Tales of Borneo_Architecture Degree Sem 5 Studio assignment

TALES OF BORNEO Semporna | Bajau Laut

Borneo, the third largest island in Southeast Asia.

Semporna, a town on the island of Borneo , in the Malaysian state of Sabah.

Bajau Laut, the sea gypsies living around the area of the Sulu Archi pelago. The second largest ethnic group in the Malaysian state of Sabah.

TALES OF BORNEO Findings on Semporna and Bajau Laut

CONTENT

PUBLISHER Mr Ashran Group Unit F_Batch of July 2020 Intergrated Architecture Design Project School of Architecture & Built Environment UCSI University 1, Jalan Puncak Menara Gading, UCSI Heights, 56000 Cheras, Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur

Introduction 1

EDITORS Yeap Huei Sze Liew En Yu Chiew Jing Yi Ong Wei Jun

03 Ways of Living 20

RESEARCH AND CONTENT Yeap Huei Sze Liew En Yu Chiew Jing Yi Loh Yi Ting Ong Wei Jun Melvin Lee Jia Yaw Hwong Yu Leong You Hin Lian Chan Xiao Hui Vivian Kuan Li Yoon Wong Kwok Keng

01 Semporna 4 02 The Bajau Laut 12

04 Culture 30

05 The Issues 54 06 The Threats 72 07 The Site 108 08 Summary 118 09 Images 126

Copyright 2020 All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any means whatsover without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotation in critical articles and review and certain non-commercial uses permitted by copyright law.

First Edition

Borneo 2

Reference 144

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INTRODUCTION

The Tales of Semporna, Borneo are the collection of short stories to illustrate the unique characteristics and spirits of the place, diverse customs and traditions, importance of history, political influence, social culture and environmental agendas to be discussed in the existing context and the possible future. The Bajau sea nomads lived entirely on traditional lepa-lepa boats roaming in the waters of the Coral-triangle between Phili ppine, Indonesia and Malaysia for over the past 1000 years. They survive on sea-based activities such as fishing, trade, and boat inhabitation. Bajau laut people possess a genetic trait to hold their breath underwater for a long time. Their body genetic has also adapted to sea lives making them natural divers as fishermen as their main source of income. The significance of mobility enables them to accommodate fishery-based cultures freely.

However, their nomadic lifestyle is constantly under threat. Owing to an increase fishing industrial, coastal pollution that affects their livehood, which force them to migrate on land. With the development of time, they went through a series of rapid transformation from maritime society slowly transform into off-shore society. The Bajau community has gradually assimilated into Sabah to be part of the Malaysian citizens by moving onshore to live in the small islands or the coastal fishing villages in Semporna for education, healthcare and other welfare of citizenshi p. Several government programs have been introduced to assist the Bajau community and help them connecting to the modern society.

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BORNEO

Borneo, island in the extreme southwestern part of the Pacific Ocean. It is the third largest island in the world, surpassed in size by only Greenland and New Guinea. Borneo is within Malaysia, the Northern region is divided into Sabah and Sarawak, with Brunei smack between the two, and Kalimantan in the East, below Indonesia. While the word ‘Borneo’ is sometimes used to describe both of these countries interchangeably, it is actually a misnomer as it was a title granted by the Netherlands during the colonial era and is no longer used officially.

Map of North Borneo (British Library, 1888)

Between the 15th to the 17th century Borneo was once under the rule of the Brunei Empire, after Malacca ‘s fall. By James Brooke in Sarawak and the North Borneo Company in Sabah the British gained control of the area. While, the Dutch had control of the South. The Japanese invaded Borneo during World War II and caused considerable suffering for the population. This eventually returned to colonial rule. Nevertheless, in 1963, when Sabah and Sarawak became part of Malaysia, Indonesia declared war and Borneo became the dispute base for the fight between Malaysia and Indonesia. This was later settled peacefully. There have been territorial disputes against Malaysia on parts of Borneo in the past, but these have been settled by International Courts in Malaysia ‘s favour.

SEMPORNA

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GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION

Semporna is located at the ti p of Semporna Peninsula around Lahad Datu Bay also known as Darvel Bay, and is visited by tourists as a base for scuba diving or snorkelling tri ps to Pulau Si padan Si padan Island, some 36 kilometres southeast of town. Beside Semporna is the celebes sea which included in the area of coral triangular.

Location of Semporna in Malaysian state of Sabah.

(Abstract from Map of Malaysian Parliament constituencies in Sabah, Sarawak and Labuan, derkommander0916, 2017)

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CORAL TRIANGLE

The Coral Triangle is a roughly triangular area of the tropical marine waters of Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Phili ppines, Solomon Islands and Timor-Leste that contain at least 500 species of reefbuilding corals in each ecoregion.

The Coral Triangle is recognized as the global centre of marine biodiversity and a global priority for conservation. It is also called the “Amazon of the seas”.

Area of Coral Triangular (Gray A. (13 Sep 2018). The ‘Coral Triangle’ is the largest of its kind, and it’s dying)

This area is home to a wide variety of fish and aquatic creatures. The tropical setting and warm clear waters permit it to harbor about 580 of the world’s 793 species of reef-building corals, and an impressive array of marine life, including whales and dolphins, sea turtles,manta rays, eagle rays, barracuda, marlin and other reef and pelagic species. this sea also yields other aquatic products like sea tang.

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Sea Gypsies Village (https://nextshark.com/borneo-sea-gypsies-photography/)

THE BAJAU LAUT

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ETHNOGRAPHY

In terms of ethnography, sea gypsy are divided into seven groups of people, they are Sama Bajau people, Moken, Orang Laut, Tanka people, Urak Lawoi and also the Jalia Kaibarta.[1] Sama Bajau peoples, a collective name for several ethnic groups in the Phili ppines, Sabah, eastern Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and parts of Sarawak. The name collectively refers to related people who usually call themselves the Sama or Samah (formally A’a Sama, “Sama people”);or are known by the exonym Bajau (also spelled Badjao, Bajaw, Badjau, Badjaw, Bajo or Bayao). [2] They usually live a seaborne lifestyle, and use small wooden sailing vessels such as the perahu (layag in Meranau), djenging (balutu), lepa, and vinta (pilang).

Moken, an Austronesian ethnic group who maintain a nomadic, sea-based culture that inhabit in Mergui Archi pelago, a group of approximately 800 islands claimed by both Burma and Thailand. [3]

Distribution of the sea Gypsies (Liew En Yu)

[1]https://en.wiki pedia.org/ wiki/Sea_Gypsies [2]Maglana, Matthew Constancio (12 December 2016).

“Understanding Identity and Diaspora: The Case of the Sama-Bajau of Maritime Southeast Asia”.

Jurnal Sejarah Citra Lekha. 1 (2): 71. doi:10.14710/jscl. v1i2.12089.

[3]“’The ocean is our universe’ Survival International”.

Survivalinternational. Retrieved January 8, 2017.

The Orang Laut are several seafaring ethnic groups and tribes living around Singapore, peninsular Malaysia and the Indonesian Riau Islands.

The Tanka are a sinicized ethnic group in Southern China who have traditionally lived on junks in coastal parts of Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Hainan, Shanghai, Zhejiang and along the Yangtze river, as well as Hong Kong, and Macau.

Urak Lawoi are Aboriginal Malay people residing on

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the islands of Phuket, Phi Phi, Jum, Lanta, Bulon and on Li pe and Adang, in the Adang Archi pelago, off the western coast of Thailand. They are known by various names, including Orak Lawoi’, Lawta, Chao Tha Le , Chao Nam , and Lawoi.

One such version widely told among the Sama-Bajau of Borneo claims that they descended from Johorean royal guards who were escorting a princess named Dayang Ayesha for marriage to a ruler in Sulu.

However, the Sultan of Brunei (allegedly Muhammad Shah of Brunei) also fell in love with the princess.

On the way to Sulu, they were attacked by Bruneians in the high seas. The princess was taken captive and married to the Sultan of Brunei instead. The escorts, having lost the princess, elected to settle in Borneo and Sulu rather than return to Johor. This legend is popular among Sabah Sama-Bajau as it legitimizes their claim to “Malay-ness” and strengthens their ties to Islam, which puts them in a favourable position in the Bumi putera laws of Malaysia (similar to the usage of the name “Bajau” instead of “Sama”). [6]

Jalia Kaibarta, an aboriginal Indian fishermen tribe converted into an endogamous caste by Sanskritisation.

[4]

THE MYTH The specific origin of the Bajau people is still unclear.

They share a common language and some genetic characteristics, such as dark skin. In life, they usually use the name of themselves or the tribe as the name.

Why the Bajau people lived on the sea has always been a mystery. Because of the long history and lack of records, the history of the Bajau people cannot be verified, but the legends about the Bajau people have been circulating.

However, there are other versions which are also more mythological and do not mention a princess. Among the Phili ppine Sama-Bajau, there is a myth that claims that the Sama-Bajau were driven to sea because of by a giant stingray. [7]

In fact, the Baja Sama language used by the Bajau people belongs to the Malay-Polynesian branch of the Phili ppines, which also confirms that the origin of the Bajau people is probably related to the Phili ppines.

However, there are traces showing that they migrated from the Riau Islands 300 years ago.

It is said that a long time ago, the princess of Johor, Malaysia was washed away in a flood. Her father was immersed in the grief of the bereaved daughter, so he sent the ministry out to sea to find and ordered them to find the princess before returning. Later, these people who were instructed to find the princess, because they could not find the princess, could only stay at the seaside, and these people became the ancestors of the Bajao nationality. [5]

[4]Tribes, India Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled (1969). Report.

Manager, Government of India Press. p. 122. Retrieved 14 January 2020.

[5]Horst Liebner (1996).

Four Oral Versions of a Story about the Origin of the Bajo People of Southern Selayar (PDF). Proyek Pengkajian dan Pengembangan Masyarakat Pantai, YIIS UNHAS. Wissenschaftlich-Literarischer Selbst- und Sonderverlach.

[6]Syamsul Huda M. Suhari (7 June 2013). “Bajo, past and present”. The Jakarta Post.

Archived from the original on 21 December 2014. Retrieved 21 December 2014.

[7]Rodney C. Jubilado; Hanafi Hussin & Maria Khristina Manueli (2011). “The SamaBajaus of Sulu-Sulawesi Seas: perspectives from linguistics and culture” (PDF). JATI - Journal of Southeast Asian Studies.

15 (1): 83–95. Archived from the original(PDF) on 19 December 2014.

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THE HISTORICAL RECORD

COSMOLOGY

The study believes that the history of these kingdoms involved in oral legends is too close to the contemporary era to explain the origin of the Bajau people.

Cosmology is a branch of metaphysics that deals with the origin, structure, and space-time relationshi ps of the universe.

Traditional Bajau cosmology is a combination of animism and Sunni Islam which reveals an intricate relationshi p with the sea, which for them is a diverse and a living being. There are spirits in currents and tides, in coral reefs and mangroves. Such reverence and knowledge could be used to conserve rather than destroy. According to Sopher in Widagdo thesis, the Bajau religion is a combination of animismshamanism, which directly implicate their behaviour toward the supernatural, sea ghost, good/lucky day and prohibition. [10]

ORIGIN OF THE INNER ISLANDS In 1965, anthropologist David E. Spher believed that the ancestors of the Bajau people and the Orang Laut who lived in the waters of the Lesser Islands (Orang laut) lived in the Riad Archi pelago. The way is fishing and hunting, they are constantly mixed with the South Islanders. Both still maintain this fishing and hunting lifestyle. Therefore, the Bajau people originated from the Inner Islands. [8] In 1968, another anthropologist Harry Arlo Nimmo objected to this statement. He believes that the Bajau people were born and raised locally, and have nothing to do with the Aurang Lauts in the waters of the Lesser Islands. The Bajau people’s lifestyle of using the sea as their home is not from the Aurang Lauts.

THE SULU ISLANDS In 1985, the anthropologist Alfred Kemp Pallasen proposed that the ancestors of the Bajau nationality did not live on water, but were farming people living on the Zamboanga Peninsula and the Sulu Islands.

Their way of life was slash-and-burn and fire-hunting.

The Sulu people came to the area in the 13th century.

Some of these people began a sea-based lifestyle in the 8th century. This way of life began to extend outward to Palawan, Sulu, Borneo and Sulawesi in the 10th century. The Bajau people came to Borneo in the 11th century. [9]

[8]Harry Nimmo (1972). The sea people of Sulu: a study of social change in the Phili ppines.

Chandler Pub. Co. ISBN 0-8102-0453-3.

[9]Tom Gunnar Hoogervorst (2012). “Ethnicity and aquatic lifestyles: exploring Southeast Asia’s past and present seascapes” (PDF).

Water History. 4 (3): 245–265. doi:10.1007/s12685-0120060-0.

[10]“Exploration into Sama Philosophy: OMBOH”. Limpah Tangan [BELIEVE]. 22 May 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2014.

WAYS OF LIVING

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THE LIVELIHOOD AND LIFESTYLE OF BAJAU PEOPLE

The Bayu family is made up of a thin-footed water house and a wooden boat.The traditional lepa lepa boat is known as the main houseboat for them, the boat not just a boat, but also a home for them. In addition to them, they have a wooden boat as a tool for survival and as a home for life, and every morning the Bayu people will row wooden boats to fish.

And starting from birth, growing up, working, eating and drinking, sleeping, having children, getting married until they die, their life is basically based on boats.

How the boat was being used: - The back of the boat is used for cooking - The middle part of the boat is for sleeping - Each houseboat can fit 5 family members Image showing the Bajau children playing in the sea (Ng Choo Kia, HotSpot Media)

The reason why they will stay remain in the houseboat is they think that staying on the houseboat will enables them to move freely and it is easier to earn a livelihood but if living in a house just stuck in one place and that was the reason some never considered living on land. And they prefer to stay in boats because they feel dizzy and even fail sick if they prolong their stay on the land. Normally they only go ashore to collect fresh water, woods, or to fix boats and sell their marine catch.

SPECIAL SURVIVING SKILL To survive, the Bayu people fish in the water for

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to catch the fishes. They normally eat what they catches and sometimes eats the seaweed that they farm. They will normally catch fish, shells, sea urchin(pehe-pehe), sea cucumber along the reef mainly for food and they will only sell their catch( dried fish, lobster and sea cucumber or sometimes pearls hell for export or interregional trade.

The Bajau laut people earn their incomes to sell their catch directly to a businessperson for RM5 to RM7 per kilogramme. Daily income can reach in between RM30 to RM50. They even exchange their fishes to get rice and other food. They way of telling the time is to just by observing the rise and fall of the Sun. [11]

60 percent of their time, and they can hold their breath for a few minutes, jump into the ocean tens of meters deep and get only a goggles and a match. They are very accustomed to underwater environments, can easily dive into 20 meters of water without wearing modern diving equi pment, can swim for a long time in one breath, until they find valuable seafood, and then from the water to find their heads out of the water.

Image showing the way Bajau Laut catch the seacreatures using spear gun (Cory Richards/National Geographic Image Collection/ Alamy Stock)Photo

Compared to the land people, the eyes of the Bayu people are not the same, their eyes are more adaptable to the underwater environment, underwater they can even see more clearly than on land. At the same time, they will poke their eardrums in order to ease the pain caused by the water pressure when diving.

THE INCOME Their fishing activities normally take five to six hours each day. They use their handmade spear

[11]Malaysia Haha Cat Malaysia Travel Review, The Bayu People, The nation that lives between heaven and hell, 2019-09-17

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LIFE OF BAJAU CHILDREN

Instead of learning about algebra or science, the Bajau children are given a net and taught to catch fish, octopus and lobsters off their unique handmade boats. The children reportedly spend so much time in the ocean that their eyes have adjusted to see more clearly underwater and much like sea sickness for those who live on land, they also experience ‘land sickness’ when they leave the water.

The children should be educated on topics like the environment and hygiene, and I personally do not encourage people to grow up there’ Much like sea sickness for those who live on land, the Bajau experience ‘land sickness’ when they leave the water. While most Bajau end up spending some time on land as they trade seafood to nearby islanders, some won’t set foot on land at all. The narrow canoes they use to navigate the ocean are called pirogues and they are fashioned from a single tree trunk. While their existence is controversial, the ‘sea gypsies’ appear to be happy and comfortable in their ocean home [11]

‘Every day the children get on their handmade pirogue, and equi pped with a net and lance, they go off on the search for food.’

Mr Choo Kai believes the children have little opportunity to move on from the ocean community as they aren’t taught about the world outside their reality.

Bajau children catching the octopus (Ng Choo Kia, HotSpot Media)

[11]Malaysia Haha Cat Malaysia Travel Review, The Bayu People, The nation that lives between heaven and hell, 2019-09-17

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IN THE HOUSEBOAT

They have to look at the sea and the direction of the house in the sea. The woman giving birth has to be placed in accordance with the tide of the sea. If the direction is bad, the woman will not give birth.

We have to look at the sea, and then the direction of the house to see if the woman would or would not be able to give birth.”

BEDAK SEJUK Bedak Sejuk which also known as the cold powder, it is a cooling powder made of rice and pandan leaves. It is a type of sunscreen they made which the females use to protect their skin from the beating sun rays. Primarily unmarried women use it a lot, with the hope that their skin stay smooth. [13]

Environment of the house boat (Ray Lau)

Women applying bedak sejuk on her face Credit by ad+apex@ MeMoRaBiLia

Lifestyle in a houseboat including handling new born babies, i.e. to wet the new born babies’ feet into the sea water. By wetting the new born babies’ feet into the sea water, they are actually ‘inviting in’ the sea spirit into the new born babies.

Inside, there are daily necessities such as gasoline, clean water, gas, and even a baby’s cradle made of cloth tied to the low roof of the houseboat.

The houseboat does not have electricity. There are no televisions or clocks, which a modern household may consider as necessities. [12]

[12]Cynthia Chou, The Water World of the Orang Suku Laut in Southeast Asia, Regional and –National Studies of Southeast Asia Vol. 4, No. 2 (July) 2016 Bejak Sejuk

[13]Matthieu Palley, We Are What We Eat: Diving for Dinner With the Sea Gypsies, OCTOBER 29, 2014

CULTURE

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CULTURAL HERITAGE OF BAJAU LAUT Culture is what most people are proud of because it is what gives one a sense of belonging. It is often referred to as the totality of people’s ways of life.

Culture therefore, is what people learn within their environment to keep life going. It is what is done in conformity with the established rules and customs of a given society. Culture covers such aspect of life as agriculture, architecture, social life, religion, technology, art and craft.

Trade has always been important component of the Sama economy. Hand manufactures have also figured prominently in many village economies, with particular communities specializing in the production of boats, woven mats, pottery, metalwork, and other items.

Cultural and traditional shows during Regatta festivals (Chiew Jing Yi)

generally a tug of war, and a duck-catching contest.

The Regatta Lepa festival extend into the night with the Lepa beauty pageant, fireworks, cultural and traditional shows and games, fireworks and the famous igal-igal dance of the Bajau people. The word igal is a sort of corruption of the word ‘eagle’. The dance is so called because of the eagle-like, smooth movements that dancers make. A ‘Lepa Car’ competition is also held in Semporna’s stadium. A competition is held to pick the most beautifully decorated lepa. The winner stands to take home cash prizes and other goodies including speed boats, boat parts, trophies and certificates. The winner is chosen based on their sambulayang (sails), ti pas-ti pas (triangular pennants), panji-panji (small rectangular flags) and traditional music and igal-igal dance performances.

Musicians and dancers aboard each lepa add to the vibrant atmosphere of this marine festival. [15]

REGATTA LEPA FESTIVAL The Regatta Lepa is an annual festival celebrated by the Bajau Laut. It is a local water festival which displays the interesting traditions and customs of the Bajau Laut tribe. It is also known as the Sea Gypsies, the festival celebrates the ethnic group’s unique nomadic way of life, whose connection with water is legendary.

The Regatta Lepa pays homage to the Bajau Laut’s houseboats, known as lepa. These traditional singlemast boats are built by skilled boat-makers around the small islands off the Semporna coast, and made with local hard timber. The festival is usually held on the end of April and celebrated for two or three days in Semporna, culminating in a weekend of cultural performances and ceremonies. [14] Each lepa represents a particular family or village.

Another feature of the festival is a race of small dugout boats called kelleh-kelleh. Besides these, there are

[14]https://www.si padan. com/Regatta-Lepa.php

[15]https://www.pulaumabul. com/regatta-lepa/

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climax, and the buwas kuning is surrounded by the family members, guests, and visitors who recite the Islamic hymns and dua (recitation of prayers) together.

MAG-OMBOH The mag-omboh is the annual rice ritual or also called as magpaii-bahau. In the ritual, seven bowls of buwas kuning offerings were presented. The ritual is divided into three rites: the preparation of the ritual offerings (magpatanak), rites of mag-omboh (amangan pai bahau), and ritual music and dance (mag-tagunggu’ and mag-igal).

The symbolic action takes place at the end of the recitative session. The eldest female member of the family pours some of the newly produced coconut oil onto the first pile of buwas kuning before it is offered to be consumed by the guests or by the sick members of the family. It is a marker of unification with the ancestors, and it is a time when the ancestors accept the offering of buwas kuning.

The preparation starts with unhusking and drying the new rice (paay bahaw) for buwas kuning. After the unhusking, drying takes place at night. The rice is placed in a spacious room and left for one or two nights to sleep. In this given time, the rice is called sleeping rice. The villagers informed that the ancestors and spirits join the sleeping rice.On the next day, the “sleeping� rice is divided into three piles, of which two piles are for buwas kuning. The third pile of rice is soaked in water, pounded, and cooked to make kuih panyam (sweet meals) and durul (sweet cakes). [16] On the final day, the ritual performances reach their

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION The preparation of buwas kuning means the engagement of women community members, which provides an opportunity for women to meet and share their life stories. It also means that the offerings have come from the family, not from individuals.

For the ancestors, the family is extremely important and that without the partici pation of women, the family is incomplete.Without their support in prayers, preparing buwas kuning and eating buwas kuning, the healing of the sick is difficult because they believe

[16] buwas kuning(Yellow Rice) Hanafi Hussin, 2019

The mag-paii-bahau ritual of Sama-Dilaut of Kampung Bangau-Bangau, Semporna, Sabah.

(Hanafi Hussin, 2019)

It shows that the female family members take charge of mixing turmeric powder with coconut milk, the main ingredient of buwas kuning (Hanafi Hussin, 2019)

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that collective prayers work more effectively than those of an individual.

that they hope for prosperity, security and protection, and their happiness.Using turmeric powder in buwas kuning. However, it gave a yellowish identity and prominence to the ritual ceremony. The color links and binds them with their ancestors whose good legacy they followed.Turmeric is a spice that gives flavor to food. It is also used as a preservative.If they did not prepare food offerings appropriately, they might suffer from bad reactions from their ancestors through spirit mediums.

The Sama-Bajau have fixed certain traditional roles that only women perform as keepers of the ritual traditions and practices,which are important to the communities. These roles in maintaining social order in the community ensure that the unique identity of the community can be maintained.

FOOD IDENTITY Buwas kuning is a ritualistic food. Its preparation and offering to the ancestors symbolizes or marks the end of the year (or season) in which they earned or harvested enough fish, which could go until the next offering in the pag-omboh ritual. Buwas kuning is meant to be shared with the dead and has been widely practiced across the world since time immemorial.

The share of the dead indirectly or latently creates fear among the villagers to continue to provide the share and stay connected with the ancestors for their own physical and mental wellbeing.

Buwas kuning is a manifest identity of the ritual. The villagers informed that the avowed purpose of giving a yellow color to the rice is to show their ancestors

Buwas kuning among the Bajau-Sama- Dilaut of Kampung Bangau-Bangau (Hanafi Hussin, 2019)

It includes rice cake on top of buwas kuning called kuih panyam (an oval shape) and Kuih sahalibulan (crown-like shape) made from the rice flour mixed with sugar.

(Hanafi Hussin, 2019)

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localized. For example, structure of the house is tied by rattans, walls are made by tree bark and bamboo stri ps, roof is made by neatly arranged thatched ni pah leaves, flooring is laid and carved from bamboos and nibong trees, and column from tangar and santing woods.

BAJAU LAUT TRADITIONAL HOUSE The Bajau Laut houses of this still exist and can be seen in several coastal areas and the islands of Sabah, especially in the villages. The division of the space design takes into account the function, size and design in the filling. The concepts and designs highlighted in this study are comprehensive and detailed studies related to the various aspects of their production.

In terms of space and part of the house, materials, equi pment, processevs, design influences that may be associated with the environment, climate, way of life, values and beliefs of Bajau Laut. Its formation takes into account the background of the tribe, the environment, the culture and the beliefs, the need for protection and security.

BAJAU LAUT HOUSEBOAT

In the context of the Bajau Laut community’s traditional house also exists through the process of mass circulation. The history of the Bajau Sea community has proven that at first they were housed on boats. On the sociological demands of the Bajau Laut community began building houses on water and home on land. In this study, researchers focus on the Bajau Laut tradition house only.

[17]Zaimie Sahibil, THE CONCEPT AND THE SPACE DESIGN OF BAJAU LAUTTRADITIONAL HOUSE, Borneo Research Journal, Special Issue 2019

The Traditional Bajau Houses and architecture is pure

Bajau Laut traditional houses on boats (Zaimie Sahibil, 2019)

A Bajau houseboat near their stilt house (http://www.etawau.com/ Geography/Sabah/5_ TawauDivision/Semporna/ LEPA/LEPABoat.htm)

Semporna was historically an area in which lowland hardwoods, ideal for boat construction, were relatively plentiful. In the past, trees were felled, mainly in the coastal lowlands, and, using high tides, the logs were floated to the sea by way of small rivers and estuarine streams. They were then towed to the village or boat mooring site where the feller worked them into boat sections and planks. Because of the availability of wood, not only the Bajau Laut, but also communities of shore-dwelling Sama, historically produced lepa and, indeed, other kinds of vessels for trade. Today, these lowland forests are gone, and wood, available through local sawmills, has become increasingly expensive, resulting in the appearance of new types of boats and the disappearance, during the last two decades, of the lepa. [17]

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In the early stages of many craftsmen among the wellknown Bajau Laut people made boats. Each component of the boat used by the Bajau Laut community has its function. The boat of Bajau Laut people can be divided into two categories namely the main boat and side boat (biral). There are three main types of boats, namely lepa, lansa, bayanan and tempel. Viral boats and gutters are used to catch fish on the shore

FUNCTION OF TEMPEL AND BAYANAN

GUBANG & BOGGO-BOGGO Side boat or bore used by the Bajau Laut community comprising gubang and boggo-boggo. Overall the design of space components is the same but only distinguished by the size and design of the boat as an example; the design of boggo-boggo has a special advantage as a boats mainly used as a vechicle and transportation. Bajau Laut usually use the boat to locate the fish,store and transport the corpse to the land. It is also a place to play for Bajau Laut children, if not used for fishing.Due to the passage of time, the boat is fitted with a water pump engine to facilitate movement

The boat of Bajau Laut, Boggo-boggo (https://www.ttrweekly.com/ site/2018/05/wing-air-fliesto-sabah/)

Tempel (https://www.mountkinabalu. com/packages/fun-boatsnorkeling-island-visit)

a) House boats is where to cook. b) Storage of fish catches. c) Place of family activity. d) Place of birth. e) Place for wedding. f) Place for rest, sleeping, eating and discussions. g) A place to mortuary case of death. h) A place to handle the newborn baby, the wet custom of the newborn baby foot into the sea water. This custom invites sea spirits to newborns. i) The place of making a horror(cold powder) by women of Bajau Laut society. j) Bath and wash with sea water. k) The low roof of the boathouse causes lower limbs, stunts and humps. The limited movement space resulted in the running style of the suspect. l) Place to hang baby cradle. m) The function of leprosy has changed according to the development stream, from a transport boat and fishing to the tourist icon

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by fishermen along the coast of Semporna. The unique lifestyle and festival is a cultural legacy inherited by many generations.

LEPA ‘Lepa’ is a Bajau language means a wooden boat used by the Bajau community mostly in Semporna, the Southern part of Sabah, Borneo Malaysia. The boat is made of solid wood called ‘Ubar Suluk’ and sometimes ‘Seraya Merah’, Lepa has been used as the main transportation since over a centuries ago by the Muslims travelers and traders.

Origin: LEPA For the Bajau people, Lepa boats are multi-utility. The boat serves as a fishing vessel and as a means of transportation. It is also utilized for wedding venues and cultural performances. The unique lifestyle and festival is a cultural legacy inherited by many generations.

The Lepa-Lepa is made out of ubar suluk (red seraya) wood found on the islands. No other wood can be used to make this boat.A typical Lepa boat usually measured around 5 meters long and 1.5 meters wide, it comes with a tall and sharp head on the front which called ‘tujjah’ and usually comes with two types of sail called ‘lamak bua’an’ (bigger sail) and ‘lamak kapi’ (smaller sail). Lepa boat also attached with a small house placed in the middle of the Lepa boat body, this small house comes with a palm leaf roof .

The Lepa-Lepa generally measures 25 feet in length and six feet wide. The distinctive design of Lepa-Lepa is shaped to mimic the figure of a fish.

This form lends the boat a smooth glide when it rolls with the waves. It has been said that there has been no Lepa-Lepa that has ever sank, crediting this innovative design.

Boat is believed to be originated from the Pa’alau Bajau people who live in Bum Bum Island and used

A decorated modern Lepa boat during Festival Regatta Lepa. (http://www.etawau.com/ Geography/Sabah/5_ TawauDivision/Semporna/ LEPA/LEPABoat.htm)

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RITUAL OF BOAT CONSTRUCTION One notable feature of the preceding account of boat building is that no ritual observances accompany the construction or launching of a lepa. However, the builder or owner, might sponsor a small meal, preceded by prayers, to mark the completion of a lepa and to thank those who had assisted him. But, such meals were not mandatory and, in practice, were seldom held. Some villagers are believed to possess spells capable of causing storms to abate at sea, but otherwise there is little magic associated with either navigation or fishing. However, boats may be treated with spells (haligmun) before the owner embarks on a long journey, to render them invisible to pirates or to make them impervious to bullets (panglias). In addition, if a boat crew experiences serious difficulty at sea, the boat owner may make a pledge (magjanji’) to God or the ancestors that, if they are delivered from danger, he will sponsor prayers and a feast of thanksgiving (called magmaulud or magbajanji) upon their return to the village (see Sather 1997 : 288-89). Similarly, family members at home may make a pledge if a crew fails to return when expected or is otherwise believed to be in danger.

In this tradition, there are two main rituals associated with boat construction, one performed in conjunction with the joining of the bow and stern posts to the keel, and the other, with the drilling of the boat’s « navel » (Stacey 1999 : 97-105). The latter is the more crucial ritual and is described by Stacey as the most important moment in a boat’s construction. Together, these two rituals liken the construction of a boat to the conception and birth of a human child (Stacey 1999 : 98). The first of these rituals —the joining of the keel to the bow and stern posts— is accompanied by offerings and prayers and ritually initiates the construction process by imparting, according to

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Stacey, a state of « coolness » to the vessel that is about to take form. The pieces are assembled with tenon joints, with the keel, in this case, representing the « female » part, and the stem and stern posts, the « male » parts. Their union symbolically represents sexual intercourse and the « conception » of the boat.

Following this, once the main structure of the boat has been completed, a major ceremony is held in which a « navel » is drilled into the keel. This is followed, immediately afterwards, by the launching of the boat. With the drilling of the navel, typically performed by a ritual expert, the boat is given « life » (nyawa) —which is believed to reside in the navel— and vitality or life-force, so that it is animated with volition and so may seek out wealth and protect its owner. Symbolically, by means of these rituals, the boat becomes the « child » of the owner and his wife, who are thereby charged with its care (Stacey 1999 : 102) BOAT CONSTRUCTION PROCESS Before beginning to construct a lepa, the builder must decide upon its length and other dimensions. These decisions are influenced by the availability of wood, particularly for the bow, stern, and keel sections. If wood must be purchased, they also depend on the amount of money that the builder is prepared to spend. In 1964-65, lepa varied greatly in length from 7 to 12 metres (the average was 8.5 metres) and from 1.5 to 1.9 metres beam. Beam is relatively constant, but length is notably variable. The lepa draft has an average of some 0.6 metre.

The basic tool kit used in boat construction consists of an adze (patuk) with a detachable steel blade that can be rotated for different cutting angles, a knife (bari’), a wooden mallet (palu), and a brace and bit. In addition, a handsaw may be used, particularly

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Shaping the keel section (teddas) of a lepa (https://journals. openedition.org/

for cutting planks, and a plane for leveling. Skate or shark skin is used as sandpaper. Fire is frequently employed to hollow and widen the keel section.

Construction begins by first shaping the keel section (teddas), which is fashioned from a single piece of wood (photo 1), and by joining it with the bow and stern sections. The latter are called tuja’ and tuja’ buli’, respectively, and consist of identical left and right sections. Once these have been joined to the keel, the builder and his assistants begin to construct the hull, joining first the left and right side strakes, or pangahapit (photo 2). The bow, stern, and strakes are then locked in place by a pair of long, carefully fitted side pieces, called the jungal, which run the entire length of the boat, ending forward in a projecting bowsprit and aft in a small stem projection (fig. 2). Next, sideboards are added, beginning with the bengkol. This is fitted above the strake and to the jungal on the side, to form the gunwale. The top edge of each board is marked at intervals and drilled with the brace and bit. Boards are made from planks

Assembling the hull of the lepa (1979, Semporna) (https://journals. openedition.org/)

and are carved to shape using an adze, and are then curved by bending and fitted edge to edge with wooden dowels (pasok) made usually of mangrove wood. A middle sideboard, the kapi kapi, is added above the bengkol. Again, these two boards are joined edge to edge with wooden dowels. Reversing Western methods of construction, the internal ribs are then fitted in place, after the main hull has been assembled.

Separating the bow and stern sections, fore and aft, from what will eventually be the living area of the lepa, a pair of large cross-beams called the sa’am are inserted and fitted into the upper sideboard, the koyang koyang, which is joined to the hull above the kapi kapi. These beams curve upward from what will be the deck of the finished boat and extend a short distance above the top of the freeboard on each side. Eventually, when the boat is fitted for use, the ends of the sa’am are drilled and fitted on each side with a rack-like branch called the panga’. From the panga’, along each side of the boat are hung fishspears, bamboo poles, and masts. Unlike the rest of

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the boat, the sa’am are carved from the wood of small gellom trees (Osbornia octadonata), which grow abundantly in the district along coralline shorelines and flats, just above the tidemark4, while the panga’ are cut from gellom branches. The upper ends of the sa’am are frequently ornamented with carved designs produced by a skilled carver using a knife and mallet (photo 3). Typically, the lower edge of the bowsprit is also ornamented and often, as well, the forward edge of the keel (fig. 2). The princi pal cross-beams that reinforce the hull are inserted next. These are called sengkol. A larger beam, through the center of which passes the mast, is inserted forward from the first sengkol. This is called the patarukan. The sengkol, which are inserted after the patarukan is in place, support the deck planks and their number depends upon the length of the lepa5. Finally, the freeboard is extended upward on each side of the boat by adding additional boards called dinding, or « walls », which, again, are secured, edge to edge, with wooden dowels.

The midsection of the lepa is floored with fitted but removable decking (lantai), which can be taken up for bailing or for stowing fish beneath the deck.

Cutting and fitting decking planks is one of the last stages in the building process. The midsection living and sleeping quarters is called the balutu or kubu and comprises roughly half of the overall length of a boat (see fig. 2). The bow (munda’) and stern (buli’) areas, by contrast, are low in the water and open-sided. This is to facilitate the handling of nets and the use of poles and oars.

The most durable parts of the lepa are the solid keel, bow, and stern sections. These generally last for the life of the boat. Other elements, such as the sapau roofing, require replacement every few years. During maximum ebb tides, lepa are careened and the hull is fire-treated with palm frond torches. When sideboards and other fitted sections are taken apart

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and reassembled, the joints are caulked or filled with the soft inner bark of the gellom tree. This bark has an oily texture that the villagers say is impervious to water. A supply of gellom bark is also carried aboard the lepa to patch leaks at sea.

Assembling the hull of the lepa (1979, Semporna) (https://journals. openedition.org/ tc/288?lang=en#tocfrom1n2)

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STRUCTURE OF LEPA BOAT

BAJAU POTTERY

1 Teddas (keel) 2 Pangahapit (strake) 3 Tuja’ (bow section with raised poling platform) 4 Jungal (side-pieces ending forward in a projecting bowsprit and aft in a small stern projection) 5 Tuja’ buli’ (stern section) 6 Bengkol (lower sideboard forming fitted gunwale) 7 Kapi kapi (middle sideboardside-piece) fore and aft) ) 8 Koyang koyang (upper sideboard) 9 Dinding (wall of living quarters) 10 Ajong ajong (forward side piece) 11) Jung’ar(The long prow and that extends beyond the tujah at the bow, and the small extension beyond the tujah at the stern.)

12 Sapau (roof) 13 Lamak (sail) 14 Lantai (deck planks) 15 Panansa’an (bow and stern deck) 16 Patarukan (forward cross-piece and mast support) 17 Sengkol (cross-pieces reinforcing hull and supporting deck planks)

Traditional pottery produced in Semporna is known as Bajau pottery. Many of the traditional potters started as a small family operations set up to produce traditional pottery laporan (clay stove) for personal domestic needs. Unglazed pot for domestic use are made today in some rural part of Sabah which is Pulau Selakan, Semporna. Furthermore, knowledge and skill of posting is rapidly being lost.

structure of Lepa boat

Pottery Technology Bukit Tengkorak pottery is formed using the hand molding and the paddleand-anvil techniques. The surfaces of some sherds have impressions of anvil or finger marks as well as carved-paddle and bound paddle marks or designs. :::xam ination of the clay particles, inclusions, and voids using the scanning electron microscope and petrographic thin-section analysis of the sherds shows very little sintering and a clay matrix parallel to the surface of the sherds, a pattern closely associated with making pottery using a wheel as well as the lump-andpaddle technique. The joining technique is evident in the lines of breakages of some sherds, particularly the stove fragments. Fifty sherds were radiographed using the Xerox Medical System 125 (run in positive mode at 55-60 KV, 5 rnA and 1 minute with a 130 centimeters focal distance); the results showed even forming pressure and homogeneous distribution of porosity which is evidence for forming and finishing using the lump-and-paddle technique (Vandiver and Chia 1996).

Bukit Tengkorak is one of the largest pottery making sites in Southeast Asia during the Neolithic period (about 3,000 years ago, between 4340 BC and 50 BC). Not only that, research also shows that people traveling between Borneo and New Britain in Melanesia (near Papua New Guinea), which was one of the longest trade routes (3,500 KM) in the world

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Forming and shaping process using handbuilt technique (http://eprints.usm. my/39252/1/ART_15.pdf)

Lapohan (http://www.findglocal. com/MY/SempornaFiring technique process (http://eprints.usm. my/39252/1/ART_15.pdf)

during that period. Archaeologists believe such longdistance sea trade and migration route left behind what is known as the Lapita culture of pottery, tools and ornaments. The old pottery manufacturing technology is still being used by the Bajau community in Semporna today.

PROCESS OF MAKING LAPOHAN Clay preparation. Clay will mix with local black sand (gosong) and sea water, The basic of any pottery form is preparation of clay. After mining, sifting out the impurities, and adding water, the clay is ready for wedging and mixing with local black sand (gosong).

It is essential to remove the air bubbles and achieve a uniform consistency before making a form. It does not require special equi pment but it is an acquired skill.

Forming and Shaping (Handbuilt).To make hand built pottery stove, the paddle and anvil method is

Wedging and mixing process (http://eprints.usm. my/39252/1/ART_15.pdf)

used. A potter sits cross-legged with a square, strawfilled cushion in his lap, which serves as a base to rotate and shape the clay. A wad of wet sticky clay is flattened with the palm of the hand. The walls of the pot are formed by beating the exterior with a wooden paddle while holding a baked clay anvil on the interior. During beating, the paddle is di pped in seawater to prevent it from sticking to the clay.

This process continues until the desired shape and thickness are achieved.

Leather hard. Not only can clay objects be made in a limitless variety of shape, their surfaces can also be mani pulated in many ways to alter the texture, color and overall appearance of the formed pieces.

A repetitive, geometric design is often impressed around the shoulder using a carved paddle.

Bone Dry. Product ready for firing, after it is thoroughly dried in the sun, the pot is fired covered with straw and woods. This method of making vessels is one of the oldest-known crafts. It began in the Neolithic period and continues today with very little change in technique.

THE ISSUES

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1980-1990 The project IC, it is claimed, “systematically” granted citizenshi p to tens of thousands of illegal immigrants from the Phili ppines and Indonesia for political purposes. The alleged goal was to increase the number of local Muslim voters by turning southern Fili pinos into voters. This has changed the population demographics of Sabah, where non-Muslims were previously the majority. Whether the Bajau Laut people can obtain identity documents is influenced by political realities.[18]

POLITICAL ISSUE AND THE STATELESS BAJAU 1970 Since the late sixties, the Mindanao civil war resulting the refugee to flood into Sabah, including Bajau Laut Sabah recorded a 390% increase in population from 1970 to 2010(“Population Growth”,2012). Many of the illegal immigrants from the Phili ppines and other countries have already been given Malaysian citizenshi p in Sabah. The population of illegal immigrants and foreign-workers originating from the Phili ppines and Indonesia “simply exceeds one-third of Sabah’s population” (Hassan, Idris, & Ahmad, 2010, p.94).

[18]Contestations over malaysian citizenship and premiliminary case for recognising the stateless bajau community (Sanen Marshall, Saidatul Nornis Hj. Mahali & Junaidah Januin Centre for the Promotion of Knowledge and Language Learning, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 2019)

2012 RCI formed to resolve the concerned about illegal immigrant but the report is inconclusive which leave the Sabah people feel that their state is full of unlawful citizen.[18]

There’s lots of temporary pass issue to the refugee like IMM13, Surat Burung-Burung and Census Certificate.

IMM13 have been stopped issueing since 1984 and the the children of the card holder can still renew their IMM13 under their parents. (The Star, 2010) IMM13 holders are allowed to stay in the state and receive other benefits, including medical services and access to education.[18](Noah Lee and Zam Yusa, 2020) On 2020,

2013 Feb 2013 Royal Sulu Army made an intrusion into a remote village on eastern coast of Sabah, Kampung Tanduo. Unlike previous pirate-type intrusions from the southern Phili ppines into Sabah, this one was clearly a political act. A group of southern Fili pinos operating under the auspices of a claimant to the throne of the historical Sulu Sultanate forcibly take

Ruote of Migration (Yeap Huei Sze)

Collage of the intrusion of Royal Sulu Army into Southern coast of Sabah (Yeap Heuei Sze)

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over a piece of land in the neighbouring Malaysian state of Sabah, over which that Sultanate had historically exercised the power of suzerainty and they refused to leave even in the face of certain death.[18] Current Some of the Bajau Laut are undocumented/ illegal immigration. Malaysian government today truly knows the countries of origin to which these illegal immigrants belong. However, if the Malaysian Federal government, imbued as it is with di plomatic and consular authority, needed a long time to convince the Phili ppines Government of the need to receive the deportation of their ‘citizens’ back ‘home’, it appears that some local Sabah community leaders are even less convinced that these undocumented persons are Fili pinos.

Certain village officials, however, in places like the traditional Bajau Laut village of Bangau Bangau seem to be following their own conscience with regards to whom they perceive to be legitimate residents. At the same time, minority elements within the non-Muslim indigenous segment of the Sabah electorate seem to have tentatively recognised the legitimate case of the Semporna Bajau Laut to reside in Sabah waters, if not to actually become citizens.[18] Professor Dr. Yahaya Ibrahim, the deputy head of the erstwhile National Professor’s Council’s Historical seems to be in no doubt. He says, “They are our citizens. Even though their race and ancestry are unknown, they have been living in our waters for a very long time. Why must we deny them their rights?” (Bernama, 2015, p. 14).

EDUCATION Unggun has been living in a traditional Bajau Laut houseboat on the waters off Semporna for most of his life, after fleeing from Tawi-Tawi at a young age.

Still living without electricity, he and his family seem to be excluded from many aspects of modern life – they do not, for instance, know about the regime change on May 9, and not even the time, nor their ages.Nonetheless, Unggun doesn’t see education as a way to improve his community’s livelihood. “I don’t think so,” he says, almost defiantly, when asked whether schools on houseboats would be of any help.

“Other Bajau Laut people may go to school, but we don’t.”Despite access to education being essential for the next generation of Bajau Laut to adapt to modern life, Unggun believes the only skill worth learning is fishing, knowledge of which he has passed down to his four sons.[19]

[19]Iskul Sama Dilaut Omadal, The Bajau Laut families left adrift and stateless the complexity of citizenshi p

SCHOOLING AT SEA Iskul Sama Dilaut Omadal, a community-based school on Omadal Island, has been providing basic education for stateless Bajau Laut children since 2015. Its princi pal, Roziah, estimates that there are about 500 people on the Island, including those living in stilt houses and on houseboats. Of the 35 students, aged seven to 12, only one is from a houseboat family – indicating that parents in the five or six nearby houseboats are reluctant to give their children a more formal education.”We Bajau Laut people are used to this (marine) life,” Unggun says. “Sometimes, they may not adapt to regular school life.”As Roziah says, “The houseboat Bajau Laut families may take their children to other places for fishing. If their parents are looking to make a living, I can’t stop them.”[19] She points out that even the solitary student from a houseboat family only attends school once or twice a month, despite her multi ple attempts at advising his

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parents.Facing a seemingly lost cause, Roziah’s job is made more difficult by the fact that the students learn about Malaysia, but are not even Malaysians.”We teach them Bahasa Malaysia, about the national flag, the states and every festival as if they are citizens, but they are not. But we must at least let them know ‘This is what Malaysians are like.’” Iskul still considers them Malaysians, even if they are not recognised by the state.[20]

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THE COMPLEXITY OF CITIZENSHIP

[20]Sanen Marshall, The Bajau Laut families left adrift and stateless

Sanen Marshall, who teaches politics at Universiti Malaysia Sabah, describes the complexity of the houseboat Bajau Laut obtaining citizenshi p. “One reason for this is that those living on the houseboats have been inadvertently left out of earlier political and bureaucratic initiatives to process identification,” he says. “Secondly, there were Bajau Laut families that began to move back and forth between Sabah and the Phili ppines since, or even before the Second World War. “For example, there is one family with 12 children. The first six were born in the Phili ppines, the seventh and eighth in Sabah, and the rest in either one of the two countries. So, is the family Malaysian or Fili pino?” Malaysia has strict prerequisites for citizenshi p, such as a marriage certificate and the child’s birth certificate. But those in the houseboat Bajau Laut community do not normally possess marriage certificates, and even if they do, it may not be formally recognised. In order to register a birth, certification from hospitals must be obtained, or at least from midwives or doctors. Aside from the cost of travel, some Bajau Laut are not willing to risk deportation and make their way to the only hospital in Semporna. Some cannot afford the delivery costs, even if they are aware of the importance of a birth certificate. To others like Unggun, the concept itself is alien. As a result, many Bajau Laut are trapped in a vicious cycle of statelessness, passing it from generation to generation.

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HEALTH A person’s death is too common for them. Due to the lack of medical facilities and equi pment, their birth rate is high, but the mortality rate is also high. In particular, children in the birth and growth process without good care, especially easy to die. There was a child who was told in the morning that his brother had died. In addition to not showing up in the morning, he and his friends could be seen running to the sea again in the afternoon. If someone is ill, they will use their traditional methods to cure them. It’s not that they refuse to go to the hospital, but there is a risk of being arrested on the way to the hospital, and they can’t afford the cost of treatment.

IMARET giving dental examination to Bajau Laut (Credit by: IMARET)

There have been various medical plans for them in recent years. Holders of IMM13 can get free medicine from the army stationed on the Berhala island to treat minor diseases; those who do not have IMM13 residence permit can also receive free drugs for the treatment of minor diseases as long as they hold the certificate of Bajiao nationality at sea issued by Pejabat Mahkamah Anak Negeri. Berhala islanders call this white paper certificate Lepa-lepa, simultaneous interpreting the word “traditional long boat house” in Bajau language. Other than that, a group of volunteers IMARET (IMAM Response & Relief Team), create by doctor and the people with medical knowledge, are helping at the Bajau Laut in Semporna. They giving the general medical care and medical-dental those who can’t afford started at 2018. But the seriously ill, for him, is waiting and dying. These facilities are not enough to treat more serious conditions.

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CHILD MARRIAGE AND ADOLESCENT PREGNANCY Child marriage is quite often among Bajau Laut people. As they didn’t have the taughts like planning how to build a family , how many child we wish to have and marriage at which age. So there might be up to 10 or more children in some Bajau family.

Sometimes, they even have incest happen in between family. Like they will married their daugther to their bother (which mean’s the daugther’s uncle). The children who married will need to help the family like preparing food for her family and take care of them. But, imagine, she is just a children and she have to manage this at the young age.

Mission create by IMARET (Credit by: IMARET)

Torben Venning who works with Society for Education of underprivileged Children in Sabah (PKPKM Sabah) said, “In Lahad Datu, where we run our projects, we daily see children as young as 3 to 4 years old sniffing glue. These are from the Bajau Laut (Sea Gypsy) community here and the reason is most of all hunger and food insecurity. We are trying to provide a daily meal to these children.” (New Jo-Lyn, 2015) From here we could know that the children is in a quite worrying situation as they might didn’t know this behavior is harmful to their health.

PERSONAL HYGIENE KNOWLEGE The bajau people didn’t know how to take care of their hygiene where they are not use to brush their teeth. One of the reason is they couldn’t affort for the cost. This led them have a bad dental and hygiene.

Children especially girl, they didn’t have knowledge on menstruation. Which they do not know how to take care of themselves during their period time.

Some of them didn’t know about what is napkin, even they know, they might not able affort for it. If given them the washable napkin, they also couldn’t wash it properly as their water supply is limited. This will indirectly affect their health.

If you observe, some of the children there are naked or shirtless. This might be due to they didn’t have the knowledge to protect themselves.[21]

DRUG ABUSE

WORKING OPPORTUNITY

[21]Mukmin Natang (Sek Alternatif Borneo Komrad) on Educating The Stateless Children talk)

The problem of not having the elementary education cause they hard to integrate into the life of the present society. Their time were spending for looking for ways to increase their household income. Fishing is their economic mainstay although some have also taken up activities such as seaweed farming. In today’s industrial

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development, fishing is no longer relying on personal technology, but using machines to start large-scale fishing. The fishing techniques of the Bayao people have obviously not adapted to the current market demand, but they have lost the opportunity to contact these fishing technologies without international contact with modern civilization. There is a Bajau man works as a fisherman and he earns around RM500 a month, which is less than half the minimum wage of RM1,100 set by the government. Nevertheless, the daily income of each family is very less, at best can get RM50 a day.

Bajau Laut know this situation is worse for them, they started to planning selling some fruit and craft. The children go for collecting plastic bottles, wooden planks or metal sheets — anything that could potentially be sold for pocket money. They have overcome their shyness of speaking to people outside their community and can also converse in English and Chinese dialects, which come in useful when selling their sea produce. The Bajau Laut usually speak a very basic level of the languages they have learned, usually enough to bargain and sell.

Tenduang (Sheela Chandran)

Semporna’s sea gypsies offering their daily catches of live lobsters, cla`ms and crabs to tourists and passer (Bernama pic)

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LOCAL LIVING CONDITION The location of school is isolated in the village and most of the Bajau people didn’t have proper school.

As their lifestyle is on sea, Bajau people will have landsick and do not like to visit schhol as they are not used to the context of proper school we have.

Besides, the building services system is not proper. For example their house do not have electrical and water supply. That’s also no proper pi ping for sewerage sytstem . Even the waste management , from the information of local people, they didn’t have proper space like refuse chamber. Even they have the rubbish collection point, the location is quite far from their house. This led to the pollution of ocean where the rubbish is floating on water. [21]

[21]Mukmin Natang (Sek Alternatif Borneo Komrad) on Educating The Stateless Children talk)

The situation of the temporary camp recently (Dr Sanen Marshall on Contestations Over Malaysian Citizenshi p & Recognising The Stateless Bajau Laut

As Bajau people will always link their houseboat together with their families houseboat in the past .

It was like a tradition for them. As they are moving offshore, they will still built their houses near with other family members. As their house is on sea, the bridge is one of the importatnt infrastructure for Bajau people connect from house to house and also path for them to enter their house. But the bridge they built to link the village is narrow and dangerous.[22]

The bridge link to the stilt houses (Mukmin Natang (Sek Alternatif Borneo Komrad) on EDUCATING THE STATlELESS CHILDREN talk)

[22]Sanen Marshall “Boat Groups to House Groups: A Discussion on the Sociality of the Bajau Laut”

Few years ago, there’s a fire which led the around thousands of Bajau people homeless in Kampung Bangau- Bangau. Government have provide them a temporary camp and their village will be rebuilt. [22] But the project is keeping on hold which make the Bajau people have to live in the temporary camp until now.

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The rubbish on the sea (Mukmin Natang (Sek Alternatif Borneo Komrad) on EDUCATING THE STATlELESS CHILDREN Talk)

The childeren are playing with the rubbish (Mukmin Natang (Sek Alternatif Borneo Komrad) on EDUCATING THE STATlELESS CHILDREN Talk)

THE THREATS

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RISING SEA LEVEL Climate change is a global phenomenon and is particularly evident in the past three decades. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reveals an increase of average global land and ocean temperature by 0.85 °C from 1880 to 2012. The IPCC is highly conďŹ dent that the period between 1983 and 2012 was the warmest in the past 800 years.

Sea level has shown a rising trend that has been observed globally and along Malaysian coastline. For instance, according to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), globally sea level has risen by 2.4 mm to 3.8 mm (per year).This is higher than projected global sea level rise of 1.7–3.1 mm/year due to local climate and topographical conditions. Ercan et al. (2013) projected the sea level on the coast of the Peninsular Malaysia and the coast of Sabah-Sarawak to rise by 0.517 m and 1.064 m respectively by 2100.

Being a global phenomenon, there has been increasing interest to look at how climate change and its impacts unfold regionally, including in Malaysia, Malaysia has experienced warming and rainfall irregularities particularly in the last two decades, thus causes sea level rise which has four major impacts in coastal areas: coastal flooding, coastal inundation, coastal erosion, and saltwater intrusion.

More precise data gathered from satellite radar measurements reveal an accelerating rise of 7.5 cm (3.0 in) from 1993 to 2017, which is a trend of roughly 30 cm (12 in) per century. This acceleration is due mostly to human-caused global warming, which is driving thermal expansion of seawater and the melting of land-based ice sheets and glaciers.

Climate scientists expect the rate to further accelerate during the 21st century.

Future prediction simulation diagram showing the coastal area below sea level.

(Coastal Climate Central)

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TSUNAMI

Nowadays, usually most of the people will have a mindset about Malaysia are being chosen by god, there is no dangerous disasters happen here, stable weather condition and much of marine life. However, as times fly, Malaysia is not safety anymore. It is more closer and closer to the seismic zone.

The tsunami happenS in 26th december 2004, 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami had been seen as the most serious tsunami happens around the 20th and 21st centuries. It had affected around 10 countries and above.

The tsunami’s epicenter located at the western coast of northern sumatra, malaysia are luckily only been affected at only few area, it was all because that the epicenter was located at the west of indonesia, it help malaysia to bear the damage, if not, some of the area like, melaka, port dickson and others will be heavily damage.

With this facts, Malaysia is no longer safe from the disaster as before. Thus, future architecture shall consider about these feature.

2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami affected area (Loy, A. (2014). Today marks the 10th anniversary of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami.)

POTENTIAL OF TSUNAMI

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The tsunami is a great wave of ocean waves generally due to the disruption of the body of water in which the power is converted to the waveform. Most of the tsunami or earthquakes are generated from active seismic activities caused by shifting of tectonic plates.

Sabah is tectonically surrounded by the Eurasian Plate, the Indo-Australian Plate, the Pacific Plate, and the Phili ppines Plate. The activity of this plate has formed several active faults that contribute to the creation of a series of great earthquakes. The Eurasian plate is recorded as having an annual average of 5cm towards the southeast, the Indo-Australian Plate moves 7cm per year to the North while the Pacific Ocean Platinum is 10 cm per year.

These three tectonic plates create a squeeze effect cause the plates collide each other. Thus, the fault effect was happened between the plates boundary and create a seabed earthquake. The vibration of earthquake thus causes the tsunami. Malaysia is moving towards the boundary and over year by year, our country are soon will be located on that particular area. With the addition of sea level rise, the potential of tsunami around sulawesi, celebes sea and others that affect Mvvalaysia are going higher due to the risen sea level will affect the frequency and intensity of tsunami.

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Tectonic plate activity around Malaysia and Southeast Asia Region.

Past tsunami events surrounding the Celebes Sea

Tectonic shifts and sea level rise eventually accelerates

Earthquake events in Celebes Sea (Ahmad Khairut Termizi Mohd Daud, Felix Tongkul, and Rodeano Roslee, 2019)

the risk of Malaysia shoreline being exposed to deadly

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tsunami. The team of scientists from the NTU’s Earth Observatory of Singapore (EOS) and nd initially showed that with just a sea level rise of 0.5 metres, the tsunami-induced flood risk increases to up to 2.4 times and with a 1 metre rise, up to 4.7 Asian School of the Environment (ASE), used computer modelling, and initially showed that with just a sea level rise of 0.5 metres, the tsunami-induced flood risk increases to up to 2.4 times and with a 1 metre rise, up to 4.7 times.

The increased flooding frequency was contributed by earthquakes of smaller magnitudes which posed no threat at current sea level but could cause significant flooding at higher sea level conditions. “It is well known that rising sea levels will have negative impacts on many coastal communities globally, and this is

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the first study that shows sea level rise will increase both the frequency and intensity of tsunami-induced flooding,” said Dr Li. In simulations, sea-level rise dramatically increased the frequency of tsunami-induced flooding incidences by 1.2 to 2.4 times for a rise of 50 cm and 1.5 to 4.7 times for rise of 1 metre. Based on these information, we can believe that malaysia wasn’t a country that was safe from the disaster anymore.

The Tsunami https://www.somagnews.com/tsunami-happen-tsunami-seen-occur/

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TSUNAMI FACTS AROUND SEMPORNA

On 16 August 1976 at 12:11 A.M., magnitude 7.9 earthquake hit the island of Mindanao, Phili ppines.

The resultant tsunami devastated more than 700 km of coastline bordering Moro Gulf in the North Celebes Sea. Estimated casualties included 5,000 dead, 2,200 missing, 9,500 injured, and 93,500 people left homeless. Affected cities include Cotabato, Pagadian, and Zamboanga, and the provinces of Basilan, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Sultan Kudarat, Sulu, and Zamboanga del Sur. On 28 September 2018, a shallow, large earthquake struck in the neck of the Minahasa Peninsula, Indonesia, with its epicentre located in the mountainous Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi. The magnitude 7.5 quake was located 70 km (43 mi) away from the provincial capital Palu and was felt as far away as Samarinda on East Kalimantan and also in Tawau, Malaysia. This event was preceded by a sequence of foreshocks, the largest of which was a magnitude 6.1 tremor that occurred earlier that day.

2018 Sulawesi Tsunami (Blaskovic, T. (2018).

Powerful M7,5 earthquake hits Sulawesi major tsunami.)

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TSUNAMI RISK AREAS IN MALAYSIA

Approximate locations of front wave at 20 minute intervals based on tsunami generated at Negros Trench, Segment 2.

Pink - high risk zone Teal - low risk zone

This map takes into consideration tsunamis coming from Sulawesi and the Celebes Sea: The simulated tsunami would take about an hour to reach the Semporna Islands (Mabul, Si padan, Kapalai, Mataking, Pom Pom, etc.), 1 hour and 20 minutes to reach the town of Semporna, and 1+ hours to reach the cities of Tawau and Lahad Datu, as well as the town of Kunak. Being situated in somewhat narrow bays, there is a chance that Tawau and Lahad Datu would be severely hit.

Tsunami Risk Area in Malaysia.

(Pedersen, Dr. C. , Latif, Ir. Z. A., & Lai, C., (February 2011))

Atpproximate locations of front wave at 20 minute intervals based on tsunami generated at North Sulawesi Trench, Segment 5.

(Pedersen, Dr. C. , Latif, Ir. Z. A., & Lai, C., (February 2011). Tsunami Modelling And Risk Mapping For East Coast Of Sabah, Malaysia)

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waves moving from the source to the East Coast of Sabah

PROPAGATION MODELLING

will be less than 60 minutes. The tsunami waves spread throughout the Celebes Sea in 50 minutes.

Determination of hypothetical earthquake (Daud, A. K. T. M., Tongkul, F., & Roslee, R. , 2019)

A hydrodynamic nested grid modelling complex using Mike21 (DHI 2009) was established to model the tsunami wave from the source to the nearshore area.

The tsunami propagation modelling provides information on wave heights along the coastline, which may be used as a hazard indicator. Other output comprises the travel time from the source to a given location, i.e. the “warning/evacuation time� available from the earthquake takes place till the tsunami hits at any given location.

An example of regional scale tsunami wave propagation from Negros Trench, Segment 2, to the shoreline of Sabah is shown. The time since the initial earthquake is shown in the upper left corner for each instantaneous plot.

For the first scenario tsunami generation model in which extreme earthquake is generated in North Sulawesi Trench, the propagation of the tsunami wave is rapidly occurring. From the simulation of the tsunami wave propagation, it is expected that tsunami

The wave propagation velocity is spread because the energy transferred from the earthquake activity to the body of the water is high. Through this earthquake, tsunami wave formation can reach up to 5 meters in some coastal areas of the East Coast of Sabah, North Sulawesi near Toli-toli and parts of East Kalimantan and Tarakan.

The propagation of the tsunami wave in the second scenario takes place a bit slowly. Simulation of tsunami wave propagation shows the tsunami wave distribution from the source of the generator in Parit Cotabato and spread to Celebes Sea takes 80 minutes.

The maximum height of the tsunami wave is also 5 meters wide and is largely concentrated on the Cotabato Coast, part of Sulu Islands, and North Sulawesi such as Sumalata, Boroko, Lolak, Ongkaw.

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The marine fish catch (excluding by-catch) from 1947 to 1993 (FAQ statistics)

FISHERIES IMPACT The greatest and most serious human impact on marine ecosystems is caused by the annual removal of more than 100 million tonnes of fish and shellfish.

This harvest affects the species composition of pelagic communities as well as nutrient concentrations in surface waters. There are also disruptive habitat changes caused by bottom trawling. Advances in fishing technology have made it easier to locate fish schools and to catch more fish more effectively. At the same time, the world fishing fleet has increased rapidly doubling in size.

However, it has become increasingly clear that many fish stocks throughout the world are now dwindling and that the catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) of fishing has decreased. In the last two decades, fish catches have declined in all the major oceans except the Indian Ocean.

A report issued by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in 1995 concluded that 70% of the ocean’s fish stocks are either fully

exploited, overfished, or recovering from being overfished. Although ocean climate change may be responsible for declines and changes in some fish stocks, overfishing is clearly responsible for the declines in many commercially favoured species. In the Antarctic, commercial whaling and dramatic declines in the numbers of whales resulted in increased numbers of other animals that were dependent upon krill for food. Overfishing, construction of dams, and pollution have. On the other hand, the abundance of smaller fish species whose populations are no longer kept in check by predation, will significantly increase.

Overfishing may also cause changes in size structure of fish populations.

Anadromous fish, such as salmon, are adversely affected by the dams that block access to spawning areas. Fishing activities may also destroy habitats.

Heavy fish trawls can penetrate 6 cm or more into the seabed, thereby disrupting the natural substrate and releasing nutrients into the water column and destroying zoobenthos that may be food for the demersal fish stocks.The discarded catch includes species with no economic value and young fish that are too small to market. In some cases, the by-catch may exceed the target catch.

Unfortunately, as a valuable fishery species becomes scarce, its economic value tends to increase. Thus, it often remains profitable for fleets to continue to take an overfished species.

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MARINE POLLUTANTS

PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS

Marine pollution has been defined by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission as the introduction by humans, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy sources into the marine environment resulting in deleterious effects such as harm to living resources; hazards to human health; hindrance to marine activities, including fishing; impairment of the quality of seawater; and reduction of amenities. The number of different pollutants entering the sea is very large, and new substances are added every day. Some of the substances regarded as pollutants, like heavy metals and petroleum hydrocarbons, occur naturally in the sea and human introductions add to natural concentrations. Some introduced pollutants will decompose in time or will be attenuated by the very large volume of the oceans, so that their effect will not be noticeable. Other pollutants may have significant impacts.

Oil spill is one of the visually apparent impact towards the ocean, the largest having occurred during the Arabian Gulf war when approximately one million tonnes of oil were spilled into the Gulf of Arabia.

The largest spill from an oil tanker occurred when the Amoco Cadiz went aground off Brittany in 1978, releasing 220 thousand tonnes of crude oil . More than 300 km of shoreline were affected, causing the elimination of at least 30% of the marine benthic fauna and the death of some 20000 birds.[23] The effects of the Exxon Valdez spill with approximate of 30 thousand tonnes of oil on Alaskan populations of birds and otters were crucially noted. The natural recovery time of shoreline communities, under moderate conditions of wave action, is usually within 5 to 10 years for most organisms, although bird and otter populations may take longer to recover because of their slower reproductive rates.

Conceptual illustration showing the interaction pathways and combined impact of pollutants (PCBs and methyl mercury— CH3Hg) and climate change in the ocean ( J.J. Alava, W.W.L. Cheung, P.S. Ross, R.U. Sumaila, Climate change-contaminant interactions in marine food webs: towards a conceptual framework, Global Change Biol. 23 (2017) 3984–4001. doi:10.1111/ gcb.13667.)

[23] Lalli, Carol; Parsons, Timothy R. (1997).

Biological Oceanography: An Introduction. London: Butterworth-Heinemann.

A cleaning programme right after the Oil spill of Exxon Valdez off coast of Alaska ( Lalli, Carol; Parsons, Timothy R. (1997).

Biological Oceanography: An Introduction. London: Butterworth-Heinemann.)`

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PLASTICS

PESTICIDES AND OTHER ORGANIC COMPOUND, CHEMICALS The most common pesticides entering the oceans are various forms of chlorinated hydrocarbons. These man-made compounds do not occur naturally, they are not readily degraded by chemical oxidation or by bacterial action, and they accumulate in animal fat tissues because they are li pid-soluble.

Plastic rubbish in Semporna, Sabah (https://www.123rf.com/ photo_31422413_sempornamalaysia-april-24-2014plastic-rubbish-pollutionin-ocean-photo-showingpollution-problem-o.html)

Discarded plastic materials in the oceans range in size from large nylon drift nets to pellets of less than a millimetre in diameter which can be distributed by the wind over the whole ocean. These materials are not biodegradable; although plastics do break down as a result of physical and chemical weathering, this process is slow and therefore plastics accumulate over time in the sea. Loose driftnets or discarded fishing gear, for example, can continue to entangle marine animals for years before washing ashore or sinking.

Plastic bags or small plastic pellets are often mistaken for prey and ingested by marine turtles and seabirds, respectively. Pellets have been found in at least 50 species of marine birds. Ingested plastic bags are known to kill turtles; although one can speculate that ingested pellets may be harmful to birds or other marine life In Semporna, Sabah, plastic waste is a major issue especially in the Kampung Bangau Bangau and the surrounding areas.

An image of the aftermath of fish bombing in Semporna Sabah Source: https://cilisos.my/ what-the-fish-this-ridiculousway-of-catching-fish-in-sabahwill-blow-your-mind/

Blast fishing or dynamite fishing is the practice of using explosives to stun or kill schools of fish for easy collection. This is widely used by the locals of Semporna and can be extremely destructive to the surrounding ecosystem, as the explosion often destroy coral reefs that supports the fish.Dynamite or homemade bombs constructed using a glass bottle with layers of powdered potassium nitrate and pebbles or an ammonium nitrate and kerosene mixture are often employed. These toxic chemicals can pose a severe negative impact towards the marine biodiversity。

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HEAVY METALS

Heavy metals such as mercury, copper, and cadmium occur naturally in seawater at low concentrations, and they enter the sea through natural erosion of ore-bearing rocks and subsequent transport in rivers or via dust particles in the atmosphere, and through volcanic activity. All of these metals can be poisonous to organisms in high concentrations. Generally, heavy metals have acute toxic effects, but accumulations of these substances in marine animals may also cause chronic effects such as growth abnormalities, including cancers.

For instance, a case of heavy metal poisoning in humans occurred in Minamata, Japan, where a plastics factory discharged with an estimated 200-600 tonnes of mercury over a period of 36 years into the local bay causing severe neurological related damage, paralysis, and birth deformities which is a result of contaminated shellfish intake.

An illustration on heavy metal pollution (https://www.sdcoastkeeper. org/blog/environmentaleducation/heavy-metalsinfographic)

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RADIOACTIVE WASTES

SEWAGE

An image of improper sanitation and sewage management and in Semporna Sabah (https://www. theborneopost. com/2019/09/14/callfor-action-on-sanitationproblems-in-semporna/)

Sewage disposal is a major form of coastal pollution throughout the world. Sewage outfalls near coastal communities release human waste as well as other organic matter, heavy metals, pesticides, detergents, and petroleum products. Nutrients from organic waste material may cause eutrophication; local waters may also be nutrient-enriched by detergents that contain phosphate and by agricultural and horticultural products entering from runoff. Besides, human sewage delivers pathogenic bacteria and viruses that are not necessarily killed by exposure to seawater; high concentrations of these microbes make local seafood unsafe to eat and contaminated waters unsafe for bathing. The chief health risk from sewage is through eating contaminated seafood, particularly filter-feeding mussels which accumulate human pathogens on their gills. Cholera virus, for instance may be transmitted in just such a manner. Urban areas of developed countries may provide special treatment to degrade organic matter or to remove nitrates and phosphates which are costly. Usually many places sewage is released into the sea without treatment. Generally around a large sewage outfall may be anoxic and dominated by anaerobic bacteria.

At much severe scenario, nutrient enrichment typically leads to increased production of green macroalgae or some notable toxic algae bloom known as red tide.

Radioactive wastes enter seawater from nuclear testing, from nuclear power plants or reprocessing reactors, or from deliberate dumping of waste materials. Heavy radionuclides have low solubility in water and tend to be adsorbed onto particulate matter; they therefore accumulate in sediments. Isotopes with long half-lives (e.g. caesium-137, strontium-90, and plutonium-239) are especially hazardous and are usually monitored in areas where they may escape from nuclear facilities.

Some marine organisms like seaweeds and bivalves may accumulate radionuclides from surrounding water. For example, the alga Porphyra umbilicalis, growing in the vicinity of a reprocessing plant in England, accumulated 10 times the concentration of caesium-137 found in the ambient water and 1500 times the concentration of ruthenium-106.

The experimental consequences of low-level doses of radiation on marine organisms are the same as those for terrestrial species and may include increased incidences of cancers, impaired immune systems, and genetic defects causing growth deformities.

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MANGROVE SWAMPS Mangrove swamps suffer from many of the same environmental disturbances that are experienced by estuaries. Dredging, land reclamation, garbage and sewage dumping are all disturbances that can have significant impacts on mangroves near populated areas, including Semporna. In these tropical and subtropical ecosystems, insect control (particularly of malariacarrying mosquitoes) has resulted in accumulations of pesticides in estuarine sediments and in mangrove food chains. During the Vietnam war, spraying of herbicides on mangrove swamps defoliated and destroyed as much as 100000 hectares. Oil spills smother both algae and invertebrates, and disrupt the oxygen supply to the root system. Where river water has been diverted into irrigation systems, the reduction in freshwater discharge and the resulting

Mangrove swamps https-//ogoapesmaria.weebly.com/mangrove-swamps.html.jpg

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elevated salinities may be detrimental; for example, a considerable area of mangrove swamp has been destroyed by diversion of water flow from the Indus River in Pakistan. Overcutting of mangroves is, and has been for centuries, a serious problem in many areas. Mangroves once existed along the shores of the Persian Gulf, where they were a much-needed source of firewood for humans and of green fodder for camels in a desert environment, but they were eventually eliminated by overcutting. Some efforts had been made to re-establish mangroves along north-eastern Saudi Arabia, but these were destroyed by the Gulf War. Other countries, recognizing the benefits of mangroves, have also developed afforestation programs, reintroducing mangroves with varying degrees of success. Globally, however, destruction of mangroves is progressing faster than reintroduction. Almost half of the world’s mangroves

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have been eliminated in recent years in order to build shrimp farms or rice paddies. In countries like Bangladesh, removal of this buffering zone has led to intensified coastline inundation and erosion from tropical storms. Typhoons and hurricanes remain perhaps the greatest destructive agents of mangrove swamps , a s they affect very large area and occur frequently . Not only do they uproot trees , but severe storms alter the salinity of both water and soil , and they cause massive sedimentation . It is estimated that recovery of mangrove forests from very violent storms takes at least 20 t o 25 years. Whereas little can be done to reduce damage from natural events , it is possible to develop management policies for the exploitation of mangrove resources , including replanting . The rational utilization of mangrove areas depends ultimately on increasing public awareness of the importance of this unique marine community to local populations in developing tropical countries.

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CORAL REEFS - OCEAN ACIDIFICATION

A healthy coral (left) and a coral that has experienced bleaching (right).

Source/photo credit: Henry Wolcott/Marine Photobank

As atmospheric temperatures rise, so do seawater temperatures. This warming causes corals to lose the microscopic algae that produce food that corals need, placing stress on the corals. Without this algae coral also lose their coloration—a condition known as coral bleaching - because the loss of algae reveals the white color of the calcium carbonate structure underlying the polyps. Severe or prolonged bleaching can kill coral colonies or leave them more vulnerable to other threats such as infectious disease.

Other climate impacts, such as sea level rise, increased frequency and intensity of tropical storms, and altered ocean circulation patterns, can also affect coral reefs.

[24] United States Environmental Protection Agency

Ocean acidification refers to a change in ocean chemistry in response to the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is in equilibrium with that in seawater, so when atmospheric concentrations increase so do oceanic concentrations. Carbon dioxide entering seawater reacts to form carbonic acid, causing an increase in acidity.[24]

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Each year, the ocean absorbs about one-quarter of the carbon dioxide emitted from the burning of fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas). Since the Industrial Revolution, ocean acidity has increased by about 30%, a rate that is more than 10 times what has previously occurred for millions of years. Further, ocean acidity levels are expected to increase by an additional 40% above present levels by the end of this century.

Increases in ocean acidity (measured by lower pH values) reduce the availability of dissolved salts and ions needed by corals to form the calcium carbonate structure. Consequently, coral growth and reef growth can be slowed, with some species affected more than others. If acidification becomes severe, coral skeletons can actually dissolve. On a local level, nutrient enrichment due to run-off from human activities on land can also cause increased acidity in coastal waters, exacerbating the effects of ocean acidification.

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CORAL REEFS - OVERFISHING AND IMPROPER FISHING Overfishing & Improper fishing is one of the few major anthropogenic impact towards the ocean ecosystem. These activities can alter food-web structure in accordance to the oceans trophic levels and cause cascading effects. For instance, by reducing the numbers of grazing fish that keep corals clean of algal overgrowth.

In the area of Semporna Archi pelago, an improper fishing method which is the dynamite fishing, more commonly known as blast fishing can cause physical and chemical damage to corals and other marine organisms.

[25] “McClellan, K., & Bruno, J. (2008). Coral degradation through destructive fishing practices. Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland Washington, DC: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment”. Archived from the original on 2019-12-22.

Retrieved 2020-07-11

[26] Lewis JA (1996) “Effects of underwater explosions on life in the sea” Australian Department of Defence, DSTO-GD-0080

Commercial dynamite or, more commonly, homemade bombs constructed using a glass bottle with layers of powdered potassium nitrate and pebbles or an ammonium nitrate and kerosene mixture are often employed. Such devices, though, may explode prematurely without warning and have been known to injure or kill the person using them, or innocent bystanders. [25] Underwater shock waves produced by the explosion stun the fish and cause their swim bladders to rupture.

This rupturing causes an abrupt loss of buoyancy; a small amount of fish float to the surface, but most sink to the seafloor. The explosions indiscriminately kill large numbers of fish and other marine organisms in the vicinity and can damage or destroy the physical environment, including extensive damage to coral reefs. [26] Coral reefs are less likely to recover from constant disturbance such as blast fishing than from small disturbance that does not change the physical

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environment. Blast fishing destroys the calcium carbonate coral skeletons and is one of the continual disruptions of coral reefs. In the Indo-Pacific, the practice of blast fishing is the main cause of coral reef degradation. As a result, weakened rubble fields are formed and fish habitat is reduced.

The damaged coral reefs from blast fishing lead to instant declines in fish species wealth and quantity.

Explosives used in blast fishing not only kill fish but also destroy coral skeletons, creating unbalanced coral rubble. The elimination of the fish also eliminates the resilience of the coral reefs to climate change, further hindering their recovery. Single blasts cause reefs to recover over 5–10 years, while widespread blasting, as often practiced, transforms these biodiverse ecosystems into continuous unstable rubble. [27]

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[27] Fox, H. E.; Caldwell, R. L. (2006). “Recovery From Blast Fishing On Coral Reefs: A Tale of Two Scales”. Ecological Applications. 16 (5): 1631– 1635. doi:10.1890/10510761(2006)016[1631:RFBFO C]2.0.CO;2. PMID 17069358

A blast fishing scene captured off coast of the Philippines (https://scubadiverlife.com/ damage-dynamite-fishing/)

THE SITE

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Our research and findings are more focus about Semporna, in the Malaysian state of Sabah, Borneo.

Our focusing site is Kampung Bangau- Bangau , the surrounding archi pelago and Bukit Tengkorak in order to know the Bajau Laut people better.

Location of the site we focusing on (Yeap Huei Sze)

Map of Kampung Bangau- Bangau, Semporna Abstract from Google Earth Pro, 2020 , graphic edit by Yeap Huei Sze

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KAMPUNG BANGAU- BANGAU

Kampung Bangau- bangau is one of the village in Semporna, Sabah. It’s one of the squatters settlement on sea which consist mostly Bajau Laut people living on stilt houses. There are limited land in Kampung Bangau Bangau and most of the houses are built on stilt at the low tight sea. Unlike the normal village with proper car access, Kampung Bangau-Bangau is linked with bridges. The spatial arrangment was like different group of clusters. There’s also a mangrove swampland right beside the stilt houses.

New tuorist Jetty is where the carpark is. It is also where the car can finally accessed. In order to enter the village, you have to walk or by boat. The main access is via a long bridge walkway. Along the long main access , you may notice there’s a land is bare. It is due to as there’s a fire few years ago which burnt up that area’s houses.

Kampung Bangau-Bangau stilt house on the sea (Dr Sanen Marshall on Contestations Over Malaysian Citizenshi p & Recognising The Stateless Bajau Laut Community Talk.

The villages are relocate to the temporary housing nearby. Yet , the facilities and environment is quite terrible . Dirty floors, no proper water and electrical supply and so on but they no choice as they couldn’t afford for other accomadation. The temporary camp have been few years which led to some of them plan to migrate to other town for example Kota Kinabalu to find job and a better living environment.

As for education facilities, the children there barely get to study at school. There’s only one school in the village and Bajau children are not used to study at the environment we used to.

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BUKIT TENGKORAK

Bukit Tengkorak is an archaeological site hill located at Tampi Tampi Road, about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) south of Semporna town. The site has been identified as the largest pottery making factory in Southeast Asia during the Neolithic period. The hill slopes are littered with numerous pottery shards with various patterns dating 3,000 BP. An ethno-archaeological study shows that such pottery making is still practised by the Bajau community in Semporna until this day.

This pottery site has links between local communities and traders from around the Andaman Sea. The hill provides evidence of prehistoric sea trade and one of the world’s longest human movement dating back to 3,000 years.

The stilt left over due to the fire (Dr Sanen Marshall on Contestations Over Malaysian Citizenshi p & Recognising The Stateless Bajau Laut Community Talk. ) The Temporary Camp for the villages due to the fire (Sek Alternatif Borneo Komrad) on EDUCATING THE STATlELESS CHILDREN talk)

Bukit Tengkorak (http://organisma.blogspot. com/2012/04/bukittengkorak-di-lokasi-inilahkerja.html)

SUMMARY

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SUMMARY In a nutshell, Bajau Laut, the second largest ethnic group in the Malaysian state of Sabah also known as Sea Gypsies or sea nomad. This community rely on the ocean for their livelihood. Traditionally, the Bajau resided in small boats, sailing day and night with the currents, relying only on their fishing gear to make a living before they began to make permanent houses on the surface of the water around the island and the coast. They are the most proficient freedivers in the world. Holding their breath for several minutes at a time, they are able to swim to depths of 30 metres.

There are skilled craftspeople, the community hand make their own spear guns, goggles and even boats.

Other group of bajau also produced earthenware pottery, including water jars, cooking pots, and portable hearths (lappohan), the latter carried aboard boats and used for cooking at sea.

The Sama-Bajau women have their own roles in their community especially in farm work. While the men are involved in smithing, building boats and trading among the islands, the women are usually engaged in weaving as well as making and selling pottery.

For the exception of all-nomadic groups, the fishing is purely done by the men, while their wives and children engage in inshore gathering.Many of them still live in remote floating villages built on coral reefs within the trough of the lagoon.They rarely visit land, setting foot on solid ground only to trade fish for water, rice or wood.In Semporna,locals tended to be characterized by local exchange-based specializations.

Albeit the rich traditions and customs of Bajau communinty, the plight of Bajau Laut people still remain invariable. Their citizenshi ps lies with the history which is the Mindanao civil war that makes the state flooded with hundreds of thousands of Fili pina refugees. Therefore, the government tightens

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the border controls and restriction of movement. The political issues has made the Bajau laut people difficult to procure their citizenshi ps. Due to their nomadic life and do not have proper documents to testify their identities, they are in stateless position and could not gain the benefits of the citizenshi ps. For instance, healthcare, education, job opportunity and welfare of citizens. These are the proceeding problems that the Bajau community could face owing to their stateless dire strait. Education become a tremendous issue that happened in the Bajau community. They are not undergo formal education so they do not know how to take care of their hygiene such as brushing teeth and the knowledge of the books. Besides, the living spaces of Bajau laut people are also in a poor condition because they have no adequate money to buy the amentities.

The Anthroprocene epoch human activities has challenged the ecosystem.The serious human impact on marine ecosystem is caused by the annual removal of more than 100 million tonnes of fish. Discarded plastic materials and oil spills in the ocean leads the sea level rising. Eventually the sea level accelerates the risk of Malaysia shoreline being exposed to deadly tsunami. Overcutting mangrove swamps caused the erosion of shoreline. Hence, the rational utilization of ocean and mangrove areas depends ultimately on increasing public awareness of the importance of this unique marine community to local populations in developing tropical countries.

Today, some of the Bajau Laut have come ashore to live on the small islands but continue to cultivate their nautical mastery while weighing their fish on a small scale. Younger generations starts migrating towards coastal settlements and seeking employment in the resorts that cluster on Mabul Island. Even those that remain on the ocean are modernising, with massproduced boats replacing hand made ones as a more

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spacious and robust form of accommodation.There is a fear that as the Bajau Laut modernise, their ancient ways of life will be lost…

In the interest of preventing this, an annual festival, the Regatta Lepa, honours the ancestral boat building skills of the Bajau Laut and aims to preserve their heritage.The organisations such as the WWF and Conservation International have created education programmes that encourage the survival of traditional fishing methods and no-fish zones to allow supplies to replenish. Borneo Kamrad is established to build education and advocacy in order to fight injustice against undocumented children in Sabah. The organization helps to eliminish the illiterate group in Kampung Bangau-Bangau Semporna. It also helps to develops arts and skills of Bajau Laut people. Hence, education is the key point to help the Bajau Laut community in order to improve their quality of life and gain the citizenshi ps. Culture and traditions are significant to be preserved and should be inherited by the next generations.

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ARCHITECTURE OF MATERIALITY AND CULTURAL HERITAGE

SOCIAL CULTURE AND COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT

•lowland hardwoods •ideal for boat constrction.

•Regatta Lepa, honours the ancestral boat building skills of the Bajau Laut

•Each component of the boat has its functon.

•most proficient freedivers in the world.

THE ANTHROPOCENE OCEAN

•Climate change has caused the sea level eventually accelerates the risk of Malaysia shoreline being exposed to deadly tsunami.

•Overfishing

•Internal features are relating in particular to the ancestors.

•The process of boat making is interesting and inherited by the Bajau Laut community until now.

•Bajau pottery is a cultural handicraft for the Bajau community.

•Main economic factors come from fishing, pearl farming, seaweed farming and cultivation of rice.

•Bajau darat, skillful wood artisians, mat maker and boat builder.

•Stateless status

•Discard of plastic materials, oil spill and sewage disposal has provoked the marine pollution.

•Fish bombing activites affected the marine ecosystem.

•overcutting of mangrove

•Deportation •The old manufacturing technology is still being used

•Blast fishing •Lack of education •Lack of health knowledge

•The damage of coral reefs

•Lack of basic living amenities Table summarising the facts and issues according to theme (Chiew Jing Yi)

122 | Summary

THEME 1 As an architect, what are your role and design considerations in mitigating the issue sustainably?

What is the environmentally sustainable way of preventing shoreline erosion? How do you encourage community projects that could train, educate, change the mentality and behavior of locals in dealing with domestic waste management? What is the future of the local Marine Waste Management strategy that is environmentally friendly to empower the local water villages?

THEME 2 Their stateless status is the main contributors to the multi ple setbacks faced throughout the years in term of social deprivation, education underachievement, limited rights to medical healthcare, lack of job opportunities that eventually lead to the criminal activities. How to minimise the impacts that faced by the Bajau Laut communiy? How to preserved the rich culture and traditions of Bajau Laut people?

THEME 3 How the materials retain the character and traces of their origin as part of the intangible heritage to be preserved? How the clay and timber to be used in other purpose in order to help Bajau community?

How it brings life, value and sensorial character to the place? How materials can evoke ephermeral and earthly qualities that remind you of past traditions, customs and the way of life?

IMAGES

126 | Images

127

Top: Regatta Lepa Festival (Chiew Jing Yi) Bottom: Unhusking rice at Sama-Bajau, Bajau Kubang of Kampung Kabimbangan Semporna, Sabah. This event shows that females are ready to unite with the ancestors and other spirit. (Hanafi Hussin, 2019) The reunion of families is an intended and antici pated purpose of the ritual.(Hanafi Hussin, 2019)

Bajau’s Village on Water (Source:Youtube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ptIBNNRGEQ)

128 | Images

129

Top Gubang,the boats sea gypsies use to navigate between stilt houses to the shore (https://livingnomads. com/2016/05/bajau-malaysia/) Top Traditional house on water (Zaimie Sahibil, 2019)

Middle Gubang,a place for children to play. (https://www.ttrweekly.com/site/2018/05/wing-air-flies-to-sabah/)

Bottom Traditional house on stilt (Zaimie Sahibil, 2019)

Bottom Bayanan(Image reference: https://www.mountkinabalu.com/packages/fun-boat-snorkeling-island-visit)

130 | Images

131

Top Tectonic plate activity around Malaysia and Southeast Asia Region.

Top Bajau’s Village on Water (Youtube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ptIBNNRGEQ) Bottom Stilt house building elements

Middle Past tsunami events surrounding the Celebes Sea Bottom Earthquake events in Celebes Sea (Ahmad Khairut Termizi Mohd Daud, Felix Tongkul, and Rodeano Roslee, 2019)

132 | Images

133

Top Approximate locations of front wave at 20 minute intervals based on tsunami generated at Negros Trench, Segment 2.

Bottom Atpproximate locations of front wave at 20 minute intervals based on tsunami generated at North Sulawesi Trench, Segment 5.

(Pedersen, Dr. C. , Latif, Ir. Z. A., & Lai, C., (February 2011). Tsunami Modelling And Risk Mapping For East Coast Of Sabah, Malaysia)

Example of regional tsunami propagation modelling from source in the Sulu Sea to the coastline of Sabah.

(Pedersen, Dr. C. , Latif, Ir. Z. A., & Lai, C., (February 2011). TSUNAMI MODELLING AND RISK MAPPING FOR EAST COAST OF SABAH, MALAYSIA )

134 | Images

Top Modelling based on north sulawesi trench (up) Modelling based on Cotabato trench (down) SOURCE : Daud, A. K. T. M., Tongkul, F., & Roslee, R. (2019). The Scenario of Tsunami Propagation at the Celebes Sea and the Disaster Impacts. ASM Sc. J., 12(3), 82-90 Bottom

Over fishing and its impacts (https://sites.google.com/a/cornell.edu/overfishing-around-the-world/social-impact)

135

Top Some major forms of marine pollution and their effects. (Lalli, Carol; Parsons, Timothy R. (1997). Biological Oceanography: An Introduction. London: Butterworth-Heinemann.)

Bottom An illustration of Coral Bleaching (Source/photo credit: US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrationt)

136 | Images

137

Top: The space inside the houseboat (Kampung Bangau- Bangau)

Top: Bridge link into the stilt house (Kampung Bangau- Bangau)

Bottom: Bajau people selling their catching fish from the sea (Kampung Bangau- Bangau)

Bottom: The narrow bridge linking (Kampung Bangau- Bangau)

(Mukmin Natang (Sek Alternatif Borneo Komrad) on EDUCATING THE STATlELESS CHILDREN talk)

(Mukmin Natang (Sek Alternatif Borneo Komrad) on EDUCATING THE STATlELESS CHILDREN talk)

138 | Images

Top: The villagers selling fruits in Kampung Bangau -Bangau Bottom: Food stall in Kampung Bangau- Bangau (Mukmin Natang (Sek Alternatif Borneo Komrad) on EDUCATING THE STATlELESS CHILDREN talk)

TALES OF BORNEO Semporna | Bajau laut

Published by, Mr Ashran’s Group Unit F, batch of July 2020 Intergrated Architecture Design Project School of Architecture and Built Environment UCSI University

Copyright 2020 All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any means whatsover without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotation in critical articles and review and certain non-commercial uses permitted by copyright law.

First Edition.

142 | References

143

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The Water World of the Orang Suku Laut in Southeast Asia (July 2016), Cynthia Chou, Regional and National Studies of Southeast Asia Vol. 4, No. 2

Maglana, Matthew Constancio (12 December 2016). “Understanding Identity and Diaspora: The Case of the Sama-Bajau of Maritime Southeast Asia”. Jurnal Sejarah Citra Lekha. 1 (2): 71. doi:10.14710/jscl.v1i2.12089. “’The ocean is our universe’ - Survival International”. Survivalinternational.

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Horst Liebner (1996). Four Oral Versions of a Story about the Origin of the Bajo People of Southern Selayar (PDF). Proyek Pengkajian dan Pengembangan Masyarakat Pantai, YIIS UNHAS. Wissenschaftlich-Literarischer Selbst- und Sonderverlach.

Syamsul Huda M. Suhari (7 June 2013). “Bajo, past and present”. The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 21 December 2014. Retrieved 21 December 2014.

Rodney C. Jubilado; Hanafi Hussin & Maria Khristina Manueli (2011). “The Sama-Bajaus of Sulu-Sulawesi Seas: perspectives from linguistics and culture” (PDF). JATI - Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 15 (1): 83–95. Archived from the original(PDF) on 19 December 2014.

Harry Nimmo (1972). The sea people of Sulu: a study of social change in the Phili ppines. Chandler Pub. Co. ISBN 0-8102-0453-3.

Tom Gunnar Hoogervorst (2012). “Ethnicity and aquatic lifestyles: exploring Southeast Asia’s past and present seascapes” (PDF). Water History. 4 (3): 245–265. doi:10.1007/s12685-012-0060-0.

Malaysia Haha Cat Malaysia Travel Review, The Bayu People, The nation that lives between heaven and hell, 2019-09-17 Cynthia Chou, The Water World of the Orang Suku Laut in Southeast Asia, Regional and –National Studies of Southeast Asia Vol. 4, No. 2 (July) 2016 Bejak Sejuk Matthieu Palley, We Are What We Eat: Diving for Dinner With the Sea Gypsies, OCTOBER 29, 2014 Clifford Sather, « Bajau laut boat-building in Semporna », Techniques & Culture, 35-36 | 2001, 177-198. https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/476576 / (19 May 2019) / The Bajau Laut families left adrift and stateless https://gs.ctri p.com/html5/you/travels/100022/3897555.html / (2019-09-07) / The Bayu people. A nation lives between heaven and hell https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/476576 / (19 May 2019) / The Bajau Laut families left adrift and stateless

Iskul Sama Dilaut Omadal,The Bajau Laut families left adrift and stateless Sanen Marshall,The Bajau Laut families left adrift and stateless “Exploration into Sama Philosophy: OMBOH”. Limpah Tangan [BELIEVE]. 22 May 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2014.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2019, December 30). Borneo. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2019, December 30). Borneo. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean Sea gypsies make Semporna complete. (2019, February 11). Retrieved from https://www.theborneopost.com/2019/02/11/sea-gypsies-make-semporna-complete-2/ Malay Mail. (2019, February 10). Sea gypsies make Semporna complete: Malay Mail. Retrieved from https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2019/02/10/ sea-gypsies-make-semporna-complete/1721488 Chandran, S. (1969, December 31). 5 must-get handcrafted souvenirs from Sabah’s Kota Belud. Retrieved from https://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/travel/2018/08/30/sabah-top-five-crafts/ Contestations over malaysian citizenshi p and premiliminary case for recognising the stateless bajau community (Sanen Marshall, Saidatul Nornis Hj. Mahali & Junaidah Januin Centre for the Promotion of Knowledge and Language Learning, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, 2019) The concept and the space design of Bajau LAut Traditional House. (Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Zaimie Sahibil, 2019) https://allthatsinteresting.com/bajau-people#14 https://allthatsinteresting.com/bajau-people#12 https://matadornetwork.com/notebook/last-sea-nomads/?amp http://www.peoplesoftheworld.org/text?people=Bajau https://en.wiki pedia.org/wiki/Sama-Bajau https://theheartysoul.com/asian-sea-nomads-first-known-humans-tohave-a-genetic-adaptation-to-diving/?utm_source=PIN&utm_medium=social&utm_campaign=tailwind_tribes&utm_content=tribes&utm_ term=856285368_36250456_130382 https://www.archdaily.com/638523/5-architectural-secrets-of-the-badjao-21stcentury-sea-people/ http://riungmungpulungproject.blogspot.com/2011/10/where-is-southeast-asianurbanism-in.html?m=0

144 | References

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3063691/The-incredible-Bajau-refugee-community-told-not-al lowed-live-Malaysian-land-built-homes-ocean.html https://cj.my/96956/borneo-beauties/ https://nextshark.com/borneo-sea-gypsies-photography/ Buwas Kuning (Yellow Rice) and its Symbolic Functions Among the Sama-Bajau of Malaysia (Hanifi Hussin , 2019) https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/476595 Lecture series / Talk

Studio Tutors Mr. Ashran Bahari Ar. Farah Aliza Dr. Ng Keng Khoon Ar. Hisham Saihari Mr. Shamsul Akmal

TALES OF BORNEO Semporna | Bajau laut

We investigate the lives of Sea Nomads along the southeastern coast of Sabah. The captivating and enchanting scenery of Semporna, rich cultural heritage, traditons and ethnic diveristy fortify Semporna City as a unique microcosm society. There are three themes or elements related to our site Semporna for Unit F students to test their design hypothesis. The Sea Gypsy VIllage of Kamping Bangau-Bangau was selected for students to propose their desired design project. For theme 1, living in the Anthropocene epoch where human activities have dominantly influenced and challenged our ecosystem. The alluring ocean and the maritime ecosystem are facing the threat as shoreline erosion, coastal and water pollution, sea-level rise increasing the frequency and risk of flooding to the Bajau community. Thus, some proactive measures must be taken to protect its rich coral reef ecosystem and be resilient to face climate change. For theme 2, the Bajau-laut community of Semporna are mostly boat dwellers that are dependent on the sea resources for their livelihoods. They make a living through sea-based activities such as pearl farming and seaweed farming. In addition, Bajau Darat communities who have settled on the land are skillful wood artisans, mat-markers and boat builders. Despite their rich culture and customs, the plight of the Bajau Laut people has remained immutable. Their stateless status makes them cannot obtain the benefits of citizenshi ps. For theme 3, the traditional Bajau Pottery is popular indigenous arts and crafts of Bajau community. They are still practice the old ceramic processing technique.

Clay and timber are also another material that has a close relation with Sama-Bajau heritage. Moreover, they have great skills in traditional boat making technique throughout the generations. We could see the traditional craftmanshi p helps to empower a local community and as the source of income for Bajau community.

Published by, Mr Ashran’s Group Unit F, batch of July 2020 Intergrated Architecture Design Project School of Architecture and Built Environment UCSI University

Copyright 2020