Zootecnica International - World's Poultry Journal - English edition - 09 September 2024
Russian government ready to solve shortage of poultry meat and eggs in country by building of large-scale production complexes in 2024-2025
Cost-effective biosecurity management practices
Third Avian Influenza outbreak in the USA within 10 years: the 2023-2024 epidemic
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EDITORIAL
For some time now, Avian Influenza has been a persistent topic of concern, with the challenge remaining ever-present: the virus responsible for the epidemic has been identified, along with the link between outbreaks in wild animals and those in industrial farms. Previously, the epidemic curve would peak during the winter months and almost vanish by spring. However, in recent years, the virus has continued to circulate even through the summer. The first outbreaks were detected by the onset of familiar symptoms: groups of animals stopped eating and drinking, exhibited respiratory issues, vomiting, and eventually, there was a noticeable rise in mortality.
An extensive epidemiological investigation was conducted in Italy. In response to the rapid surge in Avian Influenza outbreaks, a dedicated team of specialists was assembled to ensure swift and informed decision-making. One of the key areas the expert group focused on was risk reduction, drawing on reports and insights from field colleagues.
To mitigate the spread, it’s crucial to have companies capable of effectively disposing of infected livestock across various regions, supported by robust public regulations. This necessitates essential collaboration between the supply chain and public health authorities.
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EuroTier 2024: Trade fair’s topics attract great visitor interest
EuroTier, the world’s leading trade fair for professional animal husbandry and livestock management, will take place alongside EnergyDecentral, the leading international trade fair for decentralised energy supply, from 12 to 15 November 2024 in Hanover, Germany.
Five months before kick-off, interest in the EuroTier/EnergyDecentral 2024 trade fairs is already high among visitors. In a survey of potential professional farming visitors to the fair, 60% of respondents stated that they have already made firm plans to visit EuroTier in Hanover, Germany. The exhibition areas of housing and feeding technology as well as feed input and operating resources were particularly highly rated. When it comes to current industry topics, visitors from both Germany and abroad ranked as most interesting animal welfare, sustainability, automation, robotics and digitalization. 1,250 respondents from both Germany and abroad took part in the online survey.
“We innovate animal farming, the guiding theme of this year’s EuroTier hits the nerve of the industry. The theme addresses the challenges facing the international livestock sector by placing the current topics of
animal welfare, sustainability, automation, robotics and digitalisation at the heart of the exhibition and technical program at the world’s leading trade fair for livestock management. The high level of visitor interest five months before the start of the trade fair shows that the industry is focusing on innovation and development”, says Ines Rathke, EuroTier Project Manager, who is very satisfied with the survey results. “The high level of interest in new trends and innovations also shows the importance of EuroTier as a leading trade fair for investments”, she added.
Visitors intend to spend several days
at the trade fair
Asked about the duration of their visit to the trade fair, around 60% said they intended to spend at least two or more days at the world’s leading exhibition for livestock management.
The survey included livestock farmers with 58% engaged in cattle and dairy farming and 25% in pig production. Some 21% of respondents are poultry producers, 14% horse owners and 11% manage sheep or goats. Insects are also mentioned as an on-farm production activity, a sector that appears to be increasing among livestock farmers. “The investment intentions over the next two years are encouraging. Currently, 50% of those surveyed are already planning to invest in new technology and equipment within the next 24 months,” emphasizes Ines Rathke.
EnergyDecentral: High demand for solar energy, agrivoltaics and biogas
The current debate on sustainable energy concepts are reflected in the results of the online survey: “In addition to the topics of wind energy, biogas and biomethane, there is growing interest in solar energy and, in particular, in agrivoltaics. As many as 32% of those surveyed are explicitly interested in the potential of this relatively new and emerging energy alternative”, says Marcus Vagt, project manager of EnergyDecentral, which takes in parallel with EuroTier. The survey also shows that professional visitors continue to need updates on conventional solutions such as biogas, still a growing sector, as well as solutions for energy distribution and storage.
Avian flu: cases on the decline in Europe, surveillance recommended in view of upcoming season
Europe has recorded the lowest number of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza cases in poultry and wild birds since 2019/2020 and the risk to the general public remains low.
These are the main findings of the latest report on Avian Influenza by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), and the EU reference laboratory (EURL), based on reported data between April and June 2024.
The improvement of the situation in Europe may be linked to several factors and needs further investigation. These may include: immunity developed by wild birds following previous infection; reduction of certain wild bird populations; decreased environmental contamination; and changes in the composition of viral genotypes.
Experts noted the continuous circulation of HPAI virus in wild birds in Europe throughout the year, albeit at low numbers. They recommended to enhance surveillance in view of the next season.
HPAI outside Europe
For the first time in many years, Australia has reported HPAI cases. The different subtypes circulating in Australia are currently not reported in the rest of the world. Experts noted the unexpected diversity of mammal species affected by HPAI as well as the different viral genotypes circulating among poultry, wild birds, and mammals in North America. Direct cattle-to-cattle transmission has not yet been confirmed, while raw milk from cows has been observed as a new, unexpected route of transmission. Current evidence indicates that industrial pasteurisation plays a significant role in inactivating HPAI virus in the raw milk of cows.
Source: EFSA
11 October 2024: World Egg Day
World Egg Day is an exciting opportunity to raise global awareness about the incredible benefits of eggs as an inexpensive and highly nutritious food source, with the potential to help feed the world.
On Friday 11 October, egg lovers worldwide will come together to celebrate the remarkable power of eggs and how they can bring people together. World Egg Day, celebrated on the second Friday of October each year, invites people from all backgrounds to appreciate and honour
the exceptional contributions eggs make in supporting communities worldwide.
Eggs have a unique ability to bring families and communities together. They are a staple in countless cuisines within every continent. From a delicate quiche in France to Tamago Sushi in Japan, eggs play a central role in meals that bring people together. Through the enjoyment of eggs, people around the world are able to find common ground and a sense of connection. Along with their power to unite communities, eggs are an environmentally sustainable and inexpensive animal protein, connecting people in the pursuit of a healthier planet.
Whether in family breakfasts, festive celebrations, or community meals, eggs bring people together, fostering connection and tradition. World Egg Day is more than a celebration of a household commodity; it’s a recognition of the common bonds that connect us all through the universal appeal and benefits of eggs.
Source: International Egg Commission
2025 IPPE exhibit space exceeds 557,000 square feet
The 2025 International Production & Processing Expo (IPPE) is less than six months away and has surpassed 557,000 square feet of exhibit space and secured more than 1,070 exhibitors.
As the only annual exposition highlighting the best of the poultry and egg, meat, and animal food industries, the 2025 IPPE will offer timely and critical information, providing producers and processors an efficient way to find solutions to enhance their operations.
“We are excited to interact with everyone again at the 2025 IPPE,” said show organizers. “The robust exhibitor participation demonstrates our exhibitors’ enthusiasm to introducing new technologies, fostering interactions and showcasing the latest innovations in our industry.”
Scheduled for Jan. 28-30 at the Georgia World Congress Center in Atlanta, Ga., IPPE will provide new experiences and the latest innovations and solutions in the animal food, meat, poultry and egg industries. IPPE will also feature dynamic education programs focused on the most current industry issues.
Attendee registration will open on Oct. 7. For more information about IPPE, visit www.ippexpo.org.
Source: IPPE
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OvoLogger™ by Petersime: the intelligent egg data logger
Petersime presents a device that logs vital data on the conditions experienced by the hatching eggs in all production phases.
Petersime’s OvoLogger™ helps to gain visibility into an important poultry value chain blind spot: the conditions experienced by hatching eggs before incubation.
Petersime’s cloud-based Eagle Trax™ hatchery software enables hatcheries to digitize, analyse and optimally use the valuable data they have available. With the launch of OvoLogger™, the company takes it one step further. For the first time, hatchery managers can consistently acquire and analyse egg data without gaps, allowing data-based optimization of their production.
Hatcheries are dependent on breeder farms and logistics partners to preserve the genetic potential of the product they source, the hatching eggs. From oviposition until incubation start, the eggs need to be kept in optimal conditions. “However, hatchery managers have no visibility into the egg storage conditions at the breeder farm and during transport. This blind spot can leave them struggling to gain insight into the causes of a disappointing hatch,” explains Rudy Verhelst, Business Development Manager at Petersime. “In answer to this challenge, Petersime has developed the OvoLogger™, an intelligent egg data logger that provides an easy way to get an overall picture of the conditions experienced by the eggs prior to incubation.”
With OvoLogger™, Petersime presents the industry’s first intelligent egg data logger that provides the ability to consistently collect vital data on the conditions experienced by the hatching eggs from breeder farm through to hatchery. Quick to set up, the OvoLogger™ logs the air temperature, humidity level and shock exposure history per egg batch along the entire breeder-farm-to-hatchery timeline. Gathering data about relevant parameters is only half the job. The other half is having a set-up that allows hatchery managers to analyse the data effectively and efficiently. Petersime’s solution covers both: at the end of the data acquisition period, the data is easily offloaded to the Eagle Trax™ software and available for further analysis. If the causes of a disappointing hatch are unclear, Eagle Trax™ allows to perform a batch-specific analysis to gain deeper insights into what went wrong. Alternatively, Eagle Trax™ can also issue a warning if the values recorded by OvoLogger™ deviate from a pre-defined acceptable bandwidth, providing the option for incubation program adjustments before loading the setters and enabling quick responses to anticipate on lower chick numbers if needed.
The invention of the OvoLogger™ is an important step forward in allowing greater transparency between all parties involved. Improper egg storage or transport can be clearly localized and identified. Areas of improvement can be much more easily communicated to breeder farms and logistics partners. Petersime’s Eagle Trax™ software currently consists of five powerful modules and new releases mark its continuous evolution, each bringing new features and functionalities.
For more information: www.petersime.com
Genus Focus: first contactless in-ovo sexing solution in Norway
A&A Salte Kyllingoppdrett AS, Fiskå Mølle AS, and Felleskjøpet Rogaland Agder SA are collaborating to build a new hatchery in Sirevåg through Sirevåg Rugeri AS. The facilities will be operational by the beginning of 2025. Thanks to the installation of the AI-powered Genus Focus technology, the hatchery will be able to offer a noninvasive solution for chicken sexing prior to hatching.
“ We are very pleased to have agreed with Orbem and the Vencomatic Group to deliver a solution for in-ovo sexing for our new hatchery.
This will contribute to more sustainable egg production, replacing the culling of day-old male chicks with eggs sexed during the hatching process,” highlights Andreas Salte, CEO of Sirevåg Rugeri AS The system soon to be installed by Sirevåg Hatchery was developed by the Munich-based company Orbem. Their in-ovo sexing solution is based on MRI scanning and image analysis of the egg, a process that is supported by artificial intel-
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ligence. Together with the Vencomatic Group, Orbem offers the Genus Focus, a contactless in-ovo sexing solution for all breeds requiring only one operator. “ We have long followed the technological development of sexing of the hatching egg, and the Genus Focus has had an impressive development over the past few years. Many in the egg industry welcome this technology ”, says Andreas Salte. The revolutionary AI-powered imaging technology paves the way for non-invasive egg classification. Orbem’s CEO Pedro Gómez remarks: “ It is the technology of the future – and it ’s here to stay.” Beyond in-ovo sexing, the combination of MRI and AI addresses other challenges requiring non-invasive classification, such as detecting egg fertilization status and phenotyping. The team is excited about the technology’s impact on sustainability and efficiency in the poultry industry. Its transformative potential for in-ovo sexing and future applications will become increasingly evident in the coming years.
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Hubbard organised first Hubbard Efficiency Plus Poultry School in Kenya
Kenya, Nairobi: the Hubbard Customer Support team organised the first edition of the Hubbard Efficiency Plus Poultry School last June 19-20, 2024.
Baptiste Nevejans (Technical Area Manager) and Jean Lebec (Sales Area Manager) organised a very educational seminar for no less than 14 Breeder Managers from all parts of Kenya. The program offered in-depth presentations on key topics and a workshop session that also allowed for numerous exchanges and testimonies of field experiences.
During this event we also had the pleasure of John Dantier’s presence. John Dantier is the Sales and Technical representative for AVIPRO EAST Africa Ltd., Hubbard’s distributor of the Hubbard Efficiency Plus breeders in the region. He provided a clear insight into how AVIPRO East Africa Ltd. works hard to always serve their customers bet ter with many continuous positive actions.
Since its introduction in 2018, the Hubbard Efficiency Plus has been confirmed as the breed of choice for the
Kenyan market thanks to its impressive performance at both breeder and broiler levels.
Hubbard once again thanks all participants for their commitment, motivation and great participation during this training session. We are grateful to have such valued customers, and we sincerely thank them for their loyalty, while ensuring our commitment to always serve our customers in the best possible manner.
We look forward to introducing similar events to more users of the Hubbard Efficiency Plus breed in the region, so stay tuned!
The Hubbard Customer Support Team remains committed to the success of our customers.
For more information: communication@hubbardbreeders.com
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Russian government ready to solve shortage of poultry meat and eggs in
country by building of large-scale production complexes in 2024-2025
The government of Russia plans to stimulate building of new large-scale poultry complexes throughout the country – in a move to ensure stable supplies of poultry meat and eggs to domestic population at adequate prices.
Eugene Gerden, Freelance writer
As part of these plans, building of such complexes will allow to avoid repetition of a sharp egg crisis in the country similar to those, which occurred in October-November 2023, when egg sales were almost completely suspended in some regions of the country. That posed a serious threat to the country’s food security, given traditionally high consumption of poultry and primarily chicken meat in Russia.
der areas of the country - in the regions where large poultry farms are located (damage due to shelling, etc.)”.
This is also confirmed by statistics of Rosstat, according to which the Belgorod region, Russia’s leading region in terms of broiler meat production, which is located on the border with Ukraine, reduced the volume of its poultry meat production by 5.6%.
At the same time, according to Savkina, high import dependence of the Russian poultry sector led to sharp rise of production costs, which applied both to raising both broiler chickens and laying hens, as well as other types of poultry (turkeys, ducks).
Lyubov Savkina continues: “Weakening of rouble has also resulted in the increase of the cost of imported equipment and spare parts used in the industry, which increased by more than 30%. Parallel imports and logistics have also contributed to higher costs: from hatching eggs, feed ingredients and vaccines purchased abroad to the cost of transporting poultry products to the consumer. Another important factor is personnel shortage, which forced the management of agricultural enterprises to increase salaries in order to attract workers to production”.
Among the other factors, which put a serious pressure on the sector in 2023 were the increase of the key rate by the Russian Central Bank as well as an unfavorable epizootic situation in the country. According to the Russian veterinary and agricultural regulator Rosselkhoznadzor, in 2023 in Russia, 75 outbreaks of highly pathogenic Avian Influenza were recorded in 29 regions of the country.
Tough times for the
Russian poultry meat production
This year there is still a negative trend in poultry meat production in Russia. In Q1 the output decreased by 0.3%, amounting to 3,3 million tonnes year-on-year, while in case of egg production the decrease was 2.1% to 10.8 billion. Despite the optimism of the state, there is a high threat of stagnation of the Russian poultry sector will face this year. Most of analysts also have serious doubts about the ability of Russia to achieve a sharp increase of poultry meat and eggs’ production, as planned by the state.
According to experts of the Russian Agroinvestor agricultural paper, a number of serious problems will seriously complicate implementation of ambitious state plans, such as the existing shortage of breeding material (and, as a consequence, a decrease in broiler numbers), diseases, personnel shortages, etc. As analysts believe, while it would be possible to replace outdated sites with new modern complexes, there is no enough personnel to work on them, given a high percentage of manual labor on such sites. The workforce problem has really gotten worse in the Russian poultry sector since the beginning of 2023. As far back as in August 2023, the leader of the Russian egg market - the Sinyavinskaya poultry farm (St. Petersburg Region), warned retail chains about possible supply disruptions. As follows from the company’s letter, the main reason for this became a lack of personnel. Due to the massive outflow of personnel, mainly migrants, the enterprise was unable to create full-fledged shifts. The shortage was 25-30% of workers. Other large suppliers of poultry meat, Cherkizovo and the Severnaya poultry farm, also announced a temporary suspension of product shipments last year. Companies explained this by problems with maintaining foreign equipment and also by a lack of personnel.
In regard of declared state plans, according to Konstantin Korneev, executive director of the Russian analyst company Rincon Management, in order to be effective, a new poultry farm must have a certain scale, producing at least 60,000-70,000 tons of meat annually. That will allow the investor to get maximum disclosure of genetic potential and, accordingly, maximum savings on the scale of the business. However, building of such complexes are currently impossible in Russia due to high cost and poor economic environment in the country at present.
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Kenya and Tanzania resume trade in poultry after successful talks
Kenya and Tanzania, two of the biggest economies in Eastern Africa, have resolved a poultry trade dispute triggered by the July 2022 ban on day-old chicks from the rest of the world by Tanzania.
Shem Oirere
The moratorium by Tanzania was meant to safeguard the country’s poultry industry from external competition as well as to check on the spread of the Avian Influenza, that has remained a major challenge to Africa’s poultry market and beyond.
Furthermore, Tanzania has argued the trade restriction was part of the government’s commitment to implement the 2006-State sponsored law that banned chicken im ports as part of the country’s drive to lock out bird flu and give preference to Tanzania farmers’ poultry and poultry products in achieving domestic poultry meat consump tion requirements, currently estimated at 100,000 metric tons.
However, the ban by Tanzania appears to go against the goals of the 2018-established African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), the largest free trade area by num ber of member states, after the World Trade Organiza tion. The AfCFTA agreement was expected to promote a deal on a common tariff for poultry and poultry products, both in terms of exports and imports but with safeguards on cushioning the continent’s industry from threats such as the global Avian Influenza outbreaks.
Prior to the import ban, Tanzania sourced up to 35% of its parent stock requirements from countries such as France, Netherlands, Zambia and India to meet the increasing demand for chicks from existing and new farmers.
Available government statistics show Tanzania’s produc tion of day-old-chicks grew from 61 and 63 million be tween 2013 and 2017 with the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries earlier projecting the output to have reached 80.3 million in 2020, more than 85% of them broiler chicks. However, other reports indicate annual produc tion of day-old chicks may have declined to 44 million as of 2021, hence the reliance on imports to meet demand.
During the May 2024 meeting of veterinary authorities from both countries, which was convened to resolve the ban on the export of poultry and poultry products from Kenya to Tanzania, the participants who met at the East African Community (EAC) headquarters in Arusha, Tan zania, successfully addressed longstanding concerns regarding trade in poultry and poultry products between the two countries.
According to Mr. Rabson Wanjala, a Kenyan official who co-chaired the meeting, the poultry trade discussions held, and subsequent agreement reached, would hence forth streamline and facilitate the exports and imports business, especially trade in parent stock.
For Dr. Benezeth Malinda, the acting director of veterinary services in Tanzania’s Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, who was the other co-chair of the meeting, the Tanzanian government is determined to give priority
to resolving the non-tariff barriers that have constrained trade between the two countries particularly in the poultry industry. “We remain committed to tackling these challenges and fostering an environment conducive to seamless trade between Kenya and Tanzania,” he said.
Some of the specific proposals in the plan of action that was agreed upon by the two parties, include providing clarification by Tanzania on the ban that government officials say was not targeting Kenya’s poultry and poul-
try products but was part of an implementation of the country’s “sanitary and phytosanitary measures (requirements) in response to the global Avian Influenza outbreaks as per the World Organization for Animal Health disease notification reports.” The measures, Tanzania officials said, were “aimed at safeguarding animal and public health.”
“Both parties affirmed that trade in day-old-chicks and hatching eggs between the two countries was ongoing, with facilities demonstrating high biosecurity standards permitted to operate,” the joint statement said.
Currently, reports indicate Tanzania’s day-old chick production has registered substantial growth and commercialization since 2013 as the country expands its output of broiler chicken to meet the increasing demand driven largely by population growth and the rise of the middle-class.
Moreover, the May 2024 resolution to resume trade in poultry between Kenya and Tanzania includes a requirement for all facilities intending to export poultry products from Kenya to Tanzania, and vice versa, to “undergo a risk assessment to ensure compliance with sanitary and phytosanitary measures.”
Both countries committed “to enhance surveillance efforts and capacity-building initiatives to ensure timely disease detection and reporting”, the statement said. “Further, it was agreed that small-scale poultry producers in both countries will receive support to improve biosecurity measures in an effort to enhance their export opportunities”.
Tanzania’s poultry industry faces the challenge of lack of policy with the ministry of livestock and fisheries as well as farmers relying more on the National Livestock Policy of 2006, which focuses on the development of the overall livestock sector.
The policy covers veterinary services, feeds, breeding flocks and hatcheries, meat/eggs and live chicks/chicken movement, registration and traceability although many of “these policies are currently under review by the government of Tanzania,” according to a report by Bureau for Food and Agricultural Policy.
Despite Tanzania’s poultry statistics being scanty, the BFAP report says, “importation of day-old chicks, hatching eggs, vaccines, drugs and feed are reported to be high” hence opening more business opportunities for
poultry farmers and poultry product suppliers from the rest of Africa as envisaged in the AfCFTA.
“Inputs such as hatcheries, feed mills, processing plants, cold storage and transportation facilities for live birds and frozen chicken are inadequate,” the report says adding the factors “mainly contribute to the industry’s inability to meet the nation’s consumption requirements.”
Meanwhile, the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization says the country’s annual production of day-old chicks is estimated at 600,000, which is 30% of the market’s demand of two million.
Although there is no plausible reason has been given by government of Kenya for exporting day-old chicks despite the deficit, differences in price between Kenya and Tanzania seem to be a major driving factor.
Due to the high demand for day-old chicks, Kenyan farmers are at times forced to wait for more than four months to get the chicks. The government has however, through KARLO’s Non-Ruminant Research Institute based in Kakamega and Naivasha, stepped up the production of day-old-chicks to plug deficit in supply. The chick producing stations in Naivasha and Kakamega have capacity to produce 34,000 chicks monthly. Elsewhere, with the launch of AfCFTA, not only has the African poultry market been expanded, but there is now also a call for increased cooperation among free trade members countries in the enforcement of regulations to minimize the impact of pathogens or disease vectors that could impact trade in day-old-chicks, eggs and other poultry products.
For instance, since 2017, the Food and Agriculture Organization says sub-Saharan Africa is one of the regions with high pathogenicity Avian Influenza with pandemic potential in many countries for the eight subtypes of HPAI virus including H5, H5N1, H5N2, H5N6, H5N8, H7 and H7N6. Countries where at least one or more subtype of the HPAI has been confirmed include South Africa, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Réunion, Gambia, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Lesotho, Mali, Mauritania, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Togo, Uganda, and Zimbabwe.
Overall, resolving of the poultry trade dispute between Kenya and Tanzania demonstrates the existing potential for Africa countries to grow trade in poultry and poultry products in the drive to achieve AfCFTA goals in the medium to long term.
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Features of the extended laying cycle of Hy-Line brown hens reared under different lighting and feeding regimens
In this study the impact of two lighting and three feeding programs during rearing on hen egg-production characteristics across an extended laying cycle was evaluated.
I. Muir1, Y. Akter1,2, K. Bruerton3, P.J. Groves 4
1 School of Life and Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW 2570, Australia
2 Centre for Animal Science, QAAFI, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
3 PO Box 1362, Elanora, Queensland, 4221, Australia
4 Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW 2570, Australia
Introduction
The physiological pat terns of hen feed intake (FI) and body weight (BW ) trajectory are established by early lay. Careful management of lighting and feeding pat terns during rearing can regulate bird size and feeding habits by the end of rearing. Whether this influences persistency of lay, efficiency of production and egg quality during an ex tended laying period is unknown. The lighting program during rearing can alter pullet age at first egg (AFE), the number of eggs produced and egg weight (EW ). We
have shown that a more rapid light reduction (RLR) during rearing, which provides fewer hours of light/day, slows chick growth and on light stimulation will initiate earlier AFE, compared to a standard lighting (SL) schedule in current brown egg-laying hen strains. But the ongoing impact of the lighting and feeding programs employed during rearing on Brown egg-laying hens held in an ex tended laying cycle has not been evaluated. Therefore, this longitudinal study followed hens reared under different lighting and feeding programs until they were 100 WOA, including measurement of their
DOSSIER
FI, egg production (EP), EW and feed conversion ratio (FCR). The quality of the eggs produced towards the end of their laying cycle was also evaluated.
Material and methods
As described in Muir et al. (2023) 900 Hy-Line Brown day-old chicks, that had been beak trimmed and vaccinated at the hatchery were placed in groups of 30 in floor pens (7 m2) at the Zootechny research facility, Austral, NSW, Australia. Each pen had a perch, automatic nipple drinkers and manually filled feed hoppers. The shed was brooded with space heaters, had side curtains, foggers, and dimmable lights with photoperiod control for each end of the shed. A light proof curtain traversed the centre of the shed separating 15 pens to each of the two lighting regimens. All birds were held under intermit tent lighting during the first week (4hLight(L):2hDark(D)) then 20hL:4hD in the second week. For RLR the photoperiod was reduced as 16hL:8hD, then 12hL:12hD and finally held at 9hL/d from 4-16 weeks of age ( WOA). Under SL program 20hL:4hD was maintained through to 3 WOA then reduced gradually to 10hL:14hD by 7 WOA and held there through to 16 WOA. All birds were fed ad libitum until 4 WOA when three feeding programs of five pens per lighting treatment were introduced. This was ad libitum (ad lib); feeding to achieve breed standard weight (BSW ); and feeding to achieve 88% BSW (Managed) for age. Hence the study was a 2 × 3 factorial arrangement of 2 lighting and 3 feeding programs. All birds received the same commercial crumble pullet star ter (0-5 WOA) and grower (5-12 WOA) (Barastoc, Australia), then a developer mash (12-16 WOA). When 16 WOA, 75 pullets/ treatment were moved into individual pens in a high-rise layer shed under a common lighting program with gradual increase to 16 h L/d at 33 WOA. From 16-17.4 WOA all pullets received pre-lay diet and from 17.5-100 WOA diets changed through feeding phases 1-5 as per Hy-Line Brown breed recommendation (Hy-Line International 2018). From 16 WOA all diets were mash and fed ad libitum. Bird BW was measured at 16, 72 and 100 WOA, FI, EP, EW, egg mass (EM) and FCR were measured when hens were 100 WOA, and their cumulative measures were calculated from 17.5-100 WOA. Eggs from 12 focal birds/rearing treatment were assessed for EW, Haugh unit (HU), relative albumen weight, yolk colour, relative shell weight, shell thickness and shell breaking strength,
during 96-100 WOA. All data were analysed using a factorial ANOVA with lighting and feeding regimens during rearing as main effects.
Results and discussion
At 16 WOA BW was highest in pullets of ad lib feeding under SL and lowest for pullets of Managed feeding under both SL and RLR (Table 1). Similar trends in BW were evident at 72 WOA but BW was above breed standard for age (1.97 kg) in all treatments. At 100 WOA hens from Managed feeding during rearing had the lowest BW but FI was similar for all treatments. The 17.5-100 WOA cumulative FI was approaching significance as birds from Managed feeding during rearing had the lowest FI (P=0.073; Table 1). Egg production at 100 WOA was similar, ranging from 62.3-68.9% and essentially all hens produced 500 eggs by 100 WOA. At 100 WOA hens fed ad lib during rearing had higher FCR at 100 WOA compared to birds from restricted FI (BSW or Managed) rearing regimens (P=0.004; Table 1). Further, cumulative FCR (17.5-100
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Table 1 – Body weight at 16, 72 and 100 weeks, 100 week and cumulative (17.5-100 weeks) feed intake, egg production and feed conversion of Hy-Line Brown hens reared in different lighting and feeding regimens.
Lighting: Lighting program; SL: Standard lighting; RLR: Rapid light reduction; Feeding: Feeding program; AD: Ad libitum; BSW: Fed to achieve Breed standard weight for age; M: Managed feeding to achieve 88% BSW for age; BW: Body weight; wk: Week; FI: Feed intake; C: cumulative; EP: Egg production; FCR: feed conversion ratio.
Table 2 – Egg weight from all birds at 100 weeks * and characteristics of eggs produced by Hy-line Brown focal hens between 96-100 weeks of age following rearing in different lighting and feeding regimens. Treatment regimens during
Lighting: Lighting program; SL: Standard lighting; RLR: Rapid light reduction m; Feeding: Feeding program; AD: Ad libitum; BSW: Fed to achieve Breed standard weight for age; M: Managed feeding to achieve 88% BSW for age; * egg weight for eggs from all birds within the treatment; wt: weight; # wt as a percent of egg wt.
WOA) was numerically lower in hens from Managed compared to ad lib feeding in rearing. Earlier in production, cumulative 17.5-61 WOA FCR had been significantly lower (data not shown) in lighter hens from Managed feeding during rearing, concurring with lower cumulative FCR of smaller hens from 18-69 WOA in a previous study and then numerically lower FCR through to 89 WOA. Based on average EW from all eggs produced by hens of each treatment group, SL eggs were heavier compared to RLR (P=0.015). Whereas, when based on EW of eggs from focal hens only, differences were approaching significance (P=0.061; Table 2). Relative albumen weight was higher due to SL during rearing. Eggs from hens reared within the Managed feeding regimen had the highest HU (P<0.01) though all HU met the >81 HU breed standard for age (Hy-Line International, 2018). Yolk colour was also above the recommended score of 11. There were no differences in shell quality. Relative shell weight was >9% and shell thickness >0.35 mm for all treatments, minimizing the chances of shell cracks. Egg weight at 100 WOA remained around 65 g, aiding shell quality compared to larger (>70 g) eggs.
This study illustrated the opportunity to program hens to different sizes during lay by managing their FI during rearing. Smaller hens had lower FCR while producing a similar number of eggs with higher HU, compared to larger sized hens that have been fed ad lib throughout rearing. There may be opportunity to provide pullets of lower BW with a nutrient dense diet during early lay to provide additional nutrients in preparation for a longer laying cycle.
DOSSIER
Acknowledgement: Thank you to Australian Eggs for funding this project.
References are available on request
From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2024
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Cost-effective biosecurity management practices
An effective flock health plan must integrate solid strategies for disease prevention, rapid diagnosis, and effective treatment to support poultry health. To attain this goal, proper biosecurity practices are a must to 1) prevent entry of potential pathogens (exclusion) and 2) avoid spreading diseases (containment). Successful on-farm implementation of both becomes producers’ best investment against health problems and disease outbreaks.
FOCUS
Exclusion practices to prevent diseases
The best strategy against any potential diseases is avoiding exposure. Certainly, proactive practices and well-design facilities that aim to prevent pathogen entry are greatly advised. For example, proper placement of feed bins and disposal containers outside the barn perimeter can allow refilling and removal of dead bodies with no need of trucks entering inside the fenced area (no cross contamination). Indeed, trucks impose a high biosecurity risk as they can visit multiple barns daily and relocate diseases across facilities into premises. If vehicles are to enter the fenced area, proper cleaning and disinfection should be done to deter disease transmission.
Pest control can also play a crucial role in disease prevention as rodents, wild birds, and insects can bring pathogens and parasites into poultry operations. If previously in contact with contaminated sources, flies (and other insects) can be carriers of foodborne diseases and viruses. Then, checking for entry points (like cracks and holes in ceiling, windows, filters, and walls), and fixing them, is a recommended, biosecurity-friendly strategy. As well, adequate management of carcass disposal to avoid cross contamination and cleaning up feed spillage as soon as possible help manage proliferation of insects, rodents, and other wildlife within poultry barns and premises. Feed storage facilities (and barn mills if applicable) must also be protected from contamination by wildlife. Dogs and cats can also carry over diseases and parasites, and their access to
poultry barns must be off limits. Investing in efforts to block contact between commercial flocks and other animals, including insects, is key to lower chances for disease transmission; otherwise biosecurity is in jeopardy.
Most poultry facilities operate in an all-in/all-out basis depending on the production phase. Still, allocating a quarantine space for possible entries is advantageous to track the health status of arrivals and ease their transition into new houses prior to mixing. In case of a health problem, caretakers can act on it quickly and effectively due to small number of animals and reduced containment area. Also, when not in used as quarantine, this space can become a nursery area to manage sick birds and help birds left behind recover. Whether if used as quarantine
or nursery area, taking the time to isolate potentially sick birds (either known or unknown) can help stop a possible disease outbreak on time.
Controlled access is a priority, and entry of personnel into premises and barns is a crucial step from a biosecurity standpoint. To safeguard poultry health, clean and dirty areas have to be clearly defined while staff and visitors cross correctly between them. During this step, nothing dirty must come in touch with anything in the clean area unless it has been cleaned and disinfected (including hands). In the locker room, street clothes should always remain in the dirty zone away from barn overalls and boots in the clean area. When moving between clean and dirty areas (both ways), showering and using hand sanitizers is desirable for pathogen exclusion and contain-
INTRA HYDROCARE DOES COMPLY WITH THE LATEST REGULATIONS
ment. Moreover, the locker room must also be cleaned and disinfected regularly at the end of the day. Relax biosecurity protocols when moving between dirty and clean areas can become a biosecurity breach that greatly put at risk poultry (and staff) health taking a toll on flock performance.
Containment tips for biosecurity
Proper cleaning followed by correct sanitation practices are farmer-best allies against potential pathogens and to get rid of any ongoing diseases. For this reason, easily cleanable surfaces (smooth concrete) and materials (like metal o plastic rather than wood) can be effortlessly disinfected and fumigated after cleaning. When not in used and during downtime between flocks, facilities and equipment need to be cleaned and sanitized regularly to prevent accumulation of organic waste and potentially infectious agents in poultry houses. Effective sanitation measures will help also prevent potential disease transfer from one flock to the next one. Yet, disinfectants are the most effective when used at the right concentration on clean surfaces, free of organic matter such as litter or manure. So, for successful sanitation, thorough cleaning is required followed by disinfectant application at the right dose and exposure time to kill bacteria and viruses.
Disease control is an integral part of bird welfare and health, and sanitation measures will help prevent disease transfer within and amongst flocks. Even when moving from younger to older flocks, cleaning and disinfecting hands and boots upon entry and exit is highly recommended for disease control. Particularly, if handling birds showing pathological symptoms or found dead to disallow cross contamination. Wearing disposal gowns and latex gloves is not practical for regular use on-farm, but placing disinfectant dispensers by entrance doors for easy utilization can mitigate disease transmission and help contain diseases if present.
Although these biosecurity practices are pricy and time consuming, ensuring that well laid-out biosecurity protocols are followed on-farm does pay off as the opportunities of disease transfer exponentially decline as the biosecurity level rises (particularly against local diseases). Also, to attain optimum bird performance, poultry health, and food safety, management practices that support hygienic conditions in and out of poultry barns are a requirement for high biosecurity standards. Economically, this translates into lower cost in terms of flock mortality, productivity loss, recovery time, stock replacement, and sanitation efforts.
But, what else?
Disease prevention is always a better option than treatment. Yet, to assess the effectiveness of biosecurity practices, regular monitoring and proper recording of poultry health is paramount to manage flock as soon as early signs show up in few chickens. Early disease detection is then equally important than prevention, and flocks should be carefully monitored regularly looking for acute symptoms (e.g., low body condition, poor feather coverage and cleanliness, breathing difficulties, litter quality). Once spotted, sick or injured birds must be promptly treated, moved to a recovery pen/room, or euthanized. Staff should also look at mortality and culling rates regularly to detect unusual records or worrying observations. Overall, beside solid biosecurity protocols, integrating other strategies that support poultry health (like a vaccination plan, probiotic administration, and prophylactic use of medications) are complementary approaches to secure poultry health and safeguard production outcomes.
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Third Avian Influenza outbreak in the USA within 10 years: the 2023-2024 epidemic
In the past ten years, the US poultry industry has been affected by three devastating outbreaks of the Avian Influenza virus. This article provides an overview of the timeline and impacts of the 2023/24 epidemic.
Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst
The author is Professor Emeritus of the University of Vechta, Germany
Between April 2015 and March 2024, the highly pathogenic virus was diagnosed in 683 poultry farms. A total of 128.8 million poultry died as a result of the infections and the preventive culling of flocks. Of these, 100.3 million were laying hens and 20.7 million turkeys (Table 1).
While there were about seven years between the first two outbreaks, the third massive epidemic followed only two years after the second. It had been hoped after the devastating economic impacts of 2022 that a similar outbreak would not follow so soon, the new wave of outbreaks hit the poultry industry shortly after the recovery from the Covid-19 pandemic. This flared up a number of issues that had already been the subject of much controversy in 2022. One was the possibility of preventive vaccination and the other if and how farms should be compensated for animal losses due to infection or culling using funding
from the Department of Agriculture (USDA). This article provides an overview of the timeline and impacts of the 2023/24 epidemic.
Did the outbreaks follow a known timeline and spatial pattern?
There is an obvious correlation between the infection of migrating wild birds with the AI virus and the outbreaks in poultry farms. The three major flyways (Pacific, Mississippi, Atlantic) of wild birds have a decisive influence on the spatial pattern of outbreaks. While in 2015 it was primarily bird migration on the Mississippi route that led to the concentration of cases in the northern Midwest (Minnesota, S. Dakota), the pattern in 2022 was very different. As could be shown, these were strictly speaking two separate epidemics caused by bird migration on all three routes (Windhorst 2023).
In early October 2023, the first cases occurred in turkey farms in Minnesota and South Dakota and four weeks
Table 1 – Avian Influenza outbreaks and animal losses in the USA between April 2015 and March 2024; data in million birds (source: APHIS).
later in parent stock farms for broiler chicks in Arkansas and Alabama. The fact that outbreaks were recorded in the southern part of the Mississippi route was surprising, but showed that the wild birds were travelling far south. In November, which showed a peaked with 61 outbreaks (Figure 1), the spatial pattern changed as farms in Iowa, California, Oregon and Montana were infected in addition to the initially affected states. In December, the number of outbreaks in turkey flocks decreased significantly, but the number of infected flocks with other poultry species increased sharply, especially in California. A total of 16 farms were infected here, with duck and broiler flocks also affected, deviating from the pattern in 2015 and 2022. The Pacific flyway was obviously more frequented by wild birds than in previous outbreaks. On the Atlantic route, there were infections in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio.
In January 2024, the number of outbreaks fell significantly, with only two infections in turkey farms in Wisconsin and Indiana and in two laying hen and broiler flocks in California. Remarkably, six game bird farms in Kansas and South Dakota were affected. Two cases had already occurred in South Dakota in December. Although the number of outbreaks continued to decline in February, there were again six infections in turkey flocks in Missouri and South Dakota as well as a parent stock farm for broiler chicks in Colorado and a broiler growing farm in Nebraska. In March 2024, only one outbreak was documented in a turkey farm in South Dakota. With higher temperatures, the end of the epidemic seemed to be in sight (Figure 2)1
The main results of the timeline and spatial pattern of the outbreaks can be summarized as follows: the outbreak in October 2023 began similar to 2015 and 2022 with a large number of infections in turkey flocks in the northern Midwest, but in the following months outbreaks became more frequent in the western USA, especially in California, but also in Oregon and Montana. States in the Atlantic flyway were less affected than in 2022.
Outbreaks and animal losses - large differences depending on the poultry species infected
Figure 1 – AI outbreaks and animal losses in the USA between October 2023 and March 2024 (design: A.S. Kauer based on APHIS data).
Figure 2 – The time-line of the AI-outbreaks in turkey and layer flocks in the USA between October 2023 and March 2024 (design: A.S. Kauer based on APHIS data).
One might expect that the highest number of infections would also result in the highest animal losses. However, this was not the case, as can be seen from Table 2 and Figure 3
Although turkey flocks accounted for 59.3% of the outbreaks, they only shared 15.2% in animal losses. The 1
Table 2 – AI outbreaks and animal losses in the USA between October 2023 and March 2024 (source: APHIS).
picture was completely different for laying hen farms. They only shared 16.9% in the total number of infected farms, but at 68.7% they accounted for over two thirds of animal losses. Of the 26 infected laying hen farms, four had more than one million places and one had more than two million. In contrast, the average number of animals kept on a turkey farm was only 38,000.
The broiler flocks affected were also much larger, with an average of 232,000 places. The epidemics in 2015
and 2022 showed a similar size pattern (Windhorst 2016, 2023).
Outbreaks and animal losses - major regional differences
A comparison of the AI outbreaks that occurred in a state in the period under review with the resulting animal losses also reveals characteristic differences.
Figure 4 shows that South Dakota, Minnesota and California accounted for 60.0% of infected poultry farms, but shared only 38.5% in the animal losses. The difference was obvious in South Dakota. Although the state shared 22.1% in the number of affected flocks, it only accounted for 6.0% of animal losses. The average size of the farms was 41,000 places. In contrast, the situation in Ohio was completely different. With six outbreaks, the state only shared 3.9% of the total number of infected farms, but with 25.5% it accounted for over a quarter of animal loss-
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Outbreaks * incl. breeding farms ** incl. parent flocks for broiler chicks *** incl. other waterfowl
Outbreaks
Turkeys*
Laying hens**
Broilers
Game birds
Ducks*** Unspecified
Animal losses
Laying hens** Turkeys*
Broilers
Game birds
Ducks*** Unspecified
Animal losses
es. Here, the average herd size was 983,000 places, 24 times larger than in South Dakota. In Iowa, Kansas and California, the proportion of outbreaks was also lower than the proportion of animal losses. With 290,000 (Iowa), 230,000 (Kansas) and 200,000 (California), respectively, large average flock sizes were also reached here. It is obvious that animal losses were particularly high in states with large layer farms. Although a similar situation had already occurred in 2015 and 2022, the large laying hen farms had apparently not been able in the meantime to improve biosecurity measures to prevent the entry and spread of the AI virus. Weather condi -
Figure 4 – The share of the ten leading states in the AI-outbreaks and animal losses in the USA between October 2023 and March 2024 (design: A.S. Kauer based on APHIS data).
tions also played a role, as the prolonged winter had the effect that wild birds migrated from the northern states of the Midwest and California to the northern breeding areas weeks later than usual. This may partly explain the numerous outbreaks in Kansas, Nebraska and California in January 2024.
Summary and outlook
After 2015 and 2022, over 150 outbreaks of the Avian Influenza virus occurred again in the USA in the winter
Figure 3 – The share of the poultry species in the AI-outbreaks and animal losses in the USA between October 2023 and March 2024 (design: A.S. Kauer based on APHIS data).
months of 2023/24. Commercial turkey meat and laying hen flocks were again primarily affected, but duck and broiler farms were also infected.
In contrast to the first two outbreak waves mentioned above, states in the west of the USA were affected to a much greater extent in 2023/24, as were states in the central south.
While there were almost seven years without any major outbreaks or animal losses between the outbreaks of 2015 and 2022, the time gap between the last two outbreaks was less than two years.
Because of the short period of time, a debate flared up again about preventive vaccination of poultry and a change in the financial compensation of the affected farms for the animal losses from tax revenues.
Additional literature
Windhorst, H.-W.: Economic impacts of the AI-outbreaks in the USA in 2015. A final evaluation of the epizootic disaster. In: Zootecnica International 38 (2016), no. 7, p. 3439.
Windhorst, H.-W.: Analyzing the 2022 US avian influenza outbreak. In: Poultry World 38 (2022), no. 6, p. 12-14.
Windhorst, H.-W.: Two waves, different routes and changing dynamics. The Avian Influenza outbreaks in the USA in 2022. In: Poultry World 39 (2023), no. 2, p. 8-11.
Assessment of crop fill at key times after placement is a useful means of determining appetite development and checking that all poults have found feed and water.
If adequate crop fill is achieved, appetite development will be boosted, early growth rate will be enhanced, ensuring welfare and liveability of the birds is at a good level and skeletal and intestinal gut development will be at desired levels, so affecting flock uniformity and production potential. Optimising early development also supports development of the immune system which can have lasting effects on the bird’s health.
The procedure for assessing crop fill
Crop fill should be monitored between the first 5 and 8 hours after placement and will indicate if the poults have found feed and water. During our studies, Carrying out a crop fill analysis between 5 to 8 hours gives the strongest representation of how the
poults have started and the early development of the poults. A minimum of 100 poults should be assessed in multiple locations to give accurate results.
Equipment
1. A catching frame.
2. A pen or pencil.
3. Paper to record crop fill.
Step 1
Using a catching frame, separate approximately 25 poults at a time from different brooding rings/areas in the house.
Step 2
Handling each poult with care, gently feel the crop of each poult in the catching area using your thumb and forefinger.
Table 1 – Example of crop fill recording sheet. Hours after placement 8
Category Number of poults in category
1. Empty
2 . Full but hard with original feed texture / Partially full
3. Full, soft and rounded
Total Recorded 110
Step 3
Score the contents of the crop of each poult (see Table 1) using the following categories:
1. Crop empty - poults have not found feed or water.
2. Full but hard with original feed texture felt / partially full - poults have feed but little or no water.
3. Full, soft, and rounded - poults have found feed and water.
Step 4
Calculate the percentage (%) of poults in each categories 2 & 3 by dividing the number of poults recorded in the categories 2 & 3 by the total number of poults assessed and multiplying by 100 (see Figure 1).
Figure 1 – Example calculations of poult crop fill percentage.
Step 5
Compare your results with the target crop fill assessment guidelines in Table 2.
Table 2 – Target crop fill assessment guidelines.
5
6
Interpreting results
Key Points
Crop-fill on or above target guidelines = No action required. Continue to monitor crop fill in future placements.
A crop-fill of 5% or more below target guidelines (e.g. 75% or lower at 8 hrs after placement) requires further investigation of brooding practices required.
Areas to consider
Environment checks
• Houses are pre-heated at least 48 hours prior to poult arrival.
• Poult comfort is optimum by monitoring and adjusting if needed:
• Air temperature at poult height
• Litter temperature
• Relative humidity
• Light intensity is at the optimum level in the brooding area and that the lighting programme has been set correctly.
• Air quality is correct for young poults with a maximum CO2 of 2500ppm at poult level.
• Airflow is correct and that there are no draughts onto the birds.
Feed and water checks
• Poults have unrestricted access to well-presented feed and cool fresh water.
• Adequate supplementary feeders and drinkers.
• Provide small amounts of feed frequently in supplementary feeders.
• Supplementary (mini) drinkers are cleaned and refilled 3 times a day.
• Feed physical quality and water quality are correct.
Preventing pecking and cannibalism in laying hens: a comprehensive guide
While the Hy-Line genetic improvement program selects hens for prolific and efficient egg output, bird temperament is important with selection for birds with a calm behavior. However, under certain conditions, pecking and cannibalism can be present among the hens. These behaviors can lead to injury, stress, and decreased egg production. Fortunately, with proper management and preventive measures, it is possible to reduce the incidence of pecking and cannibalism significantly.
Understanding the causes
Before examining prevention methods, it’s crucial to understand why pecking and cannibalism occur in laying hens:
• Social stress – Overcrowding, limited space, and competition for resources like food and water can lead to social stress within the flock, causing hens to engage in aggressive behaviors.
• Environmental factors – Inadequate lighting, temperature, sudden stress, poor ventilation, and dirty living conditions can contribute to stress and boredom, which may trigger pecking.
• Nutritional deficiencies – Imbalances or deficiencies in the hens’ diet can lead to nutrient deficiencies that affect their behavior and overall health.
Prevention strategies
• Feather cover – A poorly feathered bird at point of lay is more prone to stress during the laying period and develop anti-social behavior/feather pecking. Factors that contribute to feather quality include proper growth, nutrition, disease, management, overall stress, and uniformity. Pullets undergo three molts to transition from chick down to adult feather cover. To achieve the best feathering, the pullets must be healthy and free of stress for the duration of feather growth.
• Condition pullets in rear to become accustomed to audio and visual stimuli. Sound from mechanical noises such as initiating the feeding system is a good way to condition the bird to spontaneous noise. Use of a radio in the rearing house and talking are also effective means of familiarizing birds to sounds. Changing the colour of clothes
and footwear frequently will also help condition birds to visual stimuli and result in calmer flock less prone to develop behavior issues.
• Provide adequate space
– Ensure your hens have enough room to move around comfortably. Overcrowding is a major stress factor that can lead to pecking. Aim for at least 310 square cm of space per hen with a minimum of 8 cm of linear feeder space per bird in the growing phase and at least 490 square cm with a minimum of 9 cm of linear feeder space per bird in the production phase.
• Achieve optimal body weight, conditioning, and uniformity by the end of the rearing period. Body weights should be on breed target at light stimulation weeks with minimum 85% uniformity.
• Good ventilation and lighting
– Maintain proper ventilation to control ammonia levels and humidity, which can cause stress. Adequate lighting, including natural light, helps regulate the hens’ circadian rhythms and reduces boredom.
• Feeding system: A wellmanaged feeding system will not only support good performance but also promote good behaviour.
1. Maintain constant access to feed throughout the day from transfer to 22 weeks of age.
2. From 22 weeks of age onwards, allow the birds to consume all the feed from the feeding system during the morning period, this will encourage consumption of small particles of feed.
3. Ensure feed is adequately distributed around the entire feeding system quickly, and to avoid separation of components. A track speed of 20 m/minute will distribute feed efficiently. Checking distribution of feed from the beginning to the end of the system is important especially for longer systems over 120-130 meters.
Loading hoppers positioned halfway along the feeding system aids distribution of feed.
4. Stimulate feed consumption at the beginning of lay by running the system without adding additional feed.
5. Check the presentation of feed within the system ensuring adequate depth while at the same time preventing spillage.
6. Set the feed system at an appropriate height to allow birds to consume freely.
• Environmental enrichment (cage free systems) – Give hens things to do to prevent boredom. This includes hanging objects like mirrors, providing dust baths, pecking blocks, or scattering grains for them to scratch. These activities can divert their attention from pecking at each other. Provide items such as perches and nesting boxes.
• Quality nutrition – Ensure your hens receive a balanced and nutritious diet. The Hy-Line W-80 management guide has a detailed nutrition session. It’s important to pay attention not only to the energy, protein, amino acids, and minerals in the diets, but mainly the vitamin and trace minerals premix. The vitamin and trace mineral levels (and the proportion between them) will have a key role in the behavior and other nutrient absorption.
1. Fiber: increased insoluble fiber levels in layer diets have been shown to increase feeding time which has a positive impact on bird behavior. Fiber also has a positive effect on satiety, gut function and condition by stimulating gizzard activity and mechanical function. Typical fiber levels are 3.54.5%; however, higher levels can increase feeding time and reduction in boredom and is associated with decreased feather pecking.
2. Elevated fiber levels are attainable by adding more high fiber materials such as sunflower, wheat feed, whole oat (hulls) or rape extract. Cellulosic products can also be used to increase the fiber level of the diet (based on supplier recommendation).
Table 1 – Ratio of limestone particle size.
3. Using a blend of fibers from a variety of sources is advisable. Forage within the house environment (straw, alfalfa) also serves as a supplementary source of fiber.
4. Feed particle size: feed particle size is nutritionally important and also engages hens in good feeding behaviour.
5. Proper particle size: utilize the Hy-Line feed particle size profile and aim for the majority of particles to fall between 1 and 3 mm. Particles above 3 mm should be kept within a maximum of 15% and not exceed 4 mm. The correct feed particle size will provide enough large particle size mash to stimulate a mechanical function to the intestine and enough small particles to engage the hens in longer feeding time.
6. If the feed is too coarse, an excessive quantity of large particles may result in feed
selection by dominant birds. This may result in aggressive competition and uneven nutrient intake.
7. If the feed is too fine, the ration will be less palatable resulting in hens more likely to engage in explorative or boredom pecking.
8. Adding fats and/or oils provide energy and also increases the homogeneity and palatability of mash feed.
9. Feeding mash is preferred due to the longer feeding times, providing feed in a pelletised or crumb form will reduce the bird’s feeding time.
10. Use large particle size limestone (2 mm to 4 mm) in the layer diets, larger particles not only support eggshell quality but also provide a mechanical stimulus which increases docility. The remainder of the limestone should be provided as a smaller particle size of 0 to 2 mm.
Metabolizable Energy Requirement (kcals/bird/day). An approximation of the effect of temperature on energy needs is that for each 0.5 °C change higher or lower than 22 °C, subtract or add 2 kcals/bird/day respectively.
11. Ensure large particles of limestone are adequately distributed through the feed, uneven distribution will result in uneven presentation and potentially variable intake by birds. Mix feed components adequately during the manufacturing process, add fat/ oil to the diets to aid homogeneity of the feed.
• Consistency of nutrient supply
1. Base the nutrient density of the diet on the bird’s nutrient requirements (egg mass output) and feed intake. Birds eat quantities of nutrients not percentages so accurate estimation of feed intake when setting the diet nutrient specification is critical. A deficit in nutrient intake at any stage in lay may result in a stress reaction. This is particularly important in hot weather situations where provision of key nutrients is critical.
2. Ensure a consistent supply of key nutrients to the bird through lay, transitioning to lower density feeds should be based on the existing feed intake and egg mass output rather than to an age.
3. Minimise significant reduction in nutrient intake when transitioning through the feeding programme. Introduction to the next stage diet should be managed so any dietary changes should be subtle to avoid triggering a behavioural response. Daily nutrition intake should not vary by more than 5%.
4. Ensure an optimal amino acid intake and balance
Table 3 – Energy requirements.
Table 2 – Ratio of limestone particle size.
MANAGEMENT
throughout both the rearing and laying period. Any shortfall or misbalance in amino acid intake may predispose to aggressive behavior. The main amino acids to consider are methionine, tryptophan and arginine.
5. Birds respond well to consistent diets with minimal compositional change. Maintain the same raw material use between diets and ensure inclusion levels do not change more than 20% between diets.
6. Low or variable intake of micronutrients can impact on bird behavior. Deficiency of vitamins B6 and Biotin are associated with feather pecking. Ensure the birds consume the fine particles of feed which tend to contain micronutrients. Check that the vitamin and trace mineral specification of the diets are adequate.
7. Sodium deficiencies often lead to pecking issues. If adverse behaviors are observed, checking the sodium and sodium chloride levels in feed samples source from the feeding system can be a quick indicator of ration imbalance.
8. Implement a consistent feeding schedule to reduce competition.
• Energy requirements
1. Provide sufficient energy to support egg mass output (see table at right) and also to maintain ideal body condition. Hens with inadequate levels of body fat and muscle tone are more prone to developing behavioral issues.
2. Check the condition of birds: as a minimum it should be possible to feel a 2 cm layer of skin/ subcutaneous fat around the abdominal area.
3. Maintain adequate muscle condition, a breast muscle score of 3 is required after reaching mature body weights at 33/34 weeks of age (Page 8 Hy-Line Brown management guide).
• Beak treatment – Where permitted, beak treatment is one of the most effective measures to prevent injury from pecking. Many hatcheries today employ infrared beak treatment at day-of-age in the hatchery which has proven to be an effective and welfare-friendly acceptable method in the majority of world markets. Special machinery is required in the hatchery which treats the tip of the beak of the chicks with infrared energy resulting in the tip dieing and the pullet will have shorter, rounded beak.
• Monitor and isolate aggressive birds – Regularly observe your flock for signs of aggression. When inspecting the flock, if any aggressive hen is noticed (usually with blood on their face), remove this hen, debeak it, and change it to a different cage or pen.
• Regular health checks – Regularly inspect your hens for signs of injury or disease. Sick or injured birds are more likely to be targeted by their peers, so prompt treatment is essential.
Conclusion
Preventing pecking and cannibalism in laying hens is essential for their well-being and overall productivity. By addressing the underlying causes, providing a comfortable environment, and offering proper nutrition and enrichment, you can significantly reduce the occurrence of these issues in your flock.
Remember that early intervention and diligent monitoring are key to maintaining a healthy and harmonious group of laying hens, ultimately leading to better egg production and happier birds
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Immunity and inflammation: crucial balance
I-CARE: boosting immunity to maximize energy for growth and performance.
In poultry farming, illnesses such as Marek’s disease, Gumboro disease, and Newcastle disease are highly feared and are controlled with appropriate vaccination plans already implemented in hatcheries. Other diseases, such as coccidiosis, can be controlled with the use of vaccines or coccidiostatic substances, while necrotic enteritis is managed through sanitary measures.
with the genetic selection of fast-growing animals and laying hens that continue to produce eggs for over a hundred weeks without molting.
Pier Enrico Rossi, DVM
Matteo Blando, Product Manager Prosol
The use of vaccines stimulates the production of antibodies to prevent the onset of the disease, provided that the immune system can respond to the vaccine stress. For example, Gumboro disease, described in 1962, has seen significant scientific progress and innovations in the poultry sector,
Neuroscience research has also made enormous progress: it has now been demonstrated that neuronal activity exists not only within the cranial cavity but also throughout the entire body. The typical molecules produced by neurons, neuropeptides, and their corresponding receptors have been found in organs beyond the brain.
Neuropeptides are tiny molecules produced by neurons that serve to communicate messages to other neurons and to other cells
NUTRITION
with corresponding receptors, operating through a lockand-key mechanism. Ganglia, which are ovoid structures invisible to the naked eye, consist of clusters of neuron cell bodies (ganglion cells) surrounded by connective tissue. Axons and dendrites extend from these ganglia, forming both sensory and motor nerve fibers. Ganglia are distributed throughout the body; they are found alongside the spinal column but also in large numbers in the wall of the intestine, both in the submucosa (Meissner’s plexus) and between the longitudinal and circular layers of the muscularis externa (Auerbach’s plexus), where they regulate various functions of the digestive system.
An intriguing aspect is that unlike other peripheral districts, the gastrointestinal tract continues to function even if its connections (nerve fibers) to the brain and spinal cord are severed; that is, if a segment of intestine is isolated from the central nervous system, it retains its functionality. In contrast, organs such as the bladder, respiratory system, and muscular systems require oversight from brain centers to function properly.
Moreover, other parts of the body exhibit specific neuronal capabilities. For example, neurotransmitters produced by neurons not only act on other neurons but also on various cells such as macrophages, which are part of the immune system and circulate throughout the body to defend against infections. Immune cells themselves produce certain neurotransmitters, highlighting a connection between the central nervous system and the immune system.
This connection is represented by Langerhans cells, a group of dendritic cells that recognize foreign agents (antigens) and present them to T lymphocytes, the primary effectors of the immune defense.
Neuroimmunology is the science dedicated to studying the interaction between the nervous and immune systems. This field of research helps us understand the complexity of the body’s immune organization and how any alteration in this organization can lead to an imbalance in the immune response.
Inflammation and immune response
Nonspecific or innate immunity is a type of defence mechanism that is present from birth. It predominates in individuals whose immune system is not yet fully developed and therefore cannot provide specific and targeted
responses to pathogens. This immune system includes various types of cells such as lymphocytes, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells, all capable of recognizing and destroying pathogens.
In infectious diseases, when a pathogen such as a virus, bacterium, or parasite attacks tissues, it triggers inflammation as a mechanism of nonspecific innate immune defense. This innate response protects the organism from the harmful action of pathogens. Characteristics of inflamed tissue include:
• redness due to increased blood flow (rubor),
• swelling due to edema (tumor),
• elevated temperature (calor),
• compromised function of the affected area due to structural imbalances induced by inflammation.
Inflammation aims to rid the body of the causal agent and is not confined to a local phenomenon. Various molecules synthesized and released by cells involved in inflammation enter the bloodstream and act on distant organs, primarily the liver, stimulating it to produce other molecules responsible for the inflammatory response. The course of inflammation can be acute or chronic, depending on the intensity and duration of the inflammatory stimulus, the site of inflammation, and the host’s response.
Acute inflammation can resolve completely with healing or scar formation, with replacement of the damaged tissue with fibrous tissue, or it can progress towards a chronic phlogosis with prolonged inflammation. In this case the process of chronicization and the replacement of the affected tissue with connective tissue will compro -
mise the achievement of high production standards.
In the case of the broiler intestine, inflammation can impair nutrient absorption, decrease feed conversion, and consequently reduce weight gain. This type of inflammation is often triggered by TRL receptors on the intestinal epithelium, activated by the presence of bacterial compounds, leading to broiler dysbiosis. This condition is characterized by a high presence of inflammatory cells infiltrating the intestinal mucosa, causing deformation and shortening of intestinal villi. Dysbiosis can occur in broiler even in the absence of pathogens.
The intestinal immune system consists of enterocytes, which act as a physical barrier, and gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), including various immune cells such as B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, dendritic cells, and M cells organized in Peyer’s patches. These cells can recognize specific molecular structures associated with potentially harmful pathogens by binding through spe-
cific recognition receptors. β-glucans are molecules recognized by the immune system as foreign, and their mechanism of action is based on binding to specific PRRs (pattern recognition receptors) present on the surface of innate immune system cells.
The β-glucans are linear glucose polysaccharides, linked by glycosidic bonds in the β-(1-3) position, with branches of glucose attached via β-(1-6) or β-(1-2) glycosidic bonds (Figure 1).
The macromolecular structure of these carbohydrates varies depending on the source:
• The cell wall of yeasts and fungi is composed of linear chains with β-(1-3) linkages and glucose branches connected by β-(1-6) bonds.
• Cereal cell walls contain only linear chains of glucose linked by alternating β-(1-3) and β-(1-4) bonds.
• The cell walls of bacteria are composed of linear chains linked by β-(1-3) bonds.
Figure 1 – I-CARE - Immunomodulation activity. Once the immune system is activated and stress is overcome, I-CARE promotes increased production of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10) and modulates inflammation by reducing the production of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6). This avoids unnecessary chronicization of the inflammatory process, allowing for better recovery of poultry, reducing energy expenditure, and ensuring energy for growth and performance.
Trial carried by Faculty of Agriculture Kasetsart University (Thailand).
Depending on the source (yeasts, algae, bacteria, and cereals cell wall), β-glucans differ significantly in their solubility, structure, degree of branching, molecular weight, and all these characteristics greatly influence their ability to effectively perform this immunomodulatory activity.
The ability to stimulate specific receptors necessary for activating the immune system is indeed ensured only in β-glucans containing β-(13)-(1-6) linkages and an appropriate degree of branching. For this reason, over the years Prosol SPA has selected a specific strain of yeast that, through a careful and gentle hydrolysis process, enhances the bioavailability of β-glucans with β-(13)-(1-6) linkages found in yeast cell walls, making them more bioactive in modulating the animal’s immune response
This leads to an enhanced phagocytic activity by immune cells specialized for this function: granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. Among these, macrophages and dendritic cells play a crucial role due to their abundance of receptors (such as Dectin-1) that specifically recognize β-glucans. The binding of β-glucans to the receptor activates these specific immune system cells, enhancing their chemotaxis.
At the same time, thanks to its specific mode of action, I-CARE reduces serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines by limiting the inflammatory response, up to turn it off, preventing its chronicization, favouring the healing process: inflammation leads high energy expenditure which negatively impacts weight gain (Figure 1). Finally, by limiting the deple -
Figure 2 – Broilers supplemented with I-CARE develop a better antioxidant response.
Trial carried by Faculty of Agriculture Kasetsart University (Thailand).
tion of glutathione, one of the largest cellular antioxidants, it maintains a good antioxidant action and guarantees a high protection against
free radicals (Figure 2). Another important element that distinguishes I-CARE is the presence of nucleic acids, macromolecules consisting of nucleotides. These molecules play a supporting function not only in the action of immunomodulation, but an important role is also related to the synthesis of proteins, a crucial process for growth and cellular function.
Moreover, the supplementation of nucleic acids in poultry diets has been widely demonstrated to enhance chickens’ ability to adapt and respond to environmental stress and nutritional stimuli. This improvement in adaptability and response leads to better overall health and productivity, ultimately enhancing the animal’s genetic performance.
0-38)
– I-CARE improves resistance to pathogens by increasing humoral immunity.
Trial carried by Schothorst Feed Research (The Netherlands).
ND antibodies at 28 days
Figure 4 – After vaccination against Newcastle disease, the chicks supplemented with I-CARE showed a significantly better responce in antibody production.
Trial carried by Faculty of Agriculture Kasetsart University (Thailand).
Let’s not forget how a healthy intestine with correct intestinal morphology is crucial not only for nutrient absorption, improving the conversion rate in the most significant stages of breeding (Figure 3), but also plays an important role as a barrier against pathogens. The nucleic acids, MOS, glutamic acid, precursor of glutamine, and β-glucans contained in I-CARE work precisely in this direction, supporting proper intestinal morphology and enabling the correct synthesis of vaccine-origin antibodies improving chicken’s immunity and ensuring broiler performance (Figure 4).
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FCR (days 0-14)
FCR (days
Figure 3
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