What is a healing environment? Total Word Count: 4341
AD6603 Cultural Context PHILOSOPHY & CREATIVITY Assignment 1
Toby Kirkaldie s1408902 1|Page
What is a healing environment?
The Experience of Landscape Jay Appleton
Introduction ‘The Experience of Landscape’, first published by John Wiley and Sons in 1975, elucidates a theoretical approach to landscape aesthetics. The book integrates the hypothesis of ‘Habitat Theory’ and ‘Prospect Refuge Theory.’ This is based on analysis of research and literature and experience in the collaboration of art and science. Jay Appleton (1999-2015), a British Geographer and lecturer at the University of Hull, specialised in historic and transport geography. The notion, ‘see without being seen’ (Lorenz K. 1964) was first attributed to early human development in the savannah lands in Africa. Hunters had an extensive field of view across the grasslands as well as places to retreat from danger. Prospect Refuge Theory became influential in many areas, including landscape design, architecture and art history.
Chapter 3. Behaviour and Environment Appleton questions Dewey’s philosophy, which postulates the aesthetic satisfaction which people associate with their visible environment. The doctrine implies behavioural characteristics associated with a living creature and their environment can be genetically transmitted. Subsequently, aesthetic experience becomes directly associated with innate and learnt behaviour. Appleton explores certain habits of Chaffinches (Thorpe, 1996) and Lovebirds (Dilger, 1962) that have demonstrated, dual origin; behaviour from inborn and learnt characteristics. Furthermore, the regular habits of roe-deer (Batten, 1920) within their environment provides a geographical association that can only be explained in terms of inborn and learned behaviour. The relationship between animals and environment can be justified through the notion of ‘adaptation’. Habitat Theory is the ability for an environment to satisfy all our biological needs, postulating the relationship between human and the perceived environment. The aesthetic satisfaction experience in a landscape acts as a stimuli indicative of favourable environmental conditions. Appleton exploits the notion, ‘see without being seen’ suggesting aesthetic enjoyment of landscape is based on survival potential. Prospect Refuge Theory hypothesises that the ability to see; prospect, and the ability to hide; refuge, are both important in calculating a creature’s survival potential.
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What is a healing environment? Critical Analysis 1.
What is aesthetic satisfaction of an environment?
2.
To what extent are survival potential and aesthetics related?
3.
How does Prospect Refuge Theory influence landscape design?
4.
How does the perceived environment influence human behaviour?
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To what extent do humans see themselves as superior to the natural world?
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How does power and wealth dictate human behaviour?
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What is more apparent in today’s environment, learnt behaviour or inborn behaviour?
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Are humans more conscious or more advanced?
Aesthetics is directly concerned with beauty or the appreciation of beauty; therefore, integrates the visual appeal of a landscape rather than the opportunities to ‘prospect’ and ‘refuge’. However, the aesthetic satisfaction of an environment is evocative; inducing an emotive response that goes beyond the visual appeal. Prospect Refuge is most apparent in the natural world, where the opportunity for humans or animals to see and hide are crucial to survival. The response associated with a ‘dual-purpose’ environment integrates feelings of pleasure and desire contributing to aesthetic satisfaction. Similarly, today, people favour environments with natural or artificial surveillance; seating with outward views that cannot be accessed from behind, shelter from trees or shrubs, and expansive views of their surroundings. Although, the aesthetic satisfaction is associated more with emotive response rather than the dramatic perception of, ‘survival potential.’ Appleton suggests animals have a combination of inborn and learnt behavioural characteristics in conjunction with the perceived environment. Likewise, humans have integrated themselves into an environment and adapted it to their lifestyle. The way humans behave is innate but what induces a behavioural response is learnt through the perceived environment. Subsequently, humans have not evolved to the environment but instead have adapted and extended the environment to provide for their ‘wants’ and ‘needs’. This elucidates human control and influence on the environment; a superiority not exploited by any other animal in the world. Power, synonymous with wealth, provides a grounding for innate and learnt human behaviour. The stimulus associated with power or wealth is the result of learnt behaviour and the emotive response to the stimulus is innate; instigating behaviour associated with ownership and desire. Consequently, exposing the influence of learnt behaviour on inborn response. As an example, deforestation of the Amazon Rainforest exploits human superiority over nature. However, today, deforestation has strict guidelines and policies to prevent large-scale damage and to preserve the abundance of biodiversity. This exposes the inborn behaviour associated with the individual human conscience and learnt behaviour associated with advancement in knowledge. 3|Page
What is a healing environment?
Research Paper What is a healing environment?
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What is a healing environment?
Contents
Abstract…………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………….Page 6 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………….…Page 6 Method……….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………Page 6 Medical Geography………………………………………………………………………………………………………....…..Page 7-8 Environmental Psychology……………………………………………………………………………………………......Page 9-11 The Therapeutic Landscape………………………………………………………………………………………………Page 11-13 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………..............Page 14 Future Research…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….….Page 15 References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Page 16-17 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...........Page 18
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What is a healing environment?
Abstract This research paper explores the therapeutic potential of an environment in relation to physical, mental and social wellbeing. The notion of healing, dependent on place and process, is examined and documented in conjunction with human psyche. This research paper is divided into three disciplines. Medical Geography examines the cultural influence of the developing world, integrating concepts of landscape, identity and wellbeing. Environmental Psychology hypothesises the doctrine for human’s innate connection with the natural world influencing behaviour and personality. The Therapeutic Landscape discusses the integration of nature-based therapy and the multifunctionality of gardens in the concept of salubrious design.
Introduction “Nature represents a world of which we are a part, yet it is distinct from the one we inhabit daily, where everything is under human control” (Pg.116, Lewis C.A. 1996). Charles A Lewis exploits the juxtaposition between the natural world and human empowerment. Subsequently, the attitudes towards nature are redefined by the changing, cultural and social patterns. The reintegration of nature in the built and socio-cultural environment has led to the adaptation of its function and design (Lewis C.A. 1996). This research paper explores the healing potential of an environment to process physical, social and mental wellbeing. Humans biophilic attachment to nature provides a grounding for what constitutes a healing environment.
Method In this research paper, the methodology consisted of document analysis, including; books, journal articles, research papers, scientific investigation results and websites. The rationale for the methodology focused on the disciplines associated with a healing environment, including; medical geography, environmental psychology, landscape architecture, medicine and horticultural therapy. This provided a grounding to acknowledge the relationship between humans and the environment; and the ‘dual-healing’ potential associated with the interaction.
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What is a healing environment?
Medical Geography Medical Geography integrates concepts and methodologies associated within the discipline of geography to examine health related topics. It is a multithreaded, holistic approach incorporating cultural and environmental interactions essential to elucidate disease ethicology, health promotion and health service provision (Meade M.S. and Emch M. 2010). As the world’s population becomes urbanised the social dimensions of health have become a central concern and medical concerns have become increasingly insufficient in the emerging geography of health and healing. (Meade M.S and Emch M. 2010, Kearns R.A. and Gesler W. 1998) Consequently, the discipline Medical Geography has become reformed into Health Geography or Geography of Health. This provides the opportunity for medical geographers to progress beyond the pragmatic perception and integrate the theoretical influences. Therefore, the discipline will surpass illness and medical interactions and integrate the doctrine of health associated with place (Kearns R.A. and Gesler W. 1998). Place can achieve positive or negative reputation based on its fulfilment of human needs. Positive reputation is the development of integrated concepts that a place can satisfy one’s needs. It is the perception of reputation of a place that influences human behaviour; physically, mentally and spiritually. (Gesler W. 1998). Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO). The well-known definition elucidates the parallel notion of health and place, thus providing the opportunity for engagement with human experience. Cultural Geography, a dimension of Medical Geography, incorporates health and place into; landscape, identity and wellbeing. A landscape integrates the inclusive and exclusive aspects of a view or perception, just as a landscape absent of unhealthy elements can provide health benefits. Cultural landscapes encompass humans personal and mental construction of a place in conjunction with a society. Identity, associated with personal and collective self-perceptions, has formulated narrative for health places; integrating; groups, views and beliefs (Kearns R.A. and Gesler W. 1998). The affiliation between cultural landscape and identity of place, encourages physical, social and mental wellbeing. Consequently, health has become imbedded into the discipline of Cultural Geography, inspiring the doctrine of ‘therapeutic landscapes’ (Gesler W. 2003). Therapeutic environments have been categorised to healthcare facilities as it was recognised that providing fresh air, natural views, adequate lighting and hygienic amenities were aids to the healing process (Nightingale F. 1863). Therefore, healing is multidimensional incorporating the physical or biological, mental, spiritual, emotional and social processes and their intertwining threads. The word heal derives from the Old English word haelon, which means wholeness, interlinking the process of 7|Page
What is a healing environment? healing with the ‘mind, body and soul’ (Gesler W. 2003). Subsequently, the healing process is categorised as being dependent on the human psyche. Humanistic health is the process of healing that integrates personal interaction enhancing individual dignity and autonomy. Humanistic practitioners focus on the patient’s perspective; encouraging personal freedom and decision making to achieve a feeling of ‘rootedness’ to place. Consequently, a sense of identity, security and belonging is attached to an environment; the catalyst for healing (Pred A. 1983; Gesler W. 2003). ‘Baths reputation as a healing landscape’ (Gesler W. 1998) integrates the four healing environments; natural, built symbolic and social (Kearns R.A. and Gesler W. 1998). Bath achieved its healing reputation through an historic accumulation of spirit associated with the healing potential of its mineral springs. Specifically, the notion of the symbolic cultural landscape is delineated through Bath’s natural landscape, thermal waters and Georgian architecture. Bath’s growing reputation for healthiness stemmed from Celtic, through Roman, Norman, medieval and early modern times to the eighteenth century considered the ‘Golden Age’ of the city (Gesler W. 1998). The tranquillity associated with certain natural landscapes has a soothing, restorative and healing sense that goes beyond aesthetic preference (Frumkin H. 2001). Bath lies in a basin encircled by steep limestone cliffs and the gentle meandering of the River Avon. The potential views associated with the rugged topography of the Cotswolds provides an idyllic natural setting supporting the myths connected to the city’s healing reputation (Gesler W. 1998). Water is considered the most therapeutic natural element because it has the potential to cleanse the body and soul (Parker G.A. 1983; Gesler W. 2003). In conjunction with mythology, Bath’s mineral springs elucidate the doctrine of ‘wholeness,’ as the healing capacity of the thermal waters were considered sacred to the creation of life. The hot springs, enriched with minerals, provided mental and physical therapeutic benefits: a cure for ailments and the purification of human psyche (Gesler W. 1998). The built environment conveys symbolic meaning and integrates the notion of a symbolic landscape. (Gesler W. 2003) John Wood’s dream of a ‘New Rome’ shaped Georgian Bath, with an architectural style that influenced personality and social behaviour. Wood developed a set of symbols that God used to indicate perfect harmony. The buildings displayed design or forms, squares, circles and the abstract human body. This symbolised order and interpreted, through Renaissance, views of the, world, health and wholeness (Gesler W. 1998).
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What is a healing environment?
Environmental Psychology The Natural Environment and Human Evolution Humans and the environment are related in a reciprocal, dynamic way. Environmental Psychology is the interaction between humans and the built and natural environment. It delineates how the environment influences behaviour and provides the opportunity to preserve human wellbeing and quality of life. The discipline elucidates the impact of human behaviour on the environment, encouraging nature conservation and protection of biodiversity (Steg L., Van Den Berg A.E., De Groot J.I. (2013). Nature derives from the Latin word ‘natura,’ a doctrine associated with essential qualities and innate disposition. Nature most commonly refers to the natural environment; the phenomena of the physical elements; a material world juxtaposing the built environment (Harper D. 2001). However, the notion of nature is broad and inclusive therefore connotes many settings. The natural environment is not limited to secluded picturesque landscapes but includes parks and open spaces, meadows and abandoned fields, street trees and backyard gardens. Thus, nature refers to element and place humans have experienced midst abiotic and biotic factors (Kaplan R. and Kaplan S. 1989). For the great majority of human existence, human biology has been embedded within the natural environment. In 1984, Edward O Wilson, American Biologist, introduced the Biophilia Hypothesis suggesting humans possess an innate tendency to seek connections with nature (Frumkin H. 2001). The assertions connected with the hypothesis integrates; inherent, human-nature connection; perception of human evolution, individual competitive advantage, achievement of personal fulfilment, and human ethic of care and conservation. Subsequently, Biophilia provides the doctrine that cohesion with nature will encourage positive human behaviour (Kellert S.R. and Wilson E.O. 1993). Appleton further develops the theory of innate behaviour through the notion, ‘see without being seen’ (Lorenz K. 1964; Appleton J. 1996). The concept of ‘shelter seeking’ delineates the tendency to seek out optimum environmental conditions and avoid potential harmful ones (Scott F. 1958; Appleton J. 1996). Habitat Theory is the “ability for a place to satisfy all our biological needs,” suggesting the aesthetic satisfaction experienced within a landscape acts as sign stimuli indicative of environmental conditions favourable to survival. Prospect Refuge Theory expands on the notion of visceral reaction, specifying that the ability to see; prospect, and the ability to hide; refuge, are essential in calculating an individual’s survival potential. Consequently, the capacity for an 9|Page
What is a healing environment? environment to achieve both prospect and refuge fortifies the sense of place and aesthetic satisfaction (Appleton J. 1996). The characteristics associated with the Savannah have proven to be the most favourable environment for survival. The idyllic prospect of scattered trees with canopies for shelter, understory of grasses and shrubs and uninterrupted distant views provide optimum conditions for safety and surveillance (Lewis C.A. 1996).
The Restorative Environment Wilson and Appleton postulate humans intuitive bond with life and lifelike processes, however, the theories do not consider the health benefits associated with the natural environment. In 1865, Frederick Law Olmsted believed, “Viewing nature could produce stress recovery from mental fatigue, stemming from work situations involving prolonged, directed, effortful attention” (Pg.110, Kellert S.R. and Wilson E.O. 1993). Whether passive or interactive, the restorative potential associated with the natural world has four domains; animals, plants, landscape and wilderness (Frumkin H. 2001). In 1985, Environmental Psychologists, Rachel and Stephen Kaplan introduced the Attention Restoration Theory, suggesting interaction with natural elements can provide mental recovery (Kaplan R. and Kaplan S. 1989). The notion elucidates the concept that therapeutic benefits associated with nature are due to the restorative influence of verdure on cognitive functions. Humans have two types of attention; directed and spontaneous. Directed attention integrates higher cognitive functions, associated with working and living in the built environment. The attention has a limited capacity therefore rapidly deteriorates leading to stress, an incurable symptom of mental fatigue. On the other hand, spontaneous attention or ‘soft fascination’, integrates low cognitive functions that are unconscious and involuntary. Nature contains fascinating elements that attract this spontaneous attention reducing mental fatigue associated with stress related environments (Stigsdotter, U.A. and Grahn P. 2002). The concept of soft fascination is further developed through the four qualities that aid in decoding a landscape; coherence, legibility, complexity and mystery (Lewis C.A. 1996). The potential for the natural environment to influence human behaviour and provide therapeutic benefits has been researched and scientifically proven (Frumkin H. 2001). In 1984, Healthcare Research Designer, Roger S Ulrich, studied the restorative effect of natural views in the investigation, ‘View through a window may influence recovery from surgery.’ The study examined pain and antianxiety medication use in the recovery of gall bladder surgical patients who had undergone cholecystectomy. The two variables were the passive view of; a small stand of deciduous trees and a 10 | P a g e
What is a healing environment? brown brick wall. In general, patients with the tree view had shorter postoperative hospital stay, fewer negative evaluative comments from nurses and took fewer moderate and strong analgesic doses (Ulrich R.S. 1984). The investigation became a catalyst for multidisciplinary research and led to the Theory of Supportive Design, conceptualising the ways in which the healthcare physical-social environment affects patient’s wellbeing, including the reduction of stress (Andrade C.A. and Devlin A.S. 2014).
The Therapeutic Landscape Ecotherapy The doctrine of ‘optimal experience’ hypothesises that a state of consciousness referred to as ‘flow’ makes an experience generally satisfying. During flow, people typically experience deep enjoyment, creativity, and a total involvement with life (Csikszentmihalyi M. 2009). Passive and interactive exposure to the natural environment encourages the notion of optimal experience. Plants and people share the ‘flow’ of life; they both evolve and change, respond to nurture and climate, and live and die (Lewis C.A. 1996). The most intimate person-plant relationship occurs in gardening, where humans physically participate in maintaining the natural elements. Therefore, the process of gardening is an intertwining thread connecting humans with nature. The active and passive experience associated with gardening provides the opportunity for physiological and psychological healing in conjunction with independent control and self-esteem. The therapeutic benefits associated with gardening encourages development of community schemes in neighbourhoods. The sense of community spirit promotes physical, mental and social wellbeing though personal and public transformations (Lewis C.A. 1996). Community gardening and Urban and Community Forestry schemes can ‘heal, transform and encourage sharing’ essential to health and wellbeing (Gutowski R. 1994; Lewis C.A. 1996). Ecotherapy is a holistic approach for nature-based methods of physical, mental and social healing (Buzzell L. and Chalquist C. 2009; Lewis C.A. 1996). Horticultural Therapy is concerned with 11 | P a g e
What is a healing environment? people-plant interdependency in a much more intimate way, examining every aspect of the gardening process to determine its therapeutic potential. The role of Horticultural Therapists is to promote the wellbeing of individual patients through specific techniques, and plants become byproducts of the healing process (Lewis C.A. 1996). ‘The Glass Garden’ at the Rusk Institute at New York University Medical Centre assimilates therapeutic programs to meet the specific needs of each patient. Horticultural techniques encourage patients to care for and nurture the plants, restoring personal achievement and autonomy. The plants provide a distraction from the problems associated with reality, and encourages self-worth through human-plant interaction (Yi S.L. 1985). Wilderness Therapy or Wilderness Rapture (Cumes D. 1998; Frumkin H. 2001) is a form of Ecotherapy, encouraging interactive exposure to a woodland setting; an archetypical representation of the natural world. Wilderness restoration programmes were originally developed for psychiatric patients, particularly emotionally disturbed children and adolescents who suffered from low selfesteem (Frumkin H. 2001). The natural surroundings provided an opportunity for patients to discover their untapped potential. Living in the wilderness heightens the complex awareness of spiritual meaning, defines sense of belonging and place; and develops the acute senses for nature within the built environment (Kaplan R. and Talbot J.F. 1983; Lewis C.A. 1996). Shinrin Yoku is a term meaning, ‘forest bathing’ developed in the 1980’s as a form of preventive healthcare and healing in Japanese medicine. Forest bathing encourages active exposure to natural woodlands, improving physiological and psychological wellbeing for everyone (Morita E. 2007).
The Salutogenic Landscape The International Academy for Health and Design is a multidisciplinary foundation developing research on the interaction between culture, design and health (Stigsdotter U.A. and Grahn P. 2002). Psychosocially Supportive Design, as a theory and a model, presents a possible paradigm for health and wellbeing through the concept of naturalistic design. The doctrine guides healthcare designers and planners to consider how the physical environment impacts lifestyle to improve health. Aaron Antonovsky postulates the notion of salutogenesis as a basis for health promotion encouraging psychosocially supportive design as a context for healthy lifestyle and positive distractions. The basic function of psychosocially supportive design is to initiate the mental process in attracting one’s attention; eliminating or reducing anxiety. Salutogenesis explores the source of stress and introduces wellness factors that strengthen health processes (Dilani A. 2001).
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What is a healing environment? A garden is organic and growing; the perpetual quality creates a state of ‘flow’ designed to give the visitor fundamental feelings of security, hope and life (Stigsdotter U.A. and Grahn P. 2002). ‘Healing garden’ denotes a place, a process and their intertwining (Cooper-Marcus C. and Hartig T. 2006). The concept is ancient and modern; the Persian garden, the Japanese Zen garden and the Monastic Cloister garden integrate the doctrine of salutogenesis. The labyrinth is considered the oldest restorative environment with roots in Greek and Egyptian Mythology, symbolising ‘wholeness’ and ‘rebirth’ (Cooper-Marcus C. and Barnes M. 1999). Today, healing gardens are moulded through the collaborative disciplines of environmental psychology, landscape architecture, medicine and horticultural therapy (Stigsdotter U.A. and Grahn P. 2002). Salutogenesis encourages holistic design integrating passive and interactive exposure, ensuring therapeutic potential for all. In a healthcare environment, a healing garden should provide relief from physical symptoms, illness or trauma; stress reduction and increased levels of comfort for individuals dealing with emotionally or physically tiring experiences; and an improvement in the overall sense of wellbeing (Cooper-Marcus and Barnes M. 1999). In 2002, Ulrika A. Stigsdotter, professor in Landscape Architect, and Patrick Grahn, professor in Behavioural Science, summarised and arranged the theories of the healing potential in gardens, into; The Healing Garden School, The Horticultural Therapy School and The Cognitive School. The schools hypothesise humans’ innate connection with the physical world and the salubrious benefits associated with nature-based therapy. Therefore, healing gardens deal with the passive experience of the interior of a garden ‘room’ and the interactive experience of cultivation. In a healing garden, visitor and their surroundings becomes a fusion of nature and culture (Stigsdotter U.A. and Grahn P. 2002). A person’s experience of nature will depend on their mental power to absorb from the environment. Therefore, varying degrees of demand must be placed on the user. These include, directed inwards involvement, emotional participation, active participation and outgoing involvement (Grahn Model 1991; Stigsdotter U.A. and Grahn P. 2002).
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Discussion The disciplines of, Medical Geography and Health Geography view health as more than the absence of disease. The dramatic increase in globalisation is spreading and connecting, political, social and economic structure and behaviour, deleterious and advantageous to health and wellbeing. Subsequently, Cultural Geography conjoins medicine and health, postulating the doctrine of a therapeutic landscape. The discipline integrates the principles of landscape, identity and wellbeing in the therapeutic potential of a place (Meade M.S. and Emch M. 2010). Thus, Medical Geography quantifies the healing potential of the natural, built, social and symbolic environment (Kearns R.A. and Gesler W. 1998). Branched from Environmental Psychology, two notions of theory have explained the healing capacity of the natural environment; Human Evolution and Restorative Potential. The theory of Biophilia depicts humans innate bond with life and lifelike processes and the positive behavioural attributes associated with passive or interactive exposure (Kellert S.R. and Wilson E.O. 1993). Subsequently, Biophilia provides a grounding for humans’ visceral reactions and cognitive functions assimilated in nature (Appleton J.1996 and Kaplan R. and S. 1989). The investigation, ‘View through a window may influence recovery from surgery’ (Ulrich R.S. 1984) provides evidence to support the doctrine that the human-nature bond encourages physical, mental and social healing (Lewis C.A. 1996). The state consciousness of ‘flow’ is a catalyst for healing in the therapeutic landscape (Csikszentmihalyi M. 2009). Gardening is an independent or communal activity, integrating the intimate person-plant relationship. The healing and transformational qualities of gardening are central concepts of Ecotherapy (Lewis C.A. 1996). Ecotherapy is a multidisciplinary nature-based treatment integrating the concept of humanistic health and evolution. Psychosocially Supportive Design is a collaborative hypothesis encouraging the notion of salutogenesis (Dilani A. 2001). A healing garden, like all public spaces, should strive to be accessible and beneficial to all (Stigsdotter U.A. and Grahn P. 2002). Therefore, the healing garden provides a model for salutogenic design; the promotion of health and wellbeing (Dilani A. 2001). Health, is a state of complete, physical, mental and social wellbeing, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO). Healing is a multidimensional, independent notion connecting ‘place’ and ‘process’ in a state of equilibrium (Cooper-Marcus C. and Hartig T. 2006). Therefore, a healing environment is a place that assimilates the process of physical, mental and social wellbeing. The passive or interactive attachment to the natural world catalyses the healing process.
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Future Research Humans have arrived at a place where our childhood dependency on nature has been replaced by an anthropogenic superiority. Subsequently, our culture has made clear its attitude towards nature as a resource, exploiting the Earth as an ‘ergonomic vehicle’. This interpretation fails to grasp the reality that our species is one of a multitude of diverse lifeforms inhabiting the planet. Thus, humans are unable to comprehend and integrate the ‘experiment of living’ fundamental to identity and acceptance. However, acknowledging the doctrine of atavism, humans are beginning to see dissatisfaction in a world of anthropogenic domination. Biocentrism provides a grounding for the ethics associated with reintegrating the human-nature relationship (Lewis C.A. 1996). Lewis exploits the need for nature in the urban landscape, “Would it not make excellent sense to try and create micro-restorative environments in stressful spaces?” (Pg.120, Lewis C.A. 1996). The international journal, ‘Urban Forestry & Urban Greening’ integrates tree dominated and green resources in and around urban areas. Consequently, this has led to the development of ‘metro nature’ which includes; street trees, parks, gardens and natural settings that enhance quality of life in cities and town. The integration of metro nature in built systems is a highly developed green infrastructure system creating more sustainable environments. The website, ‘Green Cities: Good Health,’ provides a scientific and theoretical grounding for the physical, social and mental wellbeing benefits associated with ‘liveable cities.’ Introduced by USDA Forest Service in 2006, i-Tree provides a basis for future research. The analytical software tool quantifies the structure of community forests and the health benefits associated with urban greening and urban forestry. (Flora K., Rozance M.A., Riffe M. 2010). This research paper explores the healing capacity of an environment; however, does not distinguish between the health of humans and health of the environment. The integration of metro nature provides environmental benefits, such as, improved air and water quality, energy savings and reduced urban heat island effect (Flora K., Rozance M.A., Riffe M. 2010). Subsequently, biocentrism provides the opportunity for ‘dual healing’; the capacity for the environment to heal humans and itself.
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References Medical Geography 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Gesler W. (2003), Healing Places, Rowman and Littlefield’s Publishers Inc. Kearns R.A. and Gesler W.M. (1998), Putting Health in Place: Landscape, Identity and Wellbeing, Syracuse University Press. Meade M.S. (2010), Medical Geography, The Guildford Press. Nightingale F. (1863), Notes on Hospitals, Savill and Edwards Printers. WHO Definition of Health (1948), World Health Organisation, [http://www.who.int/about/definition/en/print.html].
Environmental Psychology 1.
Andrade C.A. and Devlin A.S. (2014) Stress reduction in the hospital room: Applying Ulrich’s theory of supportive design, Journal of Environmental Psychology [41(125-134)]. 2. Appleton J. (1996), The Experience of Landscape, Wiley (John Wiley and Sons) Press. 3. Frumkin H. (2001), Beyond Toxicity, Human Health and Natural Environment, American Journal of Preventative Medicine (20)3. 4. Harper D. (2001), Natura, Online Etymology Dictionary, [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=nature]. 5. Kaplan R. and Kaplan S. (1989), The Experience of Nature, A Psychological Perspective, Cambridge University Press. 6. Kellert S.R. and Wilson E.O. (1993), The Biophilia Hypothesis, Island Press. 7. Lewis C.A. (1996), Green Nature, Human Nature, University of Illinois Press. 8. Steg L., Van Den Berg A.E., De Groot J.I. (2013), Environmental Psychology, An Introduction, British Psychological Science and Wiley (John Wiley and Sons) Press. 9. Stigsdotter U.A. and Grahn P. (2002), What makes a garden a healing garden? Journal of Therapeutic Horticulture [60-69]. 10. Ulrich R.S. (1984), View through a window may influence recovery from surgery, Science Journal [v224, P420(2)].
The Therapeutic Landscape 1. 2. 3. 4.
Buzzell L. and Chalquist C. (2009), Ecotherapy, Healing with nature in mind, Sierra Club Books. Cooper-Marcus C. and Barnes M. (1999), Healing Gardens, Therapeutic Benefits and Design Recommendations. Wiley (John Wiley and Sons) Press. Cooper-Marcus C. and Hartig T. (2006), Essay Healing Gardens, places for nature in healthcare, Lancet: Medicine and Creativity [368 (s36-37)]. Csikszentmihalyi M. (2009), Flow: Psychology of Optimal Experience, Harper Collins Press.
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What is a healing environment? 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Dilani A. (2001), Psychosocially Supportive Design, as a theory and model to promote health, International Academy for Design and Health. Lewis C.A. (1996), Green Nature, Human Nature, University of Illinois Press. Morita, E., S. Fukuda, J. Nagano, et al. (2007), Psychological Effects of Forest Environments on Healthy Adults: Shinrin-Yoku as a Possible Method of Stress Reduction, Public Health [121,1:54-63]. Stigsdotter U.A. and Grahn P. (2002), What makes a garden a healing garden? Journal of Therapeutic Horticulture [60-69]. Yi S.L. (1985), A Life Renewed, National Gardening [8(19-21)].
Discussion 1. 2.
Appleton J. (1996), The Experience of Landscape, Wiley (John Wiley and Sons) Press. Cooper-Marcus C. and Hartig T. (2006), Essay Healing Gardens, places for nature in healthcare, Lancet: Medicine and Creativity [368 (s36-37)]. 3. Csikszentmihalyi M. (2009), Flow: Psychology of Optimal Experience, Harper Collins Press. 4. Dilani A. (2001), Psychosocially Supportive Design, as a theory and model to promote health, International Academy for Design and Health. 5. Kearns R.A. and Gesler W.M. (1998), Putting Health in Place: Landscape, Identity and Wellbeing, Syracuse University Press. 6. Kellert S.R. and Wilson E.O. (1993), The Biophilia Hypothesis, Island Press. 7. Lewis C.A. (1996), Green Nature, Human Nature, University of Illinois Press. 8. Meade M.S. (2010), Medical Geography, The Guildford Press. 9. Stigsdotter U.A. and Grahn P. (2002), What makes a garden a healing garden? Journal of Therapeutic Horticulture [60-69]. 10. Ulrich R.S. (1984), View through a window may influence recovery from surgery, Science Journal [v224, P420(2)].
Future Research 1. 2.
Flora K., Rozance M.A., Riffe M. (2010), Urban Forestry/Urban Greening, Green Cities: Good Health. [Online] Available at: http://depts.washington.edu/hhwb/ [Accessed December 2016]. Lewis C.A. (1996), Green Nature, Human Nature, University of Illinois Press.
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Bibliography Books 1. 2.
Haller R.L. and Kramer C.L. (2006), Horticultural Therapy Methods, The Haworth Press. Hanna k. and Coussens C. (2001), Rebuilding the Unity of Health and the Environment, National Academic Press.
Journals 1. 2.
Barmelgy H. (2013), Healing Gardens’ Design, International Journal of Education and Research, 1(6). Evans G.W. (2003), The Built Environment and Mental Health, Journal of Urban Health, 80(4).
Research Papers 1. 2.
Jiang S. (2013), Therapeutic Landscapes and Healing Gardens: A review of Chinese literature in relation to the studies in western countries, Frontiers of Architectural Research. Shahrad A. (2012), What are the design principles of Healing Gardens for people who are suffering from stress-related diseases? Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences.
Websites 1. 2. 3. 4.
5.
Buzzell L. and Chalquist C. (2009), Ecotherapy, healing with nature in mind. [Online] Available at: http://www.ecotherapyheals.com/ [Accessed December 2016]. Dilani A. (2001), International Academy for Design and Health. [Online] Available at: http://www.designandhealth.com/about [Accessed December 2016]. Flora K., Rozance M.A., Riffe M. (2010), Urban Forestry/Urban Greening, Green Cities: Good Health. [Online] Available at: http://depts.washington.edu/hhwb/ [Accessed December 2016]. Furgeson M. (2012), Healing Gardens. [Online] Available at: http://www.extension.umn.edu/garden/landscaping/design/healinggardens.html [Accessed December 2016]. Marberry S.O. (2010), A Conversation with Roger Ulrich. [Online] Available at: http://www.healthcaredesignmagazine.com/architecture/conversation-roger-ulrich/ [Accessed December 2016].
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