economics and Sufficiency Economy can develop and foster prosperity for humans because this way does not focus on monetary profit making, while reducing consumption. If we see from the old concept’s perspective, this argument will be correct because the objection comes from the people adhering to materialism concept. However, if someone questions based on Buddhist concept, it will be understood that prosperity from Buddhist Economics and Sufficiency Economy are not materialism but are development for mental progression. This concept creates economy system that people can live peacefully and in harmony with nature.

Conclusion In this article, the writer mentions the current mainstream concept which create environmental crisis. The Buddhist concept is proposed to replace mainstream concept. The origin of both concepts is “craving” but their responses to craving are totally different. Finally, it reveals that mainstream concept leads to false economic and social paradigm. There are many problems including environmental crisis which has become the major problem of the current economic system. Although many people have tried to propose many ways to solve the environmental crisis, for examples, the application of new technology which is environmental

20: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

friendly, the use of alternative energy or new concept which protects the environment, these are problem solving at the end of the causes. These efforts can prevent the collapse of the environment in a short time but are not the real solutions. Hidden paradigm which drives mechanics in the society is still the old paradigm focusing on human needs. Although many people said that they do not have this paradigm or do not know about it, their daily behavior can indicate the paradigm they follow.

Economic and administrative system also follows the mainstream concept.

Therefore, the most sustainable way to solve the environmental crisis and other social problems is paradigm shift which should be implemented as fast as possible. New paradigm shift will systematically lead to the new form of economy and society which are environmental friendly, induce sustainable development and strike a balance between body and mind later.

References Phra Dhammapidok (P. A. Payutto).(1999). Buddha-Dharma (Extended Version), 8th ed. (Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University.

Preecha Piampongsan.(1997). Environment and development. 2nd ed.

Chulalongkorn Printing, Soontaraporn Techapalokul. “Buddhist Economics and Development of the Thai Society”. M.Econ, Faculty of Economics, Thammasart University.

Sawai Boonma.(2007). “Global warming, turning point and Judgement Day”, Ban Kao Muang Rao Column: Bangkok Business Sorrayut Ratanapojnard.(1997). “Jitwiwat”, Matichon.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 21

A Study on the Impacts of Religious Response to the Repercussions of War : Revival of Buddhist Culture and Religiosity in Contemporary Sri Lanka.

W.M. Dhanapala

University of Sri Jayewardenepura,Sri Lanka.

Author for correspondence; e-mail: wmd63@yahoo.com

Abstract This research study was designed to unearth positive impacts of Buddhist religious response to the death of family members while serving in the security forces. More than thirty thousand members of the security forces lost their lives in the war which protracted for nearly thirty years and came to an end in May 2009. A sample of 250 Buddhist families suffering from the bereavement of deceased security personals was randomly selected for the research study from five Districts such as Gampaha, Kalutara, Rathnapura, Galle and Kurunega with equal distribution of families and data were collected by means of observation, interviews and questionnaires. A questionnaire was administered by 15 trained undergraduates who visited the selected families and worked as enumerators. The research findings were as follows : The premature demise of 250 close male relatives such as, parents, brothers, sons and grandsons had had an adverse psychological and social impact on the wellbeing of family members and their social functioning.

All the families revealed the adverse repercussions of the war with special reference to the negative impacts of sudden demise of their relatives in the military conflict as well as unexpected attacks and bomb explosions.

Whereas 10 families had lost 20 members (2 per each) the rest had lost 140 members (1 per each). All were in the age range between 21 and 39 years and only 34.6% of them had been married at the time of death. Consequently 90 widows were suffering with their 219 children. Over 68% of children were schooling. The average number of the family members of the unmarried was 6. For each family the employment of the lost member had been an important source of income irrespective of other temporary sources. Returning to the normal psychological equilibrium by consoling the minds suffering from the bereavement of the deceased family members and thereby restarting the social life was a felt need of those families. They had adopted a religious means of adaptation to that situation paying special attention to follow certain Buddhist teachings, beliefs, practices and rituals in consultation with Buddhist monks known to them. Consequently, there had been a considerable change in the religious life of family members.

This change had been brought about by increased frequency of (1) visiting Buddhist temples and other places of worship, (2) regular almsgivings, (3)

22: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

special donations to temples, (4) participation in religious rituals, (5) special donations to religious rituals, (6) Buddhist pilgrimage (7) regular domestic religious activities, (8) learning the Dhamma, (9) Meditation,( 10) reading religious books, (10) participation in religious practices, (11) consultation of monks (12) distribution of religious books, (13) Construction and renovation of temples ,religious monuments, and places of worship (14) Social services and (15) dissemination of Dhamma through Mass media.

Key words : The Impacts of Religious ,Repercussions of War, Buddhist Culture Introduction Sociology of religion has immensely studied the negative impacts of war on culture of religions, practice of religious teachings, rituals and the religious causation of war fares but rarely addressed positive impacts of religious responses to the repercussions of war in different societies.

Sri Lanka experienced a brutal war initiated and waged by Tamil militants known as LTTE and some other organizations with the prime objective of establishing a separate Tamils State in the Northern and Eastern Provinces of the island. And it had a destructive impact on the Buddhist heritage in those provinces. With the escalation of military conflicts and bomb explosions to horrendous proportions in the 1990s and 2000s, the Government had to increase the man power of security forces and the Police Service to protect the people and the country. Unemployed rural young people joined the Police and security forces in thousands and they were sent to the battle fields soon after a necessary training of handling weapons.

Military recruitments in thousands opened a new avenue of state sector permanent employment for rural youth and consequently, a regular means of monthly income for over 90 % of the families of over three hundred thousand security personals and 85000 police officials. A significant portion of the defense budget allocations for salaries reached rural families strengthening their economic capacity of performing secular and religious functions. Even though this new means of income was a source of happiness for poor families, some could not enjoy it due to the increasing death toll in the battle fields and attacks on military camps and over running of some of them by terrorist groups. The frequency of having funeral ceremonies for war heroes increased in all the rural communities impelling all the families of security personals to seek religious refuge invoking merits to the deceased and blessings to those in the battle fields.

This research study was designed to unearth positive impacts of Buddhist religious response to the death of family members while serving in the security forces. More than thirty thousand members of the security forces lost their lives in the war which protracted for nearly thirty years and came to an end in May 2009. Over ninety percent of them were Buddhists hailing mostly from peasant Sinhalese families in rural areas in the country. The military confrontations in the battle fields and lethal explosion of bombs in

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 23

difference parts of the country frightened the whole nation in those years of war and seriously affected were the families of security personals. As was evident form the affected families, Buddhist teachings, practices, beliefs, rituals and funeral rites had provided them with a means of refuge from and coping with the war driven tragedies and accompanied repercussions.

Having considered this phenomenon, a research problem was articulated to ascertain the positive impacts of such responses on the religiosity of people and their Buddhist culture including the material traits of it. Accordingly, the main objectives of the research were to understand whether the religious responses had been conducive to a positive development of religiosity of those families and whether such a change of religiosity was evident from the Buddhist culture of them.

As the theoretical aspects religion is concerned, anthropologists and sociologists have endeavored to explain the origin of religion, evolution of religion, social functions and nature of religion. The origin of religion was explained by E.B. Tylor in terms of a theory of Animism- the belief in spirits. He believed that the society had evolved through five stages from hunting and gathering societies to modern complex society and the religion also had undergone the same evolutionary process from animism in hunting and gathering societies to monotheism in modern society. Tylor perceived religion as a response to man’s intellectual needs. According to F. Max Muller, the earliest form of religion has derived from the belief in supernatural power in the forces of nature. He observed the religion as a means of satisfying emotional needs of human beings (Haralambos and Heald.1995.452).

Whereas the anthropological explanations developed by Tylor and Muller pivots on human needs, the sociological explanation developed by functionalist perspective is primarily concerned with social needs met by the religion. Functionalism assumes that society has some functional prerequisites such social solidarity, social value consensus, harmony, integration, and unless they are not met to a certain degree, there exists no society. The religion contributes to the survival of social life of people performing some functions to meet those prerequisites (Haralambos and Heald.1995.452).

As explained by Emile Durkheim, religion reinforces collective conscience developed by shared values and moral beliefs which in turn develops social solidarity, social control, cooperation and social order. To Durkheim people worship the society by worshiping the religious totems that represent the communities (Morrison, 1995:188). B. Malinowski observed in Trobriand Islands as to how religion promoted social solidarity through the reinforcement of values and norms. The specific area of social life addressed by the religion is the emotional stress threatening the social solidarity. Malinowski contended that all life crises of birth, puberty, marriage and death are surrounded with religious rituals. Death is the most disruptive and upsetting among life events and peoples’ response to it is a source of religious beliefs.

(Malinowski.1954).

According to Talcott Parsons, religion, as a part cultural system pro-

24: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

vides norms and values for directing the human action. Furthermore, religious beliefs give meaning to life and provide answers to questions of life and the world (Parsons.1959). The Marxist perspective sees the religion as opium of people which dull the pain of capitalist oppression and exploitation (Morrison, 1995:27). These and other sociological theories of religion are of great importance in the analysis of the functions of religion in the periods of peace as well as war and disasters. According to the Buddhist Dhammapada “Most of men seek the refuge of rocks, forests, temples, trees, Stupa when they are frighten” (Tin. 1995). Accordingly, religion comes to play a special vital role to console the minds of affected people and thereby reintegrate them to the society in the periods of wars and their aftermaths.

Religious orientation of people helps them to achieve individual and collective goals while coping with stress and tension generated by risk, fear, bereavement of relatives and uncertainties of the life and environment.

Gordon Allport sees two aspects of religious orientation as extrinsic and intrinsic. Individuals with extrinsic religious orientation are interested in making use of their religious beliefs in providing themselves with security, comport, status and social support. It is an instrumental use of religion. But, according to the intrinsic religious orientation individuals develop religious commitment through internalization of religious doctrine and values of humility, compassion, and love of others. And “There is no place for rejection, contempt or condescension towards one’s fellowmen” (Kenneth.1997:61).

In such an orientation, instrumental use of religion becomes a subordinate consideration. Both types of religious orientation would be useful in analyzing the religious response to the repercussions of war in any country.

Research studies on the effects of religious and spiritual coping with difficulties of war and terrorist attacks have revealed the important functions of religion in the restoration of psychological equilibrium of affected individuals and the social equilibrium of the collective life of them (Bell. and Edwin.2009: 220. Keven, 2012. Terrence and Amy.2015 Amy et al.

2003). A study on the terrorism, posttraumatic stress and spiritual coping and mental health of 231persons affected by the September Eleven attack in USA corroborated the strong relationship between the practices of “seeking time with family and friends, positive spiritual coping attitudes, prayer and attending a religious services and the positive spiritual outcome”( Bell.2009:229). Religiosity of refugees from Bosnia and Kosovo in USA had enabled them to positively cope with the repercussions of war according to a study carried out by N. Terrence and Amy (Terrence and Amy.2015: 306).

According to these conceptual and theoretical views of the functions of religion and peoples’ involvement in religious practices and religion based interpretation of incidences, it is contended that people adopt positive measures of coping with the repercussions of the war and consequently such positive reactions bring about a progressive development in the religiosity of individuals, reinforcement of collective performance of religious rituals and the particular change is reflected from the material and non-material culture of religion of that period. This phenomena was well evident from

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 25

the way that the Buddhist kin and kith of the deceased members of the security forces and the Police coped with the negative psychological and social impacts. This research study concentrate on the positive change of Buddhist religiosity of affected people and the progressive development of the material and non-material culture of Buddhism in the course of the war and its aftermath.

Methods

A sample of 250 Buddhist families suffering from the bereavement of deceased security personals was randomly selected for the research study from five Districts such as Gampaha, Kalutara, Rathnapura, Galle and Kurunega with equal distribution of families and data were collected by means of observation, interviews and questionnaires. A questionnaire was administered by 15 trained undergraduates who visited the selected families and worked as enumerators. In addition to the questionnaire, family members were interviewed in an informal focus group manner. Such interviews were very effective in eliciting information regarding past religious activities that people find it difficult to recollect without the support of others and even for putting them in an order of performance. Religious life of family members and its change after the death of a family member was clearly revealed in the collective interviews. Most interviews were highly sensitive as any recollection of past religious activities naturally referred to deceased and they started crying over them with the photographs in hands frequently. In particular, parents, widows, and son and daughters who had strong attachments to deceased still find it difficult to control their emotions.

The enumerators gathered information observing the domestic places of worship and the environment. Regular performance of religious rituals at home was observed and those observations were taken into account in the interviews. Responses to the questionnaire were further cross-checked and corroborated through interviews and observation. In Sri Lanka there is one main Buddhist temple in each village and that temple is traditionally held responsible for religious affairs of the village. Observation of material evidence at temples and other areas of religious performances helped gathering information of any change in the material culture of Buddhism.

Interviews conducted with Buddhist monks of fifty temples in the five Districts also helped gathering information regarding the change of religiosity of those families and their religious contributions to the development of temples. Information pertaining to the religious contributions, constructions, renovations, decorations, development of infrastructure facilities etc. were collected by means of a questionnaire. Data were properly processed and analyzed objectively to understand the nature of the revival of Buddhist culture and religiosity of people.

Results

The premature demise of 250 close male relatives such as, parents, brothers, sons and grandsons had had an adverse psychological and social

26: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

impact on the wellbeing of family members and their social functioning.

All the families revealed the adverse repercuss.ions of the war with special reference to the negative impacts of sudden demise of their relatives in the military conflict as well as unexpected attacks and bomb explosions. Whereas 10 families had lost 20 members (2 per each) the rest had lost 140 members (1 per each). All were in the age range between 21 and 39 years and only 34.6% of them had been married at the time of death. Consequently 90 widows were suffering with their 219 children. Over 68% of children were schooling. The average number of the family members of the unmarried was 6. For each families the employment of the lost member had been an important source of income irrespective of other temporary sources.

Returning to the normal psychological equilibrium by consoling the minds suffering from the bereavement of the deceased family members and thereby restarting the social life was a felt need of those families. They had adopted a religious means of adaptation to that situation paying special attention to follow certain Buddhist teachings, beliefs, practices and rituals in consultation with Buddhist monks known to them. Consequently, there had been a considerable change in the religious life of family members.

This change had been brought about by increased frequency of (1) visiting Buddhist temples and other places of worship, (2) regular almsgivings, (3) special donations to temples, (4) participation in religious rituals, (5) special donations to religious rituals, (6) Buddhist pilgrimage (7) regular domestic religious activities, (8) learning the Dhamma, (9) Meditation,( 10) reading religious books, (10) participation in religious practices, (11) consultation of monks (12) distribution of religious books, (13) Construction and renovation of temples ,religious monuments, and places of worship (14) Social services and (15) dissemination of Dhamma through Mass media.

Visiting Buddhist temples and other places of worship

Frequent visiting of Buddhist temples and other places of Buddhist worship is an indicator of increased religiosity of affected families. All the families conceded to have a felt increase in their visiting of not only the village temple but also other temples and places of worship after the death of their family member. At least the most attached family members had been visiting those religious places and participated in religious rituals with the intension of invoking merit to the deceased while others were assisting them in various manner. The Date of death of the deceased is a date of special remembrance and the family members had performed special religious rituals at home and the village temple. When elders played an initiative role in the religious rituals, the other family members had supported them finding a means of coping with the sense of bereavement. Their emotional involvement in those rituals had been conducive to the increased religiosity. On the other hand their visiting of temples had assured the regular performance of religious ritual in temples in the name of both living and dead community members. Buddhist monks at those temples had been busy with their religious functions which were sometimes beyond their management. Monks

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 27

were especially happy to see an unprecedented religiosity in bereaved and resultant frequent visiting of temple.

Regular almsgivings

“ Dana or Dan Deema” in Sinhalese language (Almsgiving) is an important religious function in Sri Lankan Buddhist culture and a particular sub culture of almsgiving can be observed with reference to the posthumous religious rituals. Usually an irregular practices of almsgiving is found among most of Buddhists and it is transformed into a regular pattern when it is to be performed posthumously. Once a person died the most important duty of the relatives is to offer Dana to the Maha Sangha on the seventh day after the death. Thereafter it needs to be carried out after three months and annually. The Seventh Day, Third Month and First Annual almsgivings are considered most important and offered to the highest number of Buddhist monks the family can afford. In the case of war heroes, these almsgivings had been carried out in a regular basis as a major religious event of the year spending lavishly to invoke merits to the lost members while consoling the minds thereby. Over 40% of families continued a practice of monthly alms giving on the date of death in each month. “Monthly Dana” was taken to and offered at the temple whereas “Annual Dana” was offered at the house of the family as Sanghika Dana which is ceremonially offered to more than four ordained monks. All families had allocated a considerable (An average of 23% of the Salary) amount of the monthly salary of the deceased for the purposes of religious rituals and the annual almsgiving was dominating among them.

Special donations and constructions and renovations

As was revealed by the monks and families, special donations in finance and goods had been offered to temples and religious rituals in the name of the deceased relatives. The recorded amount of such donations ranged between Rs. 25000 to 200000. Those donations had been offered for the construction and renovation purposes of the temples. Over 2.6 million Rupees had been donated by 60% of the families for temple constructions which included building of new residential facilities for Buddhist monks, Dhamma Hall for the delivery of Dhamma sermons, Buddha statues and types of statues including 28 Buddha, buildings for the enshrinement of Buddha statues and sacred relics, walls around the sacred Bo Trees, Stupas, pathways of religious places, temple grounds, Dhamma libraries, goldplated fence around the sacred Bo Tree, supply of water and electricity for temple structures, temple bells, tables for offerings of Dana, concrete tables for religious rituals, Dana Halls for monks, shrines of temple gods, special temple Entrances, temple doors and renovation of such structures.

In material, they had offered furniture and other equipment required for the daily life of monks and the performance of religious rituals. Nearly 92% of the families had offered at least one important item of goods required for the temple at each occasions of almsgiving. The motive of almsgiving is imperfect without such material offerings according to the general concept

28: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

of Dana in the Buddhist culture and usually the type of offering is decided after consulting the chief incumbent of the temple. Almost all the Dana items had been offered with a special mention in written form that those things were offered in the name of the deceased with the intention making their next birth happy and absent of premature death in the whole circle of Samsara.

As was described by Buddhist monks, temples and other religious places of worship that remained without renovations, expansions and modification to suit the modern social life of people for decades, have undergone a considerable development with the assistance of families of deceased security personals. Stupas of 70% of the temples under consideration had been annually color washed owing to the initiative role and contributions of the families of war heroes. Once started such renovations and paintings of religious monuments and structures, other community members also joined with them facilitating the accomplishment of those meritorious religious projects. More than 80% of families had contributed to construct Dhamma Schools and equip them with necessary furniture and infrastructure facilities for the benefit of children learning and practicing Buddhism and Buddhist culture at those temples. An average of 120 children were studding at a Sunday Dhamma school conducted by the temples.

The monthly salary of the diseased is paid to those who have legal claim to have it, and this income facilitates the performance of special and regular religious activities. It has become a Buddhist cultural value to allocate a considerable portion of the income of the diseased to perform religious activities in the name of him or her to invoke merits. Their lives had undergone a religious transformation. Religious construction and renovations are considered as highly meritorious and all the families had involved in such activities. This practice had brought about a qualitative and quantitative development in the Buddhist culture.

Participation in religious rituals

Active participation in religious rituals was well evident from the closed relatives of the deceased and they (88%) admitted that they were not having such a religious commitment before the demise of their relatives. Such participation had educated them of the proper performance of religious rituals with a sense of sacred commitment to them that they had taken for granted earlier. The religious ambition of invoking merit to the deceased had encouraged more than 60% of householder to play a leading role in the organization of religious rituals.

Buddhist pilgrimage

Buddhist pilgrimage in the country and India to worship important places of Lord Buddha is a common life goal of traditional Buddhist devotees and they strive to worship the maximum number of places in the country and at least to have single visit in Buddhist sites and places of worship in India. Being poor, most rural devotees find it difficult to accomplish this

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 29

life goal. However, the families of deceased soldiers and Police officials had been able to involve in Buddhist pilgrimages in the country and even in India. Over 72% of families revealed with special happiness that they were able to offer Dana to most venerated Budhist Viharas and places of worship such as the Temple of Sacred Tooth Relic in Kandy, the Sacred Sri Maha Bodiya in Anuradhapura, and engaged in religious practices such as observing Sil and meditation and invoke all the merits gathered from those religious worship to the deceased relatives. Those visited India (25%) also reiterated the same thing with special emphasis on the significance of merits gathered after offering Dana and other valuable offerings to Bodh Gaya, Varanasi and other places and temples.

Regular domestic religious activities

Performance of religious rites and rituals at home is a common characteristic of Sri Lankan Buddhist culture. One might hardly find a Buddhist home without a Buddha’s statue with little arrangement for offerings. However, the daily commitment to carry out religious rituals varies according to the level of religiosity of people. It was in this background special change in the domestic religious activities was evident from the families of deceased security personals. At least one member of family daily worshipped the Buddha offering flowers, light, and Dana, and uttering the specific Pali stanzas and finally they invoked merit (Pin) to the beloved deceased. The sociological point is that the coping with the bereavement through religious rituals has enhanced the religiosity of affected family members and thereby increased the regular and genuine performance of them.

Reading religious books and learning the Dhamma

A special interest in reading Buddhist religious books and learning Buddhism was observed in some of the families. They openly admitted that they stared paying special attention to leaning Dhamm after the demise of their beloved kin and kith. Some families had gathered a large number of Buddhist books for reading. Not only the elderly parents, but also young widows (15%) had started leaning Dhamma at least as a means of coping with the situation. The widows clearly explained that they had been able to adopt to the widowhood and live a life without their husbands due to the religious support they gained through learning Dhamma and regular practice of rituals. Reading of religious books and listening to the Buddhist sermons broad cast and telecast over exclusive Buddhist Channels had been a regular practice of family members who still struggle with their mind to cope with the bereavement.

Participation in religious practices and meditation

Active participation in religious practices such as observing Sill (Eight Precepts) on full moon days and meditation results from the enhanced religiosity of individuals and such a behavioral change was found in 40 percent of respondents. They had commenced observing the Buddhist Eight

30: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Precepts on Full Moon Days after the death of their relatives. Even though they used to visit temple they had had no strong motivation to Observe Sill on Poya days (Full Moon Days) until they felt the importance of real practice of Buddhism to cope with the situation. Observing the Sill for the whole day at different temples with the intention of experiencing different religious programs was also a common practice found among them. By such a selection they compared the quality of religious programs at different temples and their importance for consoling their minds. Meditation which is rarely practiced by most of lay Buddhists on a regular basis, has become a regular religious practice of 40% of respondents. Some family members had paid special attention to learn the correct ways of meditation while searching for good teachers. This particular change had set an example for the socialization of children in terms of Buddhist doctrine and practice of it.

Consultation of Buddhist monks

Consultation of Buddhist monks for secular and religious purposes had been a well institutionalized custom of Sri Lankan Buddhists and that custom underwent a dramatic change with the development of civil society and modernization which alienated people from the temple. However that process could not proceed longer with the increased religious importance for dealing with the repercussions of the war. When the war was assuming dangerous proportions almost all the affected people gathered at the village temple and popular temples and started consulting the Buddhist monks for both secular and religious spiritual solutions to those issues. Consequently, Buddhist monks reinforced their traditional role of appearing on behalf of people affected by the war and organizing religious programs to invoke blessings to them and social welfare programs to provide economic support to people and Buddhist monks in affected provinces.

Distribution of religious books and dissemination of Dhamma through mass media.

As was evident from the research study, more than 40% of families had adopted new ways of consoling their minds and invoking merits to their deceased. They were the publication and distribution of Buddhist texts and Dhamma books and the dissemination of Dhamma through mass media.

The families had contributed to print and distribute over 100 religious books. Consequently, this practice had been conducive to the enrichment of Buddhist literature and availability of them for poor devotees. The Buddhist television and Radio channels had introduced a particular program of telecasting Dhamma sermons in the name of individual to invoke blessings and merits by charging Rs. 30,000 per 30 Minutes. The families had made use of those opportunities to disseminate Dhamma throughout the country in the name of deceased relatives and they were very happy to get the name of the deceased telecast and broad caste. Furthermore, CDs of such Dhamma sermons had been reproduced and shared with others.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 31

Social and other services

Social welfare and social service activities had been frequently carried out by the families and friends of deceased security personals. Construction of shelters for the poor people, road constructions, supply of drinking water, and construction of bus halts with seating facilities, distribution of donations, organization of eye clinics, Blood donation campaigns, health promotion programs, distribution of stationaries to school children, were the types of social welfare and service the families had carried out in the name of their deceased. The social values of generosity and altruism had been reinforced by those services organized with the participation and consultation of Buddhist monks of the village.

Conclusion

The expansion of civil society and the processes of modernization had alienated Buddhists from the temple confining the role of Buddhist monks to limited religious tasks in the period before the eruption of war in the country in the early 1980s. As a result, both material and non-material culture of Buddhism had been stagnating without progressive development, especially in the rural areas, even though such a stagnation was not evident from the temples in urban areas. This situation underwent a dramatic change with the escalation of war in the 1990s and 2000s. Those families affected by the adverse repercussions of war found little relief from the secular means of coping with them and resorted to religious and spiritual means of coping and adaptation to the social life continuously influenced by the negative impacts of war.

Being Buddhists, most of those affected families sought refuge from Buddhist teachings, practices and rituals. Consequently, the Buddhist temple resumed its traditional social functions of looking after the followers in times of difficulties, and played a vital role providing positive religious and spiritual means of coping with the repercussions of war and consoling their minds affected by the bereavement of the demise of relatives and loss of valuable properties. This particular religious adaptation to the war stricken social and individual life brought about a progressive development in the Buddhist religiosity of people as well as the practice of Buddhism. This change also brought about a well apparent development in the material culture of Buddhism: temples, places of worship, statues, shrines, Dhamma halls, Dhamma schools, variety of material symbols of Buddhist beliefs and rituals, and infrastructure facilities of Buddhist religious places. All the temples under consideration had been renovated regularly and even expanded including different places for worship and infrastructure facilities for religious practices.

The revival of this Buddhist practices and rituals seemed to be sustained by the enhanced religiosity and the economic capability of affected families. Evan the poor families continued their religious practices allocating a significant portion of the salary of the deceased. Their conscience was not allowing them to enjoy the income of deceased without regularly perform-

32: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

ing the due religious rituals in the name of them. If this conclusion is to be generalized, Buddhist religiosity and Buddhist culture have been specially reproduced and revitalized by families of over ninety percent of the thirty thousand security personals killed by the war.

References Amy, L.A. Christopher. P and Bu H. (2003) “Research: The Effect of Religious- Spiritual Coping on Positive Attitudes of Adults Muslim Refugee from Kosovo and Bosnia.” The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion.Vol.3.Issue 1. Pp.29-47.

Barnouw, V. (1982). An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology- Ethnology.

Illinois: The Dorsey Press.

Bell, J. M. Edwin H.C. (2009) “Terrorism, Posttraumatic, Spiritual Coping and Mental Health” Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health. Vol.11.

Issue 3. pp. 218-30 Christopher. H. Rosic, (2000) “Resource in the treatment of Dissociative Trauma Symptoms” Journal of Trauma and Dissociation.Vol.1. Issue 1.pp 69-89.

Fur Seth, I. Pal. R. (2006) An Introduction to Sociology of Religion: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives. England: Ashgat Publishers Ltd. Haralambos, M and R.M. Heald. (1980) Sociology; Themes and Perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.

Holm, J with J. Bowker (EDS) (1994) Themes in Religious Studies; Rites of Passage UK: Pinter Publishers.

Kevern, P. (2012) “In Search of a theoretical Basis for Understanding Religious Coping; Initial Test of an Explanatory Model” ” Mental Health Religion and Culture. Vol.15. Issue 1.

Morrison, Ken. (1995) Marx, Durkheim, Weber. Formation of Modern Social Thought. New Delhi: Sage Publication.

Pargament, K.I. (1997). The Psychology of Religion and Coping: Theory, Research, Practice. New York: The Guilford Press Silverman, William. (1990) “Reference Books in the Sociology of Religion” Review of Religion Research. New York. 87p.

Parsons, Talcott. (1959) Towards a General Theory of Social Action. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press.

Terrence. Amy. L.P. (2015) “Wartime Faith Based Reactions among Traumatized Kosovo and Bosnia Refugees in the United States” Mental Health Religion and Culture. Vol.8. Issue 4. pp. 291-308.

Tin.Daw Mya. (1995) The Dhammapada Verses and Stories. Delhi: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, Varanasi.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 33

A Pattern of the Dhamma Practice toward the Buddhist Quality of Life Development in Roi-Et Province Phaitoon Suanmafai Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University,Thailand Author for correspondence; e-mail: phaitoon_101@hotmail.co.th Abstract

The objective of the research on A Pattern of the Dhamma Practice toward the Buddhist Quality of Life Development in Roi-Et Province is 1) to study a pattern of dhamma practice of temples and Buddhists in Roi-Et Province, 2) to study the consequence of dhamma practice toward the Buddhist Quality of life development, 3) to study the role of monks on Buddhist quality of life development in Roi-Et Province. The finding of the research result indicated that the meditation practice-based practice has applied the pattern of falling-rising type meditation practice. The result of mind and intellect aspect indicated that the practice causes restraint and circumspection, better mind in self-reminding whether thought, act, and speech, improved peace of mind and prudence and calmness, mental health, and seldom anxiety with daily life. When facing with problem, intellect for consideration based on dharmic principle of Buddhism exists and then restraints one’s mind to accept, resulting in change in thought by the way that the significance of quality of self-life and other people’s lives is perceived. This is the higher self-mental development with more patience and seldom working error. In addition, the practice result also alleviates suffering caused from illness.

The ineffective practice is due to inability to eliminate hindrances such as drowsiness and fantasy, etc. The social development-focused pattern described that the practice features in promoting community economy to be strong due to self-sufficiency of the villagers. Self-sufficiency method is living by based on intelligence of locality, being environment-friendly, and good community economic system promotion mechanism such as availability of village fund, occupational group, and community enterprise, etc.

According to culture-focused pattern, the practice causes generosity and charity, sacrifice, entry to temple to make merit with monk, and elimination of greediness. It is the well conservation and maintenance of fine culture of Thai society.The role of monks has been appeared in form of improved mental development and livelihood development of the villagers. The mental development is Dhamma practice and the livelihood development is related to various forms of living or economy such as village fund, community cooperative, and community enterprise, etc.

Keywords : A Pattern of the Dhamma, Practice,The Buddhist Quality of Life, Development.

34: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Introduction

The Buddhism institution is the keystone of Thai society whereas most people esteem Buddhism since ancient times. Thai people’s lives affiliate with temples and people believe in religion from birth until death.

The life possibility in life and society consists of the nature of ideology and morality in general crowd. Even though the deep study on dharmic principle in Tripitaka has been disappeared, however people have believed on virtue and sin, and respect on monk and faith in religion. Thai people’s lives are fully tied up with and relied on Buddhism all the time from birth until death. The aforesaid state has been existent for long time until being embedded in mind and way of life of Thai people and has become refinement and enlightenment thing for disposition and basis of Thai people’s heart and soul to possess individual characteristic called as uniqueness of Thai society. This could be correctly and confidently said that Buddhism is the national region of Thailand.

In Buddha’s lifetime, Lord Buddha remarked about two types of burden or duty of monks that should be performed in Buddhism, consisting of the burden of studying the Scriptures, and the burden of contemplation only. The study on either one denomination or two denominations, the completion of Buddha’s words which are Tripitaka according to self-intellect power, and then remembrance to narrate that Buddha’s words, are called as the burden of studying the Scriptures. The commencement of departure and deterioration in individuality, and continuous practice meditation until the monk’s Buddhist saint with active conduct is extremely elated in quiet residence, are called as burden of contemplation. After study of the monks in Lord Buddha’s abode, he told them to move to different places for announcement of Sutrapitaka. Temples were built to be the lodgments offered for the Highness Lord Buddha and the disciple groups. King Bimbisara offered Weruwan Vihara as the first temple in Buddism.

Monks and temples are the important organizations pertaining to and being proper and corresponding to the development of quality of life since monks are the cultivators to advise dharma resulting in benefits of both worldly pleasure and supermundane, arrange Dharma and Practical Study to all people, be closely involved with society, promote religious benefit which is a public property, support community and society, expect to develop public assistance, participate in coordination of dharma propagation, and continuously affiliates with community and society in Buddhism throughout life from birth until death.

In current social condition, technologies and sciences in various aspects have been rapidly prospered and progressed, including the fluency of Western civilization into Thai society with lack of emphasis on proper development and integration in conformity with the original culture. The society has accepted and focused on materialism significance that can presently respond human needs, resulting in the beginning of instability of religious reliance and faith. Many Buddhists have not entered into temples and have not been interested in study of dhamma practice. They have entered to temples for fortune and personal benefit or have been engrossed in black magic with

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 35

lack of cognition in Buddhist principle, and lack of participative feeling and responsibility toward their own religion. The social condition has comprised of high consumptive materialism trend, extravagance and luxury under high dependence on black magic and inspiration result waiting doctrine, and arousal according to Western culture to be the recipient and follower with lack of literacy. The way of life based on Buddhist principles has not been extensive in the society to be suitable as the national religion. Therefore, according to aforesaid dhamma practice result of Dhamma Practice Center,

the finding indicated that there have been several methods for dhamma practice in this present era. However, in this research about a Pattern of Dhamma Practice toward Buddhist Quality of Life Development in RoiEt Province, the researcher has aimed at studying 3 patterns of dhamma practices consisting of 1) contemplation practice-focused dhamma practice pattern like the way of falling-rising dhamma practice, way of Anapanasati, way of right Arhanta, etc.; 2) social development-focused dhamma practice pattern such as monk development group; and ) culture-focused dhamma practice pattern such as tradition conservation group, conservation of Custom 12, Way of Practical Rule 14, in this research in order to clearly puzzle out about how dhamma practice pattern of temples and Buddhists is, how the result of dhamma practice toward development of Buddhist quality of life is, and how the role and relationship of monks and development of Buddhist quality of life is.

Research Method

In this research title of A Pattern of the Dhamma Practice toward the Buddhist Quality of Life in Roi-Et Province, the research was conducted with qualitative research methodology to obtain information which has been consistent with study in 3 patterns consisting of 1) pattern of dhamma practice of temples and Buddhists in Roi-Et Province, 2) consequence of dhamma practice toward Buddhist quality of life development, 3) the role of monks in Buddhist quality of life development in Roi-Et Province.

The populations of target groups used in the study were determined by the researcher group for selection of the people concerned with dhamma practice of dhamma practice centers in Roi-Et Province applying Purposive Sampling Method with below details.

1. Monk groups in dhamma practice centers who have played key role in activity implementation of Dhamma Practice Project for 2 monks/center and monks who have been the administrators in dhamma practice for 1 monk/center under determination on selection from dhamma practice centers in Roi-Et Province for 6 centers and 3 monks for each center, totaling to 18 monks.

2. Buddhist groups who have participated in dhamma practice at dhamma practice centers in Roi-Et Province under determination on selection from dhamma practice centers in Roi-Et Province for 6 centers and 5 people per each center, totaling to 30 people.

36: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Research Results

The objective of the pattern of the dhamma practice toward Buddhist quality of life development in Roi-Et Province is to study on the pattern of the dhamma practice of temples and Buddhists in Roi-Et Province, to study on the result of the dhamma practice toward Buddhist quality of life development, and to analyze the role and relationship of monks and Buddhist quality of life development in Roi-Et Province. The target groups used in this research included monks and Buddhists who have been the dhamma practitioners in 6 centers. Structured Interview Method was applied as instrument used in the research and data collection in this time for target groups of this research. In addition, descriptive data was analyzed based on Inductive Method. The findings of the research studying results have been as follows.

1. Pattern of Intellect and Mental Development. It indicated that the pattern of the dhamma practice of Wat Asokawananram has been determination of body and mind which is to determine manners while making feeling with body is called as “Body”. Indication of which mind is conscious on manners is called as “Mind”. Wat Udom Paison has applied the pattern of the falling-rising type contemplation practice. When sitting for entreating, breath-out is determined as “falling” and breath-in is determined as “rising”. Walking is determined for 6 stages such as the first stage, “left stepping” and “right stepping” are incanted, and in the second stage, “uplifting” and “stepping on” are incanted.

The consequence of the dhamma practice described that the dhamma practice has caused change in thought by the way that the significance of self-quality of life and other people’s quality of lives have been perceived. It has been the higher self-mental development, resulting in the understanding that human is born with power of karma. If he or she wants to have good life both in present and in the future, he or she must know how to abstain from bad deeds and performs only good deeds. This dhamma practice helps encourage mind to be strong and conscious without misstep to easily commit a sin. When human does not do misdeed, or do misdeed lesser, he or she can coexist peacefully. The dhamma practice makes human explores himself or herself more than reprehension on other people. When knowing how to calm, and restraint mind to be present, and determining body and mind, mind will not be muddled and know how to select which temper is good or bad. When enabling to protect bad temper, the mind will not be depressed due to such temper. Most of people often think that other people make them worried and in trouble, they therefore blame other people. The acquired consequence is distress.

However, when understanding that it is the matter of passion and non-understanding on passion, mind is more pleasure. Sorrow occurs from unawareness and commitment and adherence. When knowing the score based on Buddhist principles and then starting practicing to loosen that commitment and adherence, mind gains more happiness without being the emotional slave like people who do not understand life due to non-dhamma

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 37

practice. Moreover, dhamma practice effect also alleviates suffering caused from illness, and has concentration in studying and working.

2. Social Development-Focused Pattern. It indicated that the pattern of social development of Wat Pho Roy Ton, Phon Thong District, having Phrakru Suwannaphothabal as the Abbot and Phon Thong Ecclesiastical District Officer, has been the ragged education management such as Preschool Child Center, and Sunday Buddhism School. The pattern of social development work of Wat Phothikaram, Pathum Rat District, having Phrakru Phothiweerakhoon as the Abbot and Pathum Rat Ecclesiastical District Officer, has been the organizing pattern for variety of social development activities such as establishment of Non-Formal Education Service Center, Chaloem Phra Kiat Community ICT Learning Center of Wat Photikaram, Preschool Child Training Center of Wat Photikaram, Office of Village Fund of Ban Po Noi, Office of Housewife Group of Ban Pho Si Sawat, Office of Youth Group of Ban Po Noi, Office of Housewife Group of Ban Po Noi, Office of Housewife Group of Ban Pho Si Sawat, Office of Youth Group of Ban Po Noi-Pho Si Sawat, Financial Institution of Po Noi Si Sawat Community, Community Learning Extension Center of BAAC - Pathum Rat Branch, Office of BAAC in Roi-Et Province, “Khao Zen” Community Product Selling Shop, Health Promoting Temple (Thai Massage-Herbal Sauna), Life University Learning Center. Conclusively, it has been the study, economy and community development works of Phrakru Phothiworakhoon, who has featured in promoting community economy to be strong, causing the villager’s ability of self-sufficiency since he has applied sufficience economy principle of His Majesty the King, living on the basis of intelligence of locality, being environmentally friendly, refusal of technology that causes wasteful and ungreen.

There have been good community economic system promoting mechanism and system such as availability of village fund, occupational group, community enterprise system and community cooperative so that the villagers will not be taken for advantages from merchants and capitalists, and they can create work and generate incomes for themselves under self-sufficiency. The community economic system applied by him has been consistent with the villagers’ conduct of life or way of life, resulting in sustainable development.

The promotion of sufficience economy principle by Phrakru Phothiweerakhoon has made the villagers have better livelihood in a certain level, happy with conduct of life more than before since the villagers have had no need to live according to capitalism trend that has caused insolvency. In part of the management of Chaloem Phra Kiat Community ICT Learning Center, he has well managed the Center in the front line of the country as the Learning Center Prototype of other centers. Other ICT Learning Centers of other communities have regularly come to study and learn works., The acquired consequence has been that it has caused the villagers have knowledge and understand about technology and can apply technology well without being timeless people. The benefit of social network has been that

38: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

it has caused all people easily access to information, understand and enable to adapt in time with the change of the world.

3. Culture-Focused Pattern. It indicated that these cultures applied with dharmic principle such as Buddhist Lent Merit, Boon Kao Pradab Din, Boon Kao Sark, End of Buddhist Lent Merit, Kathin Merit, are mutually made all the time by temples and villagers until it may be forgotten that it has been the integration of culture and religion. Most of Buddhists are involved in making merits with temples unless they are inconvenient due to their affairs only since it has been adhered according to model behaved by their ancestors for long time. Someone may be involved in some occasions. Even though they do not go but other people in their families will go instead. Someone have always come to make merits at temple since they have been interested in making merits and required merits.

All kinds of merit making activities have helped preaching mind to be generous to each other since merit is the sacrificial matter through sacrifice both of belongings for others and sacrifice of all of bad things such sacrifice of greediness from mind. At Wat Ban Plaue Yai, Phra Buddhisarnmunee, Roi-Et Ecclesiastical Provincial Governor, has instructed the villagers to come to make merit and perceived the significance of tradition.

This knowledge can be applied for several types of benefits, resulting in continuous progress of cultural works. Moreover, he has also promoted music-related culture by the way of establishment of gamelan band. The musicians have been the youths who have been the lineages of the villagers, resulting in the children’s ability to inherit Thai musical works which have been a type of culture, with affable mind since music helps refine to create amenity. According to Phrakru Soonthornpanyawimol, he has often taught the villagers to recognize on highly valuing and well preserving Thai culture which has been kindness and generosity since all of people have entered to temples to make merits with monks due to their generosity. This has been the gracious identity that is worthwhile for highly valuing and preserving.

Result Discussion

The studying result indicated that the role of monks appeared in the pattern of mental development and livelihood development of the villagers to be improved. The mental development is dhamma practice and livelihood development is related to various forms of living or economy such as village fund, community cooperative, and community enterprise, etc., resulting in the villager’s ability of self-sufficiency. Good collaboration with monks due to self-conduct of monks as the sacrifiers without expectation on return from villagers. However, they have needed to see the villagers to have better quality of life. Therefore, villagers have respected and have had faith on monks. This respect and faith have caused monks to well act as the mainstay of development, resulting in permanence rather than dutiful leading.

In addition, the monks have been uninvolved with any benefits. Thus, the work can be done with convenience and comfort without risk against persecution or misunderstanding. The difference of availability of monks

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 39

with general villagers is to be development leaders who possess morality and virtue to govern conduct. The monks are the dharma practitioners and their monk being state will have consciousness to remind themselves not to be careless better than the villagers who spend their lives risky against tort of morality and virtue. If there is none of self-consciousness and alertness, mistake can be easily made in working particularly money issue that must be done with honesty and transparency so as to prevent criticism and accusation from other people who are bad-intended.

Conclusion and Suggestion

The overall studying result indicated the pattern of dhamma practice of temples and Buddhists in Roi-Et province. The followings have been the suggestions of the researcher.

1) The general villagers have often understood that the practice is the way that monks organize the project and they come to practice at temple.

After finishing the project, the practice is terminated, resulting in noneffect on mental and intellectual development. Dhamma practice must be continuously performed so that it will be effective. It has been very few for those who can always practice. The researcher deemed that monks should frequently organize the practical project and then train the villagers to have cognition that dhamma practice must be always performed and can be taken for actual practice in daily lives, particularly the application in working which is considered as very important since it is their real lives.

2) Social development problem has been the non-collaboration from villagers due to fear of new change and negligence on developmental work.

Monks must emphasize on event publicity and present to those villagers to be recognized that that event can really alter or develop better quality of life.

Acknowledgement

This research report has been well successful depending on all of these persons including Phramaha Suthit Arphakaro, the Director of Buddhist Research Institute, Phrakru Suvitharnpatthanabandit, the Vice President of Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Khon Kaen Campus, the kindness of Phra Buddhisarnmunee, the Director of class room in Roi-Et Province, who have always provided the useful advice and suggestion for thesis work as well as have encouraged without trouble. The gratitude have also rendered to the officers of Buddhist Research Institute, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya, Khon Kaen Campus, who has facilitated in the issue of researching information, communication and coordination throughout research conduct.

Gratitude has been rendered to benevolence and kindness of Phra Buddhisarnmunee, the Abbot of Wat Ban Plaue Yai, Roi-Et Ecclesiastical Provincial Governor; Phrakru Suwannaphothabal , the Abbot of Wat Pho Roy Ton, Phon Thong Ecclesiastical District Officer; Phrakru Phothiworakhoon, the Abbot of Wat Phothikaram, Pathum Rat Ecclesiastical District Officer;

40: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Phrakru Soonthornpanyawimol, the Abbot of Wat Traiphum Khanachan, Suwannaphum Deputy Ecclesiastical District Officer; Phrakru Khampeeraudomkhoon, the Abbot of Wat Udom Paison, Rop Mueang Ecclesiastical Commune-Chief; and Phrapalad Narong Kemkamo, the Abbot of Wat Asokawanaram, who have provided mercifulness and support in interview and data collection, including all Buddhists who have been the dharma practitioners that have fully supported information related to research until well accomplishment.

If any merit that will occur and arise from this research study produces benefit to the people who are interested in dhamma practice work of Dhamma Practice Center, the researcher would like to dedicate that merit to parents and all instructors who have bestowed every academic knowledge, as well as the patronizers in this occasion.

References Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. (1996).Thai Tripitaka. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya Edition. Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Presses.

Religious Affairs Department, Ministry of Education. (1982). Dhamma Practice Guide for Buddhist. Bangkok : Religious Press.

Khanuengnit Chanthabutr.( 1989). Status and Role of Buddhism in Thailand. Bangkok: Religious Work Collaborative Group for Society.

Pradhamtheerarajmahamunee, (Chodok Por.Thor.9).( 2003). Rule of Samatha and Insight Meditation. 6th Edition. Bangkok : Sahadhammik Press.

Phra Dhammapidok, (P.A. Payutto).(1996). Nature of Buddhism. Bangkok: Sahadhammik Press. ____.(1995). Constitution for Living and Buddhist Ethics for Good Life.

Bangkok: Buddha-Dharma Foundation Publisher. ____.(1996). Nature of Buddhism. Bangkok: Sahadhammik Press. ____.(1997). Buddhism Develops People and Society. (Bangkok: Local Press, Department of Provincial Administration. ____.(1997). Buddhism Develops People and Society. (Bangkok: Local Press, Department of Provincial Administration.

Manee Payomyong, .(1993). “Belief of Thai People�, in Native Culture : Belief, Compiled and published by Graduate School, Bangkok : Chulalongkorn University.

Somdet Phra Maha Samana Chao Krom Phraya Vajirananavarorasa.

Translated Phra Dhammapathatthakatha, Part 1. .(1993). 16th Edition. Bangkok : Mahamakut Buddhist University Press.

Suree Meepholkit and Vichien Meepholkit.(2002). Lord Buddha 45 Buddhist Lent. 3rd Edition. Bangkok: Conform Company Limited.

Supitsawong Dhammaphantha. .(1989). Basis of Thai Culture. Bangkok : D.d. Bookstore.

Luang Por Thien Jittasupho. .(1986). Meditation Practice. 3rd Edition,

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 41

Bangkok: Pholphan Printing. ____.(1985). Authentic Principle of Buddhism. Bangkok: Bandit Printing. ____.(1982). Bright in Middle of Mind 2. Bangkok: Saengroong Printing, 1982.

Kriettisak Narkprasit et al.(2004). Study on Belief and Buddhism Practice of Buddhists in Nakhon Ratcha Province. Research Report, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University.

Duangdaen Phanthunawin et al.(1997). Belief and Buddhism Practice of Thai People: Cultivation and Training and Quality of Life. Research Report of Social Development Team, National Institute of Development Administration.

Suphaphan Na Bangchang. .(1993). “Buddhist Moral Code as Foundation of Thai Society Prior Sukhothai Era until Prior Change of Administration�.

Research Report. Bangkok : Project of Research Result Dissemination, Research Department of Chulalongkorn University.

42: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

The Religion Educational Management for Buddhism Propagation in the Greater Mekong Subregion Counties Phrarajapariyatti

Department of Buddhism Mahachulalongkornrajviddayalaya University Phayao Campus,Thailand Author for correspondence; e-mail:Susitthi@yahoo.com

Abstract The objectives of this research was to study the model of the Sangha educational management, compare the Sangha educational management and analyze the approach of Sangha educational management for Buddhism propagation in the Greater Mekong Subregion counties. This study was a qualitative research by using interview guideline, focus group discussion and non-participant observation in Phayao province in Thailand, Luang Prabang in Laos PDR. and Chiang-Tung in Myanmar. The research findings were as follows: 1) The model of Sangha educational management was (1) The specific Sangha educational management. There was the independent education separate from government education (2) The Sangha educational management according to the government education which is the Buddhist scripture education, general level. (3) The non-formal education is the specific learning activities to provide the Buddhism propagation to community.

2) The similarities of Sangha education is the Buddhist scripture education, Dhamma–Pali level which is the specific model of Sangha education. In Laos PDR. and Thailand have the Buddhist scripture education, Dhamma–Pali level and general level. The Sangha educational has managed and budget providing by the government. But in ChiangTung has only the Buddhist scripture education, Dhamma–Pali level and budget providing from Chiang-Tung Sangha and donation.

3) The approach of the Sangha educational management was (1) The philosophy and goal of educational management should follow the teaching philosophy of the Buddha (2) The curriculum and teaching content should set up the curriculum to match with the present situation by having the content of Dhammavinaya along with modern sciences (3) The teaching management methods was to support of the studying out of the class and manage the long distance education through the internet and manage the

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 43

alternative education (4) The structured managerial administration to create the network of Dhamma educational management in the Greater Mekong Sub-region country focus on creation and development of knowledge content and (5) The Buddhism propagation have to relate the society change in the Greater Mekong Sub-region country through searching the cooperation with Dhamma school, Sangha university and other universities.

Keyword: Religion Educational Management, Buddhism propagation, Greater Mekong Sub-region country Introduction Thailand is among the countries in the Mekong subregion and consists of Southern China, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR. ) , Myanmar, Vietnam and Cambodia These countries have geographical characteristics, History, Ethnic groups , way of life and relationship of the people , tradition and culture are similar for long time that the people believe in Buddhism as the main religion in this region. The temple is a center for education, heritage and Buddhism propagation to the people in each country.

The Buddhism propagation will be successful, then the contexts must include Sangha iinstitution that has the direct personnel to the propagation, which need to have knowledge and ability and to be the correctly spiritual leaders according to Buddhism principles , behave as a role model in the practice of the spectators , learn more and catch up the technology and news in the daily life as well as to improve the strategies for Buddhism propagation as the changing the situations and the current environment.

The monks must know the world change on various issues , social needs and monks , novices and temples must maintain their faith. The society thinks about the rreligious institution are useful for the society as well as to use the communication system and media channel to present information about Buddhism.

Buddhism propagation in the Greater Mekong Subregion counties, in the case of Thailand, the activities in the past for propagation of the monks, temples and Sangha organization such as 1) the propagation a long with tradition of Sangha organization and Thailand like the sermon , training the people at the temple and at home including other occasions, both giving a sermon for one or two or more, and has improved the sermon on the radio. television or record turntable or cassette to spread in different places and other opportunities. 2) The propagation modified to suit the

44: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

current social conditions, including lectures, discussion fairly ssermon at the meeting of the temples or at other occasions, including the publication of a sermon into a book or a newspaper publisher and 3) The propagation of Sangha organization or Buddhism propagation unit, or a place to study regularly or occasionally, or a special event held in the temple or in nearby villages such as missionary work, Sub-District training center, Housing units for young Buddhists, Buddhist Sunday school, etc. In addition to the householders, there is an association to propagate Buddhism, such as the Buddhist Association of Thailand under Royal Patronage, Young Buddhists Association of Thailand under Royal Patronage, Association for the Promotion of Buddhism, the Buddhist community in universities and schools, as well as religious education in the schools and in the public.

In addition to propagate Buddhism as mentioned above , in the Sangha Act (No. 2) Act 2535 defines the role of the monks and the temple to perform the role according to the Book of Discipline and in the same direction for religious education. It has been providing education to students called Phrapariyatti-Dhamma education or Scripture is divided into four aspects: 1) the study of Scripture to study theology department discipline

by Nakdhammatri(Basic Dhamma education level) , Nakdhammato (Middle Dhamma education level) , Nakdhamma-Ek(High Dhamma education level) for the monks, novices and lay people. 2) To study the PhrapariyattiDhamma education in Pali division, the language recorded the Buddhism teachings known as Buddhist Tripitaka is to achieve a better understanding and appreciation of Dhamma so provides the Pali teaching. 3) PhrapariyattiDhamma education in general division, including the education system, aimed at enhancing the knowledge of monks and novices to understand the education system in the world, along with Dhamma education that has two levels are the junior secondary school (m. 1-3) and high secondary school (m. 4-6), and 4) Buddhist University as the management of higher education for the monks. There are two Buddhist Universities as Mahachulalongkornrajavidayalaya University and Mahamongkut University.

In addition, the monks can go study in other universities in the domestic and foreign country. The monk who studied successful and come to play the major role in Buddhism propagation.

The management of the monk in other countries among greater Mekong river sub-region country. It is in lower China. Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR. ), Myanmar, Vietnam and Cambodia from the past to present , the temple is the center of the education for the Buddhist

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 45

Monks that the senior monks teach Dhamma-Pali education and develop to be Phrapariyatti Dhamma school in general division. The monks have the opportunity to learn alongside the study of religion and the general education to knowingly and social changes taking place, including educational disciplines in higher education, such as the Ongthue Buddhist University of Vientiane, Lao PDR., Maha Gandayon Monastery university in Mandalay city in Myanmar , Preah Sihanu Raja Buddhist University in Phnom Penh, Cambodia etc.

The current situation in the among greater Mekong river sub-region country has increased the strategic importance of the economic and political stability. At the same time, these countries have entered a new stage of development. Partly because foreign capital has poured into the region continued due to the economic potential in the region. There are also infrastructure development so that all countries can be linked together in the era of globalization that has the advanced technological progress.

Global capitalism that is moving across international borders. There are both positive and negative impacts on human livelihoods, the relationship of the social, economic, cultural resources, the problems caused by globalization to be solved by Dhamma to free themselves from the domination of the power structure, Cultural pressure on. However, globalization is not only a negative, but at the same ,there is a positive for propagation of Buddhism and practice the meditation through modern technology and fast communication to send a message to a lot of people have access to the core teachings of Buddhism as well.

From the matters mentioned above, Mahachulalongkornrajavidayalaya University from Phayao Campus as a Buddhist University in the northern part of the country. It is interesting to study the issue of religious education for the propagation of Buddhism in the Greater Mekong Sub-region countries.

The findings of the study will contribute to the learning of each other and creating the understanding and contribute to adaptation for seeking the practical ways to correct the coexistence in the country. It led to a policy of cooperation in the propagation of Buddhism in the Mekong region countries that are appropriate in the future.

Objectives 1. To study the patterns of religious education for the propagation of Buddhism in the Greater Mekong Subregion countries.

2. To the comparison of the Religious Studies for the propagation of

46: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Buddhism in the Greater Mekong Subregion countries.

3. The guidelines provide religious education for the propagation of Buddhism in the Greater Mekong Sub-region countries to have suitable and proper with the current state of society.

Scopes of Research 1. Scope of the Theory : This research has used the concept of Buddhism propagation.

2. Scope of Content : Areas of research include the content of religious education for the propagation of Buddhism in the Greater Mekong Sub-region countries as follows :

2.1 History of the religious education

2.2 forms / methods of Religious education

2.3 General Teaching Evaluation

2.4 The role of the monksclergy in the temple and the religious education

2.5 The role of agencies / organizations involved in the religious education

2.6 The consequences of the religious education 2.7 Guidelines for Religious Education for the propagation of Buddhism in the Mekong sub-region countries in the future.

3. Scope of the area : In this research area to be selected the specific schools with the Sangha education in Phrapariyatti Dhamma in Dhamma and Pali divisions of junior and high secondary schools of three countris in the Mekong sub-region countries.

3.1 Phrapariyatti-Dhamma schools of Wat royal Khuang, Kengtung city, Myanmar

3.2 Secondary schools in Luang Prabang, Wat Phra Buddha Baht, Luang Prabang, Laos PDR.

3.3 Phrapariyatti-Dhamma schools of Wat Yuan , Chiankam District, Phayao Province, Thailand 3.4 Scope of the population : In the scope of this research to be selected of the study population specific with key informants consist of administrators, lecturers and lay officers as well as monks and five lay people in Phrapariyatti-Dhamma school in general division from three countries as fifteen persons in each country of all sixty persons in three countries.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 47

Research Methodology

1. Research Design : In this study, the researchers used qualitative research methods in the study of documents and qualitative study and interviews with key informants. Group Chat The observation is not involved in the teaching of Scripture and third countries.

2. Population and sample : In this research, the researcher recruited specifically include monks, government officials involved, School administrators, teachers and students of Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School from three countries for 60 persons.

3 The research tool : the instruments were used in this study through the type of data collection, including the portrait of the interview questions and group discussion.

4. Data Collection : The steps were as below : 4.1 Documentation related to the concept of Buddhism, the concept of teaching that emphasizes learner-centered and educational disciplines in three countries.

4.2 Interviews with key informants.

4.3 Group Management : teachers and students from PhrapariyattiDhamma School.

4.4 observe without participating in the teaching of PhrapariyattiDhamma School.

4.5 Photographic activities teaching of Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School and the school environment.

The Findings of the research 1. format of Religious Studies for the propagation of Buddhism in the Greater Mekong Subregion countries, the religious studies in Buddhism among the three Mekong countries, including Kengtung of Myanmar, Luang Prabang Laos , Phayao Province of Thailand have formed a different policy in the education ministry, the strengthening of fraternal organizations Political conditions in the country and a variety of ethnic groups in each country. studies in which the propagation of Buddhism in the Greater Mekong Sub-region countries that can be summarized as follows into 3 types : 1.1 Education as a specialized form of ministry. An education that is independent from the state education system has two characteristics: (1) study the Scripture theology department is divided into three levels: the Nakdhammatri(Basic Dhamma education level) , Nakdhammato(Middle

48: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Dhamma education level) , Nakdhamma-Ek(High Dhamma education level) which provide an opportunity to study with the householder (2) Phrapariyatti of Pali division that the monks organized the education of Buddhist monks and novices are in three levels in Pali Grade 1-3 with basic Pali education, in three level of Pali grade 4 -6 with middle Pali education and three level of Pali grade 7-9 with high Pali education. Phrapariyatti-Dhamma and Pali education is a form of education management among the three Mekong countries.

1.2 The Management of the monks organized in accordance with the system of public education, including educational Scripture. Department of Education The educational agency or group of people in Buddhism is the operator. The monks learned scholars who are appropriate to the situation in the world today. The teaching will feature a mix of subjects, the study of Scripture and Scripture study, Department of Education, the education ministry among GMS countries, two secondary schools monk Luang Prabang. (Wat Phra Buddha Baht) Luang Prabang, Lao PDR. Laos and Wat Yuan Scripture School , District of Phayao Province, Thailand with technical management and quality control of education by the Ministry of Education, the financial support from the government as well as donations from the faithful.

1.3 Non-formal education : the study was carried held independently of the educational system of the monks and the public education, the management of learning activities organized specially.

It aims to serve the various segments of the community as well as novice monks, laity, both adults and children. Have the opportunity to seek knowledge, skills, attitude towards problem solving in everyday life, vocational training or to develop specialized knowledge on the subject of interest. A study in the Mekong sub-region country in three countries, the budget has come from donations from the faithful.

2. Comparison of Religious Studies for the propagation of Buddhism in the great Mekong, subregion countries.

2.1 Educational Development 1) Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School of a Kuang royal temple and head of Khuang royal temple, Development of teaching in a school to study Dhamma , Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School of a Kuang royal temple of the monks of Kengtung and the practice is to comply with Sangha discipline, Vipassana meditation classes with the traditional rote prayer. As well as training a sermon on the occasion favors and the courses are taught in school, the only religious education only. There is no education in general. 2) Secondary Schools of monks in Luang Prabang : Development of teaching in Sangha decondary schools to Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 49

of a Kuang royal temple in Ministry of education into three main subjects such as Buddhism subject consists of Dhamma, Vinaya and Pali and , Science , Social Studies and Natural Science in the system of instruction in school disciplines that will focus on the ethics of the Pali Canon, the world will be focused on. Mathematics and Lao Including foreign language is English. 3) Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School of Yuan : First grade is junior high school, under the Department of Education and the Department of Education and then the application for construction of Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School under Department of Education is like a pile of Buddhist Studies, Office of National Buddhism Ministry of Education Management academic study of Buddhism. Phrapariyatti-Dhamma and Pali education according to the Ministry of Education curriculum consists of eight subjects, including math, science, social studies, religion and culture in Thailand, health and physical education, arts and career and technology and foreign languages. There is more learning and teaching practical discipline Pali and language of Lanna.

2.2 Teaching Management 1) Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School of a Huakuang royal temple and head of Huakhuang royal temple in Nakdhammatri(Basic Dhamma education level) , Nakdhammato(Middle Dhamma education level) , Nakdhamma-Ek(High Dhamma education level) as a heritage center, the preservation of language, culture and traditions of Tai. In the course of teaching brought from Thailand and translated into text of Kengtung with the school network in the ninth to take the same course of all.

2) The Secondary Schools of monks in Luang Prabang the the teaching is the normal classes from Monday - Friday from 7:30 am. - 16:40 pm for 6 hours a day is divided into two semesters, each semester of 4 months duration, the teaching in the eighth grade the second floor, including the grade 1-4 level is junior high school four years at the grade 5-7 level high school classes three years a total of seven years. And 3) Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School of Yuan temple and is managed by teaching the core curriculum for basic education will be part of the 2551 class at school. School is scheduled to teaching the curriculum of basic education during the year 2546 two classes of the third grade in junior high school. (Grade 1-3) and Level 4 high school. (Grade 4-6).

2.3 Media used in teaching. 1) Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School of a Huakuang royal temple and there are books of teaching activities. No devices as a medium of teaching others. In addition to the blackboard and whiteboard, because of the limitations of current in Kengtung is not enough to use the equipment. 2) Secondary Schools of monks in Luang Prabang, there are books of teaching activities and blackboards and whiteboards.

50: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

But some subject will use the computer and the projector. 3) PhrapariyattiDhamma School of kuan temple. There are books of teaching activities and have the modern media and distance education from satellite of Kaikangwon School and Information Technology Center, Genius class and PASEE MODEL as the innovative management education in the classroom.

2.4 Evaluation and Assessment 1) Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School under Sangha Patronate of Huakuang royal temple and have the measurement and evaluation by the students that are given a problem to do every week. The exam has an annual exam and the audit committee of external control, if students fail to learn it. 2) Secondary Schools of monks in Luang Prabang has the Supervisory agencies , District education department for Monitoring and evaluation. The tests used in the assessment of the central questions of general education and a test line of Buddhist religious organizations from the central relationship. The tests Grade 4 and 7 students is the same in both countries. The committee appointed by the Education Ministry in cooperation with the Central School. It will then report the results to the school. Those who do not pass must repeat the class. 3) Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School of Way Yuan and guidelines for assessment and evaluation which a rich and authentic. All parties involved in the assessment and evaluation of learning as teachers, students and parents, and the measurement and evaluation procedures according to the school schedule with the approval of basic education. In the second part of the test, there is a theoretical and practical. The courses will mainly focus on the theoretical. The Department of Religious Practice, there will be both theoretical and practical Students who do not pass must repeat the class.

2.5 The Curricular Activities 1) Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School under Sangha patronage of Wat Huakuang royal temple. Training will be provided in the language, culture and religious clerics summer villages.

School events are to uphold the traditions and culture of traditional Tai. 2) Secondary Schools of monks in Luang Prabang : the activities are planned in conjunction with Buddhism Sangha during the second semester, training the insight mediation. This activity was not included in the curriculum in writing. But the school was prepared after the completion of the semester on a regular basis every year. 3) PhrapariyattiDhamma School of Yuan temple , has provided educational trips every year. The teachers will work with the host school district, Chiang Kham’s school years. The mentor in teaching the eight groups Course.

2.6 Potential Staff Development 1) Phrapariyatti-Dhamma

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 51

School under Sangha patronage of a Huakuang royal temple ,have the seminars for teachers in every three years / by inviting speakers from outside come to know. Training content is mainly about the Sangha organization. 2) Secondary Schools of monks in Luang Prabang to have the educated and trained teachers in every year for focusing on academic highlights and improved methods of teaching. The householder teachers have trained in the methods of teaching and learning a new way. The Buddhist training teachers to Vientiane and to support education in the higher levels. 3) Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School of Yuan temple such as the teachers have attended training capacity annually and benefits are received by the participants that can be adapted for use in teaching.

2.7 To support from government, private and community organizations.1) Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School of Huokhuang royal palace, does not supported and benefits from government. The budget will be used in the management of the Sangha organization of Kengtung by getting from the faith and donations from residents. 2) Secondary Schools of monks in Luang Prabang the Receive the support from the department of Ministry of Education. He also received support from donors and those who are faithful to help and coordination of the alumni of the school. 3) Phrapariyatti - Dhamma School of Yuan temple that Received funding from the Office of National Buddhism and getting the support from the local administration and local people in the community as well as support materials from private enterprise.

2.8 Major problems and Obstacles 1) Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School of Huakhuan royal temple that teachers are scarce and the lack of development in the field of teaching, lack of funds to promote education, lack of modern equipment for teaching and learning and no institution of the monks in higher education. 2) Secondary Schools of monks in Luang Prabang including lack of teachers in Pali. Some teachers do not intentionally technologies and the students came from rural to urban life. Some students can not adjust themselves to live and some behave freaky Inadequacy and unavailability of the building and the library. 3) Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School of Yuan temple including a shortage of funds for the development of teachers.

3. Guidelines for Religious Education for the propagation of Buddhism in the Greater Mekong Sub-region countries.

3.1 The philosophy and goals of education, should follow the teachings of the Buddha’s philosophy follows : (1) To teach and help people achieve the right attitude. Look at what we know as reality. Cause useful to themselves and society. (2) The cognitive teaching and intellectual

52: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

development as well as knowledge and understanding that surfaced within the party itself. (3) The instructor is a guide or just a guide that a true friend to help guide the students with various techniques and try recruiting tactics or guile devices which to help the students identify the intellectual self. (4) To the development of wisdom that students who play an important role in building the intellectual himself and accept advice from the instructor.

And (5) The student must be free to implement the idea. Teachers do not force the students to believe by letting the students know the reason for it.

3.2 The course content and teaching : there are ways to perform the following. (1) The curriculum is consistent with the current situation and to develop the Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School and towards higher education along with Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School from Thailand. As well as various courses and classes of Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School (Of course from Thailand) or class Burmese are subject to normal and parallel or alternative education programs. The Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School have the agreement with the vocational institution. Service to conduct a study to enhance vocational skills for the monks tend to leave monkshood or disrobe after graduation. (2) The content should study the discipline coupled with modern science in science education. Focused on the development of administrative and academic seminary for priests to learn that it can be adapted to the current situation where the world is changing rapidly , be suitable and respond to the needs of learners.

3.3 The method of teaching: there are ways to perform the following. (1) To support, field trips, such as training , seminars and the study outside, exchanges with other schools, etc. (2) The exchange of the students and the teachers / professors from Mahachulalongkorn University, Phayao Campus or other campus in the Mekong. (3) The formal education or alternative education in language, religion and culture to encourage interested citizens, men and women have to learn to put that knowledge to further study or future career. (4) The management, distance education via the internet by developing a common curriculum and of course only countries in the Mekong sub-region.

3.4 The Management : should have the guidelines for the implementation of the following. (1) Creating a network of management schools in the country Scripture Mekong by focusing on the creation and development of knowledge , Learning process that responds to the modern alternative education and connecting learning junior high school to university, creating educational opportunities Through collaboration with academia and local partners, life skills education To achieve literacy in the various fields

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 53

and can handle life foster learning process, Network Learning Sustainable Development Promoting education to build a career with the youth to join the learning design and the future will promote the empowerment process for students is co-create new knowledge. (2) The development, management and teachers : in the study countries, the exchange of technical seminars, national and international exchanges in the field of teaching, Academic Administration with other countries. The knowledge exchange between schools so that teachers can share their knowledge and experiences with each other. The workshop for teachers is to teach Buddhism for improving the potentiality of the teaching and learning. (3) To grant the monks and novices in the field of education and encourage the parties to engage in the provision of scholarships and allocated to religious education in the area.

3.5 Buddhism is associated with social change in the Mekong sub-region. There are ways to perform the following. (1) To support the teaching religious education to students and the public in general. In order to bring the Buddhist doctrinal primarily used in life and coexistence in society Building skills And immune to life (2) For technical training in Buddhism as a way of promoting Buddhism through the web site of each school. (3) The use of modern technology applied to Buddhism. And improving the information service provider Buddhism in a modern style rose. (4) To seek cooperation with schools Scripture. Buddhist University as well as other universities among great Mekong sub-region countries. The nature of the memorandum of understanding is to raise the level of education among the among great Mekong sub-region countries.

Discussion The Sangha educational management for Buddhism propagation in the Greater Mekong Sub-region country, the study found that a combination of traditional education that are universal with the use of modern technology in education, particularly in Thailand, with economic growth, the development of technology in various fields. More countries as well as support from the government and donations from the public The one found in Myanmar and Lao PDR. It is also a religious education allowance to allow young children to have the opportunity to learn and the knowledge to take advantage of living well. But education is not yet available in materials, equipment, facilities, and technologies used in the study and trend of the propagation of Buddhism in the future. The religious education should be proactive. There is more innovation. and to respond to changes in society follows.

54: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

1. The Development of International Programs include Burmese, Lao, Khmer, Vietnamese and Chinese exchanges to learn the way of lif, arts and culture in the Mekong sub-region countries.

2. The Aggressive Management for disadvantaged youths or are interested in studying Buddhism. The curriculum is diverse. The monks will apply the knowledge gained to use or support the propagation of Dharma in a variety of formats.

3. To promote learning the foreign languages ​​such as English, Japanese, Chinese, German and French along with learning Pali, Dhamma, and discipline in order to communicate with tourists.

4. To exchanging Resources Creating a collaborative network of Buddhism in the Greater Mekong Sub-region countries.

5. To Research and Development for seeking new knowledge and the development of organized religious education in the Mekong sub-region countries to be effective and it is consistent with the changing situations quickly.

Suggestions Mahachulalongkorn University , Phayao Campus , the area has the potential to be a mediator in linking the education of the two countries and should an agreement memorandum of understanding in various fields below.

1. To support the school curriculum of Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School to Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School in Kengtung, Myanmar 2. To exchange support instructors with Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School in Kengtung, Myanmar and Luang Prabang, Lao PDR 3. To exchanging the novice or student cultural exchange and education between Kengtung , Myanmar and Luang Prabang, Lao PDR. 4. To set up the institutions of higher education by opening a branch of the classroom of Mahachulalongkorn University , Phayao Campus , in Kengtung , Myanmar.

Acknowledgment Researchers would like to thank Phrasampaeng Thamwaro as School Director of Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School of a Kuang royal temple and teachers of Phrapariyatti-Dhamma School of a Kuang royal temple all / person, Kengtung of Myanmar and Venerable Onkaew Kittaphatto , Deputy of Dean Luang Prabang and former director of the high school monks of Luang Prabang, Secondary school teachers and monks, Luang Prabang All / person. Phrakhrusupattaraprommakul, Manager of Yuan Science School and teacher of Yuan Science school, Chiangkham district

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 55

of Phayao Province all / to do the favour for giving useful information until this research is done well.

References Department of the Holy Book, W. Wise.(2457 BE). Chronicles Xang Brieft 1. Bangkok: Thailand printing plant, the bridge Yotse.

RAD. Manual of Buddhist Monks With regard to the clergy and religion.

Bangkok.(2540 BE). Printing of religion, in 2540 , Ministry of Finance, Development of economic cooperation in the Greater Mekong Sub-region, six countries.

Cambodia - China - Burma - Laos - Vietnam - Thailand - Economic or Hex (Greater Mekong.(2546 BE).Sub regional Economic Cooperation: GMS-EC.). Bangkok: Ministry of Finance.

Ministry of Religious Affairs.(2551 BE).Law and ruled Myanmar Fraternal Union. Yangon: The printing GABA. Bank of Thailand.(2547 BE). GMS economies. Bangkok Bank.

President welfare practitioners halo. Theoretical principles; Bible study of the Holy Scriptures, as well as commentary petition.

Buddhist scriptures. (2550 BE) Intensive research Buddhist Scriptures Mahamakutrajawittayalai University College, the unfair trial of Buddhism.

Five sect Foundation.

En Ti satisfactory rate.(2545 BE). The economic cooperation Mekong Subregion (Greater Mekong, Subregion: GMS). Bangkok Bank Public Company Limited, The Dhammapitaka (Prayuth was the busier offseason.(2539 BE). The measurement and management in the era of globalization. Bangkok: CO., P Graphic Design & Printing Co., Maha stage (Prayuth urged the busier adult)( 2555 BE). education of the monks : the problems awaiting solution. Bangkok: Komol pliers Gold Foundation, 2529,Sci Bunditkul. Laos. Bangkok: V Print (1991).Co., Chatmanop General Partnership and the sapphire. Sangha Administration Guide Print on the floor in celebration Ba Hirani.

Vice Majesty the King of preaching the wisdom mulatto (the King keypad Yฺ Oyฺ) Phasi Charoen Wat Pak Nam. Bangkok: A limited partnership Chutima Printing, 2531.

All rights legislation Chote happy.(2552 BE).The legendary city. Edition 4: a Sri Intelligence Publisher.

The Maha Chulalongkorn University College.( 2550 BE).Chiang Mai

56: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

University. Way of Tai and Kengtung.the center of the neighboring countries.

Chiang Kham district office. Information Chiang Kham. M.p.t.: M.p.p., nd (copier).

Commission of National Education. The essence of each mission. M. PS. Unit. : M.p.p., nd (copier).

Education Ministry office Luang Prabang (Lao PDR. Laos). The conclusion of the Annual Development Plan 2021 -2013 school year, and the Education Development Plan 2013-2014 Office of Wat Si Buddhist baht. Luang Prabang. M.p.t.: M.p.p.,nd (copier).

Wat Yuan Science . Action Plan for the year 2557 Yuan Science School.

M.p.t.:M.p.p., nd (copier) Wat Yuan Science. Yuan announced the school’s science curriculum for schools Yuan Science Edition 2554-based Core Curriculum Basic Education Act 2551. M.p.t.: M.p.p., nd (copier).

Mekong Studies Center Chulalongkorn University, [online], source: http:// www.mekongchula.comviews/mekong_index.php?category=about us&lang=th&action=category_list.[7 April. 2557.]

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 57

The Transfer Pattern of Culture, Customs, Belief of Birth, Old Age, Sickness and Death Effected the Mutual Support in the Community of Wat Kalaya District, Thonburi Amphur, Bangkok Metropolitan Wongsakorn Permphol Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences,Dhonburi Rajabhat University, Thailand.

Author for correspondence; e-mail: MK19100@hotmail.com Abstract The research purposed to study the pattern of mutual support, the transfer pattern of culture and the relevant factors of the pattern of mutual support in community. The research method was mixed method research.

The sampling group was the people living at Wat Kalaya District totaling 1,470 persons and 320 persons of the sampling groups were selected by table.

The sampling method was Stratified Quota Random sampling which were 6 communities including Wat Kalaya Community, Wat Prayoonrawongsawat community, Rong Klam Community, Kudee Chin Community, Bupparam Community and Tonson mosque and 3 religious (Buddhism, Christianity and Islam). The research tool was questionnaires separated into 5 rating scale with Alpha value equaled .948 and the qualitative research by the techniques of conversation focus groups emphasizing the leaders of religious and communities and the structural questionnaires for data collection. The data analysis applied the Content Analysis and the quantitative data analysis applied the statistical analysis i.e. Basic statistics, Multiple Regressions of both total and Stepwise type. The research result found that

1. The first looks at each other in the community as a whole. At a high level (mean = 3.65) BY aspects sacrifice (review) at a high level (mean = 3.64 Communications (Piya verbal) at a high level (mean = 3.63) in practice. benefits (Guerin Jariyawiroj) at a high level (mean = 3.66) and social practice (the Manat eye) at a high level (mean = 3.68).

2. The transfer pattern of culture in overall was good level (average value = 3.66). It had 6 indicators: 1) Learning 2) Culture change by the time in community 3) Culture transfer from one generation to next generation in community 4) Instruction of symbolic system of community to the next generation 5) Observation behavior 6) Learning procedure of children from their parent’s instruction. All were the important predicators of mutual support pattern with (Ă&#x;) .232, .193, .134, .168, .179 and .170 respectively

58: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

and percentage of predictors = 57.3.

3. The relevant factors of mutual support character in community found that 1) The persons who had different education would have the different mutual support in community. 2) The persons who had different occupations would have the different mutual supports in community. 3) The persons who had different religions would have different mutual support in community and 4) The persons who had different transfer would have different mutual support in community.

Keyword: culture transfer, mutual support, community, custom, belief Background and the Importance of Problem

The development of birth, old age, sickness and death became the custom and belief which ancestors transferred the good culture instructed and performed continuously and became the cultural intellectual heritage.

(Culture Department, 2554).Although,some religious rites were changed by the time, the ideology and principles (Khati) were hidden under the various beliefs and taught the people to do the best activities leading to the success according to the belief that human was the heir of the custom and tradition who must continuously act for the bright and happy life.

The progress and happiness were derived from the tradition and the belief which were the way of practice in their own life, acting of their own group practice leading to happiness in their ethnic group. They believed that their own tradition and belief were the most correct and the best . They did not accept the other ones and did not respect the other ethnic group in the same society which caused to the split up society due to contrast ideas.

The contrast of belief; for instance the ethnic group’s problem starting from the group problem expanded to national problems. It started from the different idea, culture and belief because many beliefs, idea and practice of ethnic group differentiated on their religious doctrine. When they believed that their own tradition, belief were the best, they looked down the other ones and caused the disorder and finally riot. In contrast, people acted the same way such as learn together etc. , they would know themselves and mixed up the old and new wisdom which leaded to problem solving and happiness (Ekawit Na Thalang, 2546) and less problems.

The combination of various ethnic groups caused the conflict in the present society because the science and technology influenced the social way of life. Whereas the technology can solve many problems, it also increased many problems due to different environment, society and culture of society which accumulated from the past (Ekawit Na Thalang, 2550) with varied culture, customs and belief caused the social problems such as the religious belief, value, drug, smuggled goods, mafia or distrust to government officials which all were the present problems. They were the results of different culture, tradition and belief which affected the unhappy, conflict society and the separation from communities to nation.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 59

However, the Wat Kalaya community had various ethnics with different culture, tradition and belief due to specific culture, tradition, belief and practice of each ethnic group (Thonburi Amphur Office, Community Development group, 2558), they never had any problems. On the contrary, they live together peacefully. The relationship of 3 national groups built the conscious mind. The study of their relations indicated the adjustment system and the conflict reduction among 3 groups with the variety of nation, culture, tradition and belief.

Therefore, the research purposed to study the 4 Sangahavattu (base of social solidity) in the Dhamma principles ( Phra Tipitaka issue, Siamratana version, 2527) which included (1) Giving (Dana) (2) Kindly Speech (Diyavaca) (3) Useful (Atthacariya) (4) Even and equal treatment to society (Samanatta). The research studied the act of doing of Buddhist, the meaning of culture, tradition and the forms of transmitting culture, tradition and belief of birth, old age, illness and death of each religious including the way of practice of culture, tradition, believe of religious.

The purpose of the research

1. To study the characters of patronage in Wat Kalaya Community , Khet Thonburi, Bangkok.

2. To study the form of transmiting culture, tradition, Buddhists’ belief which resulted the living in Wat Kalaya Community , Khet Thonburi, Bangkok.

3. To study the relevant factors with the patronage in Wat Kalaya Community , Khet Thonburi, Bangkok.

Research Framework

The research applied the mixed methods research by quantitative research. The literature review was concluded as follows:

independent Variable:General information:sex, age,education,occupation,religion,belief Dependent Variable The patronage in the Community (Sangahavatthu) 1.Giving(Dhana) 2.Kindly speech (piyavaca) 3.Useful conduct (Attacariya) 4. Even and equal treatment (Samanattata)

The cultural transmission forms: 1) Learning 2)communication by speech and writing 3)The observation belhavior 4)copy of action 5)Teaching of community identity 6)learning of symbols built by human 7)the strict pratice framework of community 8)the cultural transmission from one generation to next generation in the community 9)the learning process from parents to their children 10)the cultural change by time in the community

>

Figure 1.1 Research framework (Wongsakorn Permphol, 2558)

60: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

The framework of qualitative study was the form of cultural transmission including learning, speech communication by speech and written language, observation behavior,imitation of action, the teaching of community symbols, learning of symbols built by human, the strict practice framework of community, the cultural transmission from one generation to next generation in the community, the learning process from parents to their children, the cultural change by time in the community (Ngampis Satsaguan ,2538 ), (Supatra Supab,2549),(Sucheep Punyanupab,2540),(Petcharee Sumitr, 2520). It was estimated that the different forms of transmission were relevant to the different patronage in the community.

Research methodology Population and Sampling

Populations were 1470 persons living at Kwang Watkalaya (Thonburi office, community development group). The sample group was randomized by stratified random sampling method by KC and Morgan’s scale and the size of sample was 320 persons. The Stratified Random Sampling was divided into the 1st strata Community included Wat Kalaya Community, Wat Prayoonwongsawas Community, Rong Klam Community, Kudee Chin Community, Bupparam Community, Tonson mosque Community and the 2nd strata the religious followers which had 260 Buddhists, 33 Christians and 27 Islam. The data was collected by questionnaires from sampling groups totaling 320 sets of questionnaires/person (100%).

The qualitative research studied the 6 Key man; one Buddhist, one Christian, one Islam, one folk wisdom, one community chief and one member of community board by focus group technique to exchange idea, transmission form of cultural , tradition and belief of birth, old age, illnesses which effected the patronage in community and also structured selection interview.

The context studied 1) the 4 Sangahavattu (base of social solidity) in the Dhamma principles ( Phra Tipitaka issue, Siamratana version, 2527) which included (1) Giving (Dana) (2) Kindly Speech (Diyavaca) (3) Useful activities (Atthacariya) (4) Even and equal treatment to society (Samanatta). 2) the forms of transmission of culture, tradition related to the belief, death, old age, death which included the learning, speech communication, written language, observation behaviors, imitation of action, teaching the practice and behavior in communities, cultural transmission from one generation to next generation in the communities, learning process of children from their parents and the culture change from time to time in communities and concerning to the patronage.

The research areas were Wat Kalaya area, Khet Thonburi because the Wat Kalaya community had the variety of ethnics and 3 religions were

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 61

living together. There were many Buddhism places for example Santacruz church, Bang Luang Mosque, Wat Kalaya, Wat Prayoonrawongsawas, Wat Buppharam.

The time frame started from December B.E. 2557 – December B.E. 2558.

The research tool was the structured interview and questionnaires divided into 4 parts ; Part 1 – general information, Part 2 –the forms of culture transmission had 5 scales(Rating Scale), Part 3 – the characters of patronage had 5 scales (Rating Scale), Part 4 – comments and recommendations. The measurement tool found (1) the format of culture’s reliability equaled .827, the reliability of the patronage equaled .948.

The data was collected by researchers and officials who made the appointments with informants, then interviewed with the questionnaires, distributed the questionnaires to sampling group, checked and analyzed statistical data. The important content in the conversation of focus group was concluded and analyzed content.

The data analysis was separated into 2 parts; qualitative data analysis by content analysis, quantity analysis by the basic statistics including frequency, percentage, mean (X), standard deviation (SD) and multiple regression by total and stepwise.

Research result

1. The general information was concluded that 52.50% were female, 24.69% had age between 41-50 years, 64.69% had below undergraduate education, 60.69% were employee/traders and 82.02% were Buddhists.

2. The people’s believes were concluded that the 1st rank (62.72%) was religious believe, the 2nd rank (49.82%) was scientific believe and the 3rd rank was supernatural believe (47.90%).

3. The patronage of community found that in overall was in high level (X = 3.64). The income separation found that 1) Giving was in high level (X = 3.64), 2) communication was in high level (X = 3.63), 3) useful activity was in high level (X = 3.66) (4) Even and equal treatment to society was in high level (X = 3.68).

4. The cultural transmission form had 2 sections : (1) Qualitative study found that the cultural transmission was in high level ( X = 3.66). The predictors were the transmission forms which patronage in community had 6 predictors;, x10 = the culture change by the time, X8 = the transmission of culture from one generation to next generation of community, X5 =the teaching of symbolic community to next generation, X3 = the observation behaviors, X9 = the learning process from parents to children which were the important predictors. In overall, the patronage had the weight of predictors at β = .232,.193,.134,.168,.179 and .170 respectively.

62: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

The percentage of prediction was 57.3%.

Fig.1 show the weight of predictors of patronage in community (2) The quantitative research found that the transmission of culture, tradition, belief in Buddhism in community were the assistance among people who respect the different religions, had the mental attraction or was the part of community, cultivated the practices until now such as the kindness of children, respect of older people, assistance of different religions, understanding the tradition and transmissions and application in daily life.

5. The summary of factors relevant the patronage in community was that the personnel factors was concluded as follows:

Table 1 show the summary of factors relevant the patronage in community (Wongsakorn Permpol, 2558)

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Variance

t

Sex

2.179

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 63

F

Sig.

Patronage in community in overall Accept Decline

.141

P P

Age

.658

.656

Education

3.264

0.22*

P

Occupation & giving

2.659

0.33*

P

Religious respect

9.588

.000***

P

Transmission

15.348

.000***

P

Discussions

The issues of discussions had 3 points as follows:

The discussion about the patronage in community found that in overall the kind of patronage in community was in high level concluding 1) the giving 2)communication 3) useful doing 4) Even and equal treatment to society because the Buddha was the national religion which the most of the people were the Buddhist and the moral principle is applied in daily life especially the moral principle of patronage in community, living together and mutually assistance in accordance with Buddha’s teaching (2543).

According to the Buddha’s teaching, the 4 Sangahavathu united the human’s mind and also corresponded Thidarat Silwanno (2553) explained about Sangahavathu that human was the social animal who needed to live together and mutually assisted which leaded to the different opinion and finally the conflict. Therefore, it was necessary to set up the regulations or the principle for justice, fairness and the progress of society. The 4 Sangahavathu was one of the moral principle which taught people to live together peacefully.

The discussion about the cultural transmission forms, the tradition, the Buddha’s belief which influenced the community’s patronage.

The quantitative study found that the cultural transmission was in the high level. Its forms was the important predictors of the six community patronage; learning, cultural change by the time, the cultural transmissions from one generation to next generation in the community, the teaching, learning the community symbolic system, observation behaviors, the learning process from parents to their children.

The qualitative study found that the transmission forms were every religious followers transmitted the mental attachment or cultivated their faith or the tradition such as the youth’s politeness, respect to elders, mutual assistance , tradition comprehension and they were transmitted

64: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

and applied in daily life in accordance with Ngampit Satsaguan (2538) who said that the cultural transmission was the social heritage and formed by learning and transmitted from one generation to next generation by speech communication, written or other methods which were suitable for each periods and society and imitated them. Furthermore, Supatra Supab explained that the cultural transmission was the teaching passed on next generation to learn the community’s symbols built by human and agreed upon by individuals in the society and practice, such as social norm, value, beliefs and invention for living which people in society believed that they were correct and practice for a long time. Therefore, it was necessary for human to learn and pass on to next generation which one was vertical transmission from one generation to next generation; for example; the learning process from parents to their children, and another was the horizontal transmission from one society to another society which meant that the receiver neglected their own part of society and mixed up the new culture until it lost own symbols. In conclusion, the result of cultural transmission caused the culture change by the passing time but the norms and the main principles still were the social regulations for a long time.

The discussions results The relevant factors with the community patronage found that 1) the different sex had no difference of patronage in the community (2) the different age gap don’t have the difference of patronage (3) persons with different educations had the difference of patronage (4) the different occupations had the difference of patronage (5) the different religion followers had the difference of patronage (6) the different transmission had the difference of patronage. By the reason, persons who had well education, high occupation, the religious faith and well cultural transmission had the better patronage than persons who had low education, low occupation, no religions and bad cultural transmission etc.

Recommendations The policy recommendation was the organization or concerned should set up the policy for patronage development in the community as follows: 1) To set up the priority to the cultural transmission forms; learning, the culture change by the passing time and the cultural transmission pass on from one generation to next generation in the community because they were the significant predictors in the community.

2) To set up the priority to the improvement of persons with the different factors; personal factor, direct to the persons who (1) low educated (2) had no occupations (3) had no faith to religion and (4) were transmitted good culture slightly, in order to build the better patronage in the community.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 65

Recommendations for future research

1. To do the research and develop the socializing curriculum by applying the new knowledge for management and how to manage to enable the religious followers to practice with quality such as the belief and life quality in community etc.

2. To do the research about the community prototype according to 4 Sangahavatu principle which presently the systematic research did not done and it was the principle that every people had to practice for peacefulness.

3. To study about the forms of patronage in the community in ASEAN for the reason that presently every countries in ASEAN were compared as one unit, for example, the form of patronage of communities in ASEAN. References Department of Religious Affairs. (2527 BE) Tripitaka printed in Siam Rat Newspaper issue no. 11/21/22/23 Bangkok: Religious Printing.

Department of Cultural Promotion.(2554 BE). Wisdom Heritage of National Culture. (Brochure distribute in Siam Thai Mung fair, Cultural Heritage held on 2-4 September 2554).

Ngampit Satsanguan.(2538). Cultural Anthropology. Bangkok : Chaophaya Printing. Penree Sumitr. (2520 BE). Indian Cultural History.Bangkok: Thammasart University.

Phrathampidok (P.O.Payutto). (2543 BE). Dictionary of Prasart, Dhama collection,9th printing. Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidayalai.

Sucheep Punyanupab,(2540 BE), Anthropology.4th printing,Bangkok:Mah amongkutrajavidayalai.

Supatra Supab,(2549 BE), Sociology.Bangkok : Thai Watanapanich.

Thonburi Amphur Office.(2558 BE). Community database. Group of Community Development (Copy).

Tidaratana Silwanno.(2553 BE). Comments of Tambol Officers to the Tambol Management in accordance with 4 Sangahavatu : Case Study of Amphur Mae Sariang, Maehongsorn Province. Thesis of Buddhism, Master Degree (Sangha Administration), Postgraduate Office, Mahachulalongkornrajavidayalai.

Wongsakorn Permpol.(2558 BE). The Forms of Transmission of Culture, Tradition, Beliefs in Birth, Old age, Illness, Death Effecting the Patronage of Community, Kwang Wat Kalaya, Khet Thonburi, Bangkok. Research Reports, Dhonburi Rajabhat University.

Ekwit Na Thalang.(2546 BE). Folk Wisdom and Knowledge Management.

Bangkok : Amarin Printing.

66: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

The Concept of Charity in Buddhism Philosophy Panya namsanga Department of Philosophy Buddhachinarat Buddhist College.

Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University,Thailand.

Author for correspondence; e-mail: panya_MCU@hotmail.co.th Abstract

Thai society is Buddhism society due to most of people respect Buddhism and Buddhism is the religion of Thailand. Almost all cultures and traditions of Thailand, has been influenced from Buddhism. According to the attitude of the people in the society, they will see the people who follow the principle of Buddhism that are good people and deserved to be praised from the society. On the other hand, if someone doesn’t follow the principle of Buddhism, they will be perceived as bad people.

Thai society in the past is real Buddhism society. People in the society, are persons who are generous, honest, calm, kind, cheerful, make merit, support Buddhism by presenting four requisites to monks in order to give the opportunity to monks to study, practices the Dhamna and then bring the Dhamma to spread, teach to Buddhists. Especially, teaching of Buddhism related to “Merit, Sin”

The word of “Merit” is the name of intelligence or cleverness that has the opposite meaning with “Evil ways” such as the word of “Proficiency” that means the cleverness, masterfulness, skill and expert. All are composed with 3 intelligences liked the message appeared in perceived object of one book of the Tipitaka, the book of divisions, that are; Proficiency as to again or progress. Proficiency as to loss or regress. Proficiency as to means and method.

Proficiency Science (Proficiency+ Science), Science means knowledge and Proficiency means cleverness. The thing that get rid of evil. The word of “Proficiency” generally means goodness, beauty. Good things are always used with merit, that re called, “Merit” and this word will “sin” So the new word is “Good deeds” this means merit, goodness, good deeds as well.

Proficiency or Merit is such as donating, religious rule, praying or ten principles of bad man etc.

The idea is that nature can shake or destroy all sins that graduates hate. So, the name of that nature is “Proficiency” Keywords : Concept, Charity in Buddhism, Philosophy

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 67

Introduction

Thai society is Buddhism society due to most of people respect Buddhism and Buddhism is the religion of Thailand. Almost all cultures and traditions of Thailand, has been influenced from Buddhism. According to the attitude of the people in the society, they will see the people who follow the principle of Buddhism that are good people and deserved to be praised from the society. On the other hand, if someone doesn’t follow the principle of Buddhism, they will be perceived as bad people.

Thai society in the past is real Buddhism society. People in the society, are persons who are generous, honest, calm, kind, cheerful, make merit, support Buddhism by presenting four requisites to monks in order to give the opportunity to monks to study, practices the dharma and then bring the Dhamma to spread, teach to Buddhists. Especially, teaching of Buddhism related to “Merit, Sin”.

The word of “Merit” is the name of intelligence or cleverness that has the opposite meaning with “Evil ways” such as the word of “Proficiency” that means the cleverness, masterfulness, skill and expert. All are composed with 3 intelligences liked the message appeared in perceived object of one book of the Tipitaka, the book of divisions, that are;

1. Proficiency as to gain or progress.

2. Proficiency as to loss or regress.

3. Proficiency as to means and method. (Dīghanikāya. Pāthikavagga. (Thai) 11/753/484-485. MCU. 2539)

Proficiency Science ( Proficiency + Science), Science means knowledge and Proficiency means cleverness. The thing that get rid of evil.

The word of “Proficiency”, generally means goodness, beauty. Good things are always used with merit, that are called, “Merit” and this word will be used with “sin”. So the new word is “Good deeds”, this means merit, goodness, good deeds as well. Proficiency or Merit is such as donating, religious rule, praying or ten principles of bad man etc.

The idea is that nature can shake or destroy all sins that graduates hate. So, the name of that nature is “Proficiency”.

Generally, the word of “Merit” and “Proficiency” can be used together as one word in Thai proverb that is “Merit”. With the reason, this means the merit thing. At the same time, when we talk about proficiency in Buddhism. Everything is same. When we speak about merit, this means the proficient thing. At the same time, when we speak about proficiency, this is merit. So the word liked this, this is not speech that used to communicate only. Because of the academic of Buddhism or in Buddhism bible, there is explanation as well. The example is in Monkaladtatheepanee, the part of “Puuppekkatapoonyata”. He has explained in one part that the name of merit person in the past, was the person who had accumulated proficiency because of mentioning of Buddha, Pratyekabuddha and Buddhist Saint in the last life. So this person could be Buddhist Saint if he listened to teaching

68: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

of Buddha.(Manghaladipanī (Pali) 1/92/99. MBU. 2554)

Another meaning, Buddha had said about the heart trouble in Tapaneeyasuit Koontoknikai Thammabot about morality was the cause of real trouble. This morality, the blessed one had said already, the sentence was, “All monks, morality was the cause of 2 troubles, What was 2 moralities? Because some people in this world, didn’t do good things or proficient things, merit that would resist the fear of suffering. They did bad things, low, ferocity. First, he thought that “If we didn’t do good things, we faced trouble. Second, he thought that “If we only did bad things, this would give the trouble to all monks. Both 2 moralities were those things”.

(Khuddakanikāya. Dhammapada.(Thai) 25/30/377) However, the decision to conclude that merit and proficiency are the same in Buddhism because of using of those words generally, the explanation in the book or the words of Buddha without considering cautiously, this may give the mistake in understanding of teaching in Buddhism because some words or some Dhammic principles in Buddhism, may have different context although there is same word, this may give the content or different in shallow and deep meanings.

For merit and proficiency, although general information will tell that both has same meaning but we should study to understand clearly. There is important thing that we should notice such as when we talk about proficiency.

This will connect with “Good deeds”, “Charity Fair” and “Charity”.

When we talk about merit, we always hear the word of “Destiny” that can’t be compared with “Charity Fair”. For the word of “Destiny” and “Spiritual Merit”. There is no appearance to accept or use both of 2 words for substitution. If merit and proficiency are the same. We can use both of 2 words for substitution in every cases. With this reason, there is fundamental hypothesis that merit is different with proficiency in Buddhism. And with this hypothesis, this makes the author interested in studying and analyzing to find the conclusion from Tipitaka, exegesis and other Buddhism textbooks.

The meaning of “Merit” and “Proficiency”

“Merit” means the good quality of mind. When we receive merit, this means that we got the good quality of mind. “Sin” means bad quality of mind. When we sin, this means that we make our minds to fail. Buddhism teaches people to do merit because merit will bring us happiness and also teaches us not to sin because it will bring us suffering liked words of Buddha says;(Khuddakanikāya. Dhammapada.. (Thai) 25/116-118/67-68)

“The people who do good thing, will prohibit mind from sin”.

“Because when we do merit too late, mind will be happy in sin”.

“If man sins, he won’t do it often. He won’t be satisfied in sin because the accumulation of sin will bring us suffering”.

“If man do merit, he will do it more often. He will be satisfied in merit because the accumulation of merit will bring us happiness”.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 69

The word of “Merit”, we can understand that this is good thing but if we analyze the meaning from the root. The word of “Merit” came from Pali language, “Poonya” that has 2 meaning as follows;

1) Cleaning machine of telepathy in order to make it pure. That is the idea that “The nature is the cleaning machine. This can make telepathy pure. This is called , “Merit”.

2) Qualification leads to respectful and worshipful. The idea that “The nature that is worshipful, this is called, “Merit”.

From the meaning of the root for 2 meanings. This can conclude that merit means cleaning machine to make telepathy pure until this can be worshipful and if we would like to make it more clear, we can compare the meaning of “Sin” in the opposite thing. The word of “Sin”, has the meaning in the root for 2 meanings as follows; 1) The morality, that is sin. It is ugly. There is analysed picture that “The nature, that is no growth. This is called , “Sin” that is the opposite thing of “Merit”.

2) Depraved state, that is the opposite thing of “Merit”. It means a good state.

Besides, there are words of Buddha in that shows the meaning of “Merit” very clearly. This includes the Satakanibahtangkutaranikai where “All monks, please don’t fear to do merit because merit is the name of happiness. We know that the result of merit of we have already done is from the desired result, satisfied result that we have already eaten for all times. We grow in kind heart for 7 years. We won’t go to this world for 7 Sangwattakup and Wiwattakup etc.” This shows that merit is related to happiness and can’t be separated. The explanation of the word of “Merit” clearly. We should say happiness comes from our desire and love for every other lives also.

So if we would like to gather all meanings, that is the meaning according to the root as mentioned above. The meaning of the opposite thing of sin and the meaning according to the words of Buddha as stated.

We can conclude that the word “Merit” in Buddhism is the cleaning machine to make our mind pure until this is worshipful and brings to growth, good things and happiness. For the word of “Proficiency”. We can generally understand that this is good deeds liked “Merit”. But if we mention this as stated in the root. The word of “Proficiency”, is came from Pali language “Kusol”, that has 4 meaning as follows;

1) Morality that destroy sin. Morality that is ugly. That is the idea that “Morality that has sin. Morality that is ugly. That it is moving, making it shake. This is getting rid of sin. This is called, “Proficiency”.

2) That Morality can get rid of ugly sin. There is analysed picture that “Morality that can get rid of, this gets rid of sin or those ugly evil ways”.

3)That morality can hold wisdom. There is analysed picture that “Morality that people can hold, this is wisdom”.

70: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

4) Morality that cut sadness liked cogon grass is the idea that “Cogon grass can cut both two hands, those morality can cut evil ways. Those evil ways are happened and unhappened sadness. The morality that can cut cogon grass. This is called, “Proficiency”.

The meaning of 4 meanings, we can conclude by considering to the important characteristic of each meaning. 1st meaning, 2nd meaning and 4th meaning, show about the duty to get rid of. Those are called, “Proficiency”.

This means morality that can get rid of sin or evil ways. For 3rd meaning, this shows the component of proficiency. This is wisdom. This shows that proficiency is the morality accompanied with wisdom.

By concluding of all meanings, we can conclude that “Proficiency” in Buddhism, this means the morality can get rid of sin or evil ways. This will be accompanied with wisdom. There is no wicked things and this brings us happiness back.

The Important of merit and proficiency in Buddhism

We have already known that Buddhism is the religious of practicing.

Because Buddha is from the Lord Buddha who set up Buddhism. He is the person who teaches about the principle of doing. By the true content of Buddhism, this focuses on practicing in order to attain the good thing by having high target that is the end of suffering or nirvana.

The principle of teaching about merit and proficiency in Buddhism, is the important thing because this is related to practicing in order to attain the good thing according to Buddhism objective. In this section, we will tell about how does the important of Buddhism with merit and proficiency.

We will separate into 2 main issues. That is the important of merit and the important of proficiency.

1. The important of merit

Normally, the most important thing of all living creatures is happiness.

Especially for human life, we can see clearly that everyone try to struggle to find happiness incessantly with other guidelines according to each believes, understandings and the capacity of each person. Although Buddhism still has the result from desire to find true happiness. When Siddhattha prince focused the true of life that there was old, sick and dead as normal. This made his mind feel that there was a lot of suffering in life. He decided to become a monk and complied with vigor until he could attain to be Buddha. The attainment was enlightenment of Buddha. This made him teach everything he knew to others in order to please everyone by pointing out the true happiness in happiness in the world level and happiness beyond the world.

Merit that he teaches, is the one way to seek happiness. Because merit and happiness are something related together or both can be the same thing liked in AnkuttaranikaiSattoknibaht that “See first, all monks, all of you shouldn’t fear merit because the word of merit is the word of happiness” or liked he says that “If men do merit, they should do it of tenly. They

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 71

should be satisfied in that merit because the accumulation of merit will bring happiness back”. The principle about merit, will have value for every lives. In Buddhism, there is mentioning about merit liked the treasure that everyone should accumulate because outside treasures are not real happiness and continue to re existence.(Khuddakanikāya. Dhammapada. (Thai) 25/610/18) Besides, the content of the last nitikun. There is the words of Buddha, that shows about the important of merit in many issues. By conclusion, we can say that merit is the desired treasure. This is treasure for human beings, heaven treasure and nirvana treasure. We can say that personality, subordinates, rank, happiness, professional in subject and nirvana including skill in the exposition of dharma, release from human affairs, the founder of the religious, pajjekphoti and Buddhist landscape. All those things are the important foundation of perfect of merit that we have already behaved merit acts.(Khuddakanikāya. Dhammapada. (Thai) 25/11-15/19) From above mentioned, we can see clearly that merit is the cleaning machine of mind which makes it pure until be worshipful. This will bring growth, goodness and happiness. This has the most important in the guideline to attain true happiness and this will be the origin of other good things in the society.

Especially for the last thing, we can see that Thai society binding with merit for a long time. Besides, merit makes the Thai society calm. Merit is the origin of culture, good tradition that is the unique of the nation. A lot of teachings of merit, has the dominant role in Thai society.

2. The important of Proficiency

The overall important of proficiency, is not much different from merit they are both related to a happiness that all living creatures desire. But we separate in order to analyses the point of agreement and different points of merit and proficiency further.

In Buddhism, proficiency is very important because the background of Buddhism started from the great man would like to find real proficiency until he found that the true proficiency was the morality that was the machine that brought suffering out when he enlightened. Liked He said with PhraSuphatta that, “Saw first, Suphatta, I was 29 years old, I became a monk and searched that what was proficiency. Since I became a monk at the age of 51 years. Although recluse of people in dharma, was out. There was no outside only this discipline”.

After enlightenment, there was setting up of the important principle that was the heart of Buddhism. This was called that, “The principle teaching”.

By this important principle, there were; (1) Don’t do all sins.

(2) Doing the charity.

(3) To Purity mind. (Khuddakanikāya. Dhammapada. (Thai) 25/11-15/19)

The principle that said about proficiency directly was (2). This showed

72: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

that the principle teaching of proficiency was very important because this was the one in the heart of teaching in Buddhism.

Besides this, other principle teaching was roots of good that meant the root of proficiency, the fundamental rule of the oder the 227 disciplinary rules. There was 3 things as follows; Non-greed (This meant no greed, the morality that was the enemy with greed. There was generous or charity.

Non-hatred (No injuring, the morality that was the enemy of rage. There was kind. And Non-delusion (Not to be enchanted by, the morality that was the enemy of being enchanted by, wisdom). All three things were the important reason that would make the people to do charity and create good things to get in nirvana as the Buddha said .

“Saw first, all monks, roots of good had 3 things, that was Non-greed, Non-hatred and Non-delusion. Non-greed was proficiency, Non-hatred was proficiency. The people who had no greed, hatred and delusion. Those people would do anything with body, speech and heart. Although that sin was proficiency. Those people had withdrawn all roots of greed, hatred and delusion. This would resemble a sterile person. This would have no more branches. Those people would live in the current situation without suffering, anger, trouble. Those people would attain nirvana in the current situation.

The principle of practicing merit and proficiency in Buddhism

The principle of practicing merit and proficiency in Buddhism, is the thing that Buddha has placed in the system. The principle of practicing merit, will focus on the format of expressing since the fundamental until to the high level. For the principle of practicing proficiency, will focus on the behavior of three gates that are body, mind and words.

1. The principle of practicing merit

This principle is called, “Items of meritorious action”. This can translate according to the term that, “The site of doing merit”. There are 3 things as follows;

1. The way of making merit ; consisting in alms giving or charity.

2. To be gained through morality

3. To be gained through meditation (Dīghanikāya. Pāthikavagga.

(Thai) 11/38/269)

When we do 3 things, Buddha separates the reward of merit. He tells that practicing merit by donating and observing the precepts when we die, we will get treasure for human beings and heaven treasure differently depended on the level of doing merit. We can conclude as follows;

Doing merit by donation and observing the precepts a little bit. Don’t do dharma activities, we will get treasure for human beings but still suffering.

Doing merit by donation and observing the precepts moderately. Don’t do dharma activities, we will get absolute treasure for human beings.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 73

Doing merit by donation and observing a lot of precepts . Don’t do dharma activities, we will get heaven treasure. We will reborn as angel in the four guardian deities, second heaven where Indra dwells, yama, dusit, the realm of the gods who rejoice in creations, poranimmitwasawattee level connectively.

From above mentioned, we can see that practicing merit for 2 things which is donating and observing the precepts. There is the result of merit that is attaining treasure for human beings and heaven treasure according to the reason. Merit from practicing acts of merit is high level merit. If we practice completely, they will have Brahma and no suffering as a result of merit.

There are a lot of types of merit. No matter we do, we will get merit.

There are types of merit in Buddhism that are called, “Items of meritorious action” for 10 things as follows;

1. meritorious action consisting in generosity ; merit acquired by giving

2. By observing the precepts or moral behavior

3. By mental development

4. By rendering services

5. By humility or reverence

6. By sharing or giving out merit

7. By rejoicing in others’ merit

8. By teaching the Doctrine or showing truth

9. By listening to the Doctrine or right teaching

10. By straightening one’s views or forming correct views

Right view is the most important morality in Buddhist because this is the origin of proficiency, all good things. When we have right view, merit and proficiency will follow like the sun when the sun is rising and everything will be lighten. Buddha had said about the important of right view that, “We didn’t see any moralities that made unhappened charity fair to be happened or happened charity fair would be more grown liked right view (resolution)”. The person who has right view, he will be lucky very much. He will be grown in presence life and when he dies, he will go to heaven surely. He is liked lighten person. The mind set in the right way, will be grown liked others can’t do. Liked Buddha had said that, the mind set in the right way, would get the good result that parent couldn’t do or cousins couldn’t do. When right view had many advantages, wrong view would have many disadvantanges. There had more many disadvantages than sins with five heaviest punishment. This was the most heavy sin in Buddhism. There are 5 sins with heaviest punishment and that are (1) killing your mother (2) killing your father (3) killing a Buddhist saint (4) hurting Buddha until bleeding (5) disagreeing with monks. The person who did one of five things, will surely go to hell when he dies. There was no merit that

74: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

could help him so this was called, “sins with five heaviest punishment”.

This was sins that no space for other sins but the person who went to hell for this sins, still had the opportunity to reborn when sins was faded away.

This wasn’t liked the person who had wrong view. When he dieds he would go to hell and had no opportunity to reborn again. Wrong view had a lot of punishment liked Buddha had said that wrong view was thing that had no morality, good view was thing that had morality. Doing much sins because of wrong view. This factor had no benefit or liked Buddha had said that the mind set in the wrong way, this would be more damage than thief seeing thief or enemy seeing enemy. For the characteristic of wrong view, there was the opposite thing, that was right view as mentioned.

2. The principle of practicing proficiency

This is called, “the ten fold wholesome course of action”. When we translate according to the term, this is called, “The way to do proficiency”.

Besides, there are a lot of calling. Liked Buddha had showed in mosquito net such as “Sathutham”, “Noble Dhamma”, “Charity fair”, “Observance of righteousness” and “Somjariya” etc. There are 10 dharmic principles by separating into Bodily action 3, Verbal action 4 and Mental action 3. In Saleoiyoksuit, Buddha had showed the result of merit of practicing proficiency according to ten principles of an honest man that, “Saw first, all brahmen and wealthy person. Some kinds of animal, when it died, it would go to heaven because observance of righteousness and Somjariya. If the person who had observance of righteousness and Somjariya, when he died, he would be the great king, great brahman, angel in other levels. As mentioned above, we can conclude that merit and proficiency in the morality in Buddhism. There are 3 levels for practicing in the society such as Practicing 5 precepts that is preliminary level, Practicing the ten fold wholesome course of action that is middle level and Practicing the Noble Eightfold Path that is high-grade level. The principle of practicing proficiency in preliminary level.The principle of practicing proficiency in middle level.The word of “ten fold wholesome course of action” means the way of charity fair, the way of good thing, good deeds that is the way led to the growth or heaven. There are 10 things that are The principle of practicing proficiency in preliminary level such as

1. To refrain from killing.

2. To refrain from taking things not given.

3. To refrain from sexual misconduct.

4. To refrain from lying.

5. To refrain from taking intoxicants.

The principle of practicing proficiency in middle level such as

1. Bodily action 3

2. Verbal action 4

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 75

3. Mental action 3 The principle of practicing proficiency in high-grade level such as

1. Right View ; Right Understanding

2. Right Thought

3. Right Speech

4. Right Action

5. Right Livelihood

6. Right Effort

7. Right Mindfulness

8. Right Concentration (Vinaya Pitaka. Mahāvaggha. (Thai) 4/13/21.

MCU.2539)

From above 3 levels, we can conclude that there are 3 items of meritorious action or 10 items of meritorious action.

The relationship of merit and proficiency in Buddhism.

From all above mentioned, we will see the different of merit and proficiency but it may be not dominant because the meaning may be different by the language may be mixed. We can say that merit is the cleaning machine to make mind pure, bring us happiness. Proficiency is the morality to get rid of sadness sin and bring us happiness. By the content, it is not different.

Because both means good things that will bring good things back. Later, in the important issue, this can be mixed. Both merit and proficiency are important in the position that have the principle to bring the happiness or give treasure for human beings, heaven treasure and nirvana treasure. And in the way of practicing, although this is separated for 2 issues but this is focus point to show the way to attain only happiness.

Items of meritorious action and ten fold wholesome course of action, we can connect them. That is donating happened from the mind without greed, having goodwill (No vengeful) and having right view that is the part of activities of mind. Precepts are also matched with body acting and verbal action. Because this is the body behavior and verbal action behavior.

Praying is matched with activities of mind. Because this is matched with mind and wisdom. However, when we see overall things, we will see that the important content of all things is from one corner. Especially, proficiency is only mentioned in the corner of acting only. This is where we can evaluate that proficiency and merit are the same. Both can be substituted. This is not wrong when the word of “Merit”. When we say about acting, we can say, “Merit and sin” and “Proficiency”. But when we say about acting, we can say, “Good deeds”. Another corner that we don’t mention. This is the corner of principle of nature. This will connect to the mind that is related to abstract that is the trend of factor reason. When we say about principle of nature, In the part of merit, there is no appearance liked proficiency much.

Because merit is always said about the corner of action only.

76: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Summary

There are 3 ways in doing merit that are called, “The three doors” that are bodily action, verbal action and mental action. Body action such as not killing animals, robbing, and/or sexual misconduct etc. verbal action such as don’t lie, don’t instigate, don’t say rude thing and don’t drivel etc. mental action such as don’t be greedy to want things of others, don’t be vengeful and don’t do anything wrong etc. Most of general people think that body acting and verbal action are important but mental action aren’t important because this is only thinking and no action and therefore no result. But in Buddhism, mental action are the most important. Bodily action and verbal action are only expressing from the mind only. Because the mind can order to do anything by body or speak. Right-Wrong, Bad-Good is from thinking.

This is different with the world or law. Right-Wrong, Bad-Good can be showed by body acting and speaking only. There must be evidence if this will be wrong or right. So the rule in Buddhism is quite soundly, deeply mellow than the law. Mind activities are the high-grade job, delicated job.

Thinking of good things, will have merit. Thinking of bad things, will have sin. In Buddhism, the person who don’t do merit in body acting and verbal action but do merit in mind activities, when he died, he will reborn in the heaven liked the story of Mattakuntaleemanob.

The important of the tenfold wholesome course of action. By meaning, this is the principle of education. This is important for developing human beings in the current situation because this principle can help human beings to develop and live in the society happily. This can reduce the problem of the country much. This can make the world more calm because this principle covers the development of human beings in 3 ways that are bodily action, verbal action and mental action. When human beings develop for 3 things and their mind are in the right way. This will help for lives in the society.

First, This will make the people to be good and practices to other people well also. When everyone do good things to others much. The society will be good society. More good societies will be the country level. More countries will have good citizens. And at last, the world will have good people. If the people study and practice rightly, this will give a lot of benefit. This is important to develop people to get rid of trouble or other suffering in this world. The problem in this world, is happened because there is no development in the people in the principle. Buddha has used this principle to solve problem to teach people to follow. This will make people have precepts and do good things that will be benefit for this world and next world. Buddha uses 10 principles to teach. But he teaches some of 10 principles for matching with situation in that places. The people who do it, will receive good things in this world and in the heaven also. Buddha praises developed people to be superb people that are better than all animals because those people can develop until to be Buddha by practicing from worldly person to be good person and to be holy person at last.

Besides, there is support teaching that Buddha had said to rely

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 77

on ourselves, that good deeds are from the result of trying. Like the word of Buddha in attawak from thammabot. The content was, “We should rely on ourselves, others couldn’t be living place because the person who practiced well, he would get living place very difficult”. Buddha had said that every human beings would get in what they do to themselves. Worshipping to God or Buddha, would be no meaning than practicing. Like Buddha taught that brahmen or monks were only leaders in spirit only or they were those persons who pointed out the way only. Like in the Buddha’s word in Tipitaka that, “You should try by yourselves. Buddha is only person who pointed out. The person who practiced this, would liberate from the commitment of devil”.

This was not the media between human beings and liberation.

Liberation from metempsychosis, was depended on trying and true knowing of each person. This was not depended on any great men, teacher, god or Buddha. Buddha had taught that “Please try to liberate by yourselves with carefulness”. So the person who would like to attain nirvana, he must depend on himself. Like the message in Chakkawattisuit that “Saw first, all monks, all people, please rely on yourselves. There was no living places. Please use the morality as living places. No need to use other things.

References Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University.(2539 BE). Tipitaka in Thai Language the Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya Issue. Bangkok : Mahahu-lalongkornrajavidyalaya Printing.

Mahamakut Buddhist University.(2554 BE). Manghaladipanī in Pali Language the Mahamakut Buddhist University Issue. Bangkok : Mahahulalongkornrajavidyalaya Printing.

78: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

The Application of Buddhist Participation to the Conflict Managementin Wat Noi Nang Hong Community, Singburi Province Phramaha Khittithanade Anando[a], Phramaha Hunsa Dhammahaso [b] and Phrapalad Somchai Payogo*[c] [a] Graduate School, Mahachulalonkornrajavidyalaya University,Thailand [b] Director of Master’s Degree Program on Peace Studies Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University,Thailand [c] Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand * Author for correspondence; e-mail: sdamnoen@yahoo.com Abstract This article is intended to present the application of Buddhist participation to the conflict management in Wat Noi Nang Hong Community, Singburi Province. Information is gathered from the evidence of participation in Buddhist perspective in the theory parts, according to the guideline of the west. In-depth interview. To observe and listening to public opinions, people in involved in Wat Noi Nang Hong community.

From the research, it is found that the study related to the application of the ideas and principles of the participation in Buddhist perspective to manage conflicts and create community’s unity, it is also found that the community leaders in the present lack virtues which are the tools of having trusts from people in the community. Hence, in order to bring back community leaders to have the equal roles comparing to the ones in the past, there must be the application of the Dhammas of the leaders in the past to let them have the roles in the aspects of “having the right view; acting as trustful relatives with the holy Dharma of Brahmavihara (The four divine abodes); and being able to make friendship by self-controlling with Sangahavatthu Dhamma”.

Therefore, there must be use of the process of the participation in Buddhist perspective as the impulsion for the movement of people’s or private sector; it is divided into the 2 models of (1) the 5-Step-Model of the Participation in Buddhist Perspective (R5 Steps); and (2) the Process Model of the Participation in Buddhist Perspective (Noble Eightfold Cycle), both of which consist of the harmonization of “the Noble Eightfold Path or Magga”, the important principle for the movement of sustainable participation in Buddhist perspective.

Keyword: The Application, Buddhist Participation, Conflict Management Introduction

Conflicts can occur at any time and are ready to magnify. If you cannot control. Conflicts related to religious conflicts that resolve the most difficult.

Peace and harmonious relation among different religious adherent is one

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 79

of problematic issues that have been haunting the civilization and human life. Religion perceived in contradictory perspectives. In one hand, human being perceived religion as a need of a set of value that would guide them to a good life, but in another, religion often led to threaten the human life (Monib, 2014 : 44-45). Each part relates the reason and factor under the rules of cycle. (Nuamcharoen (2015 : 217).

Thai society, currently has overly perform its rights and freedoms and often used more emotion than reasons. In recent years in Thailand and especially since 2006, the disputation and disharmony that traditionally characterizes the political sphere has spilled over into civil society (Boonpanyarote, 201: 72-84). Most conflict may start at the perspective of different attitudes in beliefs or ways of life. These things are the factors that cause a lot of controversy in the society and sometimes spread a lawsuit in court at the end. The conflicts of Thai people occurred and spreaded wider and leaded to violent combats by using democracy and quality of living as claimed for starting protests. The conflicts bring people to be suffered, loss lives and property, and also unstable imitability national level. It also effected on community that wanted to help to solve the crisis. As the saying “The participation of citizens is the heart of the development” that can promote the community’s cooperation in the development. The members of community can be united to stand for their own community in learning and solving problems and make their community sustainable development (Roop-Ngam, 2002) and human beings can live happily together with both inner peace and outer peace. (Mansumitrchai, 2015 : 163)

In Buddhism, Buddha shows the importance of participation among monks community and he taught his disciples and everyone to live in a harmonious society together. For example the discipline that will bring unity among monks community; they must meet every 15 days to jointly hold a religions service in the Buddhist chapel to state Patimoga chanting as the rules of conduct harmonious among monks [Vi. Ma (thai) 4/136-213]. But whenever there is a misunderstanding, they are allowed to hold a religious service in the Buddhist chapel premature together to clear the issue. Do not let misunderstandings accumulated deposition until they become a bigger controversy in monk’s community.

Wat Noi Nang Hong community is the place that can be relied on itself from the past to present. Currently with the development of society, it is expanded to wilder community with the differences in political ideas.

According to the problems, the author is interested in studying in the participation of Wat Noi Nang Hong community in Singburi. It’s the area that has been participated with conflict management concept. Applying Buddhist conceptual ideas and principles in managing conflict with the aim to create unity in Wat Noi Nang Hong area, will be the way to manage the conflicts and promote truly harmony and peaceful to the community.

Research Objectives

1) To study the conceptual ideas and principles of the participation in

80: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

conflict management according to Buddhism.

2) To study the problems and the participation in Buddhist perspective of the unity creation in Wat Noi Nang Hong community, Sing buri Province.

3) To apply Buddhist conceptual ideas and principles in managing conflicts with the aim to create unity in Wat Noi Nang Hong community, Sing buri province.

Research Conduct

This research is a qualitative research studying in Buddhist Tipitaka, books, documents, literatures, and academic articles as primary sources together with an in-depth interview, observation and listening to public opinion of related people in Wat Noi Nang Hong community. Then all data collected are used to analyze and synthesize of application Buddhist participation to conflict management in Wat Noi Nang Hong Community in Singburi for creating sustainable unity of the community.

Research Results

1. The definition of conflict

“Conflict” comes from Latin “Confligere” which means fight and warfare, Incompatibility or Opposition means “Group or two people who have differences in ideas, beliefs, and needs, argue and competition” (Reymond W. Mack and John Pease, 1973: 68)

Conflict is common in society. Either causing the loss or development, it is up to the management of people in society. The conflict possibly happen and cannot be avoided when humans interact with each other. Sometimes conflicts create better ideas and changes or sometimes cause serious damage as well based on the process of dealing with conflict.

It can be seen that conflict is a natural phenomenon that is paired with nature of men, whether on a personal level or social level. Conflict is sometimes beneficial to have new way of development but sometimes, if poorly managed, it can extremely cause problems.

W. Watanasap (2012: 111-113) sees that whenever the conflict and violence happened in the society. There are only 2 choices for human to deal with conflict management that as follow:-

1) Using violent way to finish the conflict or

2) Using peaceful way to resolve the conflict.

Conflict is a feeling or reaction of persons that have ideas, values, and goals in different ways including competing and fighting to get the limited resources or invading or preventing the opposite group in order to achieve their goals. Conflicts may be reflected in the form of mild or severe, as Phramaha Hunsa Dhammahaso (2013: 22-23), stated a similar definition of conflicts into two main meanings, that is, the meaning of the positive and negative.

In conclusions that humans have a way of handling conflict with the instinct of self. Mostly they use violence to resolve conflicts. The conflict

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 81

is causing adverse effects such as arguing, fighting, hurting, and as much as killing or war but the crisis inevitably comes with opportunity. If conflict is used as the driving force, it contributes to creativity and causes a positive impact on organizations and society.

Concepts and Principles of Participation in Buddhism

Concepts and principles of participation in Buddhism can be summarized into three concepts as follow: 1. Principle of participation based on Western concept, in conclusion, divided the participation of individuals in society into 4 groups: participations in decision making, participation in operation, participation in benefits, and participation in evaluation.

2. Principle of participation based on Eastern concept, in summary, divided into two ways categories creation of a pattern of activity for public participation, and evaluation of the participations of people.

3. The principles of participation based on Buddhism notion focusing on creating harmony and peace to live together in a peaceful society.

Community leaders should promote moral virtues, Bhramviharadhamma (Dharma for having good mind and behavior) and Sangahavadhudhamma (Dharma for supporting good community) (Phra Brahmagunabhorn P. A. Payutto, 2008 : 142). Holding both Dharma together with the role of community leader in the past are Noble Eightfold Paths in Three Basic Training by grouping people based on their duty and role of Noble Eightfold Paths to the process of participation. The strategy to achieve four ways of success are (1) participation and cooperation (2) contributing and sharing (3) engaging in consultation or participation in public discussion (4) involving in a public hearing.

From the concepts and principles involved above, it can be concluded that the concept of the West and the concept of the East have been consistent in the idea that participation concept should allow people to understand the objective of the participation project to achieve the same goal and be part of the benefit arising from the projection which all sectors participate since the beginning in making decision, operating, problem solving, choosing the developing way, and following the evaluation.

Based on the principles of Buddhism, Buddha aims to start building participation within oneself first and then gradually develops according to the rule of society. To achieve this objective, the researcher will integrate both Eastern and Western science concepts to justify the application of the principles of Buddhism. However, to handle conflicts that arise in Wat Noi Nang Hong community in Singburi will lead to a model involved in Buddhist concept to resolve conflicts in the bigger society level in the future

Studying the Problems and engaging Buddhism to build a harmonious community of Wat Noi Nang Hong, Singburi

The study found that activities organized by the government and private sections have the share and differences that cause people in the community to

82: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

pay attention and have cooperation in the activities. The shares mentioned are:1) Activities focusing on gratitude. 2) Activities for fun, such as music and so on.

3) Activities that benefit the community. 4) Health promotion activities such as local sports, soccer ball, etc. 5) Activities about the faith of the community 6) Activities with the giveaway, or sweepstakes.

The difference focus activities in public and private sectors are:- 1) the activities that have a beneficial effect upon certain individuals, groups; 2) activities that the parties to get cooperation in their own group; 3) activities that undisclosed information to only dissenters themselves; 4) activities that lack of involvement of the parties to jointly analyze share or exchange information; 5) activities that lack of confidence in the organizing sector 6) activities that group or authority try to use the coercive powers to force an unfair situation of “the inside factor” causing conflicts and leading to the participation problems such as “desire to get more than give”, changing farming lifestyle to urban lifestyle which cause conflicts to the people.

“External factor” includes the concealment of information, inequality of opportunity, and sided of opinion that are considered as major factors of lacking harmony and this become severer.

Application of Buddhist Concepts and Principles in Conflict Management Focusing on the Unity of the Community

The result of the application of Buddhist participation to conflict management to create harmonious community found that community leaders lack virtue that they should have to hold the faith of the people in the community. The community leaders should be able to play a role equivalent to community leaders in the past by applying these concepts to pursue leadership role,

1) Right View (Rv) by having Sammaditthi

2) Holy Abiding (Ha) by having Brahmavihara

3) Social Solidarity (Ss) by having Saṅgahavatthu

The author represents a role model of leadership of Buddhist Participation (RvHaSs Model), applied to cause the “Middle Way”, that is, dualistic Dhamma concept which is an idea of linking prominent points or looking for shared center of varied ideas for living together and collaborating in harmony which is called “the third idea”, that is, a principle beyond the traditional procedures that cause conflict.

Community leaders must take into account the relationship between “a mean (participation) and a goal (unity),” as figure 1.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 83

Figure 1: The role of leaders of Buddhist Participation (RvHaSs Modle).

In the people sector, Dharma principles, which can help conciliation, create correct views that expel “unfaithfulness, suspicion, and not being open mind”, are “creating the Right View, Right Thought; Right Action; Right Speech; for Benefit of the society, Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness” for creating understanding and acknowledgement together in the beginning. Thus, the model of Buddhist Participation in the people sector is purposed to drive a community to unity. The process consists of 2 phases as follows:

Phase 1: the terrace model of Buddhist Participation or (R [Vi-TASCo-Min-LiEf] Steps: R5 Steps); in the phase 1, before applying the model of Buddhist participation to a community, the paradigm of the community must be first adjusted; getting empirical results in a small group, then into the large people sector. The model of Buddhist participation aims at creating unity in this phase. The model is processed step by step. It consists of five steps are as follows.

Step 1 Right View: R [Vi].

Step 2 Right Thought; Right Action; Right Speech; for Benefit of the society): R [TAS].

Step 3 Right Concentration): R [Co].

Step 4 Right Mindfulness): R [Min].

Step 5 Right Livelihood; Right Effort; for Relationship): R [LiEf].

The model of Buddhist participation in the people sector for communities which face conflicts and lack of unity can be applied to their activities. I represent it as a mind map as figure 2.

84: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Figure 2: the terrace model of Buddhist Participation (R5 Steps)

The model of Buddhist Participation, the phase 1 based on the principle of “the Noble Eightfold Path” is a motivation to drive the process of participation in the people sector, counted as the first step of the paradigm adjustment with an application of Buddhist Participation and creating “the right view together”. It is a determination of guideline in accordance with “the Threefold Training”, that is, the step of Right View leaded by “wisdom”, the actions for a goal directed by “morality”, and standing basically in process base with “concentration”. Every different group can do activities for public; doing work for work, doing a duty for a duty with gladness and right understandings. Public benefits are importantly focused on. Atmosphere of unity and solidarity is created.

Phase 2: Noble Eightfold Cycle

After the community driven by the process of participation in the phase 1, in order to create a sustainable web in a community, like large texture in a beautiful pattern weaved by a weaver with colorful and varied threads, when the same activities have to be done, the process of participation must be adjusted to harmonize completely different ideas’ gaps. Every different group focuses on the same goal. So the phase 2 is a continued cycle for creating a sustainable web in a community with “the Threefold Training”, that is, morality, concentration, and wisdom. When the unity is needed to be driven in the model of Noble Eightfold Cycle, issues of specific groups can be adjusted; the terrace model of participation is still remained. To understand better, I can represent it as figure 3.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 85

Figure 3: Noble Eightfold Cycle (summarized by the author)

The application of conceptual ideas and principles of Buddhist participation for conflict management focusing on creating a unity in community of Wat Noi Nang Hong, Singburi province, or even in other communities, creates sustainability and brings peace, resulting from using a principle of the Noble Eightfold Path as a mean to drive members in community to see “a goal” and “a mean” in the same direction, that is, creating a unity in a community. Both leaders of communities and the people sector need motivations to cycle “role of leader of creating Buddhist participation” altogether with cycling “Noble Eightfold Cycle”, like an engine’s gears functioning together, the engine is out of work if any gear is broken. Illustrated as the following figure 4.

Figure 4: Buddhist participation cycle focusing on creating a sustainable unity

86: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

From Buddhist participation cycle focusing on creating a sustainable unity above, it shows that when the leaders of communities are strong, they are like cycling forward in the people sector, as a car driven with front wheels.

On the contrary, when the people sector is strong, it is like cycling forward, the leaders of communities cycling rear wheels. The researcher need them to cycle together like a car moving with four wheels in order to strengthen community of Wat Noi Nang Hong with Buddhist participation for conflict management focusing on creating a unity, crossing over sustainably various problems and obstacles.

Conclusion and Suggestions

Although the application of conceptual ideas and principles of Buddhist participation focusing on creating a sustainable unity is a case study of the community of Wat Noi Nang Hong, Singburi province, resulting Noble Eightfold Cycle which is applicable to conflict management or creating a community unity, The researcher suggest that community’s context to studies to survey and analyze problems throughout for knowing a way to apply the model properly with the phases of the model of Buddhist participation.

Especially, an interesting issue to hold “Noble Eightfold Cycle”, both the community leaders sector and the people sector can create an actual relationship for a sustainable unity in community.

The issues that the researcher did not study, but should be further studied is applying “Noble Eightfold Cycle” to the community of Wat Noi Nang Hong, Singburi province for creating a sustainable unity in the community.

Recommendations for further researches

1) Do a study of trying out conceptual ideas and principles of Buddhist participation for conflict management focusing on creating a community unity and a concrete evaluation of the participation of activities or projects.

2) Do a comparative study between the communities using Noble Eightfold Cycle to know the differences among the communities studied.

3) Use the resulting model from the study to encourage everyone to have “Right View: Rv”.

References Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. (1996). Tripitaka : Thai version. BKK: MUC Press.

Monib, Mohammad. (2014). Pluralism and Perenialsm: The Vein of Religious Life and World Peace. Journal of MCU Peace Studies. 2(2), 44-53.

Phra Brahmagunabhorn (P. A. Payutto). (2008). Dictionary of Buddhism.

Nonthaburi: S.R. Printing-mass product.

PhramahaHunsa Dhammahaso. (2013). A Buddhist Peaceful Means: Integrating the Principles and Instruments of Conflict Management.

BKK: 21 Century.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 87

Mansumitrchai, Pintong. (2015). Mercy Message: A Path to Peace. Journal of MCU Peace Studies. 3(2), 162-175.

Raymond W. Mack and John Pease. (1973). Sociology and Social Life. 5th ed.. NY: D Van Nostand Company.

Nuamcharoen, S. (2015). The Relationship of Nature’s Spirits. Veridian E-Journal (International Humanities, Social Sciences and arts). 8, 4 (January-June): 217-235.

Boonpanyarote, Supatra. (2015). Ideas of love in Thai tradition-reading heritage. Veridian E-Journal (International Humanities, Social Sciences and arts). 8, 4 (January-June): 72-84 Watanasap, W. (2012). Conflicts: Principles and tools to solve the problem.

4th ed.. Khon Kaen: Klung nana vithya.

Roop-Ngam, Y. (2002). Participation on Bureaucratic Reform of the Bureau of the Budget. Research Paper of M.A. (Social Development), National Institute of Development Administration, Bangkok.

88: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Scheduled Castes, Conversions and Socioeconomic differentials: A Comparative Study of Two Social Groups in Maharashtra State Kirtiraj D C Social Sciences Center, Erandwane,Bharti Vidyapeeth Deemed University, Pune 411038, India.

Author for correspondence; e-mail: drkirtiraj67@gmail.com Abstract

The Scheduled castes in India constitute 16.2 per cent of India’s total population and their presence can be found in all over India with different proportions. The potential of Buddhism as an instrument of social change and its sociological relevance to address a social problem (Untouchability) was well realized by Dr. Ambedkar and he appealed to all downtrodden and oppressed people to embrace Buddhism for their emancipations and to live a life with dignity and respect. Of the 59 SCs in Maharshtra only the Mahars (Neo-Buddhist) got converted into Buddhism in 1956. The other two dominant SCs in Maharashtra namely Matang and Chamar preferred to remain in the old Hindu fold as Hindu Dalits. The influence of Buddhism on Neo-Buddhist is not restricted to its spiritual realm alone but it is helping the people to their all-round development in all spheres of life It has brought the psychological changes and changed their life styles.(Kurne, 1997, Sharma, 2003, Beltz, 2005, ).It is now a well-known fact that there is a wide Socio-economic disparity between the converted and non-converted scheduled castes in Maharashtra state.

The present study tries to find out the reasons behind their disparity and to what extent the conversion to Buddhism as an intervention has helped or not helped to the converted formerly untouchable castes.

Keywords: Scheduled Caste, Conversion, Buddhism, Socio-eco differentials, Dr Ambedkar Introduction

Scheduled castes in India constitute 16.6 percent of India’s total population (Census, 2011) and their presence can be found in all over India with different proportions. In the states like Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal more than 25 percent of the state population is scheduled castes. As far as the state of Maharashtra is concern of the total 11.24 crore, scheduled caste population in the State is 1.33 crore that is 11.8 per cent of the total population (Census, 2011). Literacy rate of scheduled

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 89

caste population has increased from 71.9 per cent in 2001 to 79.7 per cent in 2011. 1 Status and plights of these scheduled castes differs from caste to caste even though they share a common history. Almost all of them were out castes and were called as untouchables as per the Hindu Dharma Shastra. What is remarkable about them is that after the India’s independence, they became target groups for Government’s welfare policies including the policies of positive discrimination (Reservations and fixed quotas in various sectors including services and education) The studies like Patwardhan, (1973), Parvathammma (1984), Shivram (1990), Salve, (1998), Wankhede, (1999) and Karde (2010) shows that there is a differential impact of enactment of these policies on the various scheduled castes in India. Some caste have benefited and marched ahead in their socio-economic developments others lagged behind. The question therefore arises why this has happened?

The Jats in Punjab, Chamars in Uttar Pradesh, Malas in Andhra Pradesh and Mahars in Maharashtra are relatively well developed scheduled castes in India and all of them shares a common feature that is they are staunch Ambedkarites and have walked on the path shown by Dr B. R Ambedkar.

They are modern Buddhist. The untouchable castes which denied the leadership and legacy of Dr Ambedkar and preferred to continue in the Hindu fold are observed to remain socially and economically backward.

The solidarity and unity amongst these scheduled castes is yet another unresolved issue. The scheduled castes if united can pose some formidable challenge to the cultural and political hegemony of upper castes Hindus.

Dr. Ambedkar in his speech delivered at Solapur on December, 31, 1937 had openly addressed the question of disunity amongst various sub-castes within scheduled castes. He remarked: “... first, it is misfortune for all of us that there is no unity amongst the various castes such as Mahar,Chambhar, Bhangi etc. prevailing amongst the untouchables. The real reason for absence of this unity is the existence of caste distinction (jati- bhed) in Hindu society. the painful part of it is that, Hindus not only do not remove the caste discrimination ...on the contrary, they strive for strengthening the differences amongst the untouchables, taking undue advantage of their ignorance. They support Mangs and raise them against Mahars; they support Chambhars and raise them against Mahars and Mangs..though the original responsibility of the caste distinction is on Hindu society, for us, to forget our responsibility would be suicidal. It is our foremost duty to remove the caste distinction.. unless we achieve this, we would never prosper.” 2

The fear expressed by Dr. Ambedkar proved true. After the first Lok Sabha general election Ambedkar was defeated by a 7 th pass candidates, a Congress candidate, N.S.Kajrolkar, a chamar by caste, defeated Ambedkar.

Hinduization of Dalits (Scheduled Castes)

The Scheduled caste being ex-untouchables have fought a long battle against the Hinduism as a victims of its pro high caste ideology. The hinduzation of sections of Dalits is great set back for their emancipation movement. The Sangha Privar, the right wing Hindu organisation has been for a

90: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

long time following a policy of Hinduizing Dalits and Adivasis through the active intervention of variety of organizations (Panikkar K. N., 2004) The Hindutva Projet of the Sangh Parivar implemented by its various Political and religious Offshoot organization throughout India is basically meant for communalizing the innocent Dalits and Adivasis and transformed them into a veritable army of Hindutava to fight its street battle.4 The Dominant Schedule Castes among SCs

The data shows that there are 22 dominant castes in the country, which counted for 55.36 percent of the total schedule caste as per census, 1981.

Apart from this, there are more than 1000 other smaller castes, which account for remaining 44.64 percent of the total SCs population. The problems and issues of these 22 dominant SCs are discussed at lengths at various levels including academicians since many years. The problem today is that some kind of differentiations is being made between the dominant SCs and other small and Non-dominant SCs. This is the result of decade’s long policies of the respective governments managed by the ruling classes.5 Role of Buddhism

The potential of Buddhism as an instrument of social change and its relevance to address a social problem (untouchability) was well realized by Dr. Ambedkar and he appealed to all downtrodden and oppressed people to embrace Buddhism for their emancipations and to live a life with dignity and respect. Of the 59 Scheduled castes in Maharshtra only the Mahars(NeoBuddhist) got converted into Buddhism on 14 October 1956 at Nagapur as a part of mass conversion enacted by Dr B R Ambedkar. The other two dominant scheduled castes in Maharashtra namely Matang and Chamar preferred to remain in the old Hindu fold as Hindu Dalits. Over the period of time the visible influence of Buddhism on Neo-Buddhist can be seen not only in spiritual realm but also in their all round development in all spheres of life. It has brought the psychological and materialistic changes and changed their life styles.(Kurne, 1997, Sharma, 2003, Beltz, 2005) It is now a well known fact that there is a wide Socio-economic disparity between the converted and non-converted scheduled castes in Maharashtra state leading to the demands by the underdeveloped scheduled castes to re-categorized them on the basis of their level of backwardness and fix a reserve quota within quota meant for scheduled caste for the purpose of government services and educational opportunities.

Recent Developments

The Backwardness of these communities and the possible ways of removing it is being debated in different parts of India and almost in every state during this decade. The underdeveloped scheduled castes in each of the State is demanding separate quota within quota (with the blessing of ruling caste’s divide and rule policy), as an answer for their under development. The states like Punjab, Haryana and Andhra Pradesh had given

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 91

separate quota to such castes amongst scheduled caste which was later challenged in Supreme Court of India. The Supreme Court of India in its judgment on 5th November, 2004 has struck down their demands by saying that the sub-categorization of scheduled castes does not fit in the scheme of Constitution as well as in Article 341(1) Scheduled caste forms a class by themselves and it is beyond the power of the state to sub- classify a class already recognized by the constitution. The apex court further said that it is also the violation of Article 14 of the constitution. All the three states, viz., Punjab, Haryana and Andhra Pradesh have withdrawn their respective orders of sub-categorization 6 The central government is set on bringing the constitutional amendment Act to nullify the effect of Supreme Court’s Judgment.

Review of literature

There are numerous studies done by the Indians and the scholars in abroad on various aspects of caste and caste system. The scheduled castes and their problems has remained a matter of discussion amongst various Dalits and non-Dalits intellectuals. The socio-economic development of Neo-Buddhist after their conversion into Buddhism shines throughout the Indian History as how best a religion can be employed for addressing and solving the historical blunders. The Neo Buddhist Movement in India has firmly established the sociological value of Buddhism. The economist amongst the social scientist refused to discuss religion, according to them notions pertaining to religion or religious behavior did not confirm to the canons of rationality, as there was no means-end relationships between religious ideas and beliefs and out come of such ideas and beliefs (Damale, Y. B., 1982) Marx described the religion as opium of masses and observed that religion is being use for exploiting the masses Comte discussed the stages of human development from theological as most simple stage to scientific stage as a most advanced stage. He felt that with the advancement of science, religion will recede, even get extinct.(Ibid).Y.D Damale further points out that ethical and moral values which are really non rational exert a great deal of influence on human affairs and though non rational have to be recognized as an important force in human society which cannot be explained by employing canons of rationality. Marx Weber went further and contended that a firm linkage could be established between religious belief, values and rational action. He used the method of agreement and difference and proposed that religion or certain religious ideas and beliefs are directly conducive to development of rationality, the scientific sprit, economic development and so on (Ibid., 31)

Chandra Ramesh and Sangh Mittra (2003) the authors in their book, ‘Dalits and their Future,’ discussed the impact of Neo-Buddhism on the Dalits in India and abroad. The authors opine that the direct impact of Neo-Buddhism among the downtrodden masses on the whole at national level is evident in the emergence of Dalit society. The author referring to the impact of Neo-Buddhist elsewhere in the world points out that there is

92: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

a definite impact of Neo-Buddhism in the United Kingdom, US and many other Western countries.

Sharma Sanjay P (2003) the author in his book entitled, ‘Dr. Amedkar : A Crusader of Social Justice,’ has discussed in detailed how a religion like Neo-Buddhism is used by Dr. Ambedkar as an instrument to achieve social justice and addressing the social and economic problems of the Dalits.

The author opines that neo-Buddhism does not restricts its influence in the spiritual realm only, it is helping people to an all round development in every sphere of life.

Patvardhan Sunanda (1965) in her Ph. D. thesis investigated the changes in internal structure of six scheduled castes in the urban areas of Pune city. It is the record of the pattern of behavior as it is today and the description of the material changes, the compromises and the non –changes are revealed particularly in the case of Mahars, who are the most numerous and advanced among all the scheduled castes, because of their conversion to Buddhism enemas in 1956. On the one hand published material was collected and on the other 100 families each from three major castes (Mahar, Mang and Chambhar) were selected and 30 families from three different minor castes were selected likewise in all 390 respondents were interviewed. The study found that not a single ‘Mahar’ had kept up his original occupation in this urban sample. Ambedkar’s leadership and the awakening of self-respect, and conversion to Buddhism are some of the important reason for change of traditional occupations in case of Mahars. In case of other two major Scheduled Castes, Matang and Chambhar they still follows the traditional occupations. On educational transformation the study finds that ‘Mahars’ have made good progress in education, compared to the other untouchable communities. However, the researcher observed that their position in rural areas is still unchanged. They are still backwards educationally and economically, compared to higher castes. (p. 95)

Shastree Uttara (1981) her Ph.D. thesis, ‘Neo-Buddhists: As a Marginal Group in India’, aims at examining the marginal characteristics of the Neo-Buddhist as a group and the changes brought about in their behavior and lifestyles because of their conversion to Neo-Buddhism. The study was conducted in the city of Pune. Preliminary house hold survey of 212 households was conducted from the residential clusters of Neo-Buddhists. Out of this survey of 212 house holds a further simple random sample of 100 cases was drown for the detail enquiry by using a guided enquiry schedule. The study found that acceptance of Buddhism was mainly motivated by the desire to raise one’s status. The findings revealed that economic position of the whole group was low. (P. 415) After the conversions the Neo-Buddhists were expected to rejects all aspects of Hinduism- their fasts and festivals, God and Goddesses. However, this study reveals that the complete negation of the old has not been still possible for them, their religious practices consists of the elements of both the pattern traditional Hindu ‘Mahar pattern’ and Buddishts pattern. However, the study observed the changes in performance of marriage and funeral ceremonies, in adoption of new festivals like

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 93

the ‘Buddha Jayanti’, ‘Ambedkar Jayanti’, and observance of fast to honor ‘Buddha Pournima’.

Johannes Beltz (2005) in his study, ‘Mahar, Buddhist and Dalit: Religious Conversion and Socio-Political Emancipation,’ interviewed 299 Buddhists from Urban areas of Maharashtra, particularly from western cities like Mumbai and Pune. The respondents were taken from various spectrum of society from slum dwelling Buddhists to a university Professor Buddhists, the main purpose of the study was how the ex-untouchables perceived themselves as a Buddhists and how Buddhism has worked as a tool of emancipation for the untouchable/Mahars in Maharshtra. The author points out that conversions has brought the psychological changes, it has changed their lifestyle and the way of life completely by giving them new out look But much could not be achieve on economic front. Most of the Buddhists occupy low paid jobs; they are un-employed and excluded from society and the situation is worse in villages where in two third of Buddhists live today.

Kurne Anjali (1997) in her Ph. D. thesis, ‘Ethnic Identity and Social Mobility: A case study of the Buddhist in Pune,’ analyzed the relationship between the ethnic identity and social mobility among Buddhist community in the city of Pune and argues that the assertions of new identity as Buddhist by the Dalits/Mahar had lessen their social disabilities, dis-privileges, oppressions and led to their upward mobility and socio-cultural change among them was a result of conversion to Buddhism.

Setting of the Study

The study is conducted in Pune City. The city has sizable population of scheduled castes residing in slums. The City is one of the most important educational and industrial center in Maharashtra and recently came up as an IT hub in Pune. The city has a mixed cosmopolitan population coming from different parts of Maharashtra and India. Forty percent of Pune’s population, an estimated 14 lakh people, lives in slums. Every year, the number of people migrating to the city is continuously increasing. The city might be an IT hub and a center of learning, but it is fast gaining another epithet, that of a city of slums.

Objective of the study

1. To study and understand socio-economic profiles of two different scheduled castes living in urban setting.

2. To study and find out the causes of their socio-economic differentials with special reference to the role of conversion (Buddhism)

3. To study and analyze the problems in the unifications of two castes and to make recommendations.

Methodology

By considering the Buddhism as an intervention tool, the researcher has selected two different scheduled castes, one of them converted to Buddhism

94: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

(Mahar) as an interventional group and other not-converted scheduled caste (Matang) as a non-interventional group. The Slums/communities wherein both these castes co-habits were identified and proportionate number of respondents were selected from four different communities namely, Ambedkar Nagar, Dandekar Bridge, Ram Nagar and Bhavani Peth. In all 74 respondents, 38 from converted Scheduled caste, and 36 from non-converted scheduled caste were selected and they were interviewed with the help of predetermined set of questions. The responses have been analyzed so as to know the extent of their socio-economic mobility, the reasons for the same, how the two castes perceives each other’s prospects in terms of development and how Buddhism have favored or not favored as a tool of change in their social mobility is also investigated.

Sampling Procedure

The multistage simple random technique was used. In the first stage the slums habited by the scheduled castes communities were identified. In the second stage four slums (communities) predominantly inhabited by the Mahar caste and Matang caste (mix population) were selected. In the third stage 38 respondents from Converted Scheduled caste and 36 respondents from non-converted scheduled castes, likewise 74 respondents were selected and investigated by applying the purposive sampling technique. The data was drawn mainly from primary sources such as interviewing, discussions and observations. The secondary source of data includes the various empirical studies conducted before and the government’s reports. The data thus collected was scrutinized, edited and entered into computer and analyzed with the help of SPSS. Result and discussion

Profile of Respondents: In all 74 respondents were investigated for the purpose of this study. The sex wise division of the respondents shows that 59 (79.7 %) of them were males and 15 (20.3 %) were females. The mean age of the respondents was 34 with minimum age as 19 and maximum age as 58. The caste wise breakup of the total respondents shows nearby equal representations of both the castes. As far as the marital status is concern it is observed that 58 (78.4 %) were married and remaining 16 (21.6%) were unmarried. Looking at the level of education it revealed that 10 (13.5 %) of the respondents were illiterate and 12 (16.2 %) of them were educated up to the primary level. The maximum number of respondents were educated up to high school and secondary levels and only 11(15 %) of them had completed their graduation. The mean income of the respondents was Rs.6000/ with minimum income as Rs.1500/ and maximum income as Rs.15000/. More than a quarter of the respondents are earning near about Rs.5000 to Rs10, 000 per month and almost equal numbers of them are in income group 3500 to 5500. Less than a quarter of the respondents are living in a house made of Cements with slap on the roof, whereas majorities (65 per cent) of them are living in a house of made of tins Patra’s and

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 95

bricks. Looking at the educational background of women respondents it is found that more than 35 percent of the women folk was illiterates and women educated up to primary, high school and secondary level was found to be 20 percent in each category. The Number of women educated up to higher secondary and above was negligible. The women’s participation in the workforce indicates that majorities (62.2 percent) of the women were housewives and 22 percent of them were working as domestic servants.

While looking at the educational status of the respondents in a caste wise manner what we get is number of illiterates respondents are more 10 (11 percent) in a non-converted caste (Matang) where as it is very negligible 2 (2.7 percent) in respondents converted into Buddhism. Similarly, almost 20 percent of the Buddhist respondents were educated up to higher secondary level as compare to just 10 percent in case of non-converted respondents.

Educational advancement amongst the Buddhist community is attributed to the conversion by the Buddhist respondents whereas the non-converted respondents did agree with the educational development of Buddhist but they do not directly attributes it to the conversion into Buddhism but most of them believe Dr. Ambedkar is the cause of their educational development.

Dr. Ambedkar became a role model for the Buddhist and they followed his footprints, the non-converted opined.

Socio-Economic Disparity: A comparative View.

The present data does not differ much on the economic front. The economic conditions of both castes are more or less similar with little balance tilting in favor of Buddhist. However, several other studies conducted at larger scales and the secondary data made available by the government of India in the form of periodic census proved beyond doubt that the Buddhist (Neo-Buddhist) in Maharashtra and elsewhere in India enjoy far better economic status. This fact was also accepted by all the respondents irrespective of their caste in a present study. This economic disparity is the main issue behind the sub-categorization movement initiated by non-converted Dalits/scheduled castes in India. When asked by the present researcher as to what extent their Socio-economic status is improved during the last few decades a quarter of the respondents from both the social groups believed that their Socio-economic status is somewhat improved but comparatively more number (15 percent) of respondents from Buddhist community opined that their status is well improved during the past few years as against 10 per cent from the non-converted respondents.Table No. 4). Further, this changed according to majority Buddhist respondents is due to the conversion whereas only 10 percent of the non-converted respondents relates this development to the conversion and a large number (33 percent) of them did not responds to this question because they could not anticipate the link between the development and conversion as an instrument of change.

Occupational Mobility

There seems to be generational occupational mobility in both the

96: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

groups. Most of them are first generational workers in a non-farm sector.

The untouchables were driven out of the villages and were excluded from all kinds of dignified occupations except sweepers, cleanings, and scavenging and landless agriculture laborers. This has forced them to migrate to the city areas in search of better jobs, better life and an escape from social stigmas and taboos. Industrialization followed by urbanization provided some space for the Dalits and marginalized sections in terms of employment. The converted and non-converted scheduled castes have shown a remarkable occupational mobility. A good number of the respondents are self-employed and quite a number of them are involved in skillful occupations like construction workers, driving, paintings and other service based occupations.

Religion and Development

It was Max Weber, who brought religious discourse in the economic development of man. According to him our belief systems, our values and rituals can play an important role in the economic development. Similarly, Dr. Ambedkar was also of the firm belief that philosophy of a particular religion can be a cause of the downfall of the people following that philosophy. The researcher did try to investigate this aspect in the present study. Upon asking the respondents as to whether, religion is related to human development as many as half of the Buddhist respondents believed that our faith and development are related. If the religion is superstitious, based on karmakanda and blind faith it result into unwarranted and excessive economic expenses and we might live an unproductive life. When the same question was put to the non-converted respondents only 20 percent of them had said that there is a relation between religion and development 12 percent of them were disagree to the statement that there is a relation between religion and development. It was surprising to be noted that 16 percent of the non- converted respondents were undecided on the issue of relation between religion and development.

Acknowledgements

While completing this study, I have received valuable help and assistance from numerous people. I wish to acknowledge all those who were directly or indirectly instrumental in making this study a reality. First of all I am greatly indebted to all the respondents from both the communities who were kind enough to spend their valuable time for giving me information and discussing the problem under study. Without there active involvement this study could not have been completed. I express my deep sense of gratitude to all the scholars from whose work and studies I have cited and referred as secondary sources of information. I am thankful to the librarians of Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Pune,YASHADA, Pune, University of Pune, Dr.B.R.Ambedkar Research and Training Institute, Pune for their kind cooperation in allowing me to have access to the literature available in their respective libraries. Last but not the least sincere thanks to the students and

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 97

Director of Social Sciences Center where I am working, for their assistance in field visits, discussions and documentations.

References Directorate of economics and stastics, planning department (2014-15).

Economic survey of Maharashtra. Mumbai: Government of Maharashtra Rao Chinna Yagati.(2009). Dividing Dalits: Writings on sub-categorization of scheduled castes. New Delhi: Rawat Publications.

Eleanor Zelliot (2005). Learning the use of political means: The Mahars of Maharashtra in Teltumbade Anand ed Hindutava and Dalits.

Kolkata: Samya Publication Chalam K.S (2009). The fragmented assertion: Emergence of intra-caste differentiation among Dalits in India in Vagati Chinna Rao ed.

Dividing Dalits: Writings on subcategorization of scheduled caste.

New Delhi: Rawat Publications.

Damle Y. B. (1982). Caste, religion and politics in India. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing CO. Ramchandra and Sangh Mitra (2003). Dalits and their future. New Delhi: Common Wealth Publication.

Sharma S. P. (2003). Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: A crusader of social justice.

Jaipur: RBSA Publications.

Patwardhan Sunanda (1965). A study of scheduled caste in an urban setting. Ph. D. thesis submitted to University of Pune.

Shastree Uttara (1998). Neo-Buddhists: As a Marginal Group in India, Ph. D. Thesis submitted to University of Pune.

Johannes BeltZ, (2005). Mahar, Buddhist and Dalit: Religious Conversion and Socio-Political Emancipation. New Delhi: Manohar Publications.

Kurne Anjali (1997). Ethnic Identity and Social Mobility: A Case Study of the Buddhist in Pune. Ph. D. thesis submitted to University of Pune.

98: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Borobudur Temple as Buddhist Pilgrimage Destination in Indonesia: an Analysis of Factors that Affect Visit Intention Budi Hermawan,* Ubud Salim, Fatchur Rohman and Mintarti Rahayu Brawijaya University,Veteran Street,Malang 65145,East Java,Indonesia. *Author for correspondence; email: arjuna_budi75@yahoo.com Abstract Borobudur temple is the biggest Buddhist temple on earth which is located in Central Java, Indonesia. The temple which was built by King Smaratungga between 760 until 830 A.D., recently becomes cultural and historical tourism object run by Indonesian government. The temple was actually the symbol of Buddhism renaissance (resurgence) in Indonesia. This was marked by the first national Vesak celebration initiated by The Boan An (whom was later known as Ashin Jinarakkitha) in May 23rd, 1953. Until today the temple is used as the place of national Vesak celebration every year, and occasionally for several Buddhist religious events. The governor of Central Java and Minister Rizal Ramli (2015) consider that Borobudur temple can become a Buddhism Religious object comparable to Mecca for the Moslem. The amount of tourists visited Borobudur temple as a cultural and historical tourism destination increased significantly from 2009 to 2013. However, foreign tourists were outnumbered by domestic visitors.

This research is aimed (1) to find out the factors that affect the visit intention of foreign tourists to Borobudur temple; (2) to find out whether there are differences in factors affecting visit intentions among Buddhist foreign visitors and non-Buddhist foreign visitors; and (3) to find out whether there are differences in factors affecting visit intentions to Borobudur temple among foreign visitors that had ever visited the temple and those who had never visited the temple.

This research uses survey method with questionnaire as the main instrument. Questionnaires were distributed to 200 respondents, and 117 returned. From these, only 98 were valid. In depth interview was carried out as additional instrument to enrich the discussion of this research.

The results of this research shows that visit intention of foreign tourists was affected by two factors, namely the sacredness and the image of

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 99

tourist destination. The sacredness of the temple of Borobudur can enhance the visit intention of Buddhist foreign visitors, meanwhile non-Buddhist visitors were not affected by this factor. For foreign visitors that had never visited the temple of Borobudur, the sacredness of the temple of Borobudur becomes a special attracting factor that enhances their intention to visit the temple. For those foreign tourists who had ever visited the temple before, the sacredness of Borobudur no longer become the main factor to revisit Borobudur. The sacredness factor of the temple of Borobudur in fact produces different images of the destination in minds of Buddhist foreign tourists and of non-Buddhist tourists. Foreign tourists view that sacredness factor increases the tourism destination image of Borobudur temple as a religious tourist destination. This tourism destination image of Borobudur temple becomes the stimulus for foreign tourists to revisit the temple. Meanwhile for those who had never visited the Borobudur temple, tourism destination image not automatically becomes the driving factor to visit the Borobudur temple.Visits to Borobudur temple are considered as pilgrimage visits for Buddhist foreign visitors. The sacredness of the temple becomes a special attracting factor that boost the intention to visit of foreign visitors. Indonesian government is advised to consider a policy that provides the discretion in the use of the temple as the center of Buddhist activities. The management of Borobudur temple should reconsider the possibility of repositioning the Borobudur temple as religious tourism destination.

Key words : Pilgrimage, Borobudur, Sacredness, Destination Image, Visit Intention.

Introduction Almost in every religious tradition, there is always a pilgrimage journey ritual which encourages its people to visit places having relations or related to that religion. (Raj & Morpeth, 2007, p. 99). Until today, the pilgrimage tradition is still well maintained. Pilgrimage motivation has become one’s strong reason to make a journey. (Vukonic, 2002). This circumstance is often capitalized by countries with pilgrimage destinations.

Many countries focused on sites development (Raj & Morpeth, 2007, p. 98) to make the pilgrimage has more global reach. The existence of pilgrimage site become specific absolute advantage of a country. Therefore, the pilgrimage packaging has been changing to religious tourism.

100: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Indonesia has many Buddhism religious sites which recently turned to be cultural tourism destinations. The sites are actually inheritance of Buddhist kingdoms that once existed in Indonesia in the past. The most monumental Buddhist site and once became one of the world’s seven wonders is Borobudur temple. This biggest Buddhist temple was developed

by King Smaratungga from Syailendra dynasty which was on power between 760 and 830 A.D. The Borobudur temple has become the symbol of Buddhism renaissance in Indonesia following the fall of Majapahit kingdom.

This site was used as the center of first national Vesak celebration initiated

by Anagarika The Boan An (whom was then known as Ashin Janarakkitha) on May 23rd, 1953. Apart of being cultural tourism destination, Borobudur temple has also been used frequently as a venue of Buddhist religious events until today.

The statistic of foreign tourism visits to Borobudur shows a significant increase since 2009 until 2013 (BAPPEDA & Badan Pusat Statistik, 2013, 2014; Statistik, 2015). However, the percentage of those visited Borobudur temple is relatively very small compared to the total foreign tourists visited Indonesia. Table 1. shows that statistic of foreign tourists visited Borobudur temple.

Table 1.Statistic on foreign tourists visits to Borobudur temple, Mendut temple, and Pawon temple, since 2009 to 2013 Total Foreign Tourists1)

Year

Borobudur Temple

Mendut &

Percentage Pawon Temples Domestic Foreign Domestic Foreign 2009 6323730 2368196 146975 5444 49784 2.32% 2010 7002944 2261081 147372 4008 49567 2.10% 2011 7649731 1957711 228570 3133 53328 2.99% 2012 8044462 2827837 186256 2504 65147 2.32% 2013 8802129 3145800 217963 1291 82731 2.48% Sources: (BAPPEDA & Badan Pusat Statistik, 2013, 2014; Statistik, 2015) Keterangan:

2)

Total foreign tourists entered Indonesia from various entrance gates Pergentase of foreign tourists visited Borobudur temple over total tourists visited Indonesia Looking at the potential of cultural tourism destination that can be further developed of Borobudur temple, the Governor of Central Java province, Ganjar Pranowo, has shown his interest to manage Borobudur in 1) 2)

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 101

a super serious manner. The governor intends to make Borobudur temple becomes the annual pilgrimage object for Buddhist people. (Fimadani, 2014; Fitriana, 2015; Jawa Tengah, 2014). Borobudur temple can be developed to be world pilgrimage object for Buddhist people indicated by annual national Vesak celebration centered in Borobudur temple. Central government also shows the same serious interest. Coordinating minister, Rizal Ramli, even has a special interest to make Borobudur temple a pilgrimage destination comparable to Mecca for Moslems (Marboen, 2015; Oni, 2015).

Minister Rizal Ramli interest is not only limited to make Borobudur temple a religious tourism destination from cultural tourism destination, but also allowing Buddhist people four days to use Borobudur temple for devotion and religious activities (viva.co.id, 2015).

This research is aimed (1) to find out the factors that affect the visit intention of foreign tourists to Borobudur temple; (2) to find out whether there are differences in factors affecting visit intentions among Buddhist foreign visitors and non-Buddhist foreign visitors; and (3) to find out whether there are differences in factors affecting visit intentions to Borobudur temple among foreign visitors that had ever visited the temple and those who had never visited the temple. This research is expected to provide meaningful suggestions to (1) Indonesian government in developing Borobudur temple tourism destination as a religious tourism destination; (2) Buddhist community in Indonesia for them to take active role in help-managing Borobudur temple as a worship and religious place.

The Sacredness of Pilgrimage Venue The sacredness of pilgrimage venues is the place that deserves the devotion, reverence, where human beings are able to discover the manifestation of supernatural (God’s) power felt through the feeling of connection with universe (Hughes & Swan, 1986; Jackson & Henrie, 1983). In Thailand, a sacred place is a place that can arouse the feeling of sacredness of space and time and helping laymen to feel unity with the nature. The characteristics of Thai sacred place are (1.) integrity in diversity, (2.) hierarchy of spaces, (3.) complex layers, (4.) patchwork of overlap space, (5.) blurred boundary, (6.) flexibility, (7.) a symbolism space, (8.) virtual space, (9.) experience space. Thai sacred place usually comprise these characteristics and the last but not least is the intangible aspects of spirit and feeling or “sense of place� Sense of place is the feeling or feelings that an individual experienced whenever they enter that place which are (1.) a sense of awe,

102: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

(2.) a sense of wonder, (3.) a sense of pride, (4.) a sense of serenity, (5.) a sense of belonging, (6.) a sense of connection with the past, furthermore with high level of wisdom, some people will experienced (7.) a sense of comrade to the nature, (8.) a sense of the sacred which is an appreciation and reverence for sacred things, (9.) a sense of the absolute beauty and truth that stimulate the development of a higher level of wisdom that will ultimately lead to enlightenment (Sowannee, 2010).

P1: The sacredness of Borobudur temple will increase visit intention of foreign tourists.

P2: The sacredness of Borobudur temple will increase the image of tourism destination.

Tourism Destination Image A tourism destination place usually has certain attracting factors that may attract the potential tourist to visit the place. Tourism place image is the picture of image developed by tourists about conviction/beliefs, ideas, and visualization of a tourism destination (Crompton, 1979; Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Gartner, 1994; Phelps, 1986). To position a strong tourism destination image is expected to significantly differentiate one tourism destination to another (Mykletun, Crotts,& Mykletun,2001;Uysal, Chen, & Williams,2000). Several research results also show that destination image increased visit intention of tourists (Fakharyan, Jalilvand, Elyasi, & Mohammadi, 2012; Lertputtarak, 2012).

H1: The better the image of tourism destination of Borobudur temple will push the visit intention of foreign tourists.

Conceptual Framework Figure 1 demonstrates conceptual framework of this study

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 103

Methods This research used survey approach to obtain responses from tourists who have visited and those who are about to visit Borobudur temple.

The questionnaires were sent through email to 200 respondents chosen using purposive sampling method.Out of these,117respondents returned the questionnaires. However, only from 98 respondents were valid and could be used in this research.

The sacredness of tourism destination of Borobudur temple is constructed by eight items and their points were developed from research (Sowannee, 2010) namely peacefulness, spiritual comfort, holy atmosphere, inner happiness, close to Buddha, respect to Buddha, a sense of awe, and a sense of wonder.

The measurement of tourism destination image using eight instruments adopted from research (Veasna,Wu,&Huang,2013) i.e. reputation, accessibility of the destination, variety and quality of accommodations, cultural diversity, cultural and historical attractions, exoticness of the place, general level of service. Visit Intention was measured with five items developed from research (Wu, 2015).

This questionnaire applies 5-point Likert scale (1-strongly disagree to 5-strongly agree) and calibrated with summated rating scale using software SolAnd 2.1. Validity and reliability of the instrument are obtained through testing data from 30 respondents. All statement items are valid with Cronbach alpha from each of the variables are as follows: the sacredness of tourism destination = 0.856; tourism destination image = 0.786; and visit intention = 0.718. The analysis of this research applies quantitative method of Partial Least Square (PLS) using software WarpPLS 5.0.

Results Respondents Profile and Descriptive Analysis Men composed 63.27% of the total respondents with women 36.73%.

Most of them are in range of 35-44 years of age (42.86%), unmarried (53.06%), with education at bachelor level (75.51%), Asians (29.2%), have never visited (54.08%) with Buddhism background (55.1%). Personal tourists data are shown in Table 2.

104: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Table 2. Respondent Information Sample Personal Information

Frequency

Percentage

Gender Female Male

36 62

36.73% 63.27%

Age Less than 25 years old 25-34 35-44 45-54 55 years or older

5 17 42 23 11

5.10% 17.35% 42.86% 23.47% 11.22%

Marital Status Single Married Widow

52 26 20

53.06% 26.53% 20.41%

59 12 9 3 12 2 1

60.20% 12.24% 9.18% 3.06% 12.24% 2.04% 1.02% Percentage

Level of Education Lower than a Bachelor degree Bachelor degree Higher than a Bachelor degree Have you ever visited Borobudur temple

2 74 22

2.04% 75.51% 22.45%

Ever Never

45 53

45.92% 54.08%

Are you a Buddhist Yes, am a Buddhist No, am not a Buddhist

54 44

55.10% 44.90%

Home Region Asia Europe North America South America Oceania Africa Middle East Sample Personal Information

Frequency

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 105

Average response to the questionnaire for variable destination sacredness is 4.30 (high), tourism destination image is 4.43 (high), foreign tourism visit intention is 4.36 (high). These figures show that tourism destination of Borobudur temple has the sacredness as a pilgrimage venue related to Buddhism. Foreign tourists see Borobudur temple has good image as a tourism destination. Foreign tourists show high intention to visit Borobudur temple.

PLS multi group analysis using is to support proposition 1 and proposition 2 and to attest hypothesis proposed in this research. The result of this analysis graphically is shown in Figure 2. And this result can be presented in structural equation as follows:

Figure 2. WarpPLS Output Visit Intention = 0,58 Sacredness + 0,26 Tourism Destination Image + e Tourism Destination Image = 0,74 Sacredness + e The analysis result of the whole model: Proposition 1 is supported, the sacredness of tourism destination positively significant affects foreign tourists visit intention to tourism destination of Borobudur temple. Proposition 2 is also supported, the sacredness of tourism destination positively significant affects tourism destination image of Borobudur temple. The research hypothesis are also proved. Tourism destination image positively significant affects visit intention of foreign tourists to Borobudur temple.

The proving of hypothesis support the researchers conducted by Fakharyan et.al. (2012) and Lertputtarak (2012). The effect of sacredness to visit intention is greater than of tourism destination image. The sacredness of tourism destination of Borobudur temple is, therefore, magnetic to attract foreign tourists to come for pilgrimage purpose or as consumers of religious tourism.

106: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Table 3. Conclusion of PLS multi group analysis Path SC -- DI SC -- VI DI -- VI

Buddhist and Non-Buddhist Differs Differs Not Differ

Ever and Never Visited Not Differ Differs Differs

The conclusion of PLS multi group analysis is shown in Table 3.

Buddhist and non-Buddhist factors differs only in visit intention affected by the sacredness of tourism destination sacredness of Borobudur temple.

Meanwhile for those foreign tourists who have never visited the temple, the sacredness and image of tourism destination differently affect their visit intention then to those who have ever visited Borobudur temple.

Figure 3. PLS multi group analysis between Buddhist and Non Buddhist The sacredness has greater effect on visit intention of Buddhist foreign tourists to visit Borobudur temple compared to tourism destination image.

Tourism destination image of Borobudur temple in the mind of foreign tourists is religious tourism object. For those who are non-Buddhists, tourism destination image of Borobudur temple is as cultural tourism destination.

The opportunity for government to develop Borobudur temple as a religious tourism destination is huge. Visit intention of Buddhist people to Borobudur temple affected by the sacredness of the temple represents the market share of total foreign tourism market that should be given certain and proportional attention. For Buddhist Indonesians, Borobudur temple and other Buddhist temples has become pilgrimage destination since long.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 107

Figure 4. PLS multi group analysis between those who ever visited and those who never visited Borobudur temple Tourists who have ever visited and those who never visited tourism destination of Borobudur temple show different patterns. For those who ever visited the tourism destination of the temple of Borobudur, tourism destination image is the main driving factor for them to revisit tourism destination Borobudur temple. Meanwhile for those who never visited the temple, the sacredness of the temple is the dominant factor affecting them to visit Borobudur temple.

Discussion Buddhist people since the beginning have made journey to visit various Holy Buddhits sites. It was even suggested by Sakyamuni Buddha himself as is writen in the book of Mahaparinibbana Sutta. Besides, the journey of King of Asokha known as Dhammayatra has inspired many people. This research provides the information that visit intention of foreign tourists to Borobudur temple is affectd at least by two things, i.e. the sacredness and the image of the tourism destination. So far, Indonesian government has been focusing less on the sacredness side of the Borobudur tempe. The main theme of the Borobudur temple is, therefore, cultural tourism. Marketing strategy development of tourism destination of Borobudur temple as a pilgrimage tourism destination, should be supported by other Buddha temples arround the Borobudur, together they compose a more proper pilgrimage tourism package.

108: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

As a preliminary study to develop marketing strategy of tourism destination of Buddha temple, I owe the shortages of the study. One of such shortages is the sampling used is non-probabilistic, and the sample used is very small, hence the research cannot be generalized. This research is conducted only for tourism destination of Borobudur temple, therefore the conclusion applies only to that tourism destination.

Acknowledgements: The author would like to say thank you to Mr. Pieter T. Resi for his insightful comment on this paper.

References BAPPEDA, K. M., & Badan Pusat Statistik, K. M. (2013). Kabupaten Magelang dalam Angka 2013. Kabupaten Magelang.

BAPPEDA, K. M., & Badan Pusat Statistik, K. M. (2014). Kabupaten Magelang dalam Angka 2014. Kabupaten Magelang.

Crompton, J. L. (1979). An Assessment of the Image of Mexico as a Vacation Destination and the Influence of Geographical Location Upon That Image. Journal of Travel Research, 17(4), 18–23. http://doi. org/10.1177/004728757901700404 Fakeye, P. C., & Crompton, J. L. (1991). Image Differences between Prospective, First-Time, and Repeat Visitors to the Lower Rio Grande Valley. Journal of Travel Research, 30(2), 10–16. http://doi. org/10.1177/004728759103000202 Fakharyan, M., Jalilvand, M. R., Elyasi, M., & Mohammadi, M. (2012).

The Influence of Online Word of Mouth Communications on Tourists’ Attitudes Toward Islamic Destinations and Travel Intention: Evidence from Iran. African Journal of Business Management, Vol.6 (38), 8. http://doi.org/10.5897/AJBM12.628 Fimadani. (2014). Ganjar Pranowo Ingin Borobudur Jadi Ka’bah-nya Umat Buddha Sedunia. Retrieved from http://www.intelijen.co.id/ganjarpranowo-ingin-borobudur-jadi-kabah-nya-umat-buddha-sedunia/ Fitriana, I. (2015). Ganjar Pranowo “Ngaku” Super Serius Kelola Candi Borobudur. Kompas.com. Retrieved from http://regional.kompas. com/read/2015/06/06/16383421/Ganjar.Pranowo.Ngaku.Super.Serius.

Kelola.Candi.Borobudur Gartner, W. C. (1994). Image Formation Process. Journal of Travel & Tour-

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 109

ism Marketing, 2(2-3), 191–216. http://doi.org/10.1300/J073v02n02 Hughes, J. D., & Swan, J. (1986). How Much of the Earth Is Sacred Space?

Environmental Review, 10(4), 247–259. Retrieved from http://www. jstor.org/stable/3984349 .

Jackson, R. H., & Henrie, R. (1983). Perception of Sacred Space.

Journal of Cultural Geography, 3(2), 94–107. http://doi. org/10.1080/08873638309478598 Jawa Tengah, P. P. (2014). Candi Borobudur Jangan Cuma Jadi Tumpukan Batu. Retrieved January 1, 2015, from http://www.jatengprov.go.id/ id/berita-utama/candi-borobudur-jangan-cuma-jadi-tumpukan-batu Lertputtarak, S. (2012). The Relationship between Destination Image, Food Image, and Revisiting Pattaya, Thailand. International Journal of Business and Management, Vol. 7, No. http://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm. v7n5p111 Marboen, A. (2015). Rizal Ramli ingin Candi Borobudur jadi kiblat umat Buddha. Antaranews.com. Jakarta. Retrieved from http://www.antaranews.com/berita/521535/rizal-ramli-ingin-candi-borobudur-jadikiblat-umat-buddha Mykletun, R. J., Crotts, J. C., & Mykletun, A. (2001). Positioning an island destination in the peripheral area of the Baltics : a flexible approach to market segmentation. Tourism Management, 22, 493–500. http:// doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(01)00004-8 Oni. (2015). Rizal Ramli: Jadikan Borobudur Mekkahnya Umat Budha.

Www.harianterbit.com. Jakarta. Retrieved from http://nasional. harianterbit.com/nasional/2015/10/04/43325//25/Rizal-Ramli-JadikanBorobudur- Mekkahnya-Umat-Budha Phelps, A. (1986). Holiday destination image - the problem of assessment: An example develop in Menorca. Tourism Management, 7(3), 168–180. http://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5177(86)90003-8 Raj, R., & Morpeth, N. D. (Eds.). (2007). Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage Festivals Management: An International Perspective. Reading: CAB International. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?hl=en &lr=&id=vhnebGquwUIC&pgis=1 Sowannee, W. (2010). Thai Sacred Place : Some Characteristics and its Sense of Place, 43–56.

Statistik, B. P. (2015). Berita Resmi Statistik Maret 2008 hingga Februari 2015. Jakarta. Retrieved from http://www.bps.go.id/index.php/brs/

110: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

index?katsubjek=16&Brs[tgl_rilis_ind]=&Brs[tahun]=&yt0=Cari Uysal, M., Chen, J. S., & Williams, D. R. (2000). Increasing state market share through a regional positioning. Tourism Management, 21(1), 89–96. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(99)00082-5 Veasna, S., Wu, W.-Y., & Huang, C.-H. (2013). The impact of destination source credibility on destination satisfaction: The mediating effects of destination attachment and destination image. Tourism Management, 36, 511–526. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.09.007 viva.co.id. (2015). Rizal Ingin Candi Borobudur Hanya Buka 3 Hari untuk Umum. Viva.co.id. Jakarta. Retrieved from http://nasional.news.viva. co.id/news/read/682214-rizal-ingin-candi-borobudur-jadi--mekkah-penganut-budha Vukonic, B. (2002). Religion, Tourism and Economics: A Convenient Symbiosis. Tourism Recreation Research, 27(2), 59–64. http://doi.org/ 10.1080/02508281.2002.11081221 Wu, C. W. (2015). Foreign Tourists’ Intentions in Visiting Leisure Farms.

Journal of Business Research, 68(4), 757–762. http://doi.org/10.1016/j. jbusres.2014.11.024

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 111

Dang Hyang Astapaka and his Cultural Geography in Spreading Spreading Vajrayana Buddhism in Medieval Bali Ida Bagus Putu Suamba Politeknik Negeri Bali, Indonisia.1064 Author for correspondence; e-mail: suambaindiya@yahoo.com Abstract The sway of Hinduism and Buddhism in Indonesia archipelago had imprinted deep cultural heritages in various modes. The role of holy persons and kings were obvious in the spread of these religious and philosophical traditions. Dang Hyang Asatapaka, a Buddhist priest from East Java had travelled to Bali in spreading Vajrayana sect of Mahayana Buddhist in 1430. He came to Bali as the ruler of Bali invited him to officiate Homa Yajna together with his uncle Dang Hyang Nirartha, who had stayed earlier in Bali. Impressed with deep knowledge and spiritual acumen of him, the ruler Waturenggong King appointed him as a purohito (priest palace), whose jobs were to give spiritual consultation and political advisor in ruling the country. During his life times in Bali, he travelled from one place to another spreading Vajrayana sect of Buddhism. Lastly he settled in Budakeling village in East Bali where he built gerya (house) and temples for worship and meditation. Form here he, his descents, and followers spread the Vajrayana to all over Bali and Lombok.He left us with Vajrayana sect of Buddhism, which was assimilated with Saivism. Dang Hyang Astapaka and his uncle Dang Hyang Nirartha were the advocators of Saiva-Buddha cult in Bali backed up by the rulers.

Key words : Vajrayana, Siva-Buddha cult, Dang Hyang Astapaka, Dang Hyang Nirartha, King Waturenggong, Java, Bali Introduction Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Bali islands in Indonesia archipelago had been in a sway of Buddhism and Hinduism of India sub-continent since the beginning the first millennium. Four inscriptions in form of yupa issued by Mulawarnan King of Kutei in Borneo testified the arrival of Indian influence in this area as early as 4th century A.D. These are the first evidences ever found testifying the king had performed holy sacrifice (yajna) officiated by brahmanas, and at the same time showing influence of Brahmanic religion had arrived there. Following Hinduism, Buddhism under the supports of Asoka in North India, has been spreading widely and become internationally accepted religion, no doubt in South East Asia. It

112: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

has its own cultural geography in its spread along with other Indian traditions, like Hinduism. To mention a few of its imprints, Sri Viyaya Kingdom in Sumatra dated on 7th century A.D. was famous as site of learning for Buddists in South East Asia. Buddhist ideas or values had contributed in a great extent to the indigenous culture of this region.

These two big Indian traditions have imprinted many cultural, archaeological, and textual traditions of various forms, modes or expressions indicating that they were accepted by the people living in these islands.

Not only accepted and professed by them, Indian traditions have contributed in high degree to the development of indigenous culture to flourish to its best. Amongst many archaeological monuments available are Borobudur Buddhist temple and Prambanan Siva temple located in Central Java.

There are many other smaller temples of Buddhist and Saiva in character existed both in Central and East Java in Old Javanese period. These are considered as the land marks of the existence of Buddhism and Hinduism in Java. Beginning from Central Java Period, i.e. (9th-11th century.A.D.) both religions live peacefully giving enlightens to the people living there.

The distance of Buddhist and Saiva temples in these areas both in Central and East Java is relatively closed but there has been never tension or conflict amongst the followers of Buddhism and Hinduism. The rulers protected and supported them to flourish. The favourable condition was due the role of kings and monks or priests in leading the masses. One amongst spiritual leaders who had imprinted their thoughts on Indonesian culture was Dang Hyang Astapaka, a Buddhist priest from East Java. Taking general outlook of Old Javanese culture will help us to understand the existence and role of Dang Hyang Astapaka in his Dharma Yatra spreading Vajrayana sect of Buddhism in Bali. The purpose of this article is to reveal the existence and role of Dang Hyang Astapaka in spreading Vajrayana sect of Buddhism starting from East Java to Bali. It depicts the cultural geography in spreading Vajrayana Buddhism in Bali. Later his descents spread it to Lombok, an island next Island to Bali.

Siwa-Buddha Cult in East Java Prior to discuss cultural geography of Dang Hyang Astapaka in Bali, some facts happened in Java are important to note as the background to understand his course in Bali. In Central Java both traditions lived peacefully without any tension between them. Javanese in this regards were opened to foreign ideas and selective in adopting them. Spirit of tolerance and dialog has started not only in the circle of elite people but also amongst the masses. Not only lived peacefully these two religions became SaivaBuddha Cult postulating Siwa-Buddha as the highest principle of Reality.

The marriage of Prince Sanjaya of Sanjaya Dynasty who professed Hinduism with Pramodawardani prince of Sailendra dynasty was considered as a strategic political way in uniting powers in Central Java. It was at the same time amalgamating two faiths of Hinduism and Saivism. What factor which causes the fusion of them gets united in peaceful way? The

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 113

one point which is pertinent in these approaches is that despite the fact they get united at the highest point of reality, each of them still practicing each own traditions, like ethics and rituals officiating by either Saiva or Buddhist priest.

This tradition is continued in the post Majapahit period in Bali when the core teaching of Hinduism in modern Indonesia is Siva-Buddha. Plenty number of textual tradition shows that in essence Siva and Buddha is identical as in the expression “Siwa ya Buddha ya�. In this land the concept of Siva Buddha is developed not only in the domain of metaphysics but also ethics, and religion. In the course of time, due to some reasons unknowingly centre of political power shifted to East Java (11th-15th cen. AD) before Islam exercised powers and swept away both Buddhism and Hinduism.

Under the leadership of Mpu Sindok, and his generations there flourished some kingdoms in East Java, like Singhasari, Kadiri, and Majapahit. In East Java period the close relationship between Buddhism and Hinduism become pertinent. Under the patron of kings, these two traditions work together for the well beings of the kingdoms and the people. King behaved as patrons and protected both traditions; both are respected and given areal of supervision and spreading of teachings. Due to professing both religions, kings were often immortalized in two manifestations, viz. an image of Buddhism and Hinduism after they had passed away. For example, King Wisnuwardana the son of Anusapati became king of Singhasari from 1248-1268. In the year of 1268 after his death his body was enshrined in Mleri in the form of Siva and in Jago temple as Amogapasa. King Kertanagera was immortalized as Aksobya (known also as Joko Dolok) in Jago temple, East Java1.

Impressive development happened during Majapahit emperor, especially under the reign of Hayam Wuruk King accompanied with Gajah Mada as the prime minister. It flourished and became the biggest political and economic powers whose political territory extending to some parts of the region like Indo China, Philippines, Madagascar Papua, etc. It was the second big emperor in the archipelago after Sriwijiya located in Sumatra in terms of vastness of its political powers and strength of diplomacy. As testified by the work entitled Nagara Kertagama by poet-sage Prapanca, the priest of Saiwa known as Dharma Adhyaksa ring Kasewan and Buddhist monk known Dharma Adhyaksa ring Kasogatan had a role to give consultation and advice to the king to ruling the country. Each dharma has its own territory in spreading the teachings. In other words, both religions have formally accepted in the management of the country.

Dang Hyang Astapaka Who is Dang Hyang Astapaka? Reading from babad (genealogical literature) as preserved in Bali, it reveals lineage of kings and holy persons, who had made their own story and history. Dang Hyang Astapaka, a Buddhist monk from Keling in East Java is not an exception in this regards, and he has played an important role in spreading Vajrayana Buddhism in

114: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

medieval Bali, a small island next to Java. It can be seen from his Dharma Yatra in Bali. Dang Hyang Astapaka or Mpu Astapaka or Mpu Katrangan was a son of Dang Hyang Angsoka, who lived in East Java in 15th century A.D. in reign of Majapahit kingdom. He was perhaps one of those Buddhist priests, who was a member of Dharma Adhyaksa ring Kasogatan, a Buddhist council giving spiritual advice to the king of Majapahit. Dang Hyang Angsoka had a younger brother named Dang Hyang Nirartha, who had a prominent role in the life of kingdoms and masses in Bali in 15th century A.D. in the post Majapahit period of East Java. Dang Hyang Angsoka and Nirartha were the sons of Dang Hyang Smaranatha who live in East Java.

He has three brothers, viz. Dang Hyang Panawasikan, Dang Hyang Siddhi Mantra, and Dang Hyang Kepakisan. They are the sons of Mpu Tantular, grandsons of Mpu Bahula, and grand grandson of Mpu Bharadah. Thus, Dang Hyang Astapaka was the nephew of Dang Hyang Nirartha.

Dang Hyang Astapaka was a learned monk who endowed with spiritual powers and siddhi. Not only mastering in Homa Yajna, he was also a poet par excellence. He composed some literary works, such as Trate Bang which contains story of Pegambuhan, Demung Tantri, Malat, Demung Pepatrangan, Siksaning Paksi, Ingon-ingon, and Maka Guru Dening Dalem2. He has inherited talent in literary work from his father Dang Hyang Angsoka who also composed Samarancana3. His uncle Dang Hyang Nirartha also composed a number of literary works, such as Anyang Nirartha, Nirartha Prakerta, Sara Kusuma, Puspa Sancaya, Kakawin Dharma Sunya, Kakawin Niti Sastra, etc. Dang Hyang Nirartha also known as Dang Hyang Dwijendra, Ida Pedanda Sakti Wawu Rauh, Tuan Semeru, and Pangeran Sangupati. Due to his discipline, spiritual, and hard work Dang Hyang Astapaka was trusted by his father in accomplishing a certain task assigned to him4.

Dharma Yatra of Dang Hyang Astapaka in Bali Dang Hyang Astapaka was invited to come to Bali in the 1530 by the ruler of Bali named King Waturenggong of Swecapura in Gelgel South Bali. The King would have to perform Homa Yajna /Agnihotra as practised in Vedic tradition for the welfare and prosperous of the country. He believed that the Homa Yajna was powerful to attain that purposes. Nevertheless, the priests who would perform it should be of high quality mastering everything connected with it including the mantras. This was based on consultation of the king with purohito. On account of that purpose, the purohito or spiritual advisor of the kingdom named Dang Hyang Nirartha was in charge for the accomplishment and success of the sacrifice requires Buddhist priest. Dang Hyang Nirartha visited Bali earlier than Dang Hyang Astapaka. However the case was different. In matter of Dang Hyang Nirartha came to Bali along with his wife and son/daughters without invitation; Dang Hyang Astapaka, on the other hand, was invited to officiate Homa Yajna. This should be taken into account since Siva-Buddha cult had been accepted despite the fact prior to the arrival of these two priests

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 115

from Java, there were also Saivism and Buddhism as depicted by some inscriptions written in old languages. He requested the king to ask his elder brother Dang Hyang Angsoka to behave as a Buddhist priest, in Java to come and officiate the yajna altogether. However, Dang Hyang Angsoka could not fulfil the king’s request to go due to domestic political instability and sent his only young son named Dang Hyang Astapaka to be a Buddhist priest instead of him. Dang Hyang Astapaka followed his father’s order and was ready to go to Bali. Before departing he saluted his father begging for blessing. He crossed the strait of Bali safely. It was not known from which point of embarkation he started his voyage. There has been also no information regarding with numbers of followers, family or any precious things he carried along with his mission.

Reaching Bali Island, Dang Hyang Astapaka went directly to visit his uncle Dang Hyang Nirartha who stayed in the village of Mas in Gianyar. The uncles welcome and accepted him warmly; it was like an emotional meeting between a father and his son. They were happy meeting each other. Each of them is exchanging information about the family and condition both in Java and Bali.

The king did not immediately accept Dang Hyang Astapaka as a purohito. He wanted to know the deep spiritual and mystical knowledge of him. This was so since they did not know him. The king ordered his servant to dig up a hole in the palace premises. The servants, after being able to dig up a hole for about ten meters, the kings ordered him to put a goose into the dark hole and sealed it.

This was done before Dang Hyang Astapaka arrived fulfilling the invitation of the king. Arriving in the palace, the king accepted him in royally admission of respected priest. The king asked him the sound everyone present there. Without waiting to much times, Dang Hyang Astapaka replied that the sound everyone heard was sound of dragon. Listening to the answer of him, immediately, everyone was laughing loudly. Everyone knows that that sound was the sound of a goose, not a dragon. After everyone laughing including the king, Dang Hyang Astapaka convinced again the king that was a sound of snake. The people still laughing thinking that he was a polish priest. Then Dang Hyang Astapaka asked the king to open the seal of the hole. What happened? It was true that dragon come out from the hole and moved slowly to reach Dang Hyang Astapaka who was sitting in the pavilion of the palace together with the king. Everyone stop laughing and surprised the matter become changing. It was unbelievable for them. How could be a goose changing to become a snake! Is it a magic? Dang Hyang Astapaka further said that the dragon would show him the way when he would go back to his origin. Starting from that time, effigy of Dragon King (Naga Banda) as a symbol of spiritual and mystical powers is used in cremation procession of the king and his descents up to now in Bali. No other clan used this despite of the fact he/she was a ruler during his/her life times.

Satisfied with the siddhi of Dang Hyang Astapaka, the king appointed

116: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

him as purohito along with his uncle Dang Hyang Nirartha in the kingdom of Swecapura. With this post, the kingdom now had a duo priest of Siva and Buddha. The Homa Yajna was performed shortly. During he was in Sweca Pura he perhaps was given a place of residence in a village known afterward as Budaga in addition his former place in Ambengan village in Gianyar. Budaga village still remains up to now in the city of Smarapura now. However, there is no Buddhist priest/brahmin stayed there anymore5.

From oral resource said that there is a place in there which is believed to be the location of a gerya (brahmin house).

After the King Waturenggong passed way, he was replaced by two of his immature sons respectively, named I Dewa Pemayun (later known as Dalem Bekung) and I Dewa Anom Saganing (later known as Dalem Segening). Due to immature both in age and personality, they were accompanied by the sons of I Dewa Tegal Besung, younger brother of Watunrenggong King, named I Dewa Gedong Arta, I Dewa Anggungan, I Dewa Nusa, I Dewa Bangli, and I Dewa Pasedangan till they are really independent. The post of minister was held by I Gusti Arya Batan Jeruk.

This condition creates unrest atmosphre in the circle of palace; and there was a sign that I Gusti Batan Jeruk would take over the power. It was likely Batan Jeruk tried to make this weak condition to rule the country.

Luckily, this sign was known by Dang Hyang Astapaka as the advisor of the king. He advised Batan Jeruk not to act any political manoeuvres that can be dangerous for the life of the kingdom because the masses/people are still with the kings. However, the advice of him was not considered by Batan Jeruk. Dang Hyang Astapaka was not given any proper attention as the purohito of the kingdom and finally he left the palace and went to a place known as Budakeling in Karangasem regency6. At the same time he left his post as purohito of the kingdom. After staying for some times with his uncle Dang Hyang Nirartha in the village of Mas, he moved to the village of Ambengan in Peliatan Ubud, Gianyar7. In his Dharma Yatra in Bali he built some temples, e.g. Taman Sari temple in Budakeling. He perhaps built Sakenan temple located in a small island called Serangan in South Bali.

Budakeling village and Taman Sari Temple When King Waturenggong passed away, Dang Hyang Astapaka left the residence (asrama) of his uncle Dang Hyang Nirartha in Mas village in Gianyar along with his son Ida Banjar. It was not mentioned whether his wife or other person was also accompanied him. They continued his travel to eastward till late afternoon, the sun sets. Finally he reached a hill in East Bali and took a rest there on a big stone known as Batu Penyu (turtle shaped stone). It was in around 1494. Taking a rest for a while, ssuddenly there came peoples who said themselves come from Tenganan village located just at the bottom of the hill. They went to that place to find wewalungan (animal used as sacrifice in Ngusaba Sambah) in their village.

Dang Hyang Astapaka explained himself as a Buddhist priest, and said that

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 117

the animals to be searched for had already in the place provided in their village. Coming back home, they found that all animals required for yajna were already in that place; as said by the priest. Knowing this fact, they came back again to the Batu Penyu to beg Dang Hyang Astapaka to come to his village witnessing the procession of the yajna. They also invited him to stay with them there. However, Dang Hyang Astapaka refused politely and said that later his descents to come and witnessed the Ngusaba function in Tenganan village. That is the reason up to now any of his descents especially who stay in Budakeling obliged to perform the bhisama of ancestor to come and witness the function of Nguasaba Sambah which falls on the full moon day (purnama) of Kasa month (usually in June-July).

According to the beliefs there says that if not performed by the descents of Dang Hyang Astapaka, the crops in the form of paddy, grains and other plants in Tenganan village will not yielded good result.

On that night when they still were sitting on the Batu Penyu, it was seen a bright light falling from the sky to reach the earth. Dang Hyang Astapaka listen subtle voice: “He Sang Stiti Hatunggu Dharma, Kapwa sire, Hiku Kang Katingal de Nire, maka tengeran hungwanira maka muliheng suksma laya”. [Hi, one who is faithful in performing dharma; the light you saw would become your place which leads you to go back to last subtle place]. He went to approach that place. In this place of light come down is the village where he built house and temple with family and his peoples for performing his duty as Buddhist priest. He named this place as “Budakeling” which perhaps denotes that ‘keling’ or ‘kalingga’ designates the original place where he and his ancerstor settle in Java; whereas ‘buda’ designates the cult he professed and practiced. Up to now this is considered as the basis settlement of Buddhist Brahmin in Bali. It preserved its own culture and tradition coloured with Vajrayana sect of Buddhism.

After that, Dang Hyang Astapaka immediately continued his travel to reach the place of the light. Getting closer the light became deemed and finally he rested there. In there he implanted his stick (teteken) made of lotus. Amazingly that stick had grown up till now available in Taman Tanjung village in the village of Budakeling around 7 kilometres from the city of Amplapura, Bebandem district, Karangasem regency in East Bali.

In this village he built pasraman (house) as a place to spread his teaching to the entire Bali. Meanwhile the place of light appeared about 500 meters from the stick put was built a small temple (called pemrajan) known as Pemrajan Taman Sari a place where he performed yoga (meditation). Now this temple is called Taman Sari Temple. Amongst the shrines built here are Padma Naba as the abode of Bhatara Buddha and Padma Ngelayang as the abode of Dang Hyang Astapaka. After complete renovation was conducted in 2011 there were also built Padma Tiga and a padma shrines for worshipping Dang Hyang Nirartha. Descents of him who now stay in different parts of Bali, Lombok, and Java islands come here on a certain day to offer worship and do meditation. In short, the village and temple have an important spiritual and historical value related to the dharma yatra of

118: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Dang Hyang Astapaka in Bali.

In 1556 Dang Hyang Astapaka accepted the wife and step child of I Gusti Arya Batanjeruk named as I Gusti Oka who ran away from the Sweca Pura Palace due to struggle of powers in Budhakeling. Arya Batan Jeruk was killed in a struggle for powers by the army of Gelgel whereas other relatives stayed in Batuaya Karangasem. In the course of time, due to beauty I Dewa Karangamla was interested with the widower of Arya Batanjeruk and wanted to marry her. Dang Hyang Astapaka advised the widower to raise a prerequisite, that is, I Dewa Karangamla should be ready to appoint her son to be the ruler in Karangasem. Only after this perquisite condition is fulfilled, she can marry him. I Dewa Karangamla agreed to appoint her son to be the ruler in Karangasem Kingdom. I Gusti Oka later become the second king of Karangasem, who has an ashram in Bukit Mangun in the village of Toya Anyar.

Typical Buddhist Tradition Dang Hyang Astapaka from Java has left us a typical Buddhist tradition known as Vajrayana Buddhism, which is very much blended with Saivism and indigenous culture. It is a typical tradition looked either from Buddhist or Hindu traditions. Even though not all aspects of Vajrayana Buddhism are practised here, at least the uses of aksara, yantra, mantra, and mudra are pertinent--- elements which are Tantric in nature. The blend with other traditions and culture caused it looks different from other Vajrayanic traditions in other places, like in Tibet, Bhutan, Sikhim or Himalayan regions, etc. Being liberal in nature, this Mahayana sect of Buddhism could cooperate and work together with other religious or philosophical traditions of Indian origin. Along with his uncle Dang Hyang Nirartha he spread his teaching under the patron of the ruler. Or, he had received political back up in practicing his tradition. Being a purohito together with Dang Hyang Nirartha he had a wide change to spread the teachings for the prosperity and well-being of the nation. The king believed that spiritual advisor or consultation is very much needed by the life of the kingdom and prosperity of the people. Both the priests work together giving spiritual consultation and advice to the ruler in Gelgel. It was only from his time onwards the Saiva-Buddha became a cult continuing previously tradition prevalent in Old Javanese period. In this regards, both priest are the first person who advocated Saiva-Bauddhagama in Bali.

In the courses of time all religious thoughts can be accommodated in this tradition. It is pertinent when priesthood tradition is observed especially known as Pedanda Buddha (Buddhist priest) in Bali. In different with Pedanda Siwa, Pedanda Buddha or Sogata has its own tradition with reference to ethics (sasana), worship, and instrument, and mantras used in worship (puja). Both had equal position in its role giving enlighten and officiating yajna in society. Peoples could come for yajna to either a Pedanda Siwa or Buddha; there is no different. In a big yajna like Panca Bali Krama, Eka Dasa Rudra, etc. both kinds of priest officiate yajna. Ech has

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 119

its own role in the system of worship. This shows that the religion being practiced by the people is Saiva-Bauddhagama continuing the tradition had ever flourished in East Java especially during the reign of Hayam Wuruk King of Majapahit Emperor.

The Vajrayana sect is pertinent from the esotericism and mysticism of aksara, yantra, mudra, mantra used in the practices to reach the ultimate goal of life. In can be seen in the practice of Homa Yajna8 in which both priest Dang Hyang Astapaka dan Dang Hyang Nirartha performed puja. They practiced Tantric elements of aksara, sawara, yantra, mantra, mutra, and yoga to trigger powers for self-transformation and well-being of all. It had a cosmic effect for ecological and spiritual domains. It was true that after the performance of Homa Yajna in Gelgel, the prosperity of the people increasing; peace becomes so obvious felt by the people. Oral tradition said in Gelgel that the flame of fire in Homa Yajna was not as wild/hot as usual fire. The heat of it is mild so spider that used to life in the shrine/building above the fire pit where they performed Homa Yajna still remained there without any disturbance from the heat of fire.

With reference to the dragon, he advocated Naga Bandha cult used in cremation function performed by the Waturenggong king and his descents. No such things had ever practised before the visit of Dang Hyang Astapaka in Bali. It is originally based on his ideas that Naga Bandha became a tradition up to present days. It is a symbol through which the soul of the king may go to higher spiritual level and finally get liberation (moksa).

Pedanda Buddha in his worship or puja used instrument of vajra hold by his right hand and ghanta by his left hand; whereas Pedanda Siwa hold only ghanta on his left hand. There are some differences with refer to the priesthood of both Pedanda Siwa and Pedanda Buddha9. They used different puja stawa. The Vajrayanic practices can be seen in the tradition practiced by Pedanda Buddha. In both sects, viz. Vajrayana and Saivism the role of Tantrism was so pertinent. It causes both come together becoming Siva-Buddha cult. The role of both holy persons, viz. Dang Hyang Astapaka and Dang Hyang Nirartha was so great in the spreading good values and nobility to the kingdom and peoples.

Conclusion Dang Hyang Astapaka son of Dang Hyang Angsoka was invited to come to Bali by the Waturenggong King of Gelgel Kingdom in Bali to officiate Homa Yajna in 1430 along with his uncle Dang Hyang Nirartha who had stayed earlier in Bali. Satisfying with the spiritual depth and mysticism of Dang Hyang Astapaka, the King Waturenggong appointed him as a purohito (palace priest) accompanying his uncle Dang Hyang Nirartha.

In the course of time they both gave spiritual guidance to the king and family, and as advisor in the life of the kingdom. During in Bali some places were visited starting from his arrival in Bali from Java. Then he continued his dharma yatra to Mas, Ambengan, Gelgel, Budaga, Batu Penyu, and

120: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Budakeling. He also travelled to some places in Bali, like Serangan Island where he build Sakenan temple.

Dang Hyang Astapaka made his own cultural geography in spreading Vajrayana sect of Buddhism from East Java to Bali. Later his descents spread it widely covering Bali, Lombok, and Java in modern times. With his visit to Bali he along with his uncle Dang Hyang Nirartha advocated Siva-Buddha cult forming a typical Hinduism as preserved in Bali till nowadays.

Some photos below related to the Dharma Yatra of Dang Hyang Astapaka in Bali.

The statue of Dang Hyang Astapaka in Abhaya Mudra posture in Buddha Vihara Astapaka Temple located in Gilimanuk West Bali [source: beritabali.com]

Main gate Taman Sari Temple in Budakeling village, Karangasem, Bali.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 121

Padma Tiga shrine in Taman Sari temple Budakeling, Karangasem, Bali.

Padma for worshipping Dang Hyang Astapaka (left), Dang Hyang Nirartha (right) in Taman Sari temple Budakeling, Karangasem, Bali.

References I.B. Mantra, et. al.(2002) Siwa-Buddha Puja di Indonesia (Denpasar :Yayasan Dharma Sastra.Ida Pedanda Gde Nyoman Jlantik Oka.(2007).

Riwayat Dang Hyang Asthapaka di Bali (Widya Dharma.

I.B. Rai Putra.(2012).Parama Dharma Dharmayatra Dang Hyang Nirartha (Dharmopadesa,.

Kandanira Buddha Paksa Mwang Astapaka Tattwa manuscript belongs to Gerya Buddha Tusan, Klungkung.

122: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danghyang_Astapaka, retrieved on 07/01/2016.

Ida Pedanda Gde Nyoman Jlantik Oka, op.cit., p. 6.

I.B.G. Agastia.(2013).Homa Adhyatmika (Yayasan Dharma Sastra.

I.B.P. Suamba.(2006). Siwa-Buddha di Indoensia: Perkembangan dan Ajarannya (Widya Dharma).

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 123

Sukhothai Kingdom: The Golden Age of Buddhism Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani Faculty of International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University,Thailand Author for correspondence; e-mail: nk_in09@yahoo.com Abstract This article entitled “Sukhothai Kingdom: The Golden Age of Buddhism.” It is called so due to the absorption of Buddhist conceptions, all Sukhothai kings were righteous rulers. The title of the kings which at one time used to be the “Lord of war” changed into the “Lord of Dhamma.” Sukhothai’s administrative regime was based on the “Father-Son” relationship. Kings were respected as the fathers to all the people, which implies that they adhered to the code of morality and protected people like their own children. People during this period believed in the principle of Kamma which is relevant to Buddhism. Thus, the Sukhothai period is regarded as the “Golden Age of Buddhism” in the history of Thailand.The arrival of Buddhism in Thailand can be supported by the archaeological evidence and literary accounts as well as other geographical and historical records and traditional beliefs, which tend to suggest that this religion was introduced into Thailand at four different phases as detailed: i) Early Theravada Buddhism in the 3rd century B.C. ii) Mahayana Buddhism in the 7th century A.D. (Northern sect) iii) Pukam or Pakan Theravada Buddhism in the 11th century A.D. iv) Lankavamsa or Lankavong Theravada Buddhism in the 13th century A.D.During the fourth phase of the introduction of Buddhism into Thailand where at that time was called Sukhothai, which was recognized as the first kingdom of Thailand. It was in this period that Ramkhamhaeng the great king of Sukhothai sent messengers to invite the group of monks at the town of Nakhon Si Thammarat then known as the “Lankavamsa” monks to preach the doctrine at Sukhothai, promoting them every help and convenience. Since then Lankavamsa or Lankavong Theravada Buddhism was well patronized by king Ramkhamhaeng, it finally superseded the existing previous beliefs.

Keywords: Sukhothai Kingdom, golden age, Siam, Buddhism Introduction Buddhism is the cultural essence of the Thai society. In the history of Siam nowadays known as Thailand, three main institutions; the Nation, the Religion and the Monarch are regarded as the most important. The Siamese are taught to hold them in high esteem since their school age. Three colours of the Thai-Nation Flag symbolize these three institutions. Red represents the Nation, white is the emblem of Buddhism and blue stands

124: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

for the monarch. It is also essential to note that the history of Thai sovereign state emerged with Buddhism as its religion and the ruling classes have been Buddhist(Nagendra Kr. Singh ,1996)

The word “Thailand” literally means “Land of the Free.” Thus, at present under the system of Thai constitution with the King as the head of the state an individual has his freedom to follow any religion or creed and perform the rites of his faith, provided that it is not opposed to his duty as a Thai citizen and does not violate the peace and morality of a citizen on the ground of his religion which may be different from those of the others.

It is, however, stated that the King is the Supreme Patron of all religions but he must be a Buddhist(Nagendra Kr. Singh ,1996) Before accepting Buddhism, the ancient inhabitants of Thailand professed Brahmanism mixed with animism. When Buddhism was introduced it was easily adopted because it did not conflict with both the old cults but fulfilled people’s needs which were uncared for by either of them. Buddhism has been very widely accepted because of its emphasis on tolerance and individual initiative. This complemented the Thais’ cherished inner freedom. Fundamentally, Buddhism is an empirical way of life. Free of dogma, it has a flexible moral, ethical and philosophical framework in which people find room to fashion their own ideals.

Thai history is normally divided into four main periods i.e. Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, Thonburi and Rattanakosin (Bangkok). The Sukhothai period dates back to 700-800 years. From the eighteenth Buddhist century (1257 A.D.) during the Sukhothai era up to the present time, most Thais have followed Buddhism as their religion.

Sukhothai or Sukhodaya, according to historical tradition of Thailand is still recorded as the “First Thai Kingdom.” The word “Sukhodaya” derives from the combination of two Pali words, Sukha and Udaya. Sukha means happiness whereas Udaya stand for dawn. Therefore, it literally means “The Dawn of Happiness.”

Sukhothai is so called because it was prosperous and well-governed.

Its economy was self-sufficient, small-scale, and agricultural. The Thai people’s basic diet was the same as that of many other people in Southeast Asia, consisting of rice and fish as staple foods, both of which were plentiful according to the inscription: (http://www.thaizer.com/royal-family/ king - ramkhamhaeng-the-great,visited on January 21, 2016) “During the time of King Ram Khamhaeng this land of Sukhothai is thriving. There are fish in the water and rice in the fields. The ruler does not levy a tax on the people who travel along the road together, leading their oxen on the way to trade and riding their horses on the way to sell. Whoever wants to trade in horses, so trades. Whoever wants to trade in silver and gold, so trades.”Such a paternalistic and benevolent style of kingship has caused posterity to regard the Sukhothai kingdom’s heyday as a “golden age” in Thai history.

Theravada Buddhism of the Lankavamsa sect, which recorded as the fourth phase of the introduction of Buddhism into Thailand, was first

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 125

settled at Nakorn Sridhammaraj ( Modern province, some 800 kilometres at the south of Thailand) and their fame soon reached Sukhothai. King Ram Khamhaeng (The third great king of Sukhothai kingdom) then invited a dignitary called Phra Mahaswami (Highest level monk in Sri Lanka)to his capital and gave him royal support in propagating the Doctrine. ( Phra Dhammapitaka (P.A. Payutto),1984) After that the Theravada Buddhism of the Lankavamsa sect became popular and more and more widely practiced in Thailand. Some of the Thai monarchs such as King Lithai (King Ram Khamhaeng’s grandson) of Sukhothai and King Borom Trailokanath (The King who ruled over Ayutthaya, the second period of Thailand after Sukhothai was annexed to Ayutthay kingdom) of early Ayutthaya even entered the Order and lived for some time as Bhikkhu. This later resulted in the custom of Thai youths entering the Order for a short time at least once in their lives. And Pali language was also studied and used as the fundamental language of the scriptures instead of Sanskrit. The monks of the older sects gradually joined those of the reformed tradition. The Mahayana Buddhism adopted under the Srivijaya and Khmer rule declined and finally disappeared. This marks the period in which all Buddhists in Thailand were unified under the one single faith of the newly revised Theravada Buddhism(Phra Dhammapitaka (P.A. Payutto),1984) The Emergence of Buddhism during Sukhothai

Sukhothai period is the most important in the history of Buddhism in Thailand, as it witnessed the introduction of Buddhism into the country.

The rise of the Sukhothai kingdom in about 1257 A.D. (B.E. 1800) marked an important landmark in the history of Thailand. Before the formation of this great empire, the Thais were ardent followers of religions. Most of them were already Mahayanists, but when the Thais migrated from their habitat to settle in the Indo-Chinese peninsula, they also became the devotees of Hinduism. The Khmers, who were the original masters of the area now comprising modern Thailand, were the followers of Hinduism and the Mahayana sect of Buddhism during the same time. Therefore, naturally, the Thais who were much influenced by the Khmers became followers of both Buddhism and Hinduism.

But, after the foundation of the Sukhothai kingdom by King Sri Intrathit in 1257 A.D. there was an important change in the religious life of the people in Thailand, especially during the reign of the great Emperor Ram Khamhaeng. It was during this period that introduction of the fourth phase of Buddhism in Thailand began, which is popularly known as Lankavamsa or Sinhalese Theravada Buddhism.

The Lankavamsa or Sinhalese Theravada Buddhism was introduced in the Sukhothai kingdom towards the 13th century A.D. under the patronage of king Ram Khamhaeng the Great, who was the third monarch of the Phra Ruang Dynasty and of the Sukhothai empire. (R.C. Majumdar, 1996)

126: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

It is said that in 1157 king Parakkamabahu reigned in Ceylon. Being himself a devoted follower of the Buddha, he dedicated much of his personal property and his own happiness for the promotion of Buddhism in his land. His unique achievement was that he had managed to unite the Bhikkhus of various sects who had some minor doctrinal differences and also had convened a Council of well-versed Theras (Elder monks) for the sake of settling the contents of the three Baskets of the Buddhist Canon as it had been previously done in Ceylon and India. Due to the success of this Council, the Pali language was once again revised and proclaimed as the formal language for the research and study of Buddhism. His fame spread far and wide in foreign lands; several Buddhist countries such as Burma and Thailand then sent out groups of Bhikkhus to further their study of Buddhism in Ceylon. Seeing with their own eyes how the Ceylonese Bhikkhus were well-behaved and well-grounded in their beliefs, most of these Bhikkhus were strongly impressed and took the opportunity to remain in Ceylon and have a thorough study of the Buddha’s teachings. For this purpose, these foreign Bhikkhus were to be ordained once again in accordance with the rules and regulations of the Ceylonese Bhikkhus. On their return, they brought to their homeland the refined manners, well-grounded beliefs and Ceylonese culture which again made no less impression upon their people than they themselves had been so impressed. More young men left their homes for the homeless life of a Bhikkhu and the Ceylonese religious culture from that time had taken its root in various countries such as Burma, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand.

In Thailand, however, Nakon Sridhammaraj was the first place where the Lankavamsa monks came to settle and propagate the Lankavamsa sect.

This place later on became one of the strongholds of the Lankavamsa sect.

The archaeological evidence supports that Nakon Sridhammaraj of South Thailand was the first place where the sect spread. There is a Great Stupa at Wat Mahadhatu, which witnessed two periods of construction. (R.C. Majumdar,1996) After Nakon Sridhammaraj, the activities of the Lankavamsa monks soon spread to Sukhothai, the capital of Thailand in those days. King Ram Khamhaeng, who was ruling Sukhothai at that time, was very much pleased to know about the deep learning and strict discipline of the Lankavamsa monks of Nakon Sridhammaraj. So, he sent a mission there to invite some of them with a view to propagate the Lankavamsa doctrine and discipline in Sukhothai.At Sukhothai,the king gave the Lankavamsa monks propagate the Doctrine. (But other sources tell us that King Ram Khamhaeng of Sukhothai extended his suzerainty towards whole area of modern Thailand. His conquest extended far and wide and a large number of territories both on the Thai border and neighboring countries became his vassal states. Southwards according to his Stone Inscription No. I, he had subdued several areas including Nakon Sridhammaraj. It is true to say that in the time of his occupation of Nakon Sridhammaraj, he had seen the significance of Lankavamsa Buddhism there. So he, on his return to Sukhothai, took with him the Lankavamsa monks and

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 127

scriptures to establish the Buddhist Sangha in Sukhothai.) During the reign of Ram Khamhaeng, third king of the Sukhothai lineage, the kingdom was greatly extended as far north as the town of Luang Phra Bang and as far south as the Malay Peninsula. In the East it was bordered by the Mae Khong River and in the west it annexed the whole of the Mon kingdom. The flood of Srivijaya power was now ebbing away due to the downward pressure of the Thais together with the upward pressure of Java. And, just as before, with the ebbing away of military power, its faith was in decline. Thus it was now the turn of Theravada to gain spiritual power over the people, whereas Mahayana of Cambodia and Srivijaya that, having once risen to power together, were once again having an equal share in their declining days.

Now that the Lankavamsa Buddhism was well patronized by King Ram Khamhaeng, it finally got the edge over the existing beliefs of the Theravada and Mahayana. Sanskrit, the language held sacred by the Mahayanists, was accordingly replaced by Pali, the sacred language of the Theravadins and the Lankavamsa. The study of Pali was certainly at that time greatly enhanced ( David K. Wyatt, Studies in Thai History, Silkworm Books, Cornell University, p. 58. Also see: Stone Inscription I, side 4)The golden age of Buddhism commenced by King Ram Khamhaeng reached its zenith in the reign of his grandson, King Lithai the pious. (Many Inscriptions tell us about the progress of the Singhalese Buddhist monument ) He had also crystallized his research into the form of a book called in Thai “Triphumi Phra Ruang” or in Pali “Tebhumikatha” (sermon on three worlds) which is considered the earliest manuscript of Thailand. It is historically interesting. The achievement of King Lithai represents the beginning of Buddhist tradition and customs which were not seen before.It, therefore, marks another important landmark in the history of Buddhism in Thailand. (R.C. Majumdar, 1996) Thus the stone inscription I of King Ram Khamhaeng stated that: (H.H. Prince Dhani Nivat,Kromamun Bidyalabh ,1965)

“People in this state of Sukhothai are inclined towards charity and to observe the precepts. King Ram Kamhaeng of Sukhothai as well as his household and his court…men or women, they all have faith in the religion of Buddha; they observe the precepts through the duration of the rains, after which they present the Kathina ceremony during the stipulated month thereafter. In this ceremony they present, by way of offerings, moulds of cowries, of betel, of flowers, also cushion seats and beds, as well as the usual accessories of the Kathina amounting to two millions each year. For this presentation of the Kathina they go out to the park (on the hill); and on their return to the city the cortege stretches from the park right up to the edge of the plain, which becomes resonant with the sound of music and chariots. Everybody is free to play, to laugh and to sing.”

In another inscription(H.R.H. Prince Damrong Rajanubhab,1962) (dated 1361) in the reign of the later king Lithai of Sukhothai there is a mention of a Patriarch “Maha Swami” of Ceylon being invited to be the Supreme Patriarch “Maha Sangha Raja” of Thailand. Also in this reign

128: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

it was recorded that the Bhikkhus were divided into two groups viz. one group preferred to spend their lives learning the Buddha’s words. They liked to remain in the towns which were convenient for studying. They were technically known as the town-monks (Gamavasi-bhikkhus). The other group preferred practicing mindfulness in order to attain enlightenment. They often stayed in monasteries out of town, and were known as the forestmonks (Arannavasi-bhikkhus). This division must have originated from the two aspects of the study of Buddhism viz. Ganthadhura the burden of learning (or book-studying) and Vipassan dhura the burden of practicing or meditating for the development of insight. All through the time of the Sukhothai period Buddhism played a very important role in the field of culture, architecture and Buddha image construction, some evidences of which may be seen in the exquisite workmanship displayed in the image of the Buddha called Jinaraja (the most beautiful image in Thailand), in the grand temple of modern Phitsanulok, 400 kilometers north of Bangkok, and Jinasi in the temple of Pavaranivesa in Bangkok. (Buddhism in the Kingdom of Thailand, Mahamakut Buddhist University, Bangkok:Mahamakuta Rajavidyalaya Press,1972)Buddhism in Siam from Sukhothai right down to the end of the Ayutthaya period can really be regarded as a new Siamese sect. And when Ceylon was in turmoil and the Order of monks was extinct, Siamese monks – led by the Venerable Upali – were asked to go out to ordain monks and so re-establish the Buddhist lineage in Ceylon. This Order still exists and has been known in Ceylon as the Syamavamsa or Upalivamsa (Siamese Sect of Buddhism) (H.R.H. Prince Damrong Rajanubhab,1962) The Golden City of the Dharma Looking back at the Thai history, it clearly shows the close relationship between Buddhism and the Thai nation. The history of the Thai nation is also the history of Buddhism. The Thai nation originated over 2,000 years ago. Also in the same period Buddhism came and played an important part in the Thai history ever since. The Thai nation settled firmly in the present-day Thailand 700 years ago. Also seven centuries ago it adopted the present form of Buddhism. ( Phra Dhammapitaka (P.A. Payutto),1984) Buddhism became the main religion of the Thai people in Sukhothai and influenced their life and social institutions of the Thais in a big way. (Thailand in the 90, National Identity Board, Office of the prime Minister, Bangkok: 1995) The people in the Sukhothai period were pious and did much for the promotion of Buddhism. Although animistic beliefs remained potent in Sukhothai, King Ram Khamhaeng and his successors were all devout Buddhists. The major cities of the Sukhothai kingdom were therefore full of monasteries, many of which were splendid examples of Thai Buddhist architecture. Sukhothai adopted the Ceylonese school of Theravada Buddhism, beginning with King Ram Khamhaeng’s invitation to Ceylonese monks to come over and purify Buddhism in his kingdom.

Sukhothai’s importance in the cultural history of Thailand also

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 129

derives from the fact that Thai script evolved into a definite form during King Ram Kamhaeng’s time, taking as its models the ancient Mon and Khmer scripts. Indeed, this remarkable king is credited with having invented Thai script. King Sri Intrathit and King Ram Khamhaeng were both warrior kings and extended their territories far and wide. Their successors, however, could not maintain such a far-flung empire. Some of these later kings were more remarkable for their religious piety and extensive building activities than for their warlike exploits. An example of this type of Buddhist ruler was King Dhammaraja Lithai, believed to have been the compiler of the Tebhumikatha, an early Thai book on the Buddhist universe or cosmos. (http://www.mahidol. ac.th/Thailand/glance-thai/area.html. Visited on May 26, 2007) The paternalism of Sukhothai may have been reinforced by certain Buddhist values. For example, the Buddhist principle regulating the social relationship between parents and children delineates the rights and duties of the two parties. Here, respect, gratitude, obedience and love towards parents are strongly emphasized. Parents are advised to care for their children by expressing their parental love for them, by restraining them from doing evil deeds and exhorting them to do good things (For elaboration of this point see Siddhi Butr-Indr.) It is very probable that the kings of Sukhothai had utilized the Buddhist concept of kingship to enhance and maintain their political power. The notion that Dhamma was the supreme code for regulating the social order and a moral guide for government was espoused

by King Ram Khamhaeng and his successor. Ram Khamhaeng, for example, was said to have believed that: (Pisanaka Kraingsak,1969) “If society is morally sound and the people have a high spirit by keeping steadfast to Buddhism and adhering to the Dhamma, the kingdom will be tranquil and prosperous.”To demonstrate their righteous rules and thereby constitute the norm for the society, the kings of Sukhothai took a leading role in religious activities, promoting, and protecting Buddhism, and in patronizing the Sangha. King Ram Khamhaeng, for instance, not only showed his subjects his own dedication to Buddhism but also taught Dhamma to the people. On each Uposatha day (Regularly Buddhist Holy Day ) he invited a learned monk to teach Dhamma at his palace. He personally led the people to observe the Buddhist precepts strictly during the season of Vassa retreat. At the end of Vassa he presented Kathina robes to the monks.

He gave donations to the monks who were proficient in Dhamma and in propagating Buddhism. He built monasteries and religious places and encouraged his subjects to follow his example. Buddhism in his reign was said to have prospered because of his devotion(A.B.Griswold and Prasert na Nagara,1975) Ram Khamhaeng governed with justice and magnanimity his own people as well as people of other nationalities who lived in his Kingdom, whether they were Laotians, Khmers, Mons, Malays, Burmese or Chinese, so that they would enjoy peace and happiness in consonance with the name of Sukhothai.

According to King Ram Khamhaeng’s Stone Inscription, most of the

130: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

people engaged in agriculture and cultivated rice, while others carried on trade, which was greatly facilitated because no rate or tax was collected from those who were engaged in it. In fact, he allowed free trade to spread throughout the land. ( Rong Syamananda, A History of Thailand, Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University)His successor, King Luthai followed Ram Kamhaeng’s mode of government and continued to support Buddhism.

As a Buddhist king, he proclaimed himself Maha Dhammaraja (king of righteous kings). He is said to have thoroughly studied the Three Pitakas (A.B.Griswold and Prasert na Nagara,1975) During his reign, Buddhism appears to have prospered because of his devotion. He was recorded to be the first Thai king who donated land and slaves, probably prisoners of war, to the monasteries,(A.B. Griswold and Prasert na Nagara) a practice that was followed up to the early Bangkok period.

Probably the most important religious act of King Lithai was his ordination. He was the first Thai king who temporarily left his throne to enter monkhood, an act that in Thai belief gains the highest merit. Besides, his ordination should be seen in the light of the political conditions of Sukhothai in this period.

When King Lithai came to the throne he was confronted with at least two heavy responsibilities; that is, first to ward off an invasion from the newly emergent and expansive Ayutthaya, and second to recover his father’s territories and to pacify rebellious vassals. In both cases he needed alliances with independent neighboring rulers. By promoting Buddhism, and establishing himself as a righteous king, exemplified by his ordination, he projected Sukhothai as the center of Buddhism. At his ordination it was recorded that the rulers of Lanna and Nan came to participate in merit-making. They and some other in the North sent diplomatic missions to Sukhothai in order to bring Sinhalese Theravada Buddhism to their homelands. (For fuller details: see Satuan Supasophone, Phraputtha Sasana kap Phra Mahakasat Thai, Bangkok: Klang Witthaya, 1962, pp. 65-69; and also Barbara Andaya, Statecraft in the Reign of Lithai of Sukhothai, Cornell Journal of Social Relations, Vol. 6, No.1, Spring 1971, pp. 61-83) His devotion to Buddhism also assured his vassals that they would be treated with kindness and compassion, the essential virtues to be observed by a righteous Buddhist king. We are told that Lithai’s policy of pacification of his vassals involved a military campaign followed by a generous peace. When he succeeded in subduing the vassals, he assured them that they could rely on his justice and mercy. He taught them to be good Buddhists (A.B.Griswold and Prasert,1975) Conclusion Buddhism is the cultural identity and essence of the Thai society.

Thai state has been bound up with Buddhism for long time, particularly the First Kingdom of Thailand that was Sukhothai. According to historical and archaeological evidence three main institutions of Thailand, the Nation, the Religion and the Throne are regarded as the most important, emerged

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 131

during the Sukhothai period. It is also essential to note that the history of Thai sovereign state emerged with Buddhism as its religion and the ruling classes have been Buddhist. Furthermore, Sukhothai’s administrative system and social institutions through its culture, tradition, language and literature came of age during the same period.

Buddhism had a profound influence on the cultural life of the Thai people. It moulded their manner of thinking and acting. It became an integral part of the Thai life. Thailand has the reputation of being “The Land of Yellow Robes”, “The Land of Smiles” and “The Land of the Free” which it owes to the influence of Buddhism.

Therefore, it can be concluded that since the Sukhothai period until today Buddhism has been the main focus of religious life. It has not only inspired the life of the Thai people, but also played an important role in social and cultural life. It is this unbroken tradition which accounts for the immense significance of formation of the Buddhist arts during Sukhothai that is alive and vibrant in modern Thailand, and for the fact that it permeates so deeply so many aspects of Thai life.

References Mahamakut Buddhist University.(1974). Buddhism in the Kingdom of Thailand. Bangkok: Mahamakuta Rajavidyalaya Press.

Griswold, A.B. and Prasert.(1975). Na Nagara, Kingship and society at Sukhothai, in Change and Persistence in Thai Society, (ed. by Skinner and Kirsch). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

Gosling, Betty.(1989). Sukhothai: Its History, Culture and Art. Asia Books: Oxford University Press.

Kr. Singh, Nagendra.(1996). International Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vols. 62 & 63, New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. Kromamun Bidyalabh,H.H. Prince Dhani Nivat.(1965). A History of Buddhism in Siam. Bangkok: The Siam Society.

Majumdar, R.C. & Raychaudhuri, H.C.(1953). An Advanced History of India. London.

Pisanaka, Kraingsak.(1969). Thai Ha Yuk. Bangkok: National Library.

Phra Dhammapitaka (P.A. Payutto).(1984). Thai Buddhism in the Buddhist Word. Bangkok: Sahadhamika Co., LTD. Phramaha Payut Payutto.(1972). Education of the Thai Sangha, Buddha Cakra: Special Volume.

Rajanubhav, Prince Dhamrong.(1946). History of Sukhothai Dynasty.

Bangkok:Aksornborikan Press.

Rajanubhab, H.R.H. Prince Damrong, Vice – Patron of the Siam Society (1905-1943): A History of Buddhist Monuments in Siam. translated

by S.Sivaraksa.(1962). Bangkok: The Siam Society under Royal Patronage.

Suksamran, Somboon.(1982). Buddhism and Politics in Thailand, A Study

132: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

of Socio-Political Change and Political Activism of the Thai Sangha.

Institute of Southeast Asian Studies: Singapore.

Sukhothai: The Dawn of Happiness.(2002). Bangkok: Department of Curriculum and Instruction Development, Ministry of Education.

National Identity Board.(1995).Thailand in the 90. Bangkok: Office of the prime Minister. ____.(1995).Thailand into the 2000’s. Bangkok: Office of the prime Minister, 1995.

Wyatt, David K.(2003). Studies in Thai History. Silkworm Books, Cornell University.

Website

http://www.mahidol.ac.th/Thailand/glance-thai/area.html. Visited on May 26,

2007. http://www.thaizer.com/royal-family/king-ramkhamhaeng-the-great, visited on January 21, 2016.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 133

Buddhist Wisdom Health Care Identities in the Cultural Geography of ASEAN Community Nipapat Yoophum*[a], Phrakhrupariyatidhammawong[b], Raweewan Paokanha[c], Ratana Yodprommin[d], Thepin Bunkrachang[e], Thanyarat Phuchongchai[a], and Rujirachai Muangkaew[e] [a] Faculty of Nursing Chaiyaphum Rajabhat University,Thailand [b] Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Khon kaen Campus,Thailand [c] Faculty of Nursing Amnatcharoen Campus, Mahidol University,Thailand [d] Faculty of Nursing Burirum Campus Western University,Thailand [e] Faculty of Nursing Rajathani University,Thailand *Author for correspondence; e-mail: jintapathee@gmail.com

Abstract This research aims to study Buddhist wisdom that lines health care which becomes inter-identities of Thailand and other countries ASEAN Community. It was found that Buddhist wisdom health care is health care with a human mind, using the four noble truths and the four noble sentiments or the four of Brahma’s Dharma as the conceptual framework to understand the reality of life and to develop potential of a human being.

The key elements in this health care are the ability to see humanity as the holistic, the ability to see the authentic suffering knowingly, and the ability to do qualified health care in the context of cultural geography. The ultimate goal is to help everyone concerned achieve complete happiness in life.

Buddhist wisdom health care includes medical and local religious wisdom. These two kinds of wisdoms are interlinked and are the basis of cultural geography. They cover the philosophy of looking at the world, life goals, the philosophy of life, values and practice guidelines, the development of human life, health educational development, health technology, health policy, local wisdom, globalization, environment development, economic development, and social development.

Keywords Buddhist wisdom health care, identities in the cultural geography, ASEAN community.

Religions come into existence to embrace and bind human beings. We can say that all religions exit to solve human problems. Theism religions believe that the God creates and destines human life; human

134: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

beings cannot change anything, while atheistic religions believe that human beings are composed of balanced elements of nature; they can elevate their being by developing the moral goodness of the mind. The teaching of each religion is the natural lane of life. Every religion states the origin/history of human beings, the belief and the way of life to lead them to attain the ultimate goal of life. This is why the religions teaching has to lay and the practice guidelines for human beings to follow and develop their potential to finally lead the destination of life according to each religions belief.

Buddhist wisdom is originated from practicing after the Buddhist teaching principles. The wisdom consists of worldly wisdom, and Dharma wisdom. These two components are linked to the understanding of the world and life perfectly. This enables humans to see the world and life authentically and makes them able to depend on themselves and to create things beneficial to the peace for themselves, communities and social.

Same people may think that the man any principles of the Dharma, which the Lord Buddha had learned through his enlightenment, for them to master. But, in fact, it is not necessary for people to know everything the Lord Buddha knew. Buddhathatbhikkhu (1986; 5) says, if what the lord Buddha knows is as many as the leaves in a forest, what we need to use to teach and to put into practice is only as a few as a handful of the leaves’. The essence of Buddhist Dharma emphasizes on determining the causes of suffering and the methods of ending it. These causes and methods are related in a reasonable way that anyone can study them rationally and can purify their mind on the way of their study; finally they can end up enlightened.

It can be said that Buddhism emphasizes studying the problems inside the mind of humans who feel suffered. This essence, in fact, is the Four Noble Truth, which stay forever true and usable.

Illness seems to be the cause of suffering. That almost everybody has to endure. At present, despite of advances in science to help relieve this kind of suffering, ill people still keep their spiritual “belief” and “faith” that have been their relief for ages. There are both domestic and international researches done; the United State National Institute for Health Care Research: NIHR, for instance, studied the link between health and religion. It was found that the balance of the body was driven by a mind condition. How health caring work with faith of the East: Buddhism, Islam, Hinduism, etc. has attracted the Western scholars to study this kind of linkage? Research has revealed that religious people tend to be healthier and to have better decision on the way of living. Having social benefits of doing religious activities together with other people gives them self-confidence. Praying and meditating help them deal with unpleasant situation more successfully and avoid depression. This positive emotion strengthens their immune system and gives them the ability to encounter the changes in life more efficiently.

According to Buddhist belief, every human being has to face some kinds of suffering, either physical or mental forms. However, the human

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 135

beings who train themselves, using the Dharma principles taught by the Lord Buddha as medicine will find that the illness that they have can only hurt their bodies, not their mind. Sick bodies with healthy mind can still have growing and useful lives.

Therefore, this study on the health care situation practiced in the context if cultural geography of Thailand and ASEAN Community to know that the situation is like and what it should be like aimed to used the foundation data found to integrate the scientific and religious systems and create a better and more potential system that can meet human needs perfectly. It is a hope that to make a person understand the reality of life and develop the potential of being a human through health caring and illness is a policy that can turn a crisis into an opportunity In summary, it is clear that the present health care system can only solve some parts of the problem. Buddhism can fulfill the system by adjusting the way of thinking and looking at the world and life. This is because the real problem of a human’s health is a disease of his/her life.

The Four Noble Truths: Suffering, Cause of Suffering, Cessation of Suffering, and Path leading to the Cessation is a process and a rational system that can help solve human problems, or we can say it can cure life diseases. Buddhism sees the world in the same way as a doctor sees a disease.

Suffering is the disease itself; the cause of Suffering is finding the cause of the disease or etiology; the Cessation of Suffering is the condition that the disease is healed; and the Path leading to the Cessation is the methods used to cure the disease (by medical therapy, maybe).

It was also found that Thailand and ASEAN Community put the emphasis on understanding the being of a human which covers Birth, Maturation, Illness and Death. This understanding is the wisdom originated since the Lord Buddha’s era, and which has been studied and practiced until now. It helps fulfill the health care system with humane mind; this is what is missing in the thinking of bio-medical mechanisms. This is how this Buddhist wisdom works: Birth: Each birth is a miracle, a great dream of mother. Some parents can change their behavior more easily for this miracle, some, for example, can quit drinking or smoking, and some may stop fast driving.

Maturation: The definitions found in many sources are likely to define it negatively, seeing it as deterioration. But we can look at it in a positive side and find this age, the reflection of wisdom and the pursuit of spiritual values which are likely to be invisible for the young. The old may enjoy following their dreams, doing what they have always wanted to do but did not have enough time, and they will prepare themselves for the end of life. These kinds of things can help reduce the burden of the hospitals have to take, admitting them in.

Illness: In social dimension, a disease is only a small part if the analysis of the relation of the disease, the wider setting. The new work opportunities are linked to a human disease. Patients are encouraged to combat the disease and to face life. This is a priceless reward or compensation for

136: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

health care providers.

Death: It is the process of understanding death by previewing life, rethinking and telling about the past of one’s life such as what is lost on the way and what is the pride that she/he can fulfill her/his mental needs at the end of life.

The Four of Sentiments or The Four of Brahma’s Dharma: The main virtues include compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity fair, includes a fairly regular basis, it’s a good or great soul.

Finally: a health care service system is the practice dealing with human life; therefore, for the people concerned, professional knowledge and competence as well as moral and ethical standard are emphasized. If such people use virtues called the Four of Brahma’s Dharma (compassion, sympathy, joy and equanimity), they will certainly be praised as high minded people and believed that they have already upgraded their level of being a human and brought prosperity to themselves and the society as well.

This study is a qualitative research. The study was made through documentary research and field research. The summary of methodology is as follows: 1. Documentary research was applied at the first step. Various books and documents were studied: Bible and Tripiṭaka scriptures, commentaries, a sub-commentary, a sub-subcommentary, and related books and documents. The concepts of socially engaged Buddhism in Thailand and ASEAN community found in these readings were analyzed to be used as a guideline for the field study.

2. Field research (or fieldwork) was done through interview and observation. For data collection, in-depth interviews, focus group, interviewing through telephone and participation observe and non-participation observe were conducted.

Population and Sample The population and sample were selected by purposive sampling with the selection criterion as they live in Buddhist communities in Cambodia, Laos and Thailand. They were selected for the following reasons.

1. They use Buddhist wisdoms in many dimensions of life, as a target of life and Buddhist lifestyle.

2. They are large Buddhist communities with the extensive network containing people in many different groups, different duties and different status: They clearly show the forms of relationship in management and in movement processes sustaining and strengthening the communities themselves to stand the globalization.

3. They are strong communities with concepts and strategies to develop the lives of the people at the grassroots level, who were the majority of their country.

4. They are the members of Buddhist communities in which the people paid less attention to the religious cult. Although the rituals practiced are based on the doctrine of Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism, the real tar-

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 137

get of practice is to develop communities and societies.

5. They are the communities located in various conditions of the environment; therefore, they could illustrate how the Buddhist philosophy is applied in different social conditions.

In this research, the tools used in data collection are categorized into 6 parts as follows:

Part 1: questions related to the background and development of the community

Part 2: questions related to the history of bureau /organization development

Part 3: questions related to each organization’s concept of worldly philosophy, philosophy of life, life target, philosophy of living and values and practices

Part 4: questions related to rituals and practices of each organization

Part 5: questions related to methods, contents and processes of dharma teaching

Part 6: questions related to social development strategies in various dimensions: spiritual, intellectual, educational, economic, environmental and natural resource, research and technological dimensions.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines “healthy” as being happy physically, mentally, socially and spiritually. For Buddhist belief the healthiest condition is in Nirvana only. Only those who achieve Nirvana can be truly disease free. All kinds of suffering a human has to face are diseases; aging is considered a latent disease in every human who thinks she/he is healthy therefore, it is concluded that disease is in every human being. Buddhism looks at illness in many dimensions; it may be a threat to life, a common phenomenon in life, or a useful incident pointing out the fragility of life and reminding one to live a careful life. Take a knee pain as an example; it can teach a person that stability is not a state that his/her body can hold on forever. It can get pain and get change; there is nothing his/hers; even himself/herself does not exist. This, mover, does not intend to tell him/her to give up to the pain, believing at it has been causal by pre-existing cause (as in ‘Subbe Sankhara anicca-ti); healing must be seeked. But in some cases it may be incurable; for these cases, one has to accept that there are some his/her factors that she/he cannot handle.

Time is another important thing, especially time in one’s dead need.

In Buddhism aspect, at the time of one’s dying, it is very important and the base value because throughout life, we have never seen a crisis like this.

If we go to a new excuse that long, therefore, to take advantage of every moment of life in there is development.

Buddhism is an intellectual and moral foundation that is important for health professionals as both humans and professionals. Buddhist wisdom for health care is “a light in darkness” in the health care system in Thailand and ASEAN Community. The inter identity wisdom helps to form a good

138: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

health care system; the system created by humane mind servants. It is a patient-centered system; gives the patients the services they need. The health professionals use the Four of Brahma’s Dharma as guiding principles to not only cure the patients but also develop their human potential.

These professionals are friendly and gentle to life and nature. They have ability to see a human as the holistic; to see authentic suffering knowingly, and to give a qualified health care by trying to access the highest goal that is truth, goodness and beauty experienced in each period of life. They can use all these abilities to health develop a patient’s potential of life while curing their illness. They can do this successfully by guiding the patient to either live with the past, using the good past as inspiration to fight for life; follow the past, using the past as lessons to teach how to live happily; go ahead of the past, forgetting the bad things in the past; or using the true of life. It is quite a wonderful health care service, to turn the illness, a crisis of life, into a great opportunity to develop potential of life.

References Anne Ruth Hansen. (2008). How to Behave Buddhism and Modernity in Colonial Cambodia 1860– 1930. Chiang Mai : Silkworm Books, p.111- 112.

Alexandra Kent. (2003). Recovery of the Collective Spirit: the Role of the Revival of Buddhism in Cambodia, p.8.

Christopher,S Queen. (1998) “The Peace Wheel: Nonviolent Activism in the Buddhist Tradition.” Subverting Hatred: The Challenge of Nonviolence in Religious Traditions, Boston: Boston Research Center for the Twenty-First Century , p.6-7.

Damien, Keown. ( 2003). A Dictionary of Buddhism. New York: Oxford University Press, p.86.

Donald K. Swearer. (1986) “The Vision of Bhikkhu Buddhadasa,” in Bhikkhu Buddhadasa, Dhammic Socialism. Translated and edited

by Donald K. Swearer. Bangkok: Thai Interreligious Commission For Development, p. 14.

George D. Bond. (1996) “A.T. Ariyatne and the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement.” Engaged Budddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia, Ed. By Christopher S. Queen. New York: State University of New York Press , p.126.

Heike Loschmann (2007). Buddhism and Social Development in Cambodia since the Overthrow of the Pol Pot Regime in 1979 in Siksacakr Journal (Special Issue on Buddhism). Center for Khmer Studies: Ponleu Khmer Printing &Publishing House, p.105.

Hirsch Rifka & Chea Sok Lim. (1986) The trauma of Cambodia: the psychological impact of mass violence. Refugee Studies Centre : Boston.

Massachusetts, p. 1- 6 Available at < http://repository .forcedmigration. org/show_ metadata.jsp? pid=fmo:299,(27 Jan. 2010, 5:44 PM.) Ian Harris.(1999). Buddhism in Extremis the Case of Cambodia :Buddhism

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 139

and Politics in Twentieth - Century Asia. Cromwell Press.Ltd., 64. ________. (2006). Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice. Chiang Mai : Silkworm Books, , p.195. ________. (2007). Buddhism under Pol Pot. Phnom Penh : Documentation Center of Cambodia, p.179.

Keyes Charl F. (1994) Communist Revolution and the Buddhist Past in Cambodia’ in Keyes, Charles F. Laural Kendall and Helen Hardare (eds) Asian Vision of Authority: Religion and theModern State of East and Southeast Asia. Honolulu :University of Hawaii Press, p.53 Koslyn Reedy. (2007). The mental Health Conditions of Cambodian Refugee Children and Adolescents, M.A of Research distinction in International studies , Ohio state Un. (Unpublished), p.9.

Leakkhena Nou. (2006) A QualitativeExamination of the Psychosocial Adjustment of Khmer Refugee in Three Massachusetts Community.

Massachusetts Boston: Institute of Asia American Studies, p. 1 - 5.

Margaret Slocomb. (2003). The People’s Republic of Kampuchea 1979 -1989 The Revolution after Pol Pot. Chiang Mai : Silkworm Book , p.180.

Puntarigvivat, Tavivat.(1992) “Luangpor Teean : The Dynamic Practices of a Thai Meditation Master,” in Grant A. Olson (editor), Crossroads, Volume 7, Number 1 (DeKalb : Northern Illinois University, p. 69 - 89.

Royal Academy. (2003).Universal Dictionary of Religion Academy of Letters. Type the two amendments. Bangkok: Arun printing, p. 65-66.

Samsopheap Preap. (2005). “A Comparative study of Thailand and Khmer Buddhism” International Master Degree of Arts Program Gratitude School .Buddhist Studies. Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University.

Suzannal Linton. (2004).Reconciliation in Cambodia. Phnom Penh: Documentation Center of Cambodia , p. 12, 75 - 77.

The Dalai Lama. (1996) “Cultivating Altruism,” Engaged Buddhist Leader, ed. By Kotler, Arnold (Berkeley : Parallax Press, p 3.

Thich Nhat Hanh. (1991) . Peace Is Every Step. New York: Bantam, p. 91.

Yim Sombo and Others. (2007). The Threads of Continuity: Buddhism and Conflict in Cambodia, 1953 to 1979. in Siksacakr, Penny Edwards, Michel Rethy Antelme, Editors, Center for Khmer Studies: Ponleu Khmer Printing& Publishing House, p.86.

Yos Hut Khemacaro. (1998)Steering the Middle path: Buddhism, non-violence and political change in Cambodia in An international Review of Peace Initiative. Accord Safeguarding Peace: Cambodia’s constitutional challenge, London : Conciliation Resource , p.71 -75.

140: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

The Management of Dhamma Retreat Affecteing Theologiansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Satisfaction at Wat Pradu Song Tham in Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Province nimanong treekasem

Phranakhon si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University,Thailand Author for correspondence; e-mail: treekasem.recycle@hotmail.com

Abstract This research has the following objectives.1) to study the personal factors, behaviors when coming, opinions about the retreatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s management, and satisfaction of meditation practitioners coming to meditate at Wat Pradu Song Tham in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province; 2) to compare the opinions of the meditation practitioners regarding the management of the dhamma retreat, classified according to personal factors and behaviors when coming to meditate; 3) compare the satisfaction of the meditation practitioners with meditating on retreat at Wat Pradu Song Tham, classified according to personal factors and behaviors when coming; and 4) to study the relationship between the opinions of the meditation practitioners regarding the management of the dhamma retreat and their satisfaction with meditating at Wat Pradu Song Tham. The sample group used in the research consisted of 384 meditation practitioners. The tool used for the research was a questionnaire using a graduated scale of 5 values, with the data analyzed statistically using percentage frequency, mean, standard deviation and hypothesis tests, as well as statistics from T-test, F-test, LSD (least. significant difference) tests and Pearson correlation coefficients determined by a level of statistical significance of .01. The results of the research found that: 1) The majority of the practitioners were male, single, aged 41-50, with the academic attainment of a diploma or higher vocation diploma, making a living as independent small businessmen earning a monthly income averaging either less than 5,000 baht or in the 10,000 - 15,000 baht range, and residing in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province. Their main reason for coming to meditate is that they have faith in the teacher as an heir to the branch of knowledge. They come to meditate with friends twice a week on the weekends for a period of 3-4 hours. On the whole, their opinions about the the management of the retreat at Wat Pradu Song Tham, and their satisfaction meditating there are both at the highest levels.

2) Differences in gender, age, level of education, career, marital status, place of residence, behaviors when meditating and frequency of meditation of the practitioners all have an effect on opinions about the management of the retreat at Wat Pradu Song Tham.

3) Differences of age, level of education, career and frequency of

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 141

meditation also have an effect on satisfaction of the practitioners with meditation at the retreat at WatPradu Song Tham. 4) The practitionersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; opinions regarding the management of the retreat correlate with their satisfaction in meditating at a low to moderate level.

Keyword: The Management of Dhamma Retreat, Theologiansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Satisfaction, Dhamma Retreat in Wat Pradu Song Tham in Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Province Introduction 1. Background and significance of the research The practice of meditation has great significance for human life because it is a training process to develop the mental quality suitable for work. It is useful for various functions whenever people practice the steps of Vipassana until they attain clear knowledge of dharmic truth: then they will attain permanent peace within themselves, and, as a consequence, world peace as well. Thus meditation can drill the mind so as to attain the Right View, to become a good person, to achieve understanding of the global situation, and to live with passion and the right ignorance in check, losing these in order to reach the highest aim in life, that being the Path (Magga) to Enlightenment and so forth (Phramaha Rungrueang Rakkhitthammo, 2549 BE, pg. 45). However, these days most temples and dhamma retreats lack good management, thus leading to a public that is estranged from the temple and a much decreased role for the temple within the community. The way to solve this is by using the principle of good governance (dhammabhiban) in order to return to the center of the community as in the past (Phramahawasan Yannasitti Yangphimai, 2551 BE, pg. 35).

A dhamma retreat very suitable for meditation practitioners in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province is at Wat Pradu Song Tham in the front of the temple, which was built during the Ayutthaya Period and has continued to give lessons in meditation from that time up to the present. Nowadays, there are far fewer meditation schools of this quality relative to the nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population (Pradu Song Tham, 2555 BE, page number not indicated).

Thus the researcher is interested in studying the effects of the management of a dhamma retreat on the satisfaction of meditation practitioners using data from the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham in Ayutthaya Province in order to develop and improve dhamma retreat management to build the highest level of satisfaction for Buddhists who come to meditate. This will maintain Buddhism and the science of meditation to help mankind truly escape suffering.

2. Research objectives 1) To study personal factors and behaviors when coming to meditate, opinions regarding the management of the dhamma retreat, and the satisfaction of meditation practitioners at Wat Pradu Song Tham in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province.

142: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

2) To compare the opinions of meditation practitioners regarding the management of the dhamma retreat at Wat Pradu Song Tham in Ayutthaya Province, classified according to personal factors and behaviors when coming to meditate.

3) To compare the satisfaction of meditation practitioners at Wat Pradu Song Tham in Ayutthaya Province, classified according to personal factors and behaviors when coming to meditate.

4) To study the relationship between the opinions of meditation practitioners regarding the management of the dhamma retreat and their satisfaction with meditating at Wat Pradu Song Tham in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province.

3. Scope of the research

1) Population and sample group

The population and sample group of the current research consisted of meditation practitioners who meditated at Wat Pradu Song Tham in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province. The exact size of the population was unknown. The size of the sample group was 384 people, the sample size being limited according to the Cochran formula (Tanin Sincharu, 2555 BE, pg. 46).

2) The variables of the study, such as independent variables, are: the meditation practitionersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; personal factors, which consist of gender, age, level of education, career, monthly income, marital status and place of residence; and behaviors when coming to meditate, which consist of reasons for meditating at Wat Pradu Song Tham, frequency of coming to meditate, the time of the meditation sessions, the duration of the sessions, and by whom the practitioner is accompanied when meditating. The dependent variables are: the opinions regarding the management of the dhamma retreat, which comprise the areas of governance, moral foundations, transparency, responsibility, a principle of participation and a principle of value; and the satisfaction of the meditation practitioners, which comprises the areas of puggala sappaya (suitable companions), avasa sappaya (a suitable place), arhara sappaya (suitable food) and dhamma sappaya (suitable principles).

4. Research hypotheses

1) Differences in the personal factors of the meditation practitioners go with differences in their opinions regarding the management of the dhamma retreat.

2) Differences in the personal factors of the meditation practitioners go with differences in their levels of satisfaction.

3) Differences in the behaviors of the meditation practitioners coming to meditate go with differences in their opinions regarding the management of the dhamma retreat.

4) Differences in the behaviors of the meditation practitioners coming to meditate go with differences in the satisfaction of the practitioners.

5) The level of opinion regarding the management of the dhamma retreat is related to the satisfaction of the meditation practitioners.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 143

5. Research framework Defining the concepts of the current research starts off from educational concepts and theory, which pertain to the management of the dhamma retreat that affects the satisfaction of meditation practitioners at Wat Pradu Song Tham in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province. Details are shown in Figure 1.

Independent variables

Opinions of practitioners regrading the management of the dhamma retreat 1) Area of Governance 2) Moral foundations 3) Transparency 4) Responsibility 5) Principle of Participation 6) Principle of Value

>

>

personal factors of meditation practitioners 1. Gender 2.Age 3. Education level 4. Caree 5. Monthly income 6. Marital status 7. Place of domicile

Dependent variables

>

Behaviors when coming to meditate 1. Resasons for meditating at Wat Pradu Song Tham 2. Frequency of coming to meditate 3. Education level 4. Caree 5. Monthly income 6. Marital status 7. Place of domicile

Saisfaction of the meditation Practiioners

>1) Puggala sappaya (suiable companinions) 2) Avasa sappaya (suiable place) 3) Arhara sappaya (suiable food) 4) Dhamma sappaya (suiable principles)

Figure 1. The conceptual framework of the research Research methodology

1. Population and sample group The population used in this study comprised meditation practitioners at Wat Pradu Song Tham in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province, the exact size being unknown. The sample group comprised 384 meditation practitioners at Wat Pradu Song Tham, the specific size of the sample being derived by

144: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Cochranâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s formula (Cochran, 1953 CE) (Tanin Sincharu, 2555 BE, pg. 46) using random choice to collect the data from meditation practitioners at Wat Pradu Song Tham in Ayutthaya Province.

2. Tools used in the research

Part 1) Personal factors of respondents to the questionnaire, such as sex, age, level of education, career, monthly income, marital status and domicile.

Part 2) Behaviors when coming to practice meditation, such as reasons for meditating at Wat Pradu Song Tham, frequency of meditation, the time of each session of meditation, the duration of meditation, and companions accompanying the practitioner.

Part 3) Opinions regarding the management of the dhamma retreat: to check whether each factor has an effect on the opinions of the meditation practitioners at Wat Pradu Song Tham, with a questionnaire that uses a rating scale of 5 values.

Part 4) Satisfaction of the meditation practitioners: to check whether each factor has an effect on the opinions of the meditation practitioners at Wat Pradu Song Tham, with a questionnaire that uses a rating scale of 5 values.

The questionnaire has an index of item objective congruence (IOC) equal to 1.0, and the alpha coefficient of the questionnaire is .98, which meets the threshold for data collection.

2.3 Data analysis The data was analyzed using percentage frequency, mean, standard deviation and hypothesis test statistics, as well as T-test, F-test, LSD (least significant difference) tests and Pearson correlation coefficients determined by a level of statistical significance of .01.

Conclusions

1. The majority of practitioners of meditation at Wat Pradu Song Tham who responded to the questionnaire were male, aged 41-50, having attained the educational level of a diploma or higher vocation diploma, small businessmen or merchants, with an average monthly income of either less than 5,000 baht or 10,000 - 15,000 baht, single and living in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province. Their behaviors in coming to meditate at Wat Pradu Song Tham consist of: the reason for coming - they believe the instructor is an heir to the knowledge of the field; a frequency of meditation of twice a week; a duration of 3-4 hours for each session, which occur during the weekend; and the company of friend during meditation. The meditation practitioners who responded to the questionnaire held a high opinion of the management of the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham, both overall and when dealing with separate aspects. When each aspect is considered singly, governance had the highest mean followed by responsibility, with transparency receiving the lowest mean. The practitioners who responded to the questionnaire were likewise highly satisfied when meditating at Wat Pradu Song Tham, with the aspect with the highest mean being dhamma

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 145

sappaya (suitable principles), followed (in descending order) by puggala sappaya (suitable companions), with arhara sappaya (suitable food) receiving the lowest mean.

2. The results of the comparison of the opinions the practitioners held regarding the management of the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham, when classified by personal factors, can in general be summed up as follows:

1) meditation practitioners of different gender, age, educational level, career, marital status and region of domicile hold different opinions regarding the management of the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province; and 2) different salary levels of the practitioners do not lead to different opinions regarding the management of the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham.

The results of the comparison of the opinions the meditation practitioners held regarding the management of the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham, when classified by behaviors when coming to meditate, can in general be summed up as follows:

1) meditation practitioners who differ in reasons for meditating at Wat Pradu Song Tham, and who come at different frequencies to meditate, hold different opinions regarding the management of the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham; and2) practitioners whose sessions differ in the time and duration of each session, and who come with different companions, do not hold different opinions regarding the management of the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham.

3. The results of the comparison of satisfaction of the meditation practitioners with the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham, when classified by personal factors, can in general be summed up as follows: 1) meditation practitioners whose gender, monthly income, marital status and region of domicile show no difference in levels of satisfaction with the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham; and2) practitioners who differ in age, educational level and career show different levels of satisfaction with the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham.

The results of the comparison of satisfaction of the meditation practitioners with the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham, when classified by behaviors when coming to meditate, can in general be summed up as follows: 1) Meditation practitioners who differ in the reasons for meditating at Wat Pradu Song Tham, the time of each session, the duration of meditation and the companions who meditate with them do not differ in the degree of satisfaction they have when meditating at Wat Pradu Song Tham; and 2) Practitioners who differ in the frequency with which they come to meditate show differences in satisfaction.

3.4 The results of the study regarding the connection between the opinion of the meditation practitioners towards the management and their satisfaction with the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham found that: 1) the opinions of the practitioners toward management in the

146: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

areas of governance and transparency showed a correlation with satisfaction with the meditation center in the areas of puggala sappaya (suitable companions) and avasa sappaya (suitable place); 2) the opinions of the practitioners toward management in the areas of moral foundations, participation and value showed a correlation with satisfaction with the meditation center in the areas of puggala sappaya (suitable companions), avasa sappaya (suitable place) and arhara sappaya (suitable food); and3) the opinions of the practitioners toward management regarding responsibility show a correlation with satisfaction with meditation center in the areas of puggala sappaya (suitable companions), avasa sappaya (suitable place) and dhamma sappaya (suitable principles).

Discussion

1. Governance

It was found that the opinions of the practitioners of meditation regarding the management of the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham in the area of governance, both in general and in individual cases, was at a high level in all cases due to the meditation center having dharmic principles and a method of meditation which has been carried on for a long time, which is the greatest resource, in agreement with the research of Phramaha Sutthichai Chitkhoksung (2552 BE, abstract) in a study about the development of a model for the practice of meditation in the temple in order to bring social peace and contentment in Nakhon Ratchasima Province.The results of that study found that it is most important that there is a meditation instructor in each center. When there is a good instructor of meditation available, then the practitioners who come to share in meditation will have very good support, and the meditation is likely to succeed without any problems. Avasa sappaya (a suitable place) is also something that is important to a meditation center, because if the site is completely prepared, with lodgings for monks, bathrooms, cafeteria, residences, then meditation is likely to go well.

2. Moral foundations It was found that the opinions of the practitioners of meditation regarding the management of the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham in the area of moral foundations, both in general and in individual cases, was at a high level in all cases due to the meditation center working cooperatively in such fashions as understanding each other, helping one another, forgiving and respecting each other. Practitioners respect their instructors, and provide advice in way that benefits the practice and the public, essentially in agreement with the research of Phramaha Bundit Nisapai (2550 BE, pg. 31), which found that moral foundations lead to success in seizing and having confidence in what is right and fine, through a campaign to build fine social values for people working in organizations and members of society to adhere to, for example, honesty, sacrifice, patience, perseverance, discipline, and so forth. Moral foundations are thus important for everybody.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 147

3. Transparency It was found that the opinions of the practitioners of meditation regarding the management of the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham in the area of transparency, both in general and in individual cases, was at a high level in all cases due to the meditation center having operational procedures that are orderly, simple, correct and straightforward, following the principles of discipline and law, along the lines of an account regarding principles of meditation, recorded accurately in documents and photographs of a center as important evidence in the research of Thitiporn Sasom (2553, abstract), a study of administrative systems and temple management in a Buddhist case study: Wat Phra That Chae Haeng, Phu Phiang district, Nan Province. The results of that study found that Wat Phra That Chae Haeng had administrative systems and temple management that was able to focus on personnel management, general administration, financial and accounting management, temple property management, and temple activities management, all of which have clear management systems that stress transparency.

4. Responsibility It was found that the opinions of the practitioners of meditation regarding the management of the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province, in the area of responsibility, both in general and in individual cases, was at a high level in all cases due to the meditation center having instructors, custodians and staff, all of whom had a selfless dedication to the meditation operations of the dhamma retreat and faith in the teacher in order to work together maintain a worthwhile direction of meditation practice, and to look after the place alongside work performance that genuinely stems from the heart. This is in line with the research of Phramaha Bundit Nisapai (2550 BE, pg. 43), which states that taking responsibility successfully in a role with obligations to the public requires setting up an institute that is capable of helping to coordinate and mediate the best direction for the temple to respond to the needs of various groups within the temple in a concrete fashion, and cover obligations and responsibilities to Buddhists across the spectrum.

5. Participation It was found that the opinions of the practitioners of meditation regarding the management of the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province, in the area of participation, both in general and in individual cases, was at a high level in all cases due to the meditation center having a model of teaching that emphasizes acting in such a way that coming into dharmic principles goes hand in hand with maintaining the site in order that the practitioners take responsibility for both themselves and the public, thus creating a mind which is suitable for thinking about what is best for the organization and the institution, which agrees with the research of Phramaha Ruengsak Pimsakul (2545 BE, abstract) in study regarding temple management in the next decade. The research results found that the aims of the administration were to provide

148: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

the monks with practice in discipline, to keep the temple clean, cool and pleasant, to create a venue to learn moral principles, management policies, the finances and activities of the temple, and develop the abbot’s vision and the administrative structure so as to emphasize a participatory management style.

6. The principle of value

It was found that the opinions of the practitioners of meditation regarding the management of the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province, in the area of value, both in general and in individual cases, was at a high level in all cases due to the meditation center being an organization that doesn’t seek principally to make profit, but rather is a place that is used for meditation. Thus the center’s base of income is solely donations from the faithful and meditation practitioners.

In consequence, the center’s spending is apportioned well to be used for the greatest benefit of the center, and this practice tallies well with the research of Phramaha Bundit Nisapai (2550 BE, pg. 44), which states that the principle of value is a mechanism for efficient operations in temple management, whether in religious activities or managing the education of monks to combine the secular with the religious so as to bring about a new paradigm in Wat Mahawanaram. To select all the monks in the temple’s management to work well, and to control resource usage in the temple, e.g., water bills, electricity bills and so forth, is worthwhile and suitable, as are operations and service to the public which result in maximum benefit.

Suggestions for further research 1. The opinions of practitioners of meditation should be studied in other topics as well, for instance, attitude, inspiration, faith, in order to acquire data in the field that can be used to reach more people who are interested and encourage them to join in practicing, because each person is different.

2. There should be a study on the management and satisfaction at other meditation centers as well, in order to create a knowledge base for people who are interested in practicing dhamma, so that they find information and learn more.

3. There should be a study on the stability of the meditation center at Wat Pradu Song Tham and the center’s current practices in the branch dhamma retreats that were expanded according to the plan to carry on the ancient meditation guidelines of the center at Wat Pradu Song Tham, so that interested people learn about the information and increasingly come together to practice dhamma carrying on genuine Buddhist rituals again in the one sole way.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 149

References The Division of Buddhist Studies (2554 BE). Outstanding provincial meditation center of high quality and standards, and ready to accommodate 213 practitioners arriving to observe the precepts.

Bangkok Center: the authors.

Thitiporn Sasom (2553 BE). A study of administrative systems and temple management in a Buddhist case study: Wat Phra That Chae Haeng, Phu Phiang district, Nan Province. MBS thesis in Buddhist Studies: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University.

Tanin Siljaru (2555 BE). Research and statistical analysis with SPSS and AMOS. Bangkok: Business R & D Phramaha Bundit Nisapai (2550 BE). Good governance and temple management: a case study of Wat Mahawanaram, a Royal temple in Meuang district, Ubon Ratchathani Province. MA term paper in Political Economic Sciences: Ubon Ratchathani Rajabhat University.

Phramaha Rungreung Rakkitthammo (2549 BE). The results of practicing Vipassana meditation: a case study of youths who practice Vipassana meditation at the Suan Weruwan Meditation Center, Meuang district, Khon Kaen Province. MBS thesis in Buddhist Studies: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University.

Phramaha Ruengsak Pimsakul (2545 BE). A model of temple administration in the next decade. Master of Education thesis in the Education Administration program: Burapa University.

Phramaha Wasan Yannasitti Yangphimai (2551 BE). A case study of temple administration in accordance with the principle of good governance by the abbot of the ecclesiastic administrative region Nakhon Ratchasima Province Group 4. Master of Education thesis in the Education Administration program: Nakhon Ratchasima Rajabhat University.

Phramaha Sutthichai Chitkhoksung (2552 BE). Development of a model for the practice of meditation in temples to ensure social peace and contentment in Nakhon Ratchasima Province. MA thesis in the Cultural Science program: Mahasarakham University.

Wat Pradu Song Tham (2555 BE). Internal document. Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya: the authors.

150: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Buddhist Promoting Mental Health of the Elderly in the Community.

Phramaha Kraisron Chotipanyo

Mahachulalongkornrajvidyalaya University,Lamphun Buddhist College, Thailand.

Author for correspondence; e-mail: ksanvong@hotmail.com

Abstract

The objectives of this research were (1) to study Buddhism with promoting mental well-being of older adults in Umong community. (2) to study the way of templedevelopment and the center of promoting metal well-being of older adults in Umong community and (3) to present the model of promoting metal well-being of older adults. This research is qualitative research, participatory action research : PAR and the effectiveness of the appreciation influence control (AIC) of the community for learning interaction with action and planning.The participation of community leader with operation experience of promoting mental well-being of the community.

The instrument for collecting data wereinterview, observation and focus group discussion â&#x20AC;&#x201C; FGD. The result of data analysis research was reliability and consistent with the objective of research. The research results are as below: Buddhism concerns with various process in promoting mental wellbeing of older adults both direction way and indirection way.The index instrumentevaluation of mental well-being. Overall, the level of mental well-being is better. Point out that Buddhism can promote mental well-being of older adults visibly. The important role of driving process to Buddhism for promoting mental well-being of adult that is temple. Temple then has the way of temple development for being center of taking care mental wellbeing of older adults by integrating device Buddhism. It concerns with the development of religious place, religious person, Buddha teaching and religious ceremony, these are the taking care of mental well-being of the community.

There are also guidelines for temple management as the center must have the principle and structure of temple management clearly that includes vision, planning, organizing, leading, order, control and the participation of community, temple and various organization that are shared idea, consideration, practice and benefit in promoting temple development for being the center of training care mental well-being of older adults.

To study of Buddhism research with promoting mental well-being of older adults in the community presented the model of promoting mental well-being of older adults by integrating Buddhism and promoting mental well-being. To present the model of temple development integrated with Buddhism, management and the participation of home, temple and government for promoting mental well-being of older adults and present the model of government sector (Local Administration etc.). To make

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 151

public policy that support to promote well-being, to change care system of coorperation and promote environment that supports to healthy community.

Keywords: Buddhist Promoting Mental Health,Elderly in the Community.

Introduction

The elderly person whobuilds the benefit to descendant and nation extremely,those they arethe valuable resource that has accumulated the experience of their life. So, those they should be praised in society. At present, Thailandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population is the long live very much. The elderly person that is 60 years old up who is a group population there are increased quantity and higher proportion. When compared with other groups of Thai population in 2010,the number of elderly person is 7.6 million elderly people, as a percentage is 11.36 of the entire populations. According to Umongâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sub-district Muang district,Lamphunprovince. In 2013 found that there are 2,981 elderly persons or 34.21 percent of the entire population.

There are the elderly personsof sub-district that is the topnotch ofLamphun province. The factor that affects to the elderly person there are an increasing number of medical advances and public health.Medical treatmentby drugs thathighly effective, include the knowledge in the healthcare, information perception and state of economic society that there is the development.As the working-age population has decreased due to the disease, especially, the contraception policy of the population in 30 years ago, there is fertility rates fell sharply. Reducing the number of childrenand working-age populationthose who served In the elderly care, while the number of elderly person is stillrising that common people should realize and likely to be economic impact and society in the long term.

The elderly person in the community not less there is change dlifestyle from the simple life with the descendants in household.This is dependence the current economic system and essential livelihood of relationship withdescendants. Modern parenting plan , making the elderly are overlooked because the lack of modern. The elderly people then have more free time at the same time, the respect of decreased descendants.

The elderlypeoplechanges are the change of obviously body,depending on several factorssuch as genetics, lifestyle and a state of mindas well.It is evident that some are theolder, why not look right. But some people look the older than their age, why not. This is because the elements mentioned above and the problems encountered from the elderly peoplearethe mental health.

There are high stress and physical changes ,the degeneration of organs when much aging, complexion,muscle, sight worse and the elderly people suffer the loss of many lives such asthe retirement , lost fromfriend dies, spouse.

The elderly people have to qualify and into adulthood as mentioned above. The elderly people also suffer the problem from anxiety in relying on, leaving, danger, fear of death, it then appear depression, irritability, the suspicion, willful and inherited behavior that is fussy, complaining, fidgety and poor memory. These problems have to promote and assist them.

152: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

The current elderly people in each community are assembled to do more activities. The activity that can meet and change ideas, recreation, health care, the participation of religious activities and to increase revenue activities. Some activity is a traditional village activities, some arises from the learning outside, another elderly village or other organizations such as elderly association Women’s groups ,professional groups and there is development respectively. This may be a part of responsiveness to the solving problems and needs of the elderly and people in the community.

The elderly phenomenon as above, researcher as the religious personnel and there is the role that corresponds to solve problem of the mental health of the elderly in Umong sub-district, Muang district, Lamphun province. There is then interested study the community’s Buddhism what promotes the elderly to respond to the problems and needs of the elderly. It also guides the integration between Buddhist mechanism and organizations to correction and further development.

Scope of the study

This study focuses on the area of Umong Municipal district, Muang district, Lamphun province. This area is chosen because it is a community that has driven the local policy. “DistrictHealth” that researcher involved in the promotion committee of the well-being and promotion activities for the elderly of the community that is quite obviously when compared to neighboring communities.

Result of the study The research studies Buddhism and promoting mental health of the elderly in the community found that the elements include : religious ceremony, religious parties, Buddha teaching and religious places thare are relationship with processes of promoting mental health of older people both directly and indirectly. The evaluation of mental health index too. Overall, the level of mental health improved sequentially. It points out that Buddhism can promote mental health of the elderly.Although the evaluation can not expandthe mental health of the elderly commpletely, but Buddhism can promote the mental health of the elderly that is the concrete.

The process of Buddhism, the important role of driving Buddhism in order to promote the mental health of elderly that is temple. The temple then has the development guidelines the temple to mental health centered care of older people with theintegration of Buddhism.Including Thereligious places development, religious parties development,Buddha teaching development and religious ceremony in order to care the mental health of the elderly. It also has guidelines for the templemanagement to be the center must have the principles and structure of the temple management clearly, include vision, planning , organization, Leading and Directing and controling with the participation of community, temples, organizations namely;brainstorming, co-decision, participation and co-beneficiaries.

To promote temple development is a centeredcare of mental health of the

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 153

elderly. The research study of Buddhism and promoting the mental health of the elderly in the community presentedthe promoting the mental health model of the elderly with the integration of Buddhism in order to promote the mental health.

The proposed model of temple development that integrates Buddhism management and there are the participation of house, temple and government for promoting the mental health of the elderly and the proposed model of government (Local government etc.), with the creation of public policies that support to the promotion of health, Adaptive care coordination and promoting an environment that is supported to the communityhealth .

Guidelines findings to good use

1. The results of the study are guided develop mentacti vities that respond the university mission, including services to the society for the personnels and students have been involved, planned and find the way to promote community.

2. The results of the study into operation the participation of the Buddhist monk in order to integrate with the activities and the Buddhist monk project. To promoting the elderly in the community with integrating of Buddhism.

3. The results of the study into push the policy of the local government by the monastic order has the important role of development and promotion activities that aimed at the health development of the elderly.

References Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University College.(2539 BE). Tipitaka in Thai Language TheMahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya Issue. Bangkok :Mahahulalongkornrajavidyalaya Printing .

KanchanaKaewthep .(2538 BE). The workingtool along Culture Community.

Koeksak Bunyanuphong.(2540).Government policy and guidelines for social services to the elderly. The Research Institute of Social Sciences. CMU. Decho Savananan .(2518 BE).Social Psychology. Bangkok : Odian Store.

Chamlong Dityawinich ,(2543 BE). Prof. Dr. Meditation and emotional intelligence . Chiang Mai : Saengsin Printing .

Chiradech Manosoi and AranyaManosoi .(2537 BE).Lanna Pharmacy : Lanna Herbal. Bangkok: The War Veterans Organization of Thailand Printing.

Narong Sengpracha .(2530 BE). Human and society .Bangkok : Odian Store.

Prawet Wasi .(2525 BE).The Temple Role and the Buddhist Monks in Future. Bangkok: Department of Religion . .(2541 BE). On the New Way to Aphiwat Health Promotion of Life and Lociety.Bangkok : Doctors villagers.

154: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Buddhist Psychology Past Life Regression Therapy Tayat Sriplung Milestone Consulting Co., Ltd. 4th Floor Gaysorn Building 999 Ploenchit Rd. Lumpini Pathumwan Bangkok ,Thailand.10330 Author for correspondence; e-mail: tayat.sriplung@hotmail.com Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine whether Past Life Regression Therapy using Buddhist Psychology Approach can lead to better quality of lives, more profound belief about karma, and better psychological well. This Quasi-experimental research with a control group is designed to use twenty individuals (N=20) aging between 25 and 60 working at ICC International Company Limited as the experimental group (E), and the control group (C) of twenty working individuals working at the same company. Each experimental participant underwent past life regression facilitated by trained professional for this purpose during three 2.5 hours therapy sessions, and 7 days of designed life improvement practice between each session. Over the period of 35 days, participants in the experimental group had better score in quality of life than those in the control group with level of confidence at 0.05. Within the experimental group, scores on law of karma belief as well as quality of life and psychological well-being improved significantly with level of confidence at 0.05. The roles of past life experiences and lessons learnt in past-life regression toward the altered behaviors and beliefs were also examined. Since the role of life improvement practice in the experimental group did not show significance to improved life quality compared to the control group, this may have implications for further research on how long participants should take.

Keywords: past-life regression,quality of life,psychological well-being, law of karma, beliefs about consciousness and reality, abreaction (let go bad energy) Introduction

Buddhist Psychology Regression Therapy (BPRT) consists of guiding a participant, through the use of regression session and counseling, to recall stories from previous life-times and to apply this learning to improve oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life quality. Not only is BPRT to cure immediate illness but also to improve psychology well-being (Brian Weiss,1988), wisdom of living as a wiser man, and life quality. Advocates of the procedure maintain that it is an effective means of facilitating self-development(Ian Stevenson,1966) or of resolving various psychological difficulties such as phobias, problems with relationships, and addictions; as well as life quality improvement(Freedman,

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 155

T. B.,1997). However, the use of Past Life Therapy is yet still uncommon to use for improving life quality and the wisdom of living as a wise man.

Two basic questions are raised by the use of this therapy: whether or not the abreaction(Salman Akhtar, ed.,2013) (reliving an experience to purge it of its emotional excesses) of past life negative energy will improve the course of present life, whether or not improvement of psychology well-being can improve quality of present life, and whether or not BPRT can lead to more insights and profound understanding of Law of Karma.

Some believe that the negative residuals of unfinished business in one’s past life have energy to attract negative similar incidents to one’s present life(Carroll, Robert Todd,2014). The residuals are buried deep in unconscious level of mind, in which individuals would not be aware of them.

The abreaction of the negative residuals would therefore reduce bad incidents to occur one’s present life. BPRT also introduces the practices which are suggested by law of karma. One’s karma is unique to the individual, and he or her who can recall the memories and relook at them with wiser mind would know how their present life better than anyone else.

The researcher conducted the same therapy procedure to all participants, and customized counseling advices to the individual cases. To improve the accuracy of hypnosis, all participants were asked to put-on the brain-wave equipment (Bio Feedback, the Wild Divine Software Programs with the classic Iom, Connects via Finger Sensors and to Mac or PC via USB) during the hypnosis period. By using this equipment, the therapist started the regression procedure when the brain wave dropped and relaxed to the point of near unconscious stage.

All participants had been asked to complete quality of life and psychological well-being questionnaire, once preceding the therapy and two more preceding the following two treatments. Fifteen participants reported past-life experiences during regression, whereas two participants did not respond adequately to hypnosis and did not receive any deliberate treatment.

For those who did receive it, the treatment consisted of 3 sessions (each session lasting around 2 hours) in which participants were asked to recall the root cause of each of their problematic situation during the hypnosis period.

This study showed that all fifteen participants revealed the improvement in their psychology and life well-being.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether experiencing pastlife regression can finally lead to enhanced life quality. The idea was to evoke a past-life experiences in all 3 consecutive sessions (1 week time interval) for each participant using a guided regression technique and to see whether there would be any differences in life quality of each participant. All participants revealed that the abreaction of negative vibrant (or residuals) from their unconscious memories would itself reduce bad luck incidents in their present life. This study also measures relationship between the hypnotherapy and the improvement in psychological well-being at the unconscious level. With the improvement in psychological well-being, participants revealed that they see new opportunities in lives. This study uses the statistical quantitative

156: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

method called repeated MANOVA to measure significance improvement in psychological well-being, before, during and after the treatment. In addition to changes in psychological well-being, improvement in fundamental beliefs about law of karma is a matter of this study. An in-depth interview was conducted with the assessment questionnaire to measure life changes such as increase in good incidents, decrease in bad incidents, and more insights in 4 Noble Truths (Ariyasat) and Meritorious Actions.

Because any effects of past-life experiences could be transient, the treatment was designed to have 3 repeated sessions (the repetition happens 7 days following the previous session) with law of karma(Parvesh Singla,2011) counseling followed by Meritorious Actions consultation. This procedure is believed to be intense enough to instill lasting changes in the cognitive and behavioral levels. It was the regression therapy that participants who had past-life experiences would have greater increases in psychological well-being, and both transcendent beliefs and improved psychological welling have improved their life quality. All participants confirmed that improvement changes at trance state have better outcomes than those with present-life experiences.

Research Design

The research methodology is Quasi-experimental with Control Group Design approach. Both approaches are treated equally important and are applied in parallel (Equal and Parallel Qualitative and Quantitative Method), where the same population members were treated by the same treatment and both qualitative and quantitative were measured with equal weights.

The independent variable in this research is Buddhist Psychological Regression Therapy. The dependent variables are Psychological wellbeing(Ryff, Carol D.,1989), Past Life Learning and Life Quality(Costanza, R. et al.,2008). The measurement variables of Psychological well-being are (1) Autonomy, Purpose in Life, Growth, Self-Acceptance (2) Environmental Mastery and (3) Relation with Others. The measurement variables of Past Life Learning are morale awareness, commitment to good deeds, and beliefs. Finally, the measurement variables of Life Quality are decrease in Bad Incidents, increase in Good Incidents and more profound in 4 Noble Truths.

Participants

This Quasi-experimental research with a control group is designed to use twenty individuals (N=20) aging between 25 and 60 working at ICC International Company Limited(www.icc.co.th/dotnet/html/eng/corporate_ overview.aspx) as the experimental group (E), and the control group (C) of twenty working individuals working at the same company. They are volunteers, who have strong determination to improve their life quality. It was made clear that those with a history of traumatic emotional, physical, or sexual abuse or those experiencing problems with concentration, memory, or thinking are not participated in the study. Nine of the participants were men

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 157

and eleven were women in the experimental group and 8 of the participants were men and twelve were women in the control group. 20 indicated that they wanted to improve their psychology well-being, 5 wanted to improve their body health and 10 wanted to improve their relationship.

Instruments

In addition to a General Information Questionnaire that was used for gathering demographic information, and four other instruments were used. The questionnaire used for measuring psychological well-being was the Psychological Well-Being (General Health Questionnaire (GHQ)), tailored from Psychological Well-Being of Department of Mental Health, which consists of 12 five-point Likert-type items with which respondents can agree or disagree. The questionnaire items include questions such as Positive Relations with Others, Autonomy, Environmental Mastery, Personal Growth, Purpose in Life, and Self-Acceptance.

Law of Karma Consciousness consists of five-point Likert-type items that make up three scales: 9 items on morale (shame on misconduct) and 5 items on beliefs (faith in right conduct), are specially designed to measure their level of shame for sinful conducts, and their faith to conduct good deeds. All 14 items together make up a Global Scale that is an indication of a person’s position along the material transcendent dimension of beliefs about consciousness and reality.

Finally, Quality of Life was modified from the original WHOQOL – 26 from Department of Mental Health to have left 20 questions. These questions are designed to assess a participant’s evaluation of his or her both perception and actual evidences of desired incidents and undesired incidents (both numbers and intensity) happened during the experimental period of 2 weeks. This questionnaire consists of 20 five-point Likert-type items about the extent to which it has opened participant’s desired incidents and reduced participant’s undesired incidents with the open spaces for filling in actual incidents. As well as, the individual’s confidence in their present living in the way they design their own purpose.

Apparatus

A reclining chair was used during the guided imaginary sessions to enable volunteers to lie back with their feet up from the floor. This study used both guided imagery techniques and regression to attempt to induce past-life experiences. Guided imagery techniques as such have been widely used in counseling and psychotherapeutic settings.

A participant lies back in a reclining chair with her feet up and is told to close his or her eyes and relax. Then, in a series of nine stages, he or she is told to imagine his or herself expanding beyond the boundaries of his or her physical body. Having become expanded, participants are asked to recall memories and describe in detail. Following that, the participant is told to go up in the air to progressively greater heights above his or her living place and to describe what he or she sees. At one point he or she is

158: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

asked to change the scene from day to night and back again and asked who is creating these changes. Eventually he or she is told to recall going up so far in the air that he or she can no longer see the earth. Then the following statements are made: Procedure

Participants came individually to sessions and were required to sign a research consent form. Then participants were left at a table in a regress therapy room to complete the Quality of Life forms. Once they were finished, they sat back in the reclining chair and the researcher led them through a guided imagery exercise using the modified imagery technique, giving them either an open suggestion or past-life suggestion. The researcher noted which suggestion had been given and whether any past-life, present-life, or future-life imagery was present. The guided imagery experience lasted for about an hour. Afterwards, participants completed the Psychological Well-being, the Trance State Health. They were also given an opportunity to make any written comments. Fourteen days following a session, participants were sent the Psychological Well-being, Quality of Life, and Trance State quality. Upon receipt of their completed questionnaires, participants were sent a debriefing form.

Experimental Results – Quantitative

The purpose of the study was to determine whether BPRT can cause benefits to quality of life, trance state and psychology well-being, shown in Table 1 Table 1 Illustrating improvement of scores - quality of life and psychology well-being (before and after BLRT) paired-sample t-test Variables Quality of Life Psychology Well Being

Measure

Group

x

SE

Before

experiment– control

.055

.130

Sig. (1-tailed) .338

After

experiment– control

.385

.105

.000*

Before After

experiment– control experiment– control

-.292 -.042

.399 .119

.235 .364

In the experiment group, the result shows that PLRT has strong relationship towards quality of life, and psychological well-being. By comparing scores of the 3 variables before and after BPRT sessions using the paired-sample t-test), the result shows that quality of life, psychological well-being, and trance state after PLRT has higher scores than the scores before the treatment with level of confidence at 0.05. It this therefore

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 159

concludes that PLRT can improve quality of life, psychological well-being, and trance state.

Table 2 Illustrating improvement of scores - quality of life, trance state and psychology well-being (before and after BLRT) for the experiment group Dependent Variables psychology well-being (r=0.047, sig.=0.845)

Measurement

n

x

SD

SE

Before

20

3.958

1.286

0.288

After

20

4.833

0.456

0.102

0.875

1.344

0.301

After – Before

Trance state (r=0.590, sig.=0.006)

Before

20

3.591

0.612

0.137

After

20

3.980

0.516

0.115

0.389

0.518

0.116

Quality of Life (r=0.520, sig.=0.019)

Before

20

3.375

0.334

0.075

After

20

3.663

0.229

0.051

0.288

0.291

0.065

After – Before

After – Before

t

df

Sig. (1-tailed)

2.911

19

0.004*

3.358

19

0.001*

4.425

19

0.000*

Note: a =.05

In the experiment group, the result shows that PLRT has strong relationship towards quality of life, and psychological well-being, with level of confidence at 0.05. It shows that there is positive relationship between psychological well-being and quality of life, with level of confidence at 0.05.

However, it may show that trance state may not have influence in quality of life with level of confidence at 0.05.

The changes in psychological well-being that were found were in the predicted direction, which is to say that participants after receiving a pastlife regression and counseling had higher well-being scores than the time before the treatment. And the scores have improved from one session to the next sessions. However, there were cases where there was a deterioration in scores at the 7-day follow-up for 21 days (but not immediately afterwards) for those who had received treatment.

Experimental Results – Qualitative

Of the 20 participants who received both past-life regression and the counseling, only 9 cases achieved full benefits of having insights in past life learning, improvement psychological well-being and improvement in life quality. That is their both conscious and unconscious minds have been reshaped to be more concentrate in their present life than before the treatment.

Yet 5 other cases sited that they were very pleased with the treatment and outcomes. Finally all 14 cases were satisfied with the treatment since their psychology well-being and their shame of misconduct has increased.

The participants who received the least benefits claimed their present lives have improved to the extent to which they are much happier; however,

160: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

their measurement of morality has lower scores than the rest of participants.

There were difficulties in the step of abreaction (to end the effects of Karma), detachment (equanimity), confession (telling oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; life stories about the failings or wrong doings).

Five selected participants their past life experiences, levels of their noble truths discovery, and the number of past lives they could recalled.

The following 7 observations are made, 1. Most recent past lives have influences to the present life.

2. 7 out of 15 could recall more than 1 past life, and the maximum number of recall is 10 past lives.

3. Of the 7, there is a moderate tendency that people are re-incarnated in the similar social status.

4. People can learn worldly experiences and karma of their own better than hearing from preaching.

5. Noble experiences could only occur to the ones that their past lives devoted to enlightenment endeavor.

6. Sex can be changed over different past lives.

7. Deed seated memory of thinking karma can hurt peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; lives.

There is no relationship between Psychological Well-Being, Past Life Learning, and Quality of Life and the discovery of people noble truth.

Conclusions

The purposes of this study, in general, were satisfactory. There were substantial psychological benefits or changes in beliefs associated with the presence of past-life story recalls. Any benefits associated with regression procedures may not pertain to the time periods actually recalls but to other factors such as their appropriateness at that time for a particular person.

It may also be that the depth of trance was insufficient for psychological benefits to occur in the control group. The fact that those with past-life memory recall were more likely to have higher scores on a measure of altered experience suggests at least the relevance of depth of trance to past-life regression procedures. It may be that past-life regression used in isolation, as it was in this experiment, is not effective, and that other factors, such as a counseling or habit change practices, must be present in order to release any potential benefits.

It may also be that the presence of past-life memory therapy is more effective when targeted toward the treatment of specific psychological disorders rather than simply used in order to try to achieve greater psychological well-being. Studies are needed to ascertain whether the presence of past-life memory therapy can contribute to the alleviation of psychological problems such as phobias, undesirable addictions, and compulsive behaviors. In addition, whereas analogue studies such as this one can identify the contributing factors to successful counseling techniques when such factors are implicated, analogue studies cannot rule out contributing factors because of the complexities of the actual counseling and therapeutic dynamics that can be only partially reproduced in a laboratory. The overall

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 161

shift toward more transcendent beliefs is not surprising given the social cognitive features of the experimental sessions, such as the expectations of participants that they could experience past-life imagery. It may also be that the sessions provided participants with an opportunity to explore their own experiences and hence to sensitize or reintroduce them to the potential value of such inner exploration. This study had a number of limitations that could perhaps be addressed in future research. First, we were unable to reliably induce past-life experiences. It would be helpful to know what variables actually contribute to the evocation of such experiences.

Buddhism’s doctrine may be applied in the diagnosis step which can be extended to enhance an understanding of the clients’ symptoms. Clients of Past Life Regression Therapy tend to believe that reincarnation is real, and they already assumed that their sickness come from unresolved issues in their past live. The presumption is deteriorating the past life stories and quality of treatments. Frankly, Buddha emphasized the wisdom and karma of past lives than past lives themselves. This concept should be emphasized to the clients before the hypnosis process. Secondly, the inaccuracy lies in the use of suggestive questions by therapists to ask the clients recall their past life’s stories. In the West, clients are not asked to meditate before hypnosis; therefore, the clients may not even get the unconscious level when they are recalling their past life memories. The Buddhist way of breathing concentration can directly help the clients to the unconscious memory recall process.

When the therapists ask the clients’ learning points, the clients will formulate their life improvement by their free wheel. The problems are when the clients do not detach their feeling from past life recalls. Buddhism’s teaching on good deeds is an important contribution to this process, where the clients will focus on their present live more than what already had happened. The fourth step is the follow through so that the clients would develop good karma so that its energy will be stronger than bad karma the clients had committed in their past.

There are more scientific evidences to reveal successful cases of past life regression therapy than to whether or not past lives really existed.

The experiment of past life regression shows that it is likely that negative perception of the world may have caused us the mysterious sickness and a series of bad lucks. Buddhism views that the wrong doing in the past may have caused certain sickness today; and this relationship can directly be described by the law of karma. Whether or not the past life stories are real or not, the past life karma is more real.

Most past life regression therapy cases reveal that the therapy could withdraw negative vibrations caused by both the recurring thoughts after the actions and the past life actions themselves. Since there are two layers of past life negative vibrations, multiple therapy sessions could be needed in some cases. Yet, bad past life karma cannot be alimented by the therapy.

By developing good thoughts and good actions, new good karma will be

162: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

building up. The new good karma is developed by the wisdom from past life lesions will directly off-set bad past life karma.

References Brian Weiss, Many Lives.(1988). Many Masters: The True Story of a Prominent Psychiatrist, His Young Patient, and the Past-Life Therapy That Changed Both Their Lives, 1988.

Carroll, Robert Todd (19 December 2013). “law of attraction”. The Skeptic’s Dictionary. Retrieved, 17 April 2014.

Costanza, R. et al. (2008).An Integrative Approach to Quality of Life Measurement, Research, and Policy”. S.A.P.I.EN.S. 1 (1) Freedman, T. B.,(1997) Past life and in-terlife reports of phobic people: Patterns and outcome. Journal of Regression Therapy.

Ian Stevenson.(1966). Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation, University of Virginia Press.

Parvesh Singla. The Manual of Life – Karma. Parvesh singla. Pp 5. Retrieved 4 June 2011.

Ryff, Carol D. (1 January 1989). “Happiness is everything, or is it?

Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being.”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57 (6): 1069–1081 Salman Akhtar, ed.(2013). Comprehensive dictionary of psychoanalysis.

London: Karnac Books. Retrieved, April 27, www.icc.co.th/dotnet/html/eng/corporate_overview.aspx

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 163

Book Review:

"What makes you not a Buddhist" Buddhi Ram Chaudhary Wat Thai Royal Monastery. International Buddhist Center, Thailand

Author: - Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse Publisher: - Timeless Studio Designer: - The Art book studio ISBN: - 978-81-89497-26-2 Paperback: - 130 Pages Printed and bound in India

Introduction The Buddhist philosophical book called ‘What makes you not a Buddhist’ written by Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse (1961) a world famous Bhutanese Buddhist meditation master head of Dzongsar Monastery and College, author of famous book like ‘Not four happiness’ and director of moral-movies, is one of the most readable book in these days and ages which is elucidating the four “truths” as in “seals” or hallmarks of Buddhist doctrine. This book was published by ‘The Art Book Studio’ publication in Kotla Mubarakpur, New Delhi, India in 2009 and reprinted in 2010, 2013.

As above mentioned, through this book an author is discussing the contemporary/traditional view of Buddhist philosophical thoughts called four Dharma seals “truths” with the contemporary language to clarify or

164: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

amplify common pragmatic-mistakes that people make while practicing Buddhist Philosophy. At the beginning of the book, venerable Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse, relating his personal story on a Trans-Atlantic-Flight, says thoughts occurred in his mind to write this valuable book for the sake of needy human being’s salvation of their mistakes while practicing the Buddhist philosophy.

After reading some famous master or monk and author’s works, many western as well as eastern both Buddhist and non-Buddhist come to the conclusion that Buddhism is a peaceful religion meditation and non-violence, it is “against the violent acts” etc, therefore, they dismay to offer non-vegetable foods to the monks. Whenever, they see Buddhist monks eating meat, they start to criticizing that monk should not eat meat etc because they are Buddhist monks. And others seem to perceive all the saffron or maroon robes wearer and peaceful smiley people are a Buddhists.

Fanatically or as a traditional Buddhist, we must be pride in such a reputation, particularly the non-violent aspects of Buddhism that we see not in other theological religions. Trough out the history thousands of human kinds had given their lives, husbands lost their wives, and wives lost husbands, parents lost their children and children lost their parents, brothers lost their sisters and sisters lost their brothers due to the religious violence that occurred in the pasts while establishing it. Even today, there are many non-violent acts going on due to extreme religious practices.

Venerable Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse says it’s a misunderstanding or misperception. If it is a right understanding or perception then what about the non-traditional-Buddhist people who do not eat meat naturally?

Are they Buddhist monks too? If a person could be validated him as a Buddhist due to his peaceful and nice smiley faces, what about the nonBuddhists who is peaceful and nice smiley faced person too? Are they Buddhists too?

Venerable Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse dismayed to agree to be concluded the definition of Buddhism merely in few words like peaceful, non-violent, meditation etc. Instead he pointed out that Buddhism inconceivably complex, deep and profound. Prince Siddhartha was renounced the whole worldly desires, sacrifices comforts and luxuries in the Palace life in order to find or discovered the ultimate truth. After six years attempt, distracting many blockades and barricades from the hungry ghosts, the king of evil one and others problems, he was enlightened (realized the

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 165

four noble natural born truths) at the city of Gaya under the Bodhi tree.

According to the original scriptures, it was very tough tasks; therefore, this religion cannot be explained with merely simple words like peaceful, nonviolent and mediation. Though atheistic, but Buddhism should be learnt with some practical theories to practice it.

To clarify the definition of real Buddhism, Venerable Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse discusses four “truths” or Dharma “seals.” They are; 1. All compounded things are impermanent 2. All emotions are pain 3. All things have no inherent existences 4. Nirvana beyond concepts Within the book

His first argument is “all compounded things are impermanent’’ therefore, if you cannot accept that all compounded or fabricated things are impermanent, if you believe that there are some essential substances or concepts that is permanent, then you are not a Buddhist.

1) On the first chapter entitling “Fabrication and Impermanence,” Venerable Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse explains what the Buddha found after long time of contemplation: that every phenomenon we perceive is the product of many things temporarily coming together to create to the illusion of independently existing phenomena. The illusion is dissipated when we penetrate to the truth; all that arises ultimately passes away, and that everything is in a state of continuous change. In this very morning planted mango seeds another few days would be grown.

“After a long time of contemplation, [the Buddha] came to the realization that all form, including our flesh and bones, and all our emotions and all our perceptions, are assembled they are the product of two or more things coming together. When any two components or more come together, a new phenomenon emerges nails and wood become a table; water and leaves become tea; fear, devotion, and a savior become God. This end product doesn’t have an existence independent of its parts. Believing it truly exists independently is the greatest deception. Meanwhile the parts have undergone a change. Just by meeting, their character has changed

166: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

and, together, they have become something else—they are “compounded.”

Venerable Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse argues that one becomes not Buddhist because he or she refuses to accept this worldly phenomenon.

He mentions that one may not be born in a Buddhist family or countries may not wear yellow colored robes, may eat meat, listen Eminem or Paris Hilton but if he accepts those entire worldly phenomenon are impermanent, conditioned to be changed and bring pains, could be regarded as a Buddhist. Most significantly, he mentions that even though, one never have heard the name Buddha (Enlightened one or all knowing one) but he or she accepts that all conditioned things as impermanent and changeable substances, he would be considered as a Buddhist. Since knowingly or unknowingly, they are following the core teaching of the Buddha.

2) In the second chapter “Emotion and Pain” venerable Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse explains what the Buddha uncovered concerning emotions and their relationship to suffering. All conditioned things or emotions are suffering because they cling to the concept or idea of self (I, me, and mine). The Buddha taught that all the conditioned things or emotions (in four Dharma seals) could be identified with the senses of self, whether those senses are positive or negative. The sense that we tend to grasp is called “Positive sense” and the sense that push away is called “Negative sense.” Whether we are tending to grasp the positive sense or pushing away the negative sense, w are trying to cling to the concept of “self” trying to “increase” or “protect” our self. Last but not least, we are attached to the senses of self that is why we faced to the cycle of birth and death to be suffered in every existences till distract all the attachment and tranquilities of self and approach the state of ultimate happiness (Nibbana). Venerable Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse writes; “Siddhartha was also trying to cut suffering at its root. [...] He explored suffering with an open mind, and through his tireless contemplation Siddhartha discovered that at the root, it is our emotions that lead to suffering. In fact they are suffering. One way or another, directly or indirectly, all emotions are born from selfishness in the sense that they involve clinging to the self. Moreover, he discovered that, as real as they may seem, emotions are not an inherent part of one’s being. [...] Emotions arise when particular causes and conditions come together, such as when you rush to think that someone is criticizing you, ignoring you, or depriving you of some gain. Then the corresponding emotions arise. The moment we accept those emotions, the moment we buy into them, we have lost aware-

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 167

ness and sanity. We are “worked up.” Thus Siddhartha found his solution awareness. If you seriously wish to eliminate suffering, you must generate awareness, tend to your emotions, and learn how to avoid getting worked up.”

The deeper analysis of the second seal reveals the roots of emotions as a suffering to be the nonexistent self. This sort of sense of seals developed at the first stages of our life where there we started to think “this is me, this body is mine etc” feelings, perceptions, consciousness, thoughts and actions all are mine. This attitude or acceptances then spread we do and experiences. Venerable Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse says; “All of these various emotions and their consequences come from misunderstanding, and this misunderstanding comes from one source, which is the root of all ignorance clinging to the self. We assume that each of us is a self, that there is an entity called “me.” The self is just another misunderstanding, however. We generally manufacture a notion of self, which feels like a solid entity. We are conditioned to view this notion as consistent and real. We think, I am this form, raising the hand. We think, I have form, this is my body. We think, Form is me, I am tall. We think, I dwell in this form, pointing at the chest. We do the same with feelings, perceptions, and actions. I have feelings, I am my perceptions... But Siddhartha realized that there is no independent entity that qualifies as the self to be found anywhere, whether inside or outside the body. Like the optical illusion of a fire ring, the self is illusory. It is a fallacy, fundamentally flawed and ultimately nonexistent. But just as we can get carried away by the fire ring, we all get carried away by thinking that we are the self. When we look at our own bodies, feelings, perceptions, actions, and consciousness, we see that these are different elements of what we think of as “me,” but if we were to examine them, we would find that “me” doesn’t dwell in any of them. Clinging to the fallacy of the self is a ridiculous act of ignorance; it perpetuates ignorance, and it leads us to all kinds of pain and disappointment. Everything we do in our lives depends on how we perceive our “selves,” so if this perception is based on misunderstandings, which it inevitably is, then this misunderstanding permeates everything we do, see, and experience. It is not a simple matter of a child misinterpreting light and movement; our whole existence is based on very flimsy premises.”

3) In the third chapter venerable Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse discusses “Everything is Emptiness” (Concept of emptiness developed by Bhadanta Nagarjuna) which could be seen various suttas in the scriptures

168: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

as 1) “all conditioned things are impermanent ‘non-self’ and ‘emptiness’ (sabbe sankhara aniccati), therefore, 2) “all phenomenon conditioned to suffering (sabbe dhamma anattati). The modern physics also agree with this phenomenon that “all components are flux.” Venerable Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse describes the way the prince Siddhartha was realized this phenomenon as such; “Although Siddhartha realized emptiness, emptiness was not manufactured by Siddhartha or anyone else. Emptiness is not the result of his revelation, nor was it developed as a theory to help people be happy. [...]

Emptiness doesn’t cancel out our daily experience. Siddhartha never said that something spectacular, better, purer, or more divine exists in place of what we perceive. He wasn’t an anarchist refuting the appearance or function of worldly existence, either. He didn’t say that there is no appearance of a rainbow or that there is no cup of tea. We can enjoy our experience, but just because we can experience something doesn’t mean that it truly exists. Siddhartha simply suggested that we examine our experience and consider that it could be just a temporary illusion, like a daydream.

Siddhartha completely understood that in the relative world you can make a cup of oolong tea and drink it; he would not say “There is no tea” or “Tea is emptiness.” If he were to say anything at all, it would be to suggest that the tea is not as it seems; for example, tea is shrivelled leaves in hot water. But some tea fanatics get carried away with the leaves and composing special mixes, creating names like Iron Dragon and selling small amounts for hundreds of dollars. To them it is not just a leaf in water. It was for this reason that some fifteen hundred years after Siddhartha taught, one of his dharma heirs, named Tilopa, said to his student Naropa, “It is not the appearance that binds you, it’s the attachment to the appearance that binds you.”

The classic Buddhist example used to illustrate emptiness is the snake and the rope. Let’s say there is a cowardly man named Jack who has a phobia about snakes. Jack walks into a dimly lit room, sees a snake coiled up in the corner, and panics. In fact he is looking at a striped Giorgio Armani tie, but in his terror he has misinterpreted what he sees to the point that he could even die of fright—death caused by a snake that does not truly exist. While he is under the impression that it is a snake, the pain and anxiety that he experiences is what Buddhists call “samsara,” which

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 169

is a kind of mental trap. Fortunately for Jack, his friend Jill walks into the room. Jill is calm and sane and knows that Jack thinks he sees a snake. She can switch on the light and explain that there is no snake, that it is actually a tie. When Jack is convinced that he is safe, this relief is none other than what Buddhists call “nirvana”—liberation and freedom. But Jack’s relief is based on a fallacy of harm being averted, even though there was no snake and there was nothing to cause his suffering in the first place.

It’s important to understand that by switching on the light and demonstrating that there is no snake; Jill is also saying that there is no absence of the snake. In other words, she cannot say, “The snake is gone now,” because the snake was never there. She didn’t make the snake disappear, just as Siddhartha didn’t make emptiness. This is why Siddhartha insisted that he could not sweep away the suffering of others by waving his hand. Nor could his own liberation be granted or shared piecemeal, like some sort of award. All he could do was explaining from his experience that there was no suffering in the first place, which is like switching on the light for us.”

4) In the fourth chapter venerable Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse explains the concept of ultimate bliss (Nibbana) “Nirvana is beyond the concepts.” In the scriptures, this final seal was not counted as three characteristics of existences which are particularly interesting facts. Namely 1) impermanence (Anicca), 2) suffering (Dukkha), 3) non-self or emptiness (Anatta), which was counted as the first three seals but number fourth seals could be understood trough the first and third seals. If all conditioned phenomenon are impermanent, empty and without any inherent existence, then truly we cannot label as tree, mountain, rocks, and river, this me and mine etc. all things are just forms, there are nothing ‘empty.’ In fact, there is nothing to be talked, named and described. This concept is very similar to modern quantum physics too. This emptiness, void processes and nonself are called ‘Nirvana’ because; it is beyond the human thoughts and explanations. But as concepts we understand, therefore we talk and discuss about this concepts.

These same concepts has been captured one of the well known teaching of the Buddha that the path, the vehicle is a temporary like a raft that carries us across a turbulent river. Once we have crossed over the river, we never carry this raft on our back. Instead, having served well, we toss to the enlightenment.

170: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Conclusion

Thus as, in this book venerable Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse has provided us with a drop of much needed Dharma drops. He says, once a person drinks this drops of Dharma and follow what the Buddha taught could be regarded as the Buddhist. He has helped us to understand our mistakes while practicing Buddhism and experience the core teaching of the Buddha too.

Reference What makes you not a Buddhist- by Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse- The Art

Book Studioâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; publication in Kotla Mubarakpur, New Delhi, India

in 2009 and reprinted in 2010, 2013.

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Journal of International Buddhist Studies : 171

Instruction for Author Submission Process

Electronic submission preferred via E-mail: brimcu@gmail.com or website: http://www.ojs.mcu.ac.th/index.php/JIBS/index Contact: Assistant Editor Phramaha Kriangsak Inthapanyo Phone: +66 861 050 229 Dr.Apissada Srikhruedong Phone: +66 989 926 558 Amonnat Faikure Phone: +66 895 020 067

Email: brimcu@gmail.com Phone: +66 35-248 072 Contact Address: Buddhist Research Institute, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 79 M.1, Phahon Yothin Rd., LamSai, Wang Noi, PhraNakhon Si Ayutthaya, 13170, Thailand • Telephone: 035-248072 Fax : 035-248073 • E-mail address: brimcu@gmail.com • Web site: http://www.ojs.mcu.ac.th/index.php/JIBS/index Publication Information:

Sponsor/Publisher: Buddhist Research Institute

Frequency of Issue: Twice per year (June and December)

Printing: Nitidhamma Press Website: http://bri.mcu.ac.th Review Process:

Type of Review: Blind Review

External Reviewers: 2-3

In-House reviewers: 2

Time to Review: 1-2 months

Reviewer’s Comments: Yes Manuscript Specification:

Manuscript Style: APA Style

Manuscript Length: Not more than 20 pages, approximately

3,500 words Manuscript Guidelines/Comments:

Aims and Scope: Journal of International Buddhist Studies is an international journal aiming to promote and distribute knowledge in the areas of Buddhist, Social Science and Humanities.

172: Journal of International Buddhist Studies

JIBS. Vol.7 No.2; December 2016

Type of contents: 1. Research Articles 2. Academic Articles 3. Review Articles 4. Miscellany

The article is subjected to be reviewed by two blind peer reviewers.

The length of the article should be within 20 pages. Author information should be provided on a separate.

Manuscript Submission Guidelines:

Manuscripts should be prepared as follow: All articles should be written in English language. Reference to local idioms, politics, etc. should be explained for understanding of readers 1. Author should prepare manuscripts in accordance with the guidelines of the publication manual of the APA Style.

2. Title page should include the full title, primary authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s name, institutional affiliation if available, contact address, telephone number, fax number, and the E-mail address for future correspondence.

3. Abstract of approximately 800 words, the text of the manuscript should be double-spaced. The author identification should not appear at anywhere in the manuscript other than on the title page.

4. Manuscript should be no longer than 20 double-spaced pages with Times New Roman 12. Including references and figures.

5. Make only left justify, refrain from right justification. Using uppercase for initial letter in each word for the title, use uppercase for the first initial word of the title.

6. Use nondiscriminatory language.

7. Include a letter stating that the manuscript is the authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s original work that has not been published elsewhere; neither under consideration for the publication elsewhere at the time it is submitted.

8. All manuscripts must be submitted electronically via our online submission site: http://www.ojs.mcu.ac.th/index.php/JIBS/index **********

Buddhist Research Instittute