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Maternal stress, the potential impact on broiler breeders The red-white-shift in global meat production Nutritional economics for commercial turkeys
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2021
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EDITORIAL As is well known, several large multinational corporations have powers that often exceed those of governments. These powers can influence social behaviour and can also cause fear for the very quality of democracy. History has been repeating itself for centuries in the continuous succession of these relationships and clashes with political power. In recent decades, some large companies, in parallel with globalization and technological innovations, have become very powerful – just think of Microsoft, Apple, Facebook and recently the “Big Pharma” group who have been able to produce vaccines such as Pfizer, AstraZeneca and others. This latest pandemic offers a further example of how the authorities have always been forced to deal with corruption and conflicting interests. With all the necessary caveats government should, in the end, get “the last word”. However it’s not easy to make decisions in the current whirl of events, especially when science and technology run faster than politics. Are we therefore in an unavoidable grip from “historical courses and recourses”? The most pessimistic could ask themselves this question but, if we look closely at the facts, the “virus crisis” is activating the “more enlightened” governments to study economic incentives in a way that has not occurred for decades as they consider new industrial policies through which they become more interventionist including acquisitions of business ventures. The need to overcome the pandemic and the recession from geopolitical evolutions must push us to be more confident, more cohesive and aware.
SUMMARY WORLDWIDE NEWS............................................................................. 4 COMPANY NEWS................................................................................... 8 COMPANY FOCUS Officine Facco and University of Padua together for the welfare of hens........... 10
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FIELD REPORT Bugs have no boundaries: antimicrobial resistance challenges of Australian poultry...................................................................... 14
DOSSIER Current health and industry issues facing the US turkey industry – Second part............................................................ 16
FOCUS Management of ectoparasites in cage-free housing systems........................... 22
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Maternal stress, the potential impact on broiler breeders and subsequent chick development................................................................ 26
MARKETING The red-white-shift in global meat production.................................................. 32
TECHNICAL COLUMN Improved fly control on poultry facilities with microbial products....................... 38 Lasers prevent the spreading of the Avian Influenza virus................................ 40
MANAGEMENT The specific requirements and sensitivities of turkey egg incubation................ 42
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NUTRITION Nutritional economics for commercial turkeys................................................. 48
MARKET GUIDE................................................................................... 52
EVENTS.................................................................................................55 INTERNET GUIDE.............................................................................56
WORLDWIDE NEWS
New resource helps poultry producers weather remainder of Covid-19 pandemic Through funding from the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Poultry Industry Council has launched a new educational resource aimed at helping poultry producers reduce the risk of poultry farm workers becoming infected with Covid-19. Other insights really got back to the basics by: washing hands, wearing masks, keeping your distance, working from home. A variety of Covid-19 prevention resources are also compiled as well as a selection of helpful resources from allied industry partners.
©RitaE
The resource will stay live for at least 21 months as of March 31, 2021, however, PIC has some ideas on how to keep using it moving forward.
The “Covid-19 Resource Hub” features feedback and insights from a broad range of industry stakeholders and producers centred on technologies and practises that help reduce person to person contact, reduce labour demands, and innovate on how we work in the context of a pandemic. “It was really interesting to hear first hand how our membership has adapted to a whole new way of working and how quickly they did it too,” says Poultry Industry Council Executive Director, Ashley Honsberger, “the pandemic business pivot has helped the sector find
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novel ways of working and leverage their biosecurity knowledge for good business continuity.” Over thirty interviews were conducted as well as an online survey to collect the background information that built the resource. Some of the interesting technologies emerged from other sectors, such as health care and as a result of university research, and have direct applications in poultry business for example, surface cleaning using UV chambers and high-efficiency ozone filtration systems for shared workspaces and in the barn.
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“Technology is the next frontier for all of agriculture to leverage to help achieve efficient management and in terms of its application in poultry, we are continually looking for efficiencies and better animal welfare through new tech investments,” says Honsberger. “This tool will be a great platform for us to continue to grow and adapt as new and innovative technology becomes available.” The Poultry Industry Council (PIC) delivers poultry extension services, event coordination, and project and program management while supporting research capacity for the betterment of the Ontario industry. The “Covid-19 Resource Hub” is available through www.poultryindustrycouncil.ca. This project was funded through the Ontario Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Rural Affairs. Source: Poultry Industry Council
WORLDWIDE NEWS
In Russia first reported detection of Avian Influenza A(H5N8) in humans
Positive clinical specimens were collected from poultry farm workers who participated in a response operation to contain an Avian Influenza A(H5N8) outbreak detected in a poultry farm in Astrakhan Oblast in the Russian Federation. The laboratory confirmation of the seven specimens were performed by the State Research Centre for Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR (WHO H5 Reference Laboratory). The age of seven positive cases ranged between 29 to 60 years and five were female. Between 3 and 11 December 2020, a total of 101,000 of 900,000 egg laying hens on the farm died. This high mortality rate prompted an investigation: on 11 December, the outbreak was confirmed by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) Reference laboratory. Outbreak containment operations started immediately and continued for several days due to the large size of the poultry farm. In addition to operations on the farm, acute and convalescent sera was collected from the seven positive human cases for serological testing. The results were suggestive of recent infection. The cases remained asymptomatic for the whole follow-up duration (several weeks). Follow-up nasopharyngeal swabs were collected during medical observation period and were tested negative for Avian Influenza A(H5N8). No obvious clinical manifestations were reported from any farm workers under
©Capri23auto da Pixabay
On 18 February 2021, the National IHR Focal Point for the Russian Federation notified WHO of detection of Avian Influenza A(H5N8) in seven human clinical specimens. These are the first reported detection of Avian Influenza A(H5N8) in humans.
medical surveillance, their family members, or other close contacts of the seven cases. Influenza A(H5N8) viruses isolated from this poultry outbreak in Astrakhan belonged to clade 2.3.4.4b of Avian Influenza A(H5Nx) viruses. In 2020, Avian Influenza A(H5N8) viruses were also detected in poultry or wild birds in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Egypt, Germany, Hungary, Iraq, Japan, Kazakhstan, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, the United Kingdom, and the Russian Federation. Source: World Health Organization
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- may 2021 -
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WORLDWIDE NEWS
New approach to transfers beneficial genes between breeds Gene-editing approach transfers beneficial genes between breeds to produce offspring with useful characteristics. White Leghorn chickens had a naturally occurring change to their genes amended, to restore their black plumage. Sterile male and female chicken eggs have been implanted with reproductive cells from donor birds and the resulting chickens mated together, to produce chicks of the donor breed.
a single generation. The approach could also help safeguard rare chicken breeds, by storing frozen reproductive cells.
The chicks showed characteristics inherited from their real parents, the donor birds, along with the edited change to their DNA, rather than their surrogate parents.
Editing traits
The outcome, using gene editing, demonstrates an efficient way to introduce beneficial characteristics – such as tolerance for warm climates, or disease resistance – from one chicken breed to another.
The method to control the reproductive genes carried by both parents – known as Sire Dam Surrogate mating – can ensure that offspring will inherit a desired gene from both parents, and exhibit the characteristic associated with that gene.
The application of this technology could bring benefits to the global poultry industry – from large scale commercial operations to smallholder farmers in low- and middle-income countries. Beneficial genes can be transferred from one breed into another via gene editing of embryos, in
A team from the Centre for Tropical Livestock Genetics and Health (CTLGH) and the Roslin Institute, with their commercial partner Cobb-Europe, demonstrated their approach by using sterile male and female chickens, known as empty nest chickens, to transfer feather
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- worldwide news -
WORLDWIDE NEWS
characteristics between breeds. The team removed reproductive stem cells – early stage cells that later develop into sperm and eggs – from chicken embryos using gene-editing technology, and used the same technology to introduce gene edits into these reproductive cells from another breed. The altered reproductive cells were then implanted into surrogate parents – the embryos of chicks and cockerels that were bred to be sterile. These surrogates were hatched and mated with one another. The resulting offspring were of the donor breed, and not that of their surrogate parents. They also had the new traits created by gene-editing technology.
“A team from the Centre for Tropical Livestock Genetics and Health (CTLGH) and the Roslin Institute, with their commercial partner Cobb-Europe, demonstrated their approach by using sterile male and female chickens, known as empty nest chickens, to transfer feather characteristics between breeds”
How research demonstrated their approach Researchers demonstrated their approach by repairing a natural genetic change that causes distinctive white plumage in the White Leghorn breed. The chicks born to the sterile chickens now had a black plumage. Similarly, the team introduced a distinctive curly feather, which is believed to help Western African breeds cope with hot climates, into chicks bred from Light Sussex chickens, a British breed. The concept could allow the transfer of useful traits among the world’s 1,600 breeds of chicken, and could aid animal productivity and welfare, and help safeguard against changing environmental conditions. Researchers agree that poultry production in low- and middle-income countries could benefit hugely from this research. Key indigenous chicken breeds that are well suited to living in
challenging conditions could be preserved using this new technology. The genetics of future generations of indigenous breeds could also be improved through the sharing of beneficial traits, leading to healthier, more productive birds. The study was published in Nature Communications, and research carried out at the National Avian Research Facility at the Roslin Institute. The work was funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office through CTLGH, as well as UKRI and Innovate UK. Source: The Roslin Institute
INTERNATIONAL POULTRY EXHIBITION
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- may 2021 -
7-8-9 September 2021 RIMINI - ITALY
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COMPANY NEWS
Phytogenics: improving tom’s fertility through the power of nature parameters. Above, positive results in biological markers indicate the reduction of the impact of free radicals. Roberto Montanhini Neto, DVM MSc PhD, Global Lead Monogastrics, Delacon Biotechnik GmbH
©Delacon
Phytogenic compounds can have direct antioxidant effects, such as the scavenging of free radicals by polyphenols, or even indirect ones, by stimulating the animals’ organism to synthesize higher amounts of endogenous antioxidant substances (glutathione-peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, etc.). Such substances, in turn, guarantee protection against oxidative processes. Certain phytogenic compounds, such as some essential oils and saponins, can also directly affect hormonal regulation and, consequently, spermatogenesis.
It is widely recognized that fertility problems are strongly associated with males, even though females may also influence the flock’s breeding performance parameters. Therefore, concentrating efforts on actions that improve males’ reproductive functionality is recommended. Among the aspects recognized as significantly impairing males’ fertility, oxidative stress has the greatest evidence of harm, particularly on semen quality, the viability and functionality of sperm cells, and even the integrity of loaded genetic material inside the sperm. The oxidation is due to the high levels of lipid compounds in the seminal components, which are highly susceptible to attack by free radicals. Furthermore, oxidative stress can also impact the production and excretion of reproductive hormones, especially testosterone, and consequently affect spermatogenesis, the process by which spermatozoids are formed in the testicular tissues. The scientific literature is relatively abundant regarding the use of active ingredients from plants, the so-called phytogenic compounds, to mitigate the harmful effects of oxidative stress on male fertility in different species. Numerous assays with experimental animal models have demonstrated the impact of oxidative stress. In these studies, the addition of phytogenic additives in the diet resulted in the recovery of the most critical male-fertility
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©Delacon
Phytogenic compounds can have direct antioxidant effects.
Scientific validations have proven the effectiveness of PFAs.
Based on extensive and deep knowledge in the universe of phytogenic compounds and their respective effects on the metabolism of farm animals, Delacon Biotechnik GmbH, a pioneer and global leader in the production of phytogenic feed additives for animal nutrition, recently launched a revolutionary natural solution to improve the fertility of breeding males. This well-formulated phytogenic feed additive (PFA) has a unique formulation specially developed to address reproductive issues and control the effects of oxidative stress in this category of breeding males. In its composition, a comprehensive range of essential oils, flavonoids, and saponins, all obtained from natural sources, provide an increase in the oxidative resilience of semen and its components and optimize reproductive hormonal processes. Scientific validations have proven the PFA´s effectiveness in improving the reproductive parameters of breeding
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COMPANY NEWS
males, as well as the females that received semen from males treated with this additive. Among these validations, an experiment was carried out in a Midwestern US integration with 1,200 breeding toms from the Hybrid strain treated with the PFA, which was added into the production phase feed. The tom’s reproductive parameters were then compared to more than 10,000 other toms that did not receive the product. It was observed (see Figure 1) that breeding toms treated with the PFA in this experiment had a significant increase in both the amount of semen (by 5%) and the packed sperm volume (by 6.5%), compared to those that did not receive the additive (Control group). Subsequently, this improvement in the semen quality of treated toms also increased the inseminated females’ production of fertile eggs by 3.5%. Sponsored text by Delacon.
Figure 1 – Effects of Biostrong® Fertile on toms’ packed sperm volume and semen quantity.
Prinzen Palletiser, the latest addition to the Prinzen product range To meet the increasing demand of further mechanization in automated egg handling the Prinzen Palletiser is the latest addition to the Prinzen product range. The capacity and functionality of the automatic palletiser perfectly matches the packing capacity of the Prinzen packer range starting from 25,200 (Prinzen70) up to 39,600 (Speedpack 110). The palletiser receives stacks of six trays from an automatic stacker and places stacks onto a pallet. It can handle 40,000 eggs per hour on pallets, i.e. 110 cases, by lifting 4 stacks of trays in each movement. The palletiser operates independent and connects with any suitable type of farm packer. The frame design is compact and matches various egg room lay-outs and uses very little floor space. Product manager Willy Groot Zevert about the new product: “The Prinzen Palletiser 110 automatically places the stacks onto the standardized plastic pallet concepts used in the egg business. This of course saves time, because the farmer doesn’t have to stop to move trays manually anymore. And egg quality output improves as this allows the poultry farmer now to focus extra on selecting the eggs. The Prinzen Palletiser 110 greatly reduces the tir-
ing work of handling stacks and pleasantly improves the egg collecting work. And the attractive price of the palletiser really invites to invest in yourself.”
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COMPANY FOCUS
Officine Facco and University of Padua together for the welfare of hens A three-year path in which the current cage-free systems will be implemented to ensure and increase the welfare of animals in medium and large farms. Facco and the University of Padua present an important collaboration, in a 3-year path, which also sees the support of Unismart, Fondazione Cariparo and Banca Intesa, for the development of entirely cage-free farming systems with the goal of imagining and creating together the solutions of the future in line with the objectives of the Green Deal and the Farm2Fork Strategy of the European Union. Facco, for over 60 years a leader in the construction of large poultry plants all over the world and in any climatic condition, has always given great space
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COMPANY FOCUS
and value to the close collaboration with the best specialists in the field of biosecurity, agriculture and veterinary and the technological sector, precisely to maximize the welfare of the hen in its systems. The University of Padua is among the oldest in the world and is present in the world rankings for the excellent quality of its research in various sectors, including agricultural and veterinary sciences (Global Ranking of Academic Subjects, 2020). A shared path that arises precisely from the evolution of the sector. In recent years, in fact, many countries such as the USA and all of Europe, but not only, have started the conversion or have switched to cage-free systems, which in addition to allowing animals to express behaviors typical of their species in a natural environment - such as scratching, perching and hatching - allow the animals to move freely within the plant itself. From this trend arises the need to design systems that must bring together various factors by balancing them carefully: first of all, to allow animals to live with a high level of well-being and control, in line with the ethical approach required by the new regulations but especially from the market thanks to the greater awareness of consumers. Then, the need to create an industrially sustainable system in terms of maintenance, occupied spaces and volumes and - last but not least - the need to optimize energy consumption and environmental sustainability is also fundamental. With the aim of giving full expression to the behavioral repertoire and the most complete freedom of movement of animals, Facco and University of Padua, with the Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Nutrition (Angela Trocino) and the Department of Agronomy, Animal Food, Natural Resources and Environment (Gerolamo Xiccato), have therefore set up a path that will develop over three years of activity and research, with an important investment of about 500,000 euros, whose focal points concern: • the adaptation phase: crucial moment when the animals move from the weaning facility to the modern cage-free production farm; • the environmental context: study of the characteristics that the context and the equipments must have (for materials, colors, automations, environmental enrichments, etc ...) to better support the behavior of animals in the laying and hatching phases (Nests), feeding, watering and movement during the various
- may 2021 -
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60 years of experience in cage free and free range 60 years of experience in projects all over the world! cage free and free range projects all over the world!
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Contact us Marsango di Campo San Martino Padova - Italy +39 049 9698111 Marsango di Campo San Martino www.facco.net - info@facco.net Padova - Italy +39 049 9698111 www.facco.net - info@facco.net
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COMPANY FOCUS
phases of the day through a correct management of lighting in the various environments available for the animals in the system; • hygiene and maintenance: study of the characteristics that the equipment and automation systems must have to better manage the litter and the cleaning systems of the plant to respect the needs of the animals and at the same time help the farmer in the cleaning phase and plant maintenance ensuring the highest levels of hygiene and biosecurity for animals and operators; • behavior and well-being: study of animal behavior in the phases of adaptation and production, performance and consumption through the analysis of data gathered for entire cycles through the innovative monitoring systems, data collection and analysis created and managed by the Facco Smart Farm system. “Companies and territories must invest in culture and training”, Massimo Finco, President of Officine Facco, comments. “We are working with pride and great enthusiasm together with the University of Padua with the common goal of developing knowledge through research while at the same time training young people with high qualifications capable to give their own contribution of innovation to growth and competitiveness of the economic system. In this case also to further improve the quality of life of the hens in the plants, not just Facco’s. We are working for a shared future in which all biosecurity standards can be enhanced and innovated through the virtuous behaviors of hens, and in which they lead a life that respects their needs, in order to be - as per our DNA - forerunners of a changing world, interpreters of new needs and interlocutors with new subjects. An exchange of knowledge between the production sector and the university capable of making us more competitive, attractive for new talents and totally respectful of the animal welfare.” “Universa Universis Patavina Libertas: full freedom, for all, in the University of Padua. In that ‘for all’, there is an element to which particular attention should be paid: it is for all the freedom that comes from knowledge, not only for some”, comments Fabrizio Dughiero of the University of Padua, Vice-Rector for Technology Transfer and Business Relations. “Therefore, the duty of making the knowledge acquired by study and research available to the territory arises from the motto of our University. It is in this context that the technology and knowledge transfer is
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generated which, in a logic of open innovation, contributes to the creation of new products, processes and innovative business models such as the case described here of the collaboration between our University and Officine Facco. The collaboration between university and business helps to create a relationship of trust that brings advantages to both the actors involved: on the one hand it quickly leads to the generation of innovation from skills present in the university, on the other it helps to touch firsthand the practical applications of research ‘of the useless knowledge’”. “The added and characterizing value of the collaboration initiated by Officine Facco and our University is in the exchange of knowledge and skills, in the shared methods of construction and implementation of the path, in the impact of the results”, comments Angela Trocino of the University of Padua, Project Manager. “The approach is multidisciplinary and fully includes the skills of the University and those of the company, also providing training for company staff and students. The scientific method and rigorous implementation ensure the transferability of the results in the field. The socio-economic impact can be identified in the promotion of cage-free breeding systems in a context of scientific research and production aimed at improving breeding practices, enhancing product quality, and implementing sustainability practices. environmental and animal welfare protection. This is a global impact and not attributable to the individual company or university, since these systems are able to provide added value not only to poultry production but to all animal production in general, for the ethical value they include.” The project, which will make it possible to create a prototype of a system to be shared with companies in the national and international territory, also makes use of a Unismart grant, PhD scholarships on a restricted topic (2019 call) on the Doctoral Course in Animal and Food Science from the University of Padua and a Unimpresa loan (call 2019) which always sees the participation of Officine Facco. For more information: Facco Tel.: 049-9698100 E-mail: facco@facco.net – Website: www.facco.net Università di Padova Tel.: 049-8272583 E-mail: angela.trocino@unipd.it Website: www.unipd.it
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COMPANY FOCUS
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FIELD REPORT
Bugs have no boundaries: antimicrobial resistance challenges of Australian poultry
@cobb.com
This presentation identifies challenges of emerging critically important antimicrobial resistance particularly from “reverse zoonosis” and “migratory birds” in Australia.
Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the most prominent health and biosecurity issues affecting animals and humans in modern society. Owing to the complex biology whereby AMR can develop and be harboured in a multitude of host animal species and the environment, it is arguably the biosecurity issue that best epitomises the need for a One Health approach to management. S. Abraham Antimicrobial Resistance and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia
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In recent decades, we have seen the emergence of critically important antimicrobial (CIA)-resistant E. coli and Salmonella in livestock production systems in Asia, Europe and North America. This predominant-
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ly includes resistance to drugs such as fluoroquinolones (FQs) and extended spectrum cephalosporins (ESCs) amongst isolates from pigs, poultry and cattle. Resistance to critically important antimicrobials (CIAs) amongst Enterobacteriaceae is shaping up as a key risk for livestock producers, particularly when it involves organisms with the potential to colonise humans, cause disease in humans or both. Internationally, there are growing calls for closer scrutiny of the pathways by which humans might be exposed to sources of CIA from animals. Outside of Australia, the emergence in livestock of bacteria resistant to CIAs, particularly those which are heavily relied on in human medicine (ESCs and FQs) has often been attributed to the routine use of such antimicrobials in livestock production systems. Evidence accumulated over the last decade suggests that the ecology of AMR amongst E. coli and Salmonella isolated from Australian food-producing animals differs considerably to that observed in many other countries. This is attributable to Australia’s unique geography, quarantine restrictions and unique constraints governing the use of CIAs in food-producing animals. For example, in Australia FQs have never been registered for use in food-producing animals and label directives limit the administration of ESCs to only individual animals. Polymixins are only found in a single registered preparation that has low-level of use as a topical agent for ocular conditions. This multifaceted approach has been successful in minimizing the occurrence of CIA resistance among Gram-negative bacteria in food-producing animals.
FIELD REPORT
Confirmation of the above status exists in the form of findings from cross-sectional studies that have demonstrated that Gram-negative bacteria obtained from Australian livestock have nil or low levels of resistance to a wide range of critically important antimicrobials. In addition, recent AMR surveys in poultry also revealed low levels of resistance among key indicator bacteria such as E. coli and Enterococci spp. and food borne pathogen Salmonella spp. To date, there are no reports of resistance to carbapenems and colistin amongst E. coli and Salmonella from Australian livestock, and resistance to FQs and ESCs has been observed at only very low frequencies in such isolates. Genomic analysis has revealed that these FQand ESC-resistant strains are very dissimilar to those previously observed in clinically ill humans in Australia but have previously been observed amongst humans and wild birds overseas. This provides grounds to suggest that the very few FQ- and ESC-resistant E. coli and Salmonella isolated from livestock in Australia are unlikely to have evolved locally but rather have been introduced into Australia from abroad, potentially via incursion mechanisms such as human carriers and/or wild birds.
CIA-resistant E. coli from Australian wild birds More recently than the livestock studies above, we have reported the emergence of CIA- resistant E. coli among Australian seagulls. Following detection of the carriage of carbapenem resistance in E. coli, from a single, large, offshore seagull colony in New South Wales, a subsequent Australia- wide survey based on 562 faecal samples from six Australian states reported widespread occurrence of extended-spectrum cephalosporin (21.7%) and fluoroquinolone (23.8%) resistant E. coli. Comparative genomic characterisation revealed that gulls carry pandemic extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli -ST131 and globally emerging fluoroquinolone-resistant ST1193, both clones recognised as globally-distributed human pathogens. The rate of CIA-resistance among seagull E. coli was surprisingly high in a country where FQ and ESC resistant E. coli are typically rare or absent among food animals. Another study further characterized the dynamics of drug-resistant E. coli in wildlife populations, where we
investigated the carriage of critically important antimicrobial (CIA) drug-resistant E. coli in four bird species in a common environment. This study revealed that gulls (53%), little penguins (11%) and feral pigeons (11%) carried E. coli resistant to critically important antimicrobials. Genomic analysis also confirmed that these are human associated E. coli strains and genetic analysis of antimicrobial resistance genes indicated interspecies resistance transfer. Terns, representing a bird species that forages on natural food sources at sea and distant from humans, did not test positive for drug-resistant E. coli. This study demonstrates carriage of CIA-resistant bacteria in multiple bird species living in areas commonly frequented by humans. The carriage of diverse human associated CIA-resistant E. coli clones among seagulls and urban birds indicates that urban and peri-urban scavenging birds can indiscriminately accumulate and disseminate CIA-resistant bacteria of anthropogenic origins. These studies uniquely establish that Australian Silver Gulls and other urban birds are carriers of virulent CIA-resistant human-associated pathogenic E. coli clones. The carriage of diverse CIA-resistant E. coli clones, that strongly resemble pathogenic clones from humans, suggests that seagulls can act as ecological sponges indiscriminately accumulating and disseminating CIA-resistant bacteria over vast distances. The public health and animal health implications are yet to be determined; however, it is possible that both human and potentially livestock are likely to be exposed to pathogenic CIA-resistant E. coli from a wide range of other species including ducks and ibis that share ecological niches with scavenging birds. The “reverse zoonosis” and “migratory bird” hypotheses represent important scientific challenges. The potential exists for these pathways to result in permanent colonisation of livestock systems with organisms carrying potent resistance determinants that undergo proliferation due to the use of first-line antimicrobials registered for use in livestock such as tetracyclines, through a phenomenon known as co-selection due to the carriage of multi-drug resistant genomic elements. References are available on request From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2021
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DOSSIER
Clark1,2
Dr. Steven R. Professional Veterinary Services Manager, Turkeys, Huvepharma, Inc., Peachtree City, Georgia
Dr. Lindy Froebel, Senior Advisor for Scientific and Regulatory Affairs, National Turkey Federation (NTF), Washington, DC 1Turkey
Industry subcommittee chairman of the United States Animal Health Association Committee on Poultry and Other Avian Species. 2Clark, et.al. Turkey Industry Annual Report available since 2000 <www.usaha.org>
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Current health and industry issues facing the US turkey industry Second part In this second part the author completes his insight into the most relevant health issues threatening the US turkey industry. The turkey industry continues to work to reduce Salmonella (#6) colonization in birds. Poult enteritis of unknown etiologies has changed in importance, to position #10 (#12, 8, 10, 14 from 2019-2016). Turkey Coronavirus (TCV), as a defined cause of enteritis, was ranked #29 (#29, 30, 30, 31 from 2019-2016), with 27 reported cases, from 95 (2019) and 185 (2018) previous years. Protozoal Enteritis, attributed to flagellated protozoa, Cochlosoma, Tetratrichomonas and Hexamita, ranked #15, changed from #16; protozoal enteritis remained relatively unchanged
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DOSSIER
over past years until 2016 and associated with the loss of nitarsone. Several types of protozoa are associated with enteric disease of turkeys. Protozoal enteritis can present general signs, including dehydration, loss of appetite (off-feed), loose droppings (diarrhea) and watery intestinal contents. Flagellated protozoa include Cochlosoma, Tetratrichomonas and Hexamita. Eimeria and Cryptosporidia are non-flagellated protozoa. Cochlosoma and Hexamita are associated with enteritis, primarily in young turkeys, especially in the summer months. There are field reports of co-infections with Cochlosoma and Tetratrichomonas, or Cochlosoma and Hexamita, or flagellated protozoa and Eimeria. Late mortality ranked #9 health issue and changed from #10 the prior year. Late mortality may be defined as mortality, in excess of 1.5% per week, in toms (males) 17-weeks and older; mortality is not diagnosed to a specific disease or cause. Excess cumulative mortality of 5-10% in toms prior to slaughter has been reported. Late mortality may be associated with physiologic or biomechanical deficiencies following early rapid growth in
heavy toms achieving genetic potential; aggressive behavior noted in mature toms; cannibalism; leg problems and/or hypertension. Round Worms (Ascaridia dissimilis) ranked #14, and has positioned between #14-#19 since 2015. The industry is concerned that reduced sensitivity to anthelmintics is an issue. High worm burdens can be associated with necrotic enteritis (#16) and the cause of high mortality in flocks. THRV (Turkey Hepatitis Reovirus) is a new disease issue added to this survey in 2020 and ranking #18. THRV affected flocks ranged in age from 7 to 46 days with a median age of 15.5 days. Mortality peaks and subsides in a week and the cumulative mortality is 3-8%. Heat stress ranked #22 in 2019 compared to #20 prior year. Tunnel ventilated barns allow growers to manage heat stress better than in years past. Poult Enteritis Mortality Syndrome (PEMS) ranked #30 versus #32 previously. Avian Metapneumovirus (AmPV) ranked #34 since 2017.
Roxell introduces 3 types of convection heaters: gas, water or oil Roxell is expanding its range of convection heaters for poultry and pigs with 3 new types. The expansion means that every livestock company can find a reliable, safe and high-quality heating system at Roxell. Discover the new heating systems:
roxell.com/categories/heating
Range of heating systems: a unique solution for every livestock farmer FEEDING
DRINKING
NESTING
HEATING
VENTILATION
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DOSSIER
Mycoplasma synoviae (MS, infectious synovitis) infections, ranked #31 (#24, prior year), are one cause of synovitis. It may be present in flocks 10-12 weeks of age with typically low mortality and low morbidity. There were 21 cases of MS reported. The primary breeders have remained free of M. gallisepticum (MG), M. meleagridis (MM) and MS. Sporadic, but increasingly frequent infections with Mycoplasma, both MG and MS, often in association with backyard poultry and broiler breeder flocks is an ongoing concern, having the greatest impact when a breeder flock is infected and has to be destroyed. There were 31 cases of MG reported. The health of turkeys is a top priority of industry members, and the National Turkey Federation (NTF) works to support the industry in endeavors to promote advancements in turkey health. NTF’s Turkey Health Task Force, established in 2017, along with NTF staff, has continued working to find innovative solutions for the top disease challenges facing the turkey industry. The task force has continued to focus its efforts on accelerating the development and approval of turkey health products and support research to improve turkey health. NTF supports reduced regulatory barriers for new turkey health product approvals to assist the turkey industry in raising healthy turkeys to produce safe and nutritious turkey products. The impact of SARS-CoV-2 (Covid-19) was felt throughout the country in 2020, and the turkey industry, like most industries, faced unprecedented situations. Because Covid-19 was a new virus first observed in humans in 2019, substantial knowledge gaps needed immediate attention to better understand the virus, including the susceptibility of animals to Covid-19, whether Covid-19 could be transmitted by food products and the ability of the virus to persist in the environment. While the virus is still not well understood, several research groups have worked to address concerns of Covid-19 in poultry products and further the understanding of the virus transmission. Initial research conducted by USDA ARS and the FAO has indicated chickens, turkeys, ducks, quail and geese are not able to become infected with Covid-19. In addition, chicken eggs, commonly used to grow viruses for vaccine antigen, were unable to grow the virus. Further, current research suggests that contact with poultry and other livestock and consumption of meat and poultry, productions are unlikely sources of Covid-19 transmission to humans.
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Blackhead continues to be a top disease of concern for the turkey industry, as it results in significant mortality, and the pursuit to find efficacious preventative and control options for blackhead remain top priorities for the industry. In 2019, FDA provided the Turkey Health Task Force with a Minor Use in Major Species (MUMS) designation for control in the incidence of mortality in turkeys at high risk of developing blackhead associated with Histomonas meleagridis in flocks of turkeys where blackhead has been diagnosed. Although a product has not yet been identified to be submitted under the MUMS designation, NTF remains optimistic that benefits of MUMS status can incentivize the prioritization of the development of new molecules to mitigate blackhead. Turkey Arthritis Reovirus (TARV) and other related leg issues continue to be an industry-wide concern. In December, NTF published the results of an industry-wide survey on the economic impact of TARV. Though the average increase in production cost per pound for flocks affected by TARV reported was 5.6 cents in comparison to unaffected flocks, the virus increased costs as high as 15 cents per pound for TARV affected flocks. The report indicated the impact could be as high as $33.7 million dollars with highly pathogenic strains of TARV. Approximately 226 million pounds were affected with 5 percent of toms produced annually diagnosed with TARV. It is important to note that while the economic impact of TARV to the turkey industry is considerable, the impact of TARV on an individual turkey producer that may only have two flocks per year can be especially burdensome. There is currently no treatment for TARV and the industry lacks reliable and cost-effective diagnostic tools to identify TARV in turkey flocks. Therefore, research and advancement for prevention and treatment options for TARV are of significant interest to the turkey industry. Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) continues to be a focus for the US poultry industry. Since the outbreak in 2015, detection, prevention and response across the industry has greatly improved. USDA published a set of 14 biosecurity principles of the National Poultry Improvement Plan (NPIP) in 2017 that serve as the basis for biosecurity at poultry facilities. Strict biosecurity remains important to prevent Avian Influenza outbreaks and routine testing is essential to identify flocks positive for Avian Influenza as early as possible. In October, APHIS (Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service) issued their final rule updating the NPIP to align
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with changes in the poultry industry and incorporate new scientific information and technologies into the NPIP. These updates were approved by representatives from across the poultry industry at the 2018 NPIP Biennial Conference, and a draft rule was published in December 2019. This is the final step in the rulemaking process. Among other important updates, of most interest to the turkey industry is the clarification of low pathogenic Avian Influenza (LPAI) regulations on indemnity and compensation. These sections amend the terms and definitions of H5/H7 LPAI infection (infected) and H5/H7 LPAI exposed.The new terms proposed were H5/H7 LPAI virus exposed (noninfectious) and H5/H7 LPAI virus actively infected (infectious). The revision to these terms does not change APHIS’ response policies for LPAI events. Compensation for cleaning and disinfection (virus elimination) of premises, conveyances and materials that encountered poultry infected with or exposed to H5/H7 LPAI will continue to be determined using the current APHIS flat-rate virus elimination (VE) calculator. These revisions to terminology in the final rule do not pertain to the conditions for payment, nor how payment is calculated. APHIS is in the process of discontinuing the use of the indemnity calculator in favor of a different appraisal apparatus, and NTF has been working closely with the agency to make sure turkey is valued fairly.
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Although not a major turkey health concern, Salmonella continues to be reported as a top priority for the turkey industry in this survey. NTF continues to assist the turkey industry in efforts to reduce Salmonella throughout turkey production and processing. In the last year, NTF has hosted three meetings for industry members focused on Salmonella. As part of the discussions on reduction strategies, NTF updated its Salmonella Risk Mitigation Practices document that details best practices to be considered at all sectors of the supply chain, including breeder and hatchery, commercial production and processing operations. This document is located on EatTurkey.org. While this document is not all encompassing and every intervention may not be appropriate in all operations, the best practices included are potential strategies for reducing Salmonella. However, there is still a need for the development of interventions to mitigate Salmonella, and NTF continues to support research with the objectives of improving the understanding of Salmonella and products that reduce colonization of Salmonella in turkeys. Monimax.Ad_(88x230)_EN01.042l_v2.indd 1
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The approval of new anticoccidials remains a significant need for the turkey industry. There currently is one commercial vaccine available and the number of chemical anticoccidials approved and available for turkeys on the market are limited. The lack of efficacious options is a challenge for the industry as a whole but is especially burdensome for antibiotic free production. Autogenous biologics play an integral role in the disease prevention and control programs of turkey producers. In addition, autogenous biologics are frequently a component of food safety programs because of their effectiveness at reducing the colonization in turkeys of pathogens associated with foodborne illness. Veterinarians work with live production specialists and farmers to supervise the day-to-day management of disease for turkey flocks, and therefore have most adequate knowledge of health needs of the animals for which they oversee. Members of the Turkey Health Task Force and NTF staff continue to advocate for policies that accelerate the approval of safe and effective biologics to assist the turkey industry with managing important pathogens. CVB published Draft Veterinary Services Memorandum No. 800.69 Draft No. 638 in June that would extend the isolate approval length for autogenous biologics from two years to up to six years. NTF supported the extension on the use of autogenous isolates on a justifiable basis when previous use of the autogenous biologic was deemed beneficial to flock health by the veterinarian, and to NTF’s knowledge there is no scientific basis for concern related to the proposed option for autogenous isolate extensions. FDA released the Annual antimicrobial sales and distribution data for 2018. Though there was a slight increase (9 percent) in the sales and distribution of medically important antimicrobials from 2017 through 2018, the overall decrease from 2015 remains significant at 38 percent. Tetracyclines, which represent the largest volume of these domestic sales (3,974,179 kg in 2018), increased by 12 percent from 2017 through 2018. Of the 2018 domestic sales and distribution of medically important antimicrobials approved for use in food-producing animals tetracyclines accounted for 66 percent, penicillins for 12 percent, macrolides for 8 percent, sulfas for 5 percent, aminoglycosides for 5 percent, lincosamides for 2 percent, cephalosporins for 1 percent and fluoroquinolones for less than 1 percent. NTF continues to support the judicious use of antimicrobials to manage turkey health issues.
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FDA is currently evaluating the interpretation of zero-day withdrawal times assigned to new animal drugs. Since the 1980s, FDA has assumed that poultry spent at least 6 hours withdrawn from drugs prior to slaughter due to transit process and additional times for other livestock. However, FDA sought comments to determine if its assumptions are correct based on current industry practices. Based on a survey conducted to understand current industry practices, NTF submitted comments noting that six hours is an appropriate zero-day withdrawal period especially given that government sampling of turkey products consistently shows virtually no violative residues in turkey meat produced in the United States. Determination by FDA on the interpretation of zero-day withdrawal times is expected in the next year. In 2020, APHIS made $10 million available for the National Animal Disease Preparedness and Response Program (NADPRP). The NADPRP sought proposals for projects that will advance capabilities and capacities related to rapid large-scale animal depopulation and carcass disposal in a high-consequence animal disease outbreak or enhance US livestock biosecurity. NTF continues to work with members and executives from state associations on application efforts to secure funding for projects that address turkey industry needs as part of this important program. In addition, $5 million was made available for the strengthening of the National Animal Health Laboratory Network (NAHLN). NTF, along with most other major animal-related commodity organizations as a part of the Animal Agriculture Coalition (AAC), pioneered the Animal Pest, Disease and Disaster Prevention and Response Program (APAD) in 2016 that was fully funded in the 2018 Farm Bill. This program is an important for disease prevention and response preparedness, especially for foreign disease threats to the US poultry and livestock industries. In 2019, turkey production decreased from 7,598,289.00 to 7,432,801.00 pounds (live weight) and decreased to 229,000,000 head with an average live weight of 32.22 lbs. In 2018, 244,750,000 head were produced with an average live weight of 31.12 lbs. Per capita consumption for turkey products decreased from 16.2 in 2018 to 16.0 in 2019. (Reference: National Turkey Federation Sourcebook, pending publication October 2019).
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Management of ectoparasites in cage-free housing systems Insect pests are more than just an inconvenience for poultry producers; they are devastating to the flock in the form of weight and production losses. As cage-free systems become more frequent in poultry production, we are forced to evaluate how insect control measures should adapt to ensure efficacy.
Cassie Krejci, Ph.D. Animal Health Technical Field Specialist MGK
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The key to insect control is integrated pest management. Simply put, integrated pest management (IPM) is the combination of several insect control measures to combat a pest population, including sanitation, physical barriers, cultural control methods, and insecticides. Three common ectoparasites frequently encountered in poultry facilities are mites, poultry lice, and bed bugs.
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Mites There are several species of mites that attack fowl and usually occur under the feathers. The most important of these species is the Northern Fowl Mites (NFM). Adults are about 1 mm long and dark red to black in color. Most of the life cycle is spent on the bird and under optimal conditions, a single bird can support the development of 20,000 mites in a 10-week time frame. The Poultry Red Mite (PRM), or Chicken Mite as it is referred to in the United States, Dermanyssus gallinae, is another mite species affecting poultry production farms in the United States. The PRM is about 1.5 times larger than the NFM and unlike the NFM, spends most of its time off the bird in cracks of the poultry house. Mite control involves correct identification of species to target harborage areas.
Lice Lice are classified as either biting lice or sucking lice based on their mouthparts and subsequent feeding
habits. Lice attacking poultry are biting lice. Lice will not leave the bird except to pass from one host to the other, which can be more frequent in cage-free systems due to proximity of birds to one another. Characterized by their wide heads, poultry lice will require on bird applications of insecticides. Products that adhere to the bird, such as dusts or oil-based insecticides will be most efficacious for residual control and repellency.
Bed bugs Bed bugs are an important and emerging pest of poultry production systems. Bed bugs are a cosmopolitan pest that can cause severe cutaneous reactions to both birds and workers within the facility. Bed bugs are particularly difficult to control in poultry facilities due to their excellent hiding capabilities, resistance to insecticides, and their ability to go long periods of time without a blood meal. Without proper control protocols in place, bed bug infestations will become a matter of fact.
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or pyrethroid active ingredients and are available in oilbased, water-based, or dust formulations. The difference between over- and on-animal application methods is as simple as the direction of the spray. On-animal applications will be directed downward, toward the bird, while over-animal applications will be fogged into the space above the birds to drift down. Oil-based insecticides are often preferred for on-bird issues like mites, bed bugs and lice because the oil carrying the insecticide will help to penetrate to the skin of the bird better than water and cling to the skin where these ectoparasites frequent. In addition, oil-based applications will prolong the residual effects of an insecticide application because it will not be easily washed off. A supplemental form of on-bird insect control are dust treatments to nest boxes if present.
“Integrated pest management in cage-free housing systems will involve the use of several insect control methods; a singular approach will not prove to be the most efficacious or economic. In cage-free housing systems, birds will encounter one another more frequently than in caged facilities and the ectoparasite populations can increase more rapidly than in traditional housing systems”
Premise-applied insecticides will give you more options for control in terms of rotating insecticidal classes of products. Premise insecticides cannot be applied to areas where birds frequent while present in the house unless the insecticide has been given time to completely dry but can offer more residual control. Pits, walls, and exterior areas are great locations for premise-applied insecticides while birds are present.
Methods for pest control Integrated pest management in cage-free housing systems will involve the use of several insect control methods; a singular approach will not prove to be the most efficacious or economic. In cage-free housing systems, birds will encounter one another more frequently than in caged facilities and the ectoparasite populations can increase more rapidly than in traditional housing systems. Over-bird and on-bird applications of insecticides will help with keeping insect populations down while birds are present in the facility. Insecticides approved for over-/on-animal application most often contain pyrethrin
As a final form of IPM, continuous monitoring of pest populations is integral to ensuring your control measures are working well. For example, there are several bed bug monitoring devices in the professional pest control market that can be utilized in poultry facilities. All insect traps should be monitored, recorded and replaced regularly. Touring the production facility with ectoparasites in mind will help with early detection, insecticide placement, and where to integrate physical improvements to the houses.
Conclusions Whether you are working with a traditional caged layer configuration or in a cage-free facility, utilizing integrated pest management techniques to keep your flock healthy and ectoparasite free is essential. Applications of insecticides, calculated product use, installation of physical barriers, sanitation, and continuous monitoring of pest populations will keep your birds performing at their highest potential. From the 2020 Proceedings of the Midwest Poultry Federation Convention
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Maternal stress, the potential impact on broiler breeders and subsequent chick development Managing stress in broiler breeders has been a continual topic of discussion since the early 1980’s, but our understanding of stress and its influence on gastrointestinal health and reproductive performance in poultry has only recently received attention. R.E.A Forder and M. Lane School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy Campus, Roseworthy SA; bec.forder@ adelaide.edu.au
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Evidence from both mammalian and ecology literature, in regards to maternal stress and developmental programming, highlights the need for further investigation into the physiology and behaviour of hens during lay; to find novel strategies to alleviate stress and in turn potentially improve welfare and production outcomes of both the hen and her progeny.
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Introduction The chicken meat industry has made tremendous production gains through advanced utilisation of genetic selection and nutritional understanding to ensure that chicken meat remains a low cost, desirable product that consumers continuously demand. The industry now requires new approaches to further advance efficiency and production, with developmental programming at the forefront of industry development. Developmental programming is defined as “alterations in the in ovo environment, induced by the maternal environment, resulting in developmental adaptations that permanently change the structure, physiology, metabolism, health and production of the offspring”. Environmental conditions provided during gestation/egg formation, primarily involving stress and nutrition, have the capacity to contribute, enhance or disrupt programming of physiological mechanisms regulating progeny growth, health, behaviour and production. Developmental programming can be affected by environmental factors, such as stress and nutrition, which compromise the maternal environment experienced by developing offspring, resulting in permanent physiological alterations to offspring phenotype, further impacting their health and productive performance. Physiological alterations can be induced directly through altered organ development and disrupted endocrine axes development, which may be mediated through epigenetic effects, with potential trans-generational impacts. Additionally, the microbial environment housed by the mother is generating enormous interest through its potential to contribute to environmental factors influencing the maternal environment, via the brain-gut-microbiota axis and its potential influence on developmental programming mechanisms. Progeny exposure to maternal stress during early development can change an organism’s microbiota composition, and the microbiota can alter the organism’s ability to respond to stress after birth. Recent findings from our group have demonstrated that maternal stress in broilers can have significant negative effects on progeny body weight, stress-linked behaviour, immune response and body composition. The extent to which alterations to the intestinal environment, including microbiota, affects the programming of gut-brain signalling pathways of both the hen and her progeny, is an area of great interest. Considering commercial chicken meat birds now
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spend ~40% of their life in ovo, the influence of breeder hen rearing practices on progeny development, especially through maternal stress, may provide a pathway to improve production aspects through nutritional manipulations of already well-established industry protocols. Thus, there is substantial opportunity to optimise breeder hen health, reproductive capacity and welfare standards, all of which will improve industry profitability, as well as community perception of the chicken meat industry.
Brain-gut-microbiota axis The intimate interaction between the central nervous system, the gastrointestinal tract and the residing microbiota, coined the brain-gut-microbiota axis has been extensively reviewed in the literature. Bidirectional communication exists between the gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system that not only ensures the proper maintenance of gastrointestinal homeostasis and digestion but is likely to have multiple effects on higher cognitive functions. Studies on GF animals have demonstrated that the gut microbiota can modulate brain development, function and behaviour, and that brain function or behaviour can affect the microbiota composition and gastrointestinal function. Evidence supporting such modulation in chickens, however, is still elusive. A study by Calefi, et al. (2016) demonstrated that C. perfringens infection was able evoke behavioural changes in chickens; increasing the frequency of sleeplike behaviour and decreased feeding, walking, feather pecking, and
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Brain (CNS)
Enteric to Autonomic Nervous System (ENS-ANS) Mucosal immune regulation Proinflammatory Cytokines (IL-6, TNF- ) Macrophages, Mast Cells Bacterial metabolites (SCFA)
Gut-Brain Axis
HPA axis (stress response) Autonomic to Enteric nervous system (ANS-ENS) Immune Activation Gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) Proinflammatory Cytokines (IL-4) CD4+T cells, Macrophages Mast cells
GIT
Microbiota Figure 1– Bidirectional communication between the gut microbiota and central nervous system (CNS). Interactions between the intestinal microbiota, immune system and CNS are essential for the maintenance of host health.
standing behaviours, when birds were exposed to heat stress. Their results demonstrated a direct relationship between heat stress and C. perfringens-induced effects on gut inflammation, corticosterone serum levels and immune reactive neurons, which are related to HPA-axis activity, providing some Communication between the brain and gut, including microbiota, occurs via complex neural (CNS, autonomic and enteric nervous system), endocrine (specifically the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis) and immune signalling pathways (Figure 1). Disturbances to this axis, have been implicated in a wide range of disorders, including functional and inflammatory gastrointestinal disorders, such as IBD and IBS as well as extra-intestinal disorders such as allergy, obesity, cardiovascular disease and neurological disorders, such as anxiety and depression.
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Gut dysbiosis Gut dysbiosis occurs when there is a disruption in the gut-brain axis, and consequent disruption to the symbiotic relationship between gut microbial population and the intestinal mucosa. It has been speculated that intestinal inflammation develops as the result of an imbalance in the maintenance of homeostasis between intestinal commensals and immunity to pathogens, with an impairment of intestinal barrier function and increased intestinal permeability. In addition, there is also a decrease in metabolic function including the production of essential host nutrients such as short chain fatty acids (SCFA) and vitamins. Dysbiosis or dysbacteriosis has been characterised in broiler chickens with non-infectious factors, including nutritional and management stressors being key causes. Of growing interest, is the relation-
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ship between stressor-induced alterations to the maternal brain-gut-microbiota axis, and the impact on progeny development. Primary mediators of the stress response, including corticosterone (HPA axis) and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), can regulate multiple aspects of immune function and, in return, immune mediators trigger the stress response and modulate its effects on the gastrointestinal tract, including the growth and type of commensal and pathogenic organisms. Such axes modulation via stress factors can cause alteration to intestinal permeability, motility and changes in mucus production, causing an inflammatory response. Consequently, increased permeability of the intestinal barrier and microbial driven inflammation can then exert influence back on the HPA axis. Continuous stress-induced impairment of the intestinal barrier creates a positive feedback like situation whereby inflammatory cytokines persistently activate the SNS and HPA-axis resulting in barrier disruption, increased endotoxin translocation and a low-grade inflammatory state. Interestingly, this continual low-grade chronic inflammation has been reported to affect fertility
“Corticosterone depositions in the yolk of the egg have been identified, potentially providing a link between maternal stress and progeny development in egg laying species, similar to that of placental transfer in mammals”
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and subsequent embryo development in rodent models of obesity. Investigators were able to draw correlations between obesity-mediated gut dysbiosis and markers of ovarian inflammatory responses and oocyte gene expression. Further investigation into linking stress-mediated gut dysbiosis and reproductive performance, through such mechanisms, would be of great interest not only in clinical application but also for commercial poultry production, where the health and performance of their breeding stock is paramount. While it is becoming increasingly evident that stressor-induced alterations in the microbiota of adult animals can significantly impact host physiology and associated disorders, there is also evidence to suggest that the consequences of these alternations can have long-term negative implications in regards to both pre-natal and post-natal development of their progeny. There are two possible potential mechanisms: as mentioned before, microbial communities have been implicated in altering neuroendocrine axis, therefore changing the maternal profile of hormones and other signalling molecules that are exposed to the developing foetus and chick. Another possibility is that, in many animals, it is well established that bacterial sources for the newborn are derived from the maternal microbiota, either through the placenta, uterus and vagina, and recently discovered through the oviduct to the egg of poultry. This initial colonisation of the gut by maternally-derived microbes can ultimately “reset” neuroendocrine axes and have a profound influence on growth, health and development of progeny.
Maternal stress and progeny development Maternal stress is well documented to influence progeny growth rate in various species and is a pressing issue in the broiler breeder industry due to current feed restriction practises. Feed restriction allows hens to maintain an optimum body weight and reproductive capacity; however it may result in hens experiencing chronic stress due to prolonged hunger with reported increase in gastrointestinal inflammation and permeability. Corticosterone depositions in the yolk of the egg have been identified, potentially providing a link between maternal stress and progeny development in egg laying species, similar to that of placental transfer in mammals. Gestational stress in mammalian species is linked with reductions in birthweight, permanent hypertension, hy-
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perglycaemia/hyperinsulinemia, behavioural alterations, as well as reduced immunocompetence and endocrine axis disruption. Similar physiological impacts have been noted in avian species in response to feed restriction, malnourishment and environmental conditions, such as cognitive disruption, anxiety and aggressive behaviours, delayed sexual maturation, compromised T-cell and B-cell mediated immunity and elevated baseline testosterone concentration. Decreased progeny growth rate and hatchling mass have also been reported in response to maternal stress, or in ovo administration of synthetic glucocorticoids to mimic the effects of maternal stress, although with limited consistency. Interestingly, animal studies altering the maternal environment, either through nutritional or environmental factors, have highlighted significant phenotypic variations between male and female progeny, identifying sex-dependent changes in body composition, hormonal profiles, muscle mass and growth in response to stress. Thus, maternal stress has implications for a wide variety of physiological functions in both male and female progeny, which is immensely important when considering mixed flock performance and flock uniformity. Studies investigating nutritional means to reduce stress in hens found that reducing caloric density but increasing dietary fibre was shown to decrease chronic hunger behaviours. On a low caloric density diet, hens were also shown to achieve significantly higher rates of lay and higher egg weights, with the percentage of fertile eggs
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remaining the same. The resulting progeny were heavier at hatch and 38 days old compared to progeny from hens on a standard commercial diet and also exhibited lower mortality rates. Such dietary strategies, including qualitative feed restriction, have been recently studied in broiler breeder pullets and ultimately demonstrate how improving stress and considering hen welfare could have a significant impact on progeny development, and commercial productivity.
Conclusion Taking advantage of the potential transgenerational maternal effects within the pyramid breeding system may enable a targeted approach in regards to nutritional or other supplement interventions at significant physiological time points, such as point of lay. Optimising gut health and reproductive output though implementation of novel breeder management strategies will positively influence all facets of production, including improved behaviour, immunity, growth and efficiency of subsequent generations. However, more research is needed to disentangle the mechanisms underpinning maternal stress, gut health and developmental programming in commercial poultry production. References are available on request From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2021
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The red-white-shift in global meat production Over the past fifty years, a remarkable change occurred in global meat production. This is true as well for the production volume as for the share of the main meat types in the overall production. This process can in short be termed as a redwhite-shift, indicating the decreasing importance of red meat and the increasing importance of white meat. In this paper, the dynamics at continent level will be documented. Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst
Great differences in the development of the meat types
The author is scientific director of the WING at the Hannover Veterinary University and Prof. emeritus of the University of Vechta, Germany
Between 1970 and 2019, global meat production increased from 100.7 mill. t to 337.2 mill. t or by 234.9%. Table 1 shows that the development of the production volume of the three meat types, which will be analysed in this paper, differed considerably. While the production of poultry meat increased by 116.6 mill. t or 772.1%, cattle meat only grew by 10.0 mill. t or 78.3%. Pig meat was in a middle position with an increase of 74.3 mill. t or 207.6%. To the
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global increase of meat production between 1970 and 2019, poultry meat contributed 49.3%, pig meat 31.4% and cattle meat 12.7%. All other meat types together shared only 6.6%. These figures impressively document the remarkable dynamics in poultry meat production. Figure 1 shows that this meat type surpassed the production volume of cattle meat in 1994 and in 2016 also that of pig meat. The decreasing production volume of pig meat since 2018 is a result of the outbreaks of the African swine fever in China and several other Asian countries.
Other steering factors for the success of poultry meat are the comparatively low production costs because of the favourable feed conversion rate and the short succession of generations which enable fast adaptions to market changes. Trade with poultry meat also changed considerably over the analysed time-period. Deep frozen whole birds are no longer the main traded product, cut up parts and processed meat are dominating presently. In some countries, fresh products have gained in importance.
Table 1 – The development of global meat production between 1970 and 2019 by meat types; data in 1,000 t (source: FAO database).
Poultry meat – the dominating meat type in North and South America
Year
Cattle meat
Pig meat
Poultry meat
Meat total
1970
38,349
35,797
15,096
100,669
1980
45,567
62,677
25,947
136,738
1990
53,029
69,701
40,997
179,493
2000
55,836
89,873
68,639
233,441
2010
62,654
108,973
99,297
294,619
2019
68,373
110,110
131,647
337,182
Increase total
30,024
74,313
116,551
236,515
78.3
31.4
772.2
234.9
Increase (%)
The remarkable dynamics in poultry meat production in comparison to the other meat types is a result of several steering factors. Very important is the fact that there are no religious barriers prohibiting the consumption of poultry meat. Other important factors are the broad variety of meals, which can be prepared with poultry meat, and the global success of fast food chains. While beef reached considerable market shares in these restaurants in preparing burgers, pig meat was and still is unimportant.
Figure 1 – The development of the global production of cattle meat, pig meat and poultry meat between 1970 and 2019 (source: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).
The American double continent plays an exceptional role in the red-white-shift of meat production. In the USA, poultry meat gained in importance already in the 1950s. Entrepreneurs like Frank Perdue and Don Tyson initiated the take-off of this meat type. Frank Perdue was one of the innovators. He very early realised the advantages of a vertically integrated company regarding production costs, meat quality and the constant supply for food retail. With the growing importance of broiler meat, a regional shift from the Midwest to the Southeast occurred (Windhorst 1989, p. 96). Figure 2 documents that as early as 1984 more poultry meat was produced than pig meat, and some years later even more than cattle meat. While the annual growth rates in poultry meat production remained high over the following decades, they were much lower in pig meat and beef. From 2015 on, these two meat types showed higher growth rates again. This was, however, not a result of a
Figure 2 – The development of cattle meat, pig meat and poultry meat production in North America between 1970 and 2019 (source: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).
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MARKETING
A comparison of the absolute growth in production and the relative growth rates (Table 2) documents the redwhite-shift in meat production in the Americas. The higher relative growth rates in South America are a result of the considerably lower production volumes in 1970 in comparison to North America. It is worth noting that in North America the absolute increase in poultry meat production was about 80% higher than that of the two other meat types together. Even though the absolute growth of poultry meat production in South America was twice as high as that of cattle meat, the latter could defend its market position better than in North America. Although the increase in poultry meat production was 1.9 mill. t higher than in North America, the gap between the production volumes of the two sub-continents was still as high as 2 mill. t in 2019.
“A constant and fast growth of poultry meat production is expected for the coming years, in particular in Southern Asia and Islamic countries. This will result in a further shrinking of the gap between the two leading meat types”
growing domestic demand but of the increasing exports to Russia and China. In both countries, the African swine fever led to a sharp reduction of pig meat production from 2014 on. In South America, meat production developed similar to North America. In 1970, the production volumes of the three meat types were, however, much lower than in North America. For years, beef was the favourite meat for the consumers and still is in some countries. In 1978, the production volume of poultry meat surpassed that of pig meat and in 2008 that of cattle meat (Figure 3). In a few years, the production volume of poultry meat will be higher than that of pig meat and cattle meat together. Beside the growing per capita consumption, the increasing exports of poultry meat will be the main steering factor for the ongoing dynamics.
Table 2 – A comparison of the absolute increase and the relative growth rates in cattle meat, pig meat and poultry meat production in North and South America between 1970 and 2019 (source: own calculations based on FAO data). Meat type
North America 1,000 t
South America
%
1,000 t
%
Cattle meat
2,784
25.4
10,543
175.8
Pig Meat
7,882
115.3
5,134
393.1
19,269
378.4
21,157
2,423.5
Poultry meat
Africa – poultry meat became the dominating meat type Even though African countries are playing a minor role in global meat production with a production volume of only 16.5 mill. t, it is worth noting that from 2018 on more poultry meat than cattle meat was produced (Figure 4). Between 1970 and 2019, poultry meat production grew by almost 6 mill. t or 998.3%. In contrast, cattle meat production increased by only 4.4 mill. t or 178.9%. Pig meat was much less important. Beside South Africa, Islamic countries were the main driving force behind the remarkable dynamics in the shift from red to white meat.
Poultry meat ranked only in second place in Asia and Europe Figure 3 – The development of cattle meat, pig meat and poultry meat production in South America between 1970 and 2019 (source: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).
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Asia and Europe have been in an unchallenged leading position in pig meat production for decades. From 1990
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Figure 5 reveals that pig meat production in Asia increased considerably from 1980 on, mainly a result of the fast growth in China. About ten years later, a similar dynamics occurred in poultry meat production. In contrast to pig meat, it was a continuous growth. Frequent outbreaks of the foot-and-mouth disease and, in recent years, of the African swine fever virus caused interruptions in the upward trend of pig meat production. In 2000, the production volume of pig meat was still 25 mill. t higher than that of poultry meat; in 2019, the gap had narrowed to only 5 mill. t. Figure 4 – The development of cattle meat, pig meat and poultry meat production in Africa between 1970 and 2019 (source: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).
on, production in Asia increased much faster than in Europe. Because of the Mad Cow Disease crisis in the early 1990s, cattle meat production in Europe decreased continuously. Even though it grew much slower than pig meat and poultry meat, it showed an upward trend in Asia.
Figure 5 documents the drastic decrease in pig meat production. One can assume that the mainly affected countries will be able to increase their production volume again to the former level as soon as the highly infectious disease will be defeated. Nevertheless, a constant and fast growth of poultry meat production is expected for the coming years, in particular in Southern Asia and Islamic countries. This will result in a further shrinking of the gap between the two leading meat types.
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MARKETING
Figure 6 – The development of cattle meat, pig meat and poultry meat production in Europe between 1970 and 2019 (source: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).
Although the gap between the production volumes of pig meat and poultry meat was still considerably high in 2019, the development of the per capita consumption will result in a further shrinking. The already mentioned advantages of poultry meat in contrast to pig meat and cattle meat will unfold their effects. Table 3 impressively shows the ongoing shift from red to white meat also in these two continents. Table 3 – A comparison of the absolute increase and the relative growth rates in cattle meat, pig meat and poultry meat production in Asia and Europe between 1970 and 2019 (source: own calculations based on FAO data). Meat type
Figure 5 – The development of cattle meat, pig meat and poultry meat production in Asia between 1970 and 2019 (source: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).
The development of meat production in Europe differed considerably from that in other continents. In 1970, about three times as much cattle meat and four times as much pig meat as poultry meat was produced. Until about 1990, the dynamics in meat production were very similar. Then, cattle meat production decreased sharply because of the Mad Cow Disease, and in pig meat because of the European swine fever. In 2000, poultry meat surpassed cattle meat. From 2006 on, the production of poultry meat grew very fast, mainly a result of the remarkable dynamics in some Eastern European countries, but also in several Southern and Western European countries (Figure 6).
36
Asia 1,000 t
Europe %
1,000 t
% -25.5
Cattle meat
12,702
498.7
-3,640
Pig meat
46,400
1,500.3
11,600
46.3
Poultry meat
47,080
1,742.4
15,867
298.7
Because of the comparatively low importance of Oceania in global meat production, in 2019 it shared only 2% in the production volume, the dynamics will not be analysed in detail. Even though cattle meat was still the dominating meat type in 2019, the relative growth rates for poultry meat were about nine times higher than for pig meat and cattle meat.
Summary and perspectives The preceding analysis could document the remarkable dynamics in global meat production over the past five decades, which in short form can be characterised as a shift
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Table 4 – Share of the three leading meat types in the increase of global meat production between 1970 and 2019 at continent level; data in % (source: own calculations). Continent
Cattle meat
Pig meat
Poultry meat
Africa
36.3
12.3
51.6
Asia
10.7
30.0
39.5
–
42.2
57.8
North America
7.3
26.4
64.6
South America
28.6
13.9
57.4
Oceania
45.7
8.9
41.0
World
12.7
31.4
49.3
Europe
tion of poultry meat and because of the large variety of meals, which can be prepared with poultry meat, the per capita consumption increased continuously. The favourable feed conversion rate and the lower use of resources in comparison to pig meat and cattle meat production will also in future result in a fast growth of poultry meat despite the fact that cell cultured meat and especially plant-based meat may become serious competitors in the global meat market.
from red to white meat. This shift differed considerably between the continents. In North and South America and in Africa poultry meat became the meat type with the highest production volume, in Asia and Europe, its relative growth rate surpassed that of pig meat and cattle meat (Table 4). The lack of religious barriers that prohibit the consump-
Data sources and reference FAO Database: http://www.fao.org. OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2020-2029. https:// www.oecd.org/publications/oecd-fao-agricultural-outlook-19991142.htm. Windhorst, H.-W.: Die Industrialisierung der Agrarwirtschaft. Frankfurt/M. 1989.
inal !
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TECHNICAL COLUMN
Improved fly control on poultry facilities with microbial products Dr. Erika Machtinger and colleagues recently completed a research project that evaluated the use of biological control agents to decrease house fly populations. Parasitoid wasps and the entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana were both examined to see if augmentative releases of the pathogenic organisms can help lower house fly populations to manageable levels.
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To control house flies, the poultry industry is estimated to spend $20 million dollars annually on pesticides alone. This estimate does not include the cost of animal loss due to house fly vectored pathogens causing disease, the cost of labor for pesticide application, or litigation that can be taken by residents living near production facilities due to increased fly numbers affecting their property values.
Erika Machtinger, PhD, CWB ® Assistant Professor of Veterinary Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, Department of Entomology
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Control of house flies (Musca domestica) poses a significant challenge to poultry producers, especially those involved in managing layer facilities. Egg production occurs in facilities where the accumulation of manure in an enclosed space creates the perfect development habitat for fostering large numbers of flies. Historically, pest flies have been controlled with chemical insecticides. However, regulatory restrictions, house fly resistance to current active ingredients in commercial pesticides, and the lack of options labeled for pest control in poultry facilities make management of house fly populations difficult.
- technical column -
One potential option to control pest flies is the integration of biological control agents into a layer facilities’ integrated pest management (IPM) program. Many natural antagonists of the house fly are found within the environment of the manure pit. Augmentative releases of these antagonists and introduction of pathogenic organisms can help lower house fly populations to manageable levels. The most promising of these biological control agents on a commercial level are parasitoid wasps and the entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana. Parasitoid wasps are commercially available and commonly released into poultry systems as a form of biological control, but more research needs to be done to determine which species or combination thereof would be the most effective in different geographic locations. The fungi, B. bassiana, has been widely studied as a form of biological control for house flies in layer facilities as well but has not been widely adopted by the industry. Further research into improving its effectiveness and ease of use could change this trend.
TECHNICAL COLUMN
The three objectives of this research project were: • to collect new fungal isolates from flies in poultry facilities and screen them to identify strains with fast kill times; • to test the most promising strains and subject them to selection for further improvements in kill times; • to ensure their compatibility with the most important natural enemies of flies (three species of parasitic wasps and the beetle predator Carcinops pumilio). Objective 1 results included the collection of five new isolates of B. bassiana that had mean survival times under eight days, an improvement from currently marketed B. bassiana products. For objective 2, researchers identified which strain was consistently the most virulent and produced the highest numbers of conidia on cadavers in fly-to-fly passages. Selection for faster-killing strains shortened the average time until death by three days, from 7.6 to 4.7 days, after nine generations of selection. Final analysis of the selected strains was postponed when the USDA laboratory was closed due of the Covid-19 pandemic. For objective 3, Spalangia endius was the most resilient to the B. bassiana applications, whereas Spalangia cameroni and Muscidifurax raptor had decreased survival when B. bassiana was applied. Overall, the B. bassiana strains isolated from house flies killed greater numbers of flies than the negative control. In parasitoids, all strains had a more limited effect than was observed in the house flies, except for in S. endius, in which there was no effect. The susceptibility of these house flies to the treatments and the lack thereof in all parasitoid species is a good indicator of the usefulness of field collected strains of B. bassiana and their use as a biological control tool. Given that the strains each demon-
“To control house flies, the poultry industry is estimated to spend $20 million dollars annually on pesticides alone. This estimate does not include the cost of animal loss due to house fly vectored pathogens causing disease, the cost of labor for pesticide application, or litigation that can be taken by residents living near production facilities due to increased fly numbers affecting their property values”
strated different traits in their infection of house flies, further research should be done to see the extent of each of these traits and if they could be useful for biological control. The research was made possible in part by an endowing Foundation gift from MPS Egg Farms and is part of the Association’s comprehensive research program encompassing all phases of poultry and egg production and processing. A complete report, along with information on other Association research, may be obtained through USPOULTRY’s website: www.uspoultry.org
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TECHNICAL COLUMN
Lasers prevent the spreading of the Avian Influenza virus Wageningen University released their research on a poultry farm that suffered visits from wild waterfowl, which are a source of Avian Influenza virus. The study revealed that when the laser was in use, a 99.7% wild bird reduction rate was recorded. According to the United States Center for Disease Control and Prevention, the Avian Influenza virus can infect humans, 15 countries since 2003 have recorded the Avian Influenza virus in humans. Most cases of the virus in people have been linked to contact with infected poultry.
notable from November to February, the typical bird migration period and when the Avian Influenza virus is more prevalent. Therefore, chickens in the free-range area had increased exposure to the virus, due to the regular occurrence of wild waterfowl during this time.
Wageningen Bioveterinary Research (WBVR), part of the Wageningen University, previously discovered a medium-sized waterfowl, known as a Mallard (an avian flu virus high-risk bird species) was frequenting a free-range area of a poultry farm from sunset to sunrise. This was
The project leader of the study, and epidemiologist at WBVR, Armin Elbers, explains that “several mallards came to visit the range between sunset and sunrise daily. They look for food and swim in puddles of water that are formed during the winter period by abundant rainfall in
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- technical column -
TECHNICAL COLUMN
the range. While swimming in the puddles, the ducks may defecate. During the day, the chickens drink the same water, as we saw in the video camera images. In the cold winter period, the bird flu virus can survive in such water for a long time.” Human infections of a highly pathogenic variant of the Avian Influenza virus have been reported to the World Health Organization from 15 countries since 2003. Most cases of the virus in people have been linked to contact with infected poultry according to the United States Center for Disease Control and Prevention. In 2016, a highly pathogenic Avian Influenza epidemic occurred in 29 European countries and has been the largest ever recorded in the European Union in terms of a number of poultry outbreaks, geographical extent, and a number of dead wild birds. Wageningen University & Research did a study with the laser bird deterrent manufactured by Bird Control Group. This study explored whether the laser system could be a successful biosecurity measure to prevent Avian Influenza viruses from spreading from wild birds to domestic animals. The laser bird deterrent system has been used worldwide in a variety of applications to reduce bird presence. The system spooks birds away by projecting a green laser beam across areas where birds aggregate. The birds see the green laser beam as a solid object and instinctively perceive it as a physical threat, causing them to flee the area immediately. The WBVR study took place in the winter of 2019-2020. The laser bird deterrent system was deployed on a 6 meter high pole in the farm’s free-range area of 1.5 hectares. In that area, eight wide-angle video cameras were installed to record visits of wild birds. The laser bird deterrent was active in the free-range area between 5 pm, and 10 am when the laying hens were in the barn. Between 10 am and 5 pm, the laying hens were in the free-range area, and the laser was used to protect the grass pastures surrounding the farm. The study was carried out over two months: one month without the laser, followed by one month with the laser.
Results
other wild birds in the free-range area during sunrise, and 10 am (>96% prevention). The research interpreted, “the overall (all bird species) efficacy of the laser for reducing the rate of wild birds visiting the free-range study area was 98.2%.” When the laser was not in use in the freerange area, a significant amount of geese would visit the surrounding grass pastures during the day. “In this study, we confirm the high efficacy of using lasers to reduce the daily number of wild bird visits to the free-range area of a layer farm situated in an AIV-hotspot area. Given this high efficacy, the application of these lasers becomes a viable alternative for the prevention of introduction of Avian Influenza infections in poultry”, Armin Elbers concluded.
Industry knowledge and future perspective “For free-range poultry farms located in high-risk avian flu virus areas, which had repeated introductions of avian flu virus in the past, we believe that a laser could be helpful as a preventive measure to keep wild birds away from the farm during the high-risk period (October to March). Poultry farms with strictly indoor accommodations have also been infected with Avian Influenza virus in the past due to their location near wetlands. Using a laser during the high-risk period could offer a solution to this problem too by keeping wild waterfowl away from the vicinity of the barn,” Armin Elbers speculated. The laser bird repellent has already been deployed at a poultry farm, Orchard Eggs, in the UK. Daniel Hoberichts, the owner of Orchard Eggs, understood the biosecurity measures that had to be taken to protect his poultry. He uses the laser bird repellent to prevent the chickens and staff from being exposed to the Avian Influenza virus. Hoberichts explained, “Our birds are housed across 50 acres of orchard and we want to do everything to keep them safe from infection. Once we heard about the AVIX Autonomic it seemed like an ideal solution to complement all of our other biosecurity measures.” The laser bird repellent helped reduce bird presence by more than 90%.
The results indicated that virtually no wild ducks visited the free-range area (99.7% prevention rate) when the laser was in use. There was also a reduction of visits from
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41
MANAGEMENT
The specific requirements and sensitivities of turkey egg incubation Turkey eggs have a high incubation success rate when all the species-specific areas of incubation are managed correctly. Hence, a suite of incubation equipment that allows for finetuning of the processes and parameters is more than worth the investment. Nature as a reference
By Stephen Evans, Hatchery Specialist
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The natural hatching process is the starting point of Petersime’s incubation philosophy. We always try to emulate the experience the embryo has in the nest. Embryo-Response Incubation™, as this method is called, involves technology that caters explicitly to the specific demands of different bird species.
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MANAGEMENT
“Natural mating in turkey flocks is rarely practiced. Artificial insemination means that fertility rates have the potential to be very high. And yet, the viability of these fertile eggs often turns out not to reach its full potential. A possible cause is the wide spread of embryological development in the turkey eggs when they are delivered to the hatchery”
This article explores the three key areas of Petersime’s Embryo-Response Incubation™ technology as it relates to turkey incubation: 1. The BioStreamer™ Re-Store incubator for heat treatment of stored eggs with short periods of incubation. 2. Operational Excellence™ setter technology, particularly the automated eggshell temperature measurement device as a means of regulating air temperature and CO2 levels to control ventilation and moisture loss. 3. Operational Excellence™ hatcher technology and, specifically, CO2 as a means of controlling ventilation and humidity.
Heat treatment of stored turkey eggs Natural mating in turkey flocks is rarely practiced. Artificial insemination means that fertility rates have the potential to be very high. And yet, the viability of these fertile eggs often turns out not to reach its full potential. A possible cause is the wide spread of embryological development in the turkey eggs when they are delivered to the hatchery. The different stages of embryological development were identified and classified by Eyal-Giladi and Kochav, and Hamburger and Hamilton. Research suggests that the stage that offers the best survivability of the embryo
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MANAGEMENT
One way of preventing early embryological loss in turkeys is to use heat treatment during storage in a dedicated Petersime BioStreamer™ Re-Store machine to advance embryological development to stage thirteen and so unify the overall spread of stages. Trials with research partners have proved the benefits of using heat treatment for turkey eggs.
Flock 1 comparative trial: Re-Store treatment versus no treatment.
Subsequent Re-Store treatments on eggs stored for an extended period of time improve hatchability by restoring cell growth and survivability of eggs returning to storage. Not only does this procedure improve viability of the fertile eggs; it also lends itself – in combination with setter and hatcher technology – to achieving a more narrow hatch window.
Distinctive setter and hatcher technologies
Flock 2 comparative trial: Re-Store treatment versus no treatment.
A developing embryo sheds two waste products – CO2 and water – leading to weight loss By shedding water progressively, an egg reduces in weight. Weight loss in a fertile egg manifests itself in the size of the air cell on the blunt end of the egg. This is the air cell the hatchling first breaks through when it starts to hatch. The ideal weight loss at transfer is roughly 10% of the egg’s weight when it first commences incubation. Not achieving this target usually points to an unhealthy hatchling.
during the storage period in the hatchery is stage thirteen. Eggs in earlier stages tend to be more susceptible to perishing during storage. Comparing turkey eggs to chicken eggs shows that almost 60% of turkey eggs are in pre-development stage ten when delivered to the hatchery.
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- management -
When incubation commences, measuring and applying set points to CO2, as well as making the CO2 level guide the ventilation rates, can spare the embryo from any dramatic changes to its gaseous environment. In this way, the environment can be tailored to the specific and ever-changing gaseous exchange requirements of the embryo to stimulate strong vascular development and achieve target weight loss figures. An automated eggshell temperature measurement device makes it possible to control the environment of the developing and constantly changing embryo so that it can thrive in an ideal environment for all its needs specific to its stage of development. Trials with turkeys have shown that
MANAGEMENT
are even present during the embryological stage and can require different temperature environments.
“Turkeys imply many species-specific considerations when it comes to incubation management. Petersime’s suite of incubation equipment — with its unique Embryo-Response Incubation™ technology — gives turkey hatcheries the luxury of being able to identify the critical details, and the assurance of knowing that they can cater to them precisely”
the critical transition from the endothermic to exothermic phases of incubation require a lower temperature than other species. This has led to a specific turkey eggshell temperature programme that is unique compared to other species.
Turkeys eggs are especially sensitive to temperature The turkey industry is also unique in itself because of the varying market requirements: some markets prefer small-framed turkeys, some medium-framed, and yet others want very large-framed birds. These differences
To cater for this, the eggshell temperature programme, which is gradually and progressively raised from the beginning of the exothermic phase through to transfer, can be adjusted according to the size of the turkey breed being incubated. This principle should always be adhered to, irrespective of turkey breed.
Hatcher management The hatching of turkey poults is an art in itself. While other species might be forgiving of hatcher environment mismanagement, turkeys are not. Indeed, there are many species-specific considerations that make correct management of the hatcher most critical. To develop the ideal hatcher environment for turkeys, Petersime has conducted trials looking into different fan speeds and the impact this control factor has on key moments in the hatching process. By progressively lowering fan speeds during the period of hatching, a precise fan speed was found at which mortality significantly decreased. The conclusion drawn was that fan speeds directly impact the energy levels the poults must expend during hatching. Higher fan speeds caused energy depletion, i.e. poults were unable to complete the process of hatching. Reduced fan speeds were friendlier to the poults and enabled them to complete the hatching process without succumbing to exhaustion. This led to the development of a turkey hatcher with fan speeds that differ from the programmes used for other species.
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MANAGEMENT
A unique approach to incubating turkey eggs is so important
The importance of the right humidity and CO2 levels Managing humidity in the turkey hatcher may not be unique in itself, but it is certainly defining to the Petersime Embryo-Response Incubation™ philosophy. As the poults are particularly temperature-sensitive, the action of spraying causes the temperature to fluctuate. It is therefore better to avoid the use of humidity sprays. Humidity is, however, essential during hatching to keep the shell membranes moisturised. To enable a humidity-rich environment that is conducive to the hatching poults fully extracting themselves from their shells, we let the level of CO2 control the level of ventilation, in the same way it was done in the setter. To stimulate late-acting birds to complete their hatch, our programme calls for an increase in CO2. To accommodate for this, ventilation levels are reduced. As this coincides with the hatching of the eggs, naturally released humidity will be captured inside the machine. This humidity has no detrimental effect on the temperature. On the contrary, it helps moisturise shell membranes, thereby allowing poults to hatch without expending too much energy. Timing, here, is critical for success. If CO2 is increased too early, the late hatching poults will grow accustomed
46
to their environment and will no longer perceive it as a stimulus. Ideally, the process corresponds with the commencement of the hatch, tightening the hatch window and reducing the incidence of pipped alive poults. This completes the work kickstarted by the Re-Store heat treatment and maintained by the Operational Excellence™ setter.
The luxury of Petersime’s turkey incubation equipment In conclusion, turkeys imply many species-specific considerations when it comes to incubation management. Petersime’s suite of incubation equipment – with its unique Embryo-Response Incubation™ technology – gives turkey hatcheries the luxury of being able to identify the critical details, and the assurance of knowing that they can cater to them precisely. By understanding where the gains in turkey hatchability can be found and by correctly using the Petersime technology, there is an amazing scope for continuous improvement.
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NUTRITION
Nutritional economics for commercial turkeys Feed is the single biggest cost to a turkey operation, 60% to 70% of the cost of production is related to feed, with energy and protein considered the main contributors to this cost. Marcus Kenny, Dr John Ralph, Dr Henrike Glawatz (Moorgut Kartzfehn) and Dr Hartmut Meyer (Moorgut Kartzfehn) Aviagen Turkeys Ltd.
a percentage of breed standard, 100% representing the BUT6 breed standard. The performance data from these trials were collated to assess the response of turkeys to a range of nutrient densities. The surface plot graph (see Figure 1a, b) shows liveweight and FCR (feed conversion ratio) are responsive (expressed as percentage relative to the 100% control) to both amino acid and energy density. Both the liveweight
Fig 1a: Liveweigh
Adequate energy and amino acids should be provided in the diet to support bird performance. However, there is a need to understand the bird’s response to these nutrients in order to achieve the best economic outcome. Aviagen Turkeys, in collaboration with their research partners, have conducted a number of trials assessing the impact of various energy and amino acid densities on turkey performance. Each of these trials assessed different nutrient levels. Table 1 shows the amino acid and energy levels assessed. Nutrient levels are expressed as
48
Fig 1b: FCR
Figure 1a, b – 21 week liveweight and FCR responses (percentage relative to the control) to a range of amino acid and energy densities (nutrient density is expressed as a percentage of breed standard).
- nutrition -
NUTRITION
Table 1 – A summary of energy and amino acid response trials. Trial Number
Sex
1
Age
Treatments (% of standard)
Weeks
Days
Amino Acids
Energy
Male
21
147
95, 125
95, 105
2
Male
20
140
95, 105, 115, 125
100
3
Male
17
119
95, 110, 125
95, 105
4
Male
20.6
144
95, 110
97.5, 102.5
5
Male
20
140
95, 105, 110, 125
100
6
Female
16
112
95, 105, 115
95, 100, 105
and FCR responses are optimised at the highest nutrient densities, 125% and 105% of breed recommendations for both amino acid and energy density respectively. The surface plot graph also shows that energy density appears to impact positively on the response to increasing amino acid concentration suggesting that diet energy density should be considered at high amino acid densities. The response to other attributes were also established including processing traits. As with liveweight and FCR, increasing nutrient density had a positive impact on breast meat yield (see Figure 2). At lower energy densities breast meat yield (BMY) showed a curvilinear response to increasing amino acid density. However, as with the liveweight and FCR responses, BMY continued to respond to increasing amino acid concentration at higher energy densities. Again, this reinforces the importance of energy density when optimising the processing response to amino acid density.
Having established performance responses to different nutrient densities, economic responses can be derived. Margin (after feed cost) is calculated by estimating the difference between revenue (value of live bird or meat) and feed cost at each nutrient density. By examining the profile of the surface plot graph (Figure 3a) the effect of nutrient density, on farm margin can be appreciated. The same approach can be taken to derive an estimate of margin for processed products. Margin was estimated at each nutrient density based on revenue (the value of breast meat yield) minus feed cost per bird (Figure3a). • Higher farm and processing margins are achieved at or above breed standards relative to lower nutrient levels. However increasing both amino acid and energy density further increases margin. • Increasing one nutrient without a concomitant increase in the other nutrient results in lower margin. • Decreasing both energy and amino acid density results in lower margin. These assessments were based on one specific cost base. Raw material feed costs fluctuate and will impact on margin so in order to assess this effect both farm and
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Tel: + 31 (0)413-354 105 WWW.INTRACARE.NL
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49
NUTRITION
Farm Margin1
Farm Margin1
Processing Margin2
Processing Margin2
Figure 3a, b – Farm and processing margin (revenue minus feed cost Euro/bird) at differing amino acid and energy densities (% relative to breed standard).
Figure 4a, b – Farm and processing margin* (Euro/bird after feed cost): High feed cost.
1revenue
based on Euro1.25/kg liveweight 2revenue based on Euro 4.25/kg breast meat
2revenue
processing margins were examined at higher feed costs. The price of protein, cereal and cereal by-products were increased in cost by a minimum of 10% to reflect typical ranges in raw material costs over a three-year period.
Assessments have also been made based on altering revenues, liveweight revenue was reduced by 10% relative to the existing revenue base. The optimal farm margin is still orientated towards higher energy and amino acid concentrations (Figure 5) and suggests that although the revenue base may change significantly there appears to be little basis to alter nutrient density dramatically.
Figure 4a,b shows both the farm and processing margin profile remain unchanged relative to the margin profile at lower feed costs. Both farm and processing margin are still higher at breed standard relative to lower nutrient levels and optimised at the highest nutrient densities. This shows that the margin response to nutrient density is ‘resilient’ to altering raw material price changes and suggests that nutrient density should not be reduced below the breed standard when raw material costs increase.
50
1revenue
based on Euro1.25/kg liveweight based on Euro 4.25/kg breast meat
Summary • The data demonstrates the ability of the modern bird to respond to a wide range of nutrient levels. • Liveweight, FCR and breast meat yield are responsive to nutrient density and show optimal responses on or above breed standards.
- nutrition -
NUTRITION
• Deviation in nutrient density below breed standard significantly reduces both farm and processing margin. • The margin response to nutrient density remains similar at elevated feed costs suggesting nutrient density should not be significantly reduced when raw material prices increase. • The margin response to nutrient density is consistent at differing revenue levels suggesting nutrient density should not be reduced below breed standard when revenue decreases.
Figure 5 – Farm margin1 at differing amino acid and energy densities (% relative to breed standard). 1revenue
based on Euro1.13/kg liveweight
• Based on the example scenario, feeding to the breed standard achieves higher margin relative to lower nutrient densities. Increasing both amino acid and energy density above breed standard results in further improvement of margin.
• Collating trial response data provides a means where by both biological and economic responses can be assessed at different nutrient densities. Using this approach nutritionists can make informed decisions about the nutrient density to feed to commercial turkeys for a given set of circumstances.
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English Edition Year XLIII May 2021
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