Zootecnica International - World's Poultry Journal - English edition - 11 November 2024
Transgenerational impact of broiler breeder nutrition
Poultry gut health critical to NAE production
ASEAN - The dynamics of the meat industry in a hardly recognised economic area
Feeders Gió: the originals without grill
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EDITORIAL
A historical reflection on the challenging journey toward a united Europe. We identify as European primarily through our citizenship in the individual nation-states that constitute Europe. However, this identity often feels like an abstract historical legacy, reflected in the still fragile European Community that emerged in the aftermath of World War II. We must move beyond this superficial understanding and explore the complexities that continually challenge the formation of a truly united Europe – one that functions as a homeland, a nation, and a state. The three terms are ambiguous due to centuries of dramatic events, as recent history has also demonstrated. However, I believe that, despite the obstacles, we must continue to seek deeper reasons for convergence. Referring to one’s land as a “homeland” reflects cultural impulses deeply rooted in the heritage of our ancestors. This concept was cherished during the Romantic era by both established nation-states and those striving for national unity. In the second half of the 19th century, both groups pursued the concept of a “nation” as a place of birth, residence, and identity, where individuals could establish their roots and envision their power, often with paradoxical consequences of war.
Ultimately, the objective of the “state,” which had already emerged as an institution in the preceding centuries of the post-medieval modern era, persists. England, France, Spain, and even the modern Hapsburg Empire emerged as the first “states” that transformed the ancient medieval framework into more contemporary governmental structures. In the nineteenth century, the states of Italy and Germany were established, which emerged as the leading European powers by the early twentieth century.
In these brief historical notes, the three aforementioned terms are imbued with concrete meanings derived from centuries of experience, grounded solely in cultural context.
The central challenge of European unity largely revolves around how to harmonise the foundational principles of countries that possess distinct and deeply rooted historical identities. Future developments remain uncertain due to the significant demographic changes and migratory flows of recent decades. However, one thing is clear: we cannot envision a future without grounding ourselves in human values, as emphasised by the lessons of history.
Agricultural markets: gradual but fragile return to stability
Published by the European Commission, the autumn 2024 edition of the short-term outlook report for EU agricultural markets presents the latest trends and prospects for key agricultural markets.
After experiencing severe shocks and high volatility in the previous years, EU agricultural markets are showing positive signs of stabilising as input costs have steadily declined over the past months and food inflation has returned to a moderate rate. The general macroeconomic and food price environment points to possible improvements in demand for agri-food products in most sectors. Nonetheless, the outlook remains subject to a high degree of uncertainty, linked to weather events, geopolitical conflicts and animal and plant diseases.
The recovery of the eu poultry sector continues
In 2024, EU poultry production continues increasing since the recovery in 2023, thanks to a milder HPAI season, as well as to more affordable feed costs and favourable output prices. In the first half of 2024, EU slaughtering increased by 4.7% year-on-year. Production increased in
almost all EU countries; by the end of 2024, production is expected to increase by 4% year-on-year, taking into consideration a possible increase in input costs that would impact margins. A smaller production increase of 0.9% year-on-year is foreseen in 2025 due to price competition from other meats and a more stable global demand.
Despite the milder season of HPAI outbreaks this year, the risk remains for the upcoming seasons. EU producer prices increased steadily in the first half of 2024 remaining above EUR 2 500/t.
EU exports increase despite upward EU prices
In Jan-June 2024, EU imports decreased by 20 370 t (-4.5% year-on-year). However, EU imports from the UK recovered significantly (+32% or almost +20 000 t) after last year’s steep decline. On the other hand, EU imports decreased from Ukraine, Brazil and Thailand. Overall, EU imports are expected to decrease by 0.5% in 2024. Uncertainty about poultry imports coming from main origins Brazil, the UK and Ukraine could impact these developments significantly.
In Jan-June 2024, EU exports increased by 11% year-onyear, in particular towards the UK and most destinations in Africa and Asia: Saudi Arabia, Viet Nam, Philippines and DR Congo. By contrast, exports to Ukraine declined. By the end of 2024, EU exports are expected to increase by 3% year-on-year and could be maintained in 2025 if EU traditional outlets for poultry are maintained. Higher domestic availability through EU production, and the favourable image of poultry for European consumers compared to other animal proteins, are expected to support EU per capita consumption growth in 2024 by close to 1 kg (+3.5% year-on-year). For 2025, EU per capita consumption could stabilize at 25.2 kg.
Source: European Commission
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Building skills, making connections at EMEAA Breeder Module in Edinburgh
The Breeder Module of Aviagen®’s Production Management School for Europe, Middle East, Africa, and Asia (EMEAA) welcomed poultry professionals from 18 countries to Edinburgh for a week of learning, sharing, and growth.
From Aug. 25-31, these dedicated participants connected with experienced Aviagen tutors from various areas of poultry breeding and production, who were eager to share their insights on key topics like biosecurity, new technology, environmental management, and data analysis.
Learning while working together
Working in teams, participants explored crucial areas such as female and male rearing, health, ventilation, and nutrition. The collaborative
setting inspired lively discussions, problem-solving, and sharing of fresh ideas. The best-performing team was recognized at the graduation ceremony for their outstanding contributions during the workshop sessions. Throughout the workshops, they demonstrated strong teamwork and critical thinking by actively sharing experiences from their own operations. This sparked lively discussions and enriched the learning experience for all participants. Through practical workshops, attendees applied their new knowledge to real-world scenarios, covering essentials like feed formulation,
brooding, and grading. Each session was designed to give a deep dive into breeding stock management and broader poultry industry topics.
Rewarding excellence
As the week drew to a close, the Aviagen team presented the David Butler Award to João Lourenço of Lusiaves Group, Portugal. This award is given to a student who shows leadership, innovation, and a commitment to the sustainability of the poultry industry. João was selected for demonstrating a passion for poultry, eagerness to connect with his peers, and embodying the qualities that define a David Butler Award recipient.
Reflecting on the experience, João shared, “It was an honor and a privilege to be part of this group. The content we covered was highly relevant and engaging, and the tutors made everyone feel truly involved in the discussions. It was incredible to spend a week with colleagues from diverse backgrounds, all united by a shared dedication to the birds and our industry.”
“We’re so proud of João for the growth he has shown this week, his eagerness to help others and his genuine passion for poultry. Our aim with the module is to help our students take their breeder manage -
ment skills to the next level while making strides in bird welfare, performance, and sustainability. But just as important, we want to create opportunities for them to work together in real-world settings, building lifelong connections with fellow industry professionals from around the globe,” said EMEAA School Director and Global Technical Transfer Manager Niamh Halley.
Insights from students
The Breeder Module left a lasting impression on the participants, equipping them with new knowledge and skills that will benefit their careers and operations at home. Here, Robert Muirhead from PD Hook in the UK, Konstantinos Evangelou from Nitsiakos, Greece, and Kyle Bobryzcki from Avara Foods, UK, share their experiences.
“I had a fantastic time last week and learned so much,” reflected Robert. “The presentations were excellent, and I especially enjoyed the workshops. The experience has given me more confidence in my role as Area Manager.”
Konstantinos added, “I would like to thank Aviagen for organizing such an insightful and well-structured Breeder School. The learning experience was invaluable, and I’m grateful for the opportunity to expand my knowledge in this field. A big shout-out to my amazing teammates for their exceptional collaboration and teamwork, which led us to win the ‘Best Team Award.’ I’m looking forward to applying what we’ve learned and continuing to grow together.”
Kyle shared that he enjoyed exchanging ideas with classmates from diverse cultures. “The course offered insights into poultry management that I would never have gained from daily work on the farm. It was fascinating and inspiring to learn how classmates from different countries manage their operations. I also appreciated the focus on bird anatomy and promoting good gut health.”
Officine Facco Spa strengthens its dominance with a new joint venture in China
A summer full of news for the company, which also included the traditional party and the 60th anniversary of IEC (Venice, 15 September) in which Facco played a leading role.
Officine Facco, a leading player in the world market for over 65 years with a complete range of advanced poultry systems, announces a joint venture with Mr. Wang in China, a well-known entrepreneur in the agricultural and poultry industry. The result is Facco Technology Hebei, of which Officine Facco has total control and which will produce turnkey poultry systems for the Asian market, but not only. A strategic investment for the Italian company, for a major financial and, even more, organisational and human resources commitment, with a challenging growth plan. Facco Technology Hebei, with more than 100 people, will offer the entire Facco range, including Smart Farm technologies for remote control, with a specific development for the reference markets. “We decided to invest in China, where we
entered back in the 1980s for a collaboration with Beijing University in teaching poultry farming and where we have had a permanent presence with a subsidiary since the early 1990s. We know and fully understand the potential of this country, whose technological and production growth is reaching significant peaks of quality and uniformity in various sectors”, commented Massimo Finco, President of Officine Facco. “This operation, which represents a change of mode in our presence and action, makes us the only global company in the sector, thanks to our production units in Latin America, Europe and the Far East. This also allows us to guarantee our product through unequivocal control and certification at every stage. A Made in Facco quality that the world market has always appreciated and recognised.”
The Chinese market
The evolution of the poultry market in China is interesting because, with 1.2 billion laying hens, it is confirmed as a country with a high egg consumption. Breeding, which was once mainly rural-based and very fragmented (and therefore with poor health controls), has evolved towards organised distribution, which obviously requires efficient but above all safe and controlled production. A mode that Facco is able to propose, realise and offer with structured and technological turnkey projects, even of very large dimensions, controlled thanks to Smart Farm systems and therefore extremely efficient. “It is precisely our experience in the market for over 65 years and our knowledge of the sector and the needs of the animal, our ability to realise projects designed according to our customers‘ objectives and our connection with all markets that have made us the ideal partner for the Chinese market, enhancing all our aspects as a global company,” adds Finco. The foresight of the Chinese partner is also confirmed by its understanding of the market’s rapid evolution towards cage free and sustainability, systems and approaches in which Facco is already a leader, for example, in the USA and other countries. The Chinese market will also soon arrive at this approach and having a company like Facco on its side will be an important key to quickly understand and make the most of the indications on care for the environment, low carbon footprint, careful consumption of water and energy but above all animal welfare. All this achieved with Facco’s quality of product and service. “Facco Technology Hebei will realise all this from Handan, but connected with Venice, Chicago and Sao Paulo,” Finco concludes.
Facco protagonist on the world market
Facco’s hot summer was also enriched by big events. At the beginning of September, in fact, the Global Leadership Conference 2024 of the IEC (International Egg Commission) was held in Venice. IEC is the organisation that represents the egg industry globally, a community that shares information and develops relationships across cultures and nationalities to support the growth of the industry. The event celebrated the 60th anniversary of the association right in Italy, a stone’s throw from Facco’s headquarter and in the country where the IEC was born. The programme included an in-depth reflection on
the global egg industry and the future of the market, with contributions from delegates from all over the world. “We were protagonists once again on this occasion,” says Elisa Finco, Vice President of Facco and President of Showco (the international association that brings together the most innovative poultry companies), “not only because of the territorial nature and proximity, but also because of the strong connection with our customers, more than 100 from all over the world out of the 600 expected at the event, who joined us before the IEC began for an Italian experience of business but also of culture and sociality, because our reality is made up of these components. We are very proud that our Veneto region was chosen to celebrate this anniversary, but above all that the IEC chose Venice also to have the strength of Facco at its side.”
The traditional Facco Party
Immediately before the start of the IEC Global Conference, Facco organised at its headquarters in Campo San Martino (Padua) the 41st edition of the traditional annual party. A key moment for the company that celebrated first of all its people and shared ongoing projects and new challenges, projecting itself towards the autumn with new goals. “This year Veneto was the protagonist”, continues Elisa Finco. “Like every year, we selected a country or a territory in which we are present in order to delve into its contents and peculiarities and make them the heritage of shared knowledge. This year we decided to focus on the Veneto region, where we were born and for which we are proud, also to connect with the IEC event and tell our customers from around the world who were with us on this occasion. In the three days we organised for them, we took them to discover our wonderful region and welcomed them to the highest social and sharing moment of the year. A celebration that traditionally involves everyone: Facco people with their families, partners and close-knit supply chain, but which this year was even bigger. There were about 700 of us. A great organisational effort that by the will and desire of the Facco people includes everyone. We have a festival committee, chaired by Laura Finco, participated by the various departments. A true choral production in which we are all protagonists and which strongly reinforces the company spirit of active participation. As always at Facco we are connected with the world and the world is connected with us,” Finco concluded.
P.R. Ferket
Transgenerational impact of broiler breeder nutrition
Continuous genetic selection in meat-type chicken for rapid growth resulted in increased meat production and decreased the time required for achieving the market weight. According to Havenstein et al. (2003), 42-day broiler weights have improved about 1% per year, and this trend has continued through to today.
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
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In 1957 a 42-day broiler weighed 540 g with an FCR of 2.35; in 2003 a 42 d broiler weighed 2800 g with an FCR of 1.70; and a recent study at NC State University demonstrated a 42 d broiler can weigh over 3500 g with an FCR of about 1.40. Hence, the incubation and neonatal period of modern commercial broilers can represent less than 50% of a bird’s lifespan, depending on the age it is marketed. Because the chicken embryo undergoes development enclosed in an egg, it depends on the limited egg nutrients, particularly during the late-term embryonic developmental stage. Genetic selection has not only altered feed intake and meat production efficiency after hatch but also influenced gene expression and nutrient metabolism during incubation. The differential between the growth potential of modern broilers and the target body weight of their parent stock to optimize reproductive performance has increased substantially over the past 60 years. Male breeder genetics positively affects the in ovo growth rate and nutrient demand that the female genetics and diet must supply. Therefore, hen diets with insufficient essential nutrients may adversely affect embryonic development and consequently post-hatch performance. Intensity of broiler breeder feed restriction has consequently increased as genetic potential for growth rate and meat production increased so as to maintain reproductive performance; but limiting feed intake of broiler breeders can also influence favorable and unfavorable transgenerational effects. A lesser degree of growth restriction of broiler breeders during the prepubertal and early pubertal growth phase increased male progeny growth rate. This paper discusses the challenges in feeding and managing modern broiler breeders, emphasizing the transgenerational effects that affect the production of high-quality eggs to maximize hatchability and ensure chicks can meet performance targets. Additionally, it explores key nutritional factors in broiler breeders that impact chick quality and offspring performance.
The nutritional strategy for breeder hens is crucial, as both excess protein and insufficient energy intake can have adverse effects. Excessive protein can lead to lower fat reserves and poor egg-shell quality, while inadequate energy intake affects the immune system, feathering, and overall reproductive performance. Research has
traditionally focused on studying nutrient requirements for maximizing egg production and hatchability in broiler breeders. However, a slight increase in protein intake can positively impact egg size and chick weight, thus influencing broiler chicken growth at later stages. Maintaining optimal egg size, hatchability, and body weight control in breeder hens poses challenges, especially with the use of higher protein diets after 40 weeks of age. Formulating breeder diets with minimum levels of crude protein is common, but careful consideration of digestible amino acids is necessary. Additionally, implementing a two-diet approach after 35 weeks, with lower protein and balanced amino acids in the second phase, is recommended to sustain production parameters and address issues like feed reduction post-peak. Skilled management is crucial to understand the relationship between diet specification and feed allocation, ensuring overall flock health and performance.
Breeder nutrition affects chick quality and performance
The quality of chicks in poultry farming is influenced by a myriad of factors, involving complex interactions. These factors include the physiological status of hens, hen nutrition, diet formulation, farm and hatchery management, transportation, and brooding efficiency. The interplay of these elements is crucial in determining the overall health and performance of breeder flocks, chick quality, and subsequent offspring performance. Poor flock uniformity, early photo-stimulation, improper feed allocation, and various stressors in the broiler house can significantly impact the outcomes.
Chick embryos rely on nutrients stored in the egg for normal growth and development, but the true nutritional requirements of the embryo remain largely unknown. Egg composition, influenced by factors like nutrient allowances, diet fatty acid profile, hen age, health status, storage conditions, vitamin D metabolism, calcium allowances and sources, as well as mineral and vitamin supplementation, plays a crucial role. Flocks initiating egg production without meeting minimal development conditions may produce eggs of lower quality, characterized by lower weight, smaller yolk to albumen ratio, smaller fat content, and thicker shells. Although there are reviews on breeder nutritional factors of affecting chick quality and offspring performance, the applicability of these studies
may be considered less relevant with the introduction of modern genotypes and commercial conditions. Overall, a holistic approach considering various incubation conditions is essential in optimizing chick quality and ensuring successful poultry production and meat quality.
a) Dietary protein and energy intake of broiler breeders affect progeny performance
Aitken et al. (1969) first demonstrated the effects of protein and energy concentrations of broiler breeder hens on egg size and offspring performance. It was observed that offspring from parents fed a high-density diet had heavier hatching eggs, and their bodyweights were significantly greater at 42 and 63 days of age. The protein to energy ratio of the breeder diet was found to influence chick weight, with reduced chick size when the energy to protein ratio was low. Spratt and Leeson (1987) further investigated the impact of different concentrations of crude protein and energy on broiler breeders. Male chicks from hens fed high energy had improved early growth, while female chicks did not show the same result. Maternal diet effects on progeny were found to depend on the sex of the offspring, with high energy increasing male offspring carcass protein and decreasing carcass fat. Low-density diets can improve offspring growth and mortality, especially in older breeders. Enting et al. (2007) determined that low- density diets of broiler breeders can improve offspring growth rates, reduce mortality, and affect immune responses depending on breeder age and egg weight. Similarly, Hocking (2006) reported progeny of parents fed low-density diets diluted with oat hulls showed lower drinking behavior, improved litter quality, and differences in egg and chick size. In contrast, Moraes et al. (2014) found that when energy to protein ratio was increased to 18.25 kcal ME/g protein in the diets of young breeder hens, growth and breast-meat yield of progeny females
increased. Similarly, van Emous et al. (2015) investigated the influence of dietary protein concentrations during rearing on embryonic and offspring performance. The study supported earlier findings that maternal diet effects on progeny performance depend on the sex of the offspring, and higher growth patterns during the rearing period had positive effects on fertility and offspring performance.
Energy and protein intake of male broiler breeders may also have transgenerational effects on offspring performance. Attia et al. (1993, 1995) observed broiler breeder males with varying daily energy intake levels demonstrated a significant increase in the 6-week bodyweight of their offspring when provided with high-energy diets. The authors proposed this outcome may be linked to the presence of supernumerary sperm in eggs laid by hens inseminated with sperm from males on high-energy diets. Another study reported a reduction in broiler male fertility due to inadequate feed allocation, resulting in a loss of mating activity in males and a subsequent 100 g reduction in the bodyweight of the progeny. As a recommendation, it is advised to ensure breeder males receive sufficient cumulative energy (minimum 29,600 kcal metabolizable energy) and crude protein (minimum 1470 g) until photostimulation for optimal offspring growth.
b) Amino acid nutrition of broiler breeders affects the performance of their progeny
Adequate levels and proper balance of amino acid in the diet of broiler breeders is crucial for optimal egg production, fertility, hatchability, and the health of the offspring. Dietary lysine of breeder-hen can affect progeny outcomes. Mejia et al. (2013) utilized corn-based distiller grains to decrease breeder-hen dietary lysine and found the progeny from young breeders exhibited low bodyweight and breast yield but higher dark-meat yields under the lowest lysine condition (600 mg lysine/bird/day).
Ciacciariello & Tyler (2013) also observed a significant correlation between hen digestible lysine and offspring live performance on Day 21 and concluded that changes in hen feed allocation to boost egg production over time could negatively impact offspring live performance. Additionally, another study by Kidd et al. (2005) suggested that breeder-hen dietary L-carnitine influences progeny carcass traits, with hens fed 25 mg L-carnitine/kg from 21 weeks of age showing decreased abdominal fat and increased breast meat in the progeny.
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c) Transgenerational effects of dietary vitamins have been observed
The impact of dietary vitamins of breeding poultry and effects on hatchability and progeny health has been extensively discussed in comprehensive reviews by Calini and Sirri (2007) and Oviedo-Rondón et al. (2023). Deficiencies of vitamins in breeder diets have shown to have substantial consequences. Vitamin A deficiency compromises the develop the normal blood system and causes embryonic malposition. Vitamin D3 deficiency causes improper calcification of eggshells, possible symptoms of calcium tetany in young breeders, rickets, stunted chicks with soft bones. Vitamin E deficiency reduces fertility, causes inadequate embryonic vascularization, early embryonic mortality, and exudative diathesis in chicks. Vitamin K deficiency prolongs embryonic blood-clotting time, embryonic hemorrhages, and extra embryonic blood vessels. Riboflavin deficiency increases embryonic mortality rates from 9 to 14 days of incubation, atrophied leg muscles, clubbed down, and curled toes. Vitamin B12 deficiency increases embryonic malposition with head between the legs, short beaks, poor muscle development, and high embryonic mortality rates from 8 to 14 days of incubation. Pyridoxine deficiency reduces hatchability. Biotin deficiency causes perosis, shortened or twisted bones, and excessive early embryonic mortality. Folic acid deficiency causes perosis and twisted toes and high mortality rate during pipping. Pantothenic acid deficiency causes abnormal feathering of chicks, subcutaneous hemorrhages of the embryo, weak hatchlings. Although dietary vitamin deficiencies rarely occur in commercial practice, premix supplementation errors do occasionally occur that result in marginal deficiencies because of low supplementation, imbalances, and excesses, poor quality of the vitamin source, and poor storage and feed manufacturing conditions. Sometimes the less dominant breeders consume less than their estimated feed allotment, and therefore may result in marginal vitamin deficiencies, particularly during peak of lay. Most likely, the progeny will not exhibit classical vitamin deficiency symptoms, but they will not perform at their genetic potential, especially during the challenges of the first 10 days post-hatch.
Among all the vitamins, Vitamin D and E nutrition of broiler breeders have the most significant transgenerational effect. Vitamin D3 status in hens is particularly important for optimal progeny development. Higher maternal dietary concentrations of 2000 to 4000 IU vitamin D3/kg result
in improved progeny weight gain and reduced incidence of tibial dyschondroplasia from hens during peak lay, but not after 45 weeks of age. The more bioavailable form, 25-OH-D3, has gained popularity for its positive effects on reducing embryo mortality and enhancing bone ash in progeny. The antioxidant status of broiler breeders and consequential effect on disease prevention in offspring is of increased commercial interest. Vitamin E has been associated with improved adaptive antibody transfer from parent to offspring.
d) Dietary trace minerals of breeders have significant transgenerational effects
Although mineral requirements are well established for egg production of poultry, the trace minerals that have the greatest effect on progeny are selenium (Se), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), and perhaps iodine (I). The significance of Se, particularly in its organic form, as an antioxidant co-factor has been extensively studied. Jlali et al. (2013) demonstrated that dietary organic Se improves concentrations in eggs and enhanced the levels in the tissue of progeny. Chicks from hens fed 0.5 mg/kg organic Se exhibited higher tissue concentrations than those from hens fed lower amounts. Moreover, progeny from parents fed seleno-hydroxy-methionine showed a 1.25% improvement in feed conversion ratio (FCR) as compared to offspring from other Se sources. The higher muscle Se content at hatch suggested improved Se reserves, influencing the transition of the antioxidant system during the early days of chicks’ lives.
The role of Zn in chick quality, feathering, progeny growth, and viability has been explored in studies by Turk et al. (1959), Edwards et al. (1959), and Kidd (2003). Higher concentrations of Zn supplements were found to enhance cellular immune function and early survival. When combined with organic Mn, maternal diets with these trace minerals improved progeny livability, immune parameters, and cardiac function. Progeny from hens fed organic Mn and Zn also tended to have improved breastmeat yield compared to those fed inorganic forms. Hocking (2007) suggests that significantly higher maternal dietary concentrations of Se, Zn, and Mn than typically recommended may positively impact immune function and livability when provided in combination. These findings highlight the importance of Se and Zn, especially in organic forms, in influencing the health and development of poultry progeny.
Egg nutrient supplementation by in ovo feeding (IOF)
As discussed above, broiler breeder hen diet and nutritional status can have a significant effect on nutrient deposition in their eggs, especially during peak egg production of nutrient mobilization from the feed-restricted diet and body reserves are constrained. Alleviating these nutrient constraints is possible by IOF as defined by Uni and Ferket (2003).
IOF technology supplements into the amnion of oviparous embryos soluble nutrients that play a crucial role in improving various aspects of perinatal metabolism and development. The glycogen stores, utilized as the primary energy source by the embryo, tend to be depleted by the end of the hatching process. IOF addresses this by enhancing glycogen reserves in the liver and muscles, serving as a vital energy source for the hatching process.
Studies conducted over approximately 20 years have delved into the efficacy of IOF with diverse nutrient supplements, including NaCl, sucrose, maltose, dextrin, and disaccharide, β-hydroxy-β-methyl-butyrate, eggwhite protein, and carbohydrate, glycerol and insulin-like growth factor, creatine monohydrate, linoleic acid, γ-aminobutyric acid, threonine, cysteine, arginine, methionine, L-leucine, vitamin E, vitamin B12, folic acid, Bacillus subtilis or raffinose, zinc and copper, manganese, and zinc-methionine, and IOF has become an excellent method of evaluating in ovo nutrition and epigenetic effects. The positive effects extend across a spectrum of factors influencing early growth and
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development in poultry. Notable improvements include increased body weight at hatch, advanced morphometric development of the intestinal tract, enhanced expression of brush border digestive enzymes (such as
sucrase-isomaltase and leucine aminopeptidase) and increased biological activity of these enzymes. Furthermore, there’s enhanced expression of nutrient transporters, SGLT-1, PEPT-1, and NaK ATPase,
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contributing to improved nutrient absorption. The positive outcomes of IOF extend to various aspects, including increased breast muscle size at hatch, improved bone development, and enhanced immune response. Additionally, the technique has been associated with decreased cellular stress, improved oxidative status, and increased liver glycogen status. This multifaceted approach to supplementation not only influences the immediate posthatch performance but also affects the development of critical tissues and bone of the neonate by approximately 2 days at the time of hatch. In summary, IOF emerges as a comprehensive strategy with far-reaching benefits for poultry production, encompassing aspects of growth, development, immune response, and overall physiological well-being.
The most recent research related to the transgenerational impact of nutrition in poultry focuses on epigenetic mechanisms, which are genomic and metabolomic adaptations to maternal nutrient status and environmental stressors. Dunislawska et al. (2022) presents an excellent review of pre-hatching and post-hatching environmental factors related to epigenetic mechanisms in poultry. These authors present evidence that maternal nutrition and environmental factors may have transgenerational epigenetic effects. Using the quail as a model, Phillips (2020) demonstrated that maternal diets containing increased levels of methyl catalysts (choline, betaine, vitamin B12, folic acid, pyridoxine, and zinc) significantly modified specific DNA methylations at the cytosine residues of cytosine-phosphate-guanine dinucleotides (CpG) under the action of DNA methyltransferases. Other maternal dietary nutrients that can be transferred to the egg that affect methyl metabolism and gene expression include selenium, vitamin D, and vitamin A. Indeed, epigenetic programming is a new avenue of research. The critical epigenetic reprogramming events occur during germ cell development in adolescent breeding stock, and chromatin remodeling due to events such as demethylation and remethylation of the embryonic genome during early embryogenesis. Increased methylation of CpG and histone acetylation can also occur during the early post- hatch period. Key epigenetic mechanisms include microRNA (miRNA) activity, DNA methylation, and histone modification. Small RNA molecules encoded in the genome, miRNAs, play a
crucial role in gene expression and epigenetic response. They bind to the 3’-UTRs end of target gene mRNA, destabilizing it and preventing translation, thereby silencing target genes. DNA methylation involves adding methyl residues to cytosines within CpG islands, inhibiting the transcription of genes from DNA into mRNA. The methylation process is influenced by nutritional components and supplementation, as DNA requires methyl donors and cofactors from the external environment. Histone modification, regulated by enzymes sensitive to endogenous small molecule metabolites, affects transcription and responds to environmental changes. For instance, changes in intestinal microbiota regulate histone methylation and acetylation in host tissues in a diet-dependent manner.
In ovo feeding provides a valuable approach for early embryo support and allows for the assessment of nutrient effects on epigenetic changes in adult birds. A study administering folic acid to the yolk sac of broiler chicken embryos on the 11th day of incubation revealed induced methylation of histones in IL2 and IL4 promoters, with post-hatch effects on histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4me2) enrichment and loss of histone H3 lysine 9 (H3K9me2) in growing chickens (Li et al., 2016). Conversely, the IL6 promoter showed decreased H3K4me2 and increased H3K9me2. H3K4me2 participates in euchromatin formation and ongoing gene expression; whereas H3K9me2 is a repressive histone mark that negatively regulates transcription by promoting a compact chromatin structure. Thus, folic acid administered with IOF impacts immune functions through epigenetic regulation of immune genes. Another investigation found that in ovo administration of Zn to Zn-deficient chicken eggs reduced embryo mortality and increased hatchability, with organic Zn showing higher efficiency in enhancing methylation and acetylation compared to inorganic Zn. Additionally, in ovo injection of betaine was shown to regulate cholesterol metabolism in chicken livers through epigenetic mechanisms, alleviating effects related to diet and corticosterone exposure, and influencing gene expression and methylation modifications associated with CpG methylation in key genes.
The perinatal period is vital for programming the microbiota to facilitate the colonization of the embryo’s intestines with beneficial bacteria before hatching. Notably, the administration of a single dose of prebiotic or synbiotic suspension to the egg’s air chamber on the 12th day of incubation has enduring effects on the chicken’s
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lifespan, with significant molecular changes observed in the liver and spleen. In a study by Dunislawska et al. (2020), synbiotics based on Lactobacillus strains were administered on the 12th day of egg incubation, resulting in hypermethylation of the ANGPTL4 gene in the liver. This hypermethylation was associated with a substantial decrease in gene expression, emphasizing the gene’s role in lipid metabolism, insulin sensitivity, and glucose homeostasis.
The epigenetic regulation of gene expression through early microbiota stimulation is also dependent on liver miRNA activity, suggesting miRNA is a crucial element in the molecular mechanism of host-microbiota interaction, particularly in the context of gene expression silencing. Maternal nutrition plays a crucial role in shaping the epigenome of future offspring through a process known as the maternal effect, involving non-genetic interference by the mother on the offspring’s phenotype. In poultry pro duction, maternal substances like antibodies, hormones, and antioxidants transferred through the yolk sac impact the immune response and microbiome in young birds.
Conclusion
The continuous genetic selection in meat-type chickens for rapid growth has significantly transformed the poultry industry over the past decades. The evolution in broiler weights and feed efficiency reflects the success of these breeding programs. However, this progress has introduced challenges in feeding and managing modern broiler breeders. The intricate interplay between genetics, nutrition, and environmental factors shapes the quality and performance of chicks. The essay delves into the nuanced realm of broiler breeder nutrition, emphasizing the transgenerational effects that influence egg quality, hatchability, and offspring performance. Furthermore, the exploration of IOF and its impact on early development, along with the emerging field of epigenetics, underscores the complexity of optimizing poultry production for both current and future generations.
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References are available on request
From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science
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Tom Tabler, Professor and Extension Specialist, Department of Animal Science, University of Tennessee
Yi Liang, Associate Professor, Departments of Biological and Agricultural Engineering/Poultry Science, University of Arkansas
Jonathan Moon, Extension Instructor, Department of Poultry Science, Mississippi State University
Jessica Wells, Assistant Teaching Professor, Department of Poultry Science, Mississippi State University
Tanner Thornton, Graduate Student, Department of Animal Science, University of Tennessee
Pramir Maharjan, Assistant Professor and Extension Specialist, Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Tennessee State University
Poultry gut health critical to NAE production
The production of “No Antibiotics Ever” (NAE) poultry is a common trend worldwide today. Despite scientific evidence indicating that specific antibiotic growth promoters (AGP) could still be used selectively and rationally in animal feeding programs, market tendencies and the constant negative publicity in the media against AGP have shifted most poultry integrators to at least some level of NAE production, due to perceived marketing opportunities.
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Following the ban on AGP, gut health issues have become more common and increasingly challenging for producers and integrators, especially in broilers. This has proven to be most obvious in countries such as the United States, where, together with the AGP ban, the use of ionophore coccidiostats were also banned. There is no doubt that poultry gut health is critical to optimize digestibility, minimize nutrient excretion and consequently mitigate the environmental impacts of ammonia, odors and other gas emissions with the health and welfare aspects of birds and human workers. There is agreement that AGP somehow seem to dampen intestinal inflammation and reduce bile salt deconjugation, thus masking gut health issues. By investigating the mechanisms of gut health, it has become apparent that, from now on, progress made in poultry nutrition will only occur by considering the effects on gut health that may come from any change in feed formulation/processing.
Gut health and the intestinal microbiome
Poultry intestinal health is a particularly complex subject with multiple aspects associated with it. The avian gastrointestinal tract (GIT) plays a key role in animal production and has digestive, absorptive, metabolic, immunological and endocrinological functions. Even though modern broilers are known for extremely efficient feed conversion and rapid growth, such performance requires large amounts of feed intake, putting enormous pressure on the physiology of the GIT. In less than 20 years, and particularly since the beginning of the phase out of AGP in poultry feed, the science of the intestinal ecosystem of the chicken has developed into an entirely new field of research. The field continues to gain increasing interest as global food security becomes a greater concern and the poultry industry faces increasing demands for economic efficiency, sustainability, animal welfare, food safety and a reduction in environmental impacts.
Sustainable poultry meat and egg production is critical to provide safe, abundant and high- quality protein sources that can address human nutrition and food security needs on a global scale. The GIT of chickens harbors a diverse and complex microbiota that plays a vital role in digestion and absorption of nutrients, immune system development and pathogen exclusion. The integrity, functionality and health of the chicken gut depends on numerous factors, particularly the environment, feed sup -
ply and the GIT microbiota. However, several confounding factors influence the intestinal microbiota in chickens. It has been identified that host-related factors, such as age, sex and breed, have a large impact on intestinal microbiota. The diversity of the chicken intestinal microbiota tends to increase the most during the first two weeks of life, and the corresponding colonization patterns seem to differ between layer- and meat-type chickens. Furthermore, it has been found that environmental factors, such as biosecurity level, litter, feed access, husbandry, housing and climate, have an effect on the composition of the intestinal microbiota.
Intestinal health often focuses on control of intestinal disease, generally related to coccidia or specific bacteria like Clostridium perfringens, E. coli or Salmonella. This is understandable because these are often the main health issues that producers and integrators deal with on a day-to-day basis when intestinal health issues arise, particularly when NAE production programs are also involved. However, Oviedo-Rondón (2019) indicates that, in reality, these are the consequences, not the causes of the problem. Generally, the actual problem is an excess of nutrients, particularly indigested protein, in the lower intestine which causes a proliferation of these microbes in the lower intestine, causing inflammation. Therefore, a key aspect to improving intestinal health and, therefore, NAE production, is to ensure that appropriate digestion occurs before the lower gut in most cases.
A critical feature of the gut microbiome is that it affects the development and maturation of the host immune system. In addition, a more diverse gut microbiome has been associated with reduced stress levels and better welfare in chickens. Management practices early in the life of broiler chickens affects their behavior and welfare. Therefore, early access to feed after hatching is critical as there is a dramatic increase in microorganisms in the chicken’s intestine after the first ingestion of feed, which stimulates the development of the gut and the immune system. Any delay in access to feed affects the development of the gut and the immune system in broilers.
In recent years, numerous attempts have been made to modulate the intestinal microbiome through nutritional or management interventions with the aim to improve intestinal health in poultry. The microbiota residing in different sections of the GIT are strongly influenced by the flow of undigested feed components. As a result, the normal gut microbial community can offer advantages and dis-
“A critical feature of the gut microbiome is that it affects the development and maturation of the host immune system. In addition, a more diverse gut microbiome has been associated with reduced stress levels and better welfare in chickens. Management practices early in the life of broiler chickens affects their behavior and welfare”
exceed recommended limits, if they expect to avoid intestinal health issues. Contract producers should monitor their outside feed storage bins and inside feed hoppers for mold growth and should not feed moldy feed to birds. Mycotoxins can compromise several key functions of the GIT, resulting in decreased nutrient absorption by decreasing available surface area, modulation of nutrient transporters and loss of barrier function. Rancid fats and oils should not be used because they have been related to pathogenesis of enteric diseases.
Today’s NAE environment demands proper fat storage and handling conditions in tanks and transport lines be evaluated often to manage rancidity development in the feed mill. Quality assurance in soybean meal processing is always critical but even more important for NAE programs because of the negative effects on digestion from undercooking or overcooking soybeans. Undercooked soybeans have higher antitrypsin factor concentrations whereas overcooking results in decreased protein digestibility. High concentrations of trypsin inhibitors in broiler diets have been directly correlated with rapid feed passage and an imbalance in the gut microbial community. Soybean meal particle size is also important. Coarser particle size favors higher digestion of soybean protein and minimizes the negative effects of antitrypsin factors.
advantages to the host. Advantages include competitive exclusion of pathogens, immune system stimulation and programming and contributions to host nutrition. In contrast, microbiota also incurs cost to the host because microbes compete with the host for energy and protein. In addition, microbes produce toxic metabolites and catabolize bile acids, which may depress growth and decrease fat digestibility of the birds, respectively. Even generally beneficial processes resulting from the presence of microbiota increase the demand for energy and protein from the host and therefore have an influence on the growth performance of the birds.
Importance of feed and water quality
It takes good quality feedstuffs to manufacture poultry diets that provide optimum digestibility. Unfortunately, not every bushel of corn and soybeans is a quality product. Poultry integrators, particularly those in NAE production programs should place increased emphasis on avoiding levels of mycotoxins in feedstuffs and rancid fats that
After the first ingestion of feed after hatch, a large increase in bacterial numbers in the chicken intestine is observed. Delaying access to feed in newly hatched chicks is detrimental to the development of the intestinal surface area and therefore potentially also the microbiota composition. Temporary feed withdrawal later in life has been associated with an increased intestinal pathogen colonization, including Salmonella. Therefore, producers should make every effort not to run out of feed during a flock. Monitor the feed supply on the farm and contact the service technician or feed mill before the feed supply is depleted. Some feed outages may be unavoidable (feed mills do occasionally break down), but producers should make every attempt to not run out of feed during the flock as this can have detrimental consequences on flock performance.
Like soybeans, corn plays a major role in the makeup of commercial poultry diets. Genetics, moisture content at harvest, drying temperatures and storage conditions can affect digestibility. The drying process is critical to quality of the corn because it affects the physical traits of the corn grain, particle size produced during grinding
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or rolling and, in turn, the feeding behavior of the birds. Mycotoxin contamination is always a concern with corn. Several mycotoxins can contaminate corn including aflatoxins produced by Aspergillus spp; fumonisins, deoxynivalenol (DON; also known as vomitoxin) and zearalenone produced by Fusarium spp; and ochratoxins produced by Penicillium verrucosum. The level of mycotoxin(s) contaminating grain is dependent on many factors, including: 1) the incidence and severity of ear rot in the field, 2) the amount of damage to corn kernels during combining, 3) the prevailing weather conditions and 4) the adoption of cultural practices that minimize yield-limiting factors.
Good water quality is also important for proper digestion, so its physiochemical characteristics should be measured, controlled and improved at the farm level. The push to NAE production has highlighted the importance of poultry drinking water and the high cost of neglecting the quality of this vital nutrient. Previous antibiotic use allowed producers and integrators to become lax in monitoring of on-farm water quality.
However, NAE programs do not forgive management mistakes, and many producers are now paying for complacency where their water quality is concerned. Water hardness, alkalinity and a basic water pH disturb the normal crop pH of the bird and consequently reduce the first phase of digestion. Drinking water pH should be maintained slightly acidic, between 5.5 and 7, because basic water reduces the activity of most digestive enzymes. In addition, high concentrations of salts and solids in the water and a basic pH tend to favor the production of biofilm and endotoxins in water lines and drinkers due to the proliferation of algae and microbes.
Biofilm and salts contribute to the degradation of microbiological parameters of water and can also contribute to clogging issues in nipples and consequently affect water availability for birds. A reduction in water intake, regardless of the reason, adversely affects gut physiology, digestion and live performance.
Water sanitation methods using chlorides, peroxides or other products can help minimize growth of bacteria and algae. Producers should do all they can to avoid water deprivation or feed withdrawal which can cause intestinal problems during grow out, particularly in NAE programs. After five or six hours of feed withdrawal, gut mucosa traits shift and mucin production is stimulated in the intestinal mucosa, and this extra mucin is used by bacte -
ria that irritate the mucosa, generating the production of more mucus and increased inflammatory reactions.
Additional areas also play a major role on gut health. All environmental stressors deleteriously affect the immunological system of broilers. Heat stress and large temperature variations should be avoided at all times, regardless of flock age.
The house environment (temperature, humidity, wind speed) is critical for healthy, productive flocks, and this environment changes as the flock ages. High stocking density is sometimes associated with wet litter and necrotic enteritis, but proper ventilation can often successfully manage a high stocking density. Good house ventilation is key for intestinal health to minimize condensation, litter moisture and caking. Lighting programs may also impact feed intake behaviors, gut motility and digestion. Proper feeding and nutrition of broiler breeders are fundamental for adequate development of their progeny. Hatchery management is also critical because suboptimal incubation tends to increase the hatch window leading to problems with development of the gut and general immunity. However, for intestinal health, especially with NAE production, preventing coccidiosis and necrotic enteritis are the main concerns.
Summary
Gut health is critical to broiler productivity, food safety, animal welfare and the impact of poultry production on the environment. The NAE production programs in place today complicate the broiler production landscape because NAE birds must be managed differently. Use of NAE programs requires greater emphasis on feed manufacturing and formulation, drinking water quality, feed additives, antibiotic alternatives, housing and management. The concern reaches much farther than the broiler house. Biosecurity and a renewed emphasis on management must ratchet up across the industry at the pullet farm, breeder farm, hatchery, feed mill and broiler farm. It will take every sector working together as a single unit to successfully manage NAE production and maintain poultry intestinal health.
References are available on request
By courtesy of the University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture and UT Extension
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Overcoming challenges of antibiotic-free production
Aitor Arrazola, Research biologist, Ph.D. in Animal Behaviour & Welfare
Antibiotic use once became a conventional, on-farm practice to prevent health issues and boost growth in poultry. Yet, public health concerns about rising bacteria resistance worldwide support the looming prohibition of the use of antibiotics for non-treatment purposes. However, even though majority agrees with lowering the elevated use of antibiotics, there are worries regarding its possible side effects on productivity decay.
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What is the beef about?
Firstly, the main idea is to quit the misuse of antibiotics in food animals instead of denying treatment. In other words, sick chickens must be treated with antibiotics if pathogenic bacteria are present in the flock (i.e., therapeutic use). Following recommendations from a local veterinarian, infections should be treated with antibiotics, at the right dose and for a specific period, to kill specifically the pathogenic bacteria. Therefore, limiting antibiotic overuse in livestock shall not be seen as lack of treatment to sick animals when needed. But antibiotics have been misused as feed additives to 1) prevent infections and 2) support growth rate. Both together improve production efficiency, as chickens grow fast in a short time at similar feed intake, and reduce mortality in unhealthy, dirty conditions. On top of these non-therapeutic benefits, easy access to antibiotics at a low cost also popularized the use of antibiotic as growth promoters to raise profitability.
Research in the early 00s spotted antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria of humans and animals linked with non-therapeutic use of these medicaments. Under therapeutic treatment, antibiotic dose is lethal to the target pathogen. However, when used as growth promoters, antibiotics are given at a low dose, for a long time, and to many animals (i.e., sub-therapeutic conditions). All together creates the best setup for resistance selection against antibiotics, and bacteria can build up tolerance that spreads rapidly within microbial communities. Also, in large flocks at high stocking densities, the odds of resistant strains go up so is their proliferation among animals. This rise and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in animal and human populations imposes a clear threat to health safety because of 1) quick proliferation of resistant, pathogenic bacteria (e.g., foodborne diseases like Salmonellosis) and 2) loss of antibiotic effectiveness. Moreover, and regardless its purpose, application of antibiotics in broilers and laying hens brings up further inquiries about food safety as waste residues can wash out into poultry products. Indeed, proper washout periods must guarantee drug withdrawal before processing to prevent medicament residues from entry into the food chain. Due to public health and food safety concerns, the worldwide need to restrict non-therapeutic use of antibiotics is consequently pushing poultry industry to ideally produce antibiotic-free, although raising chickens under this scenario can be challenging.
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Going antibiotic free can be a struggle for producers reliant on antibiotics to prevent diseases. Then, working together with a veterinarian to develop solid biosecurity practices, implement them on-site, and elaborate a vaccination plan against local health problems is the first step to address this difficult task.
Beside developing thorough biosecurity practices and an adequate vaccination plan, operating accordingly and confirming that the proposed action plan works on-site at keeping diseases away are equally important. For example, understanding how biosecurity practices are useful to avoid pathogens entry can help assess potential risks and prevent unforeseen breaches in husbandry or management. Overall, improvements in husbandry cleanliness and health management are leading measures to stop dependence on antibiotics for disease prevention in poultry barns.
Additionally, a well-developed immune system is bird´s first aid against any possible pathogen. Birds with naïve, immature immune system are greatly exposed in case of pathogen exposure and can develop health problems easily. For this reason, seeking opportunities to boost their immune response enhance their odds to overcome quickly potential threats to their health. Strategies that help strengthen their immune system include properly-timed vaccinations throughout rearing and lay, provision of probiotics early on to help stablish healthy microbiota in the digestive tract, and supplementation with immunostimulants. Vaccination plan and probiotics inclusion are relatively well-known, while immunostimulants yet got less attention. These feed additives incorporate antimicrobial peptides and/or pieces of bacteria or yeast that trigger a positive immunological response and improve preparedness in case of breach. All these approaches help birds train their immune response and build up a robust defense barrier to respond more effectively and stay better protected against potential pathogens if biosecurity fails.
Another important aspect to keep in mind when reducing antibiotic use or transitioning toward antibiotic-free production is the breed of choice. Highly productive layers or fast-growing broilers may be less resilient against local diseases than more traditional or heritage lines since the latter appear more robust to challenging conditions. Therefore, if disease prevention is tough for whatever
reason, switching to more robust and resilient breeds of chickens to local conditions may work practically the best in addition to previous recommendations.
Since antibiotics have also been widely used to attaint high body weight gain, replacing them for other growth promoters will also support their growth rate under antibiotic-free conditions. Since poultry cannot fully digest all their feed ration (particularly at younger ages), feed additives that exploit their ability to digest leftover nutrients can support feed efficiency. To achieve this goal, dietary supplementation with probiotics, acidifiers, and enzymes are verified solutions. Indeed, beside solid health management practices in-place, probiotics and organic acids can also aid in preventing disease separately.
Due to their availability to drop pH, organic acids enhance protein digestibility and kill bacteria and fungi as pH falls below their survival threshold. Probiotics help develop a healthy intestinal microbiota that can digest non-digestible elements into nourishment and outcompete unhealthy bacteria. Also, enzymes are components that break down specific non-digestible or harmful dietary elements into molecules that poultry intestines can uptake. Still, the efficacy of enzyme supplementation greatly relies on feed ingredients like beta-mannanase for soybean meals. Although these three tactics are suitable solutions to improve performance outcomes when limiting antibiotic usage on-farm, solutions should be carefully evaluated explicitly for each case to maximize outcomes.
Reducing the non-therapeutic use of antibiotics can be challenging, and solutions to outweigh their potential disadvantages at no economic cost are needed. To achieve this goal, alternative growth promoters, a robust health plan, and strong biosecurity protocols are the best allies to support production efficiency, mitigate bacterial resistance, and reduce undesirable antibiotic residues in poultry products. The effectiveness of these strategies certainly leads on developing a healthy microbiota, refining digestion, improving the immune response, and preventing diseases entry. All of these are suitable steps to safeguard poultry health, welfare, and performance while cutting down on antibiotic use. Nonetheless, from a practical standpoint, identifying which strategy is likely to have the largest impact on production outcomes, due to peculiarities in management and husbandry, can help overcome quickly potential side effects (if any) of lowering antibiotic use on-farm.
ASEAN - The dynamics of the meat industry in a hardly recognised economic area
Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst
The author is Professor Emeritus of the University of Vechta, Germany
While there are numerous scientific studies on the development of meat production and meat trade for the EU and MERCOSUR, there are hardly any comparable analyses for the ASEAN economic area. This is surprising, as its population of 636 million (2022) was more than double that of MERCOSUR and around 225 million more than the EU. However, with a share of 8.5% in the global population, the economic area only contributed 5.3% to world’s meat production.
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The ten member states differ considerably regarding the volume of production and the importance of the various meat types. The aim of this article is to take a closer look at the dynamics of meat production in the decade from 2012 to 2022. In addition to African swine fever (ASF) and Avian Influenza (AI), the Covid-19 pandemic also had a considerable impact on the economic development of the region towards the end of the decade under review.
Population and economic power
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) was founded in Bangkok in August 1967 with the aim of promoting economic development, creating a free trade zone and cooperating on security and cultural issues. The founding countries were Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. In the following years, Brunei (1984), Vietnam (1995), Laos, Myanmar (1997) and Cambodia (1999) joined the association. With 257 million inhabitants, Indonesia was the most populous member country in 2022, compared to only 412,000 people living in Brunei. At US$ 1.48 trillion, Indonesia had the highest gross domestic product, while Brunei had the lowest at US$ 15 billion. The gross value added per person varied between US$ 82,808 in Singapore and only US$ 1,228 in Myanmar (Table 1). At US$ 4.1 trillion, the gross domestic product of the economic area was roughly equivalent to that of Germany.
Table 1 – Population and Gross National Product in ASEAN member countries (2022). Source: Worldpopulationreview, World Bank)
mand for different meat types. Religious taboos banned the consumption of beef or pork, for example. The resulting differences in the production of the various meat types are discussed at country level.
Remarkable changes in meat production
Between 2012 and 2022, meat production in ASEAN increased from 16.1 million tonnes to 19.1 million tonnes, or by 19.0%. The development of the various meat types varied considerably (Table 2). With the exception of chicken meat, which recorded an increase in production of almost 3.4 million tonnes or by 46.2%, production of all other meat types declined. The increasing preference for chicken meat, which is not subject to religious taboos, is obvious.
The large differences in population size, religious affiliation and purchasing power primarily determined the de -
This reflects the global shift from red to white meat consumption (Windhorst 2021). It is noteworthy that the outbreaks of the highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAI) in some member countries apparently had less of an impact than the African swine fever (ASF) epidemics. • customised advice and inhouse production • high-quality raw materials and strict quality standards
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Table 2 – The development of meat production in ASEAN between 2012 and 2022; data in 1,000 tonnes (source: FAO data)
Meat
Chicken meat
Pig meat
Cattle meat
Duck meat
Buffalo meat
Goat meat
Other meat
Obviously, the epidemics and the change in consumer behaviour had different impacts on the share of individual meat types in total meat production.
Figure 1 shows that ASF occurred at different times in the three countries considered. While the disease apparently spread slowly in the Philippines and a slight increase in production was already evident again from 2022, there were massive outbreaks in Myanmar in 2017 and 2018. Malaysia showed no infections for several years, but also suffered high production losses in 2022.
position, with its share increasing by 10.5%. In contrast, pork lost 6.7% and beef 2.2%; the other types of meat also suffered losses.
20122013201420152016201720182019202020212022
Malaysia Myanmar Philippines
Figure 1 – The development of pig meat production in Malaysia, Myanmar and the Philippines between 2012 and 2022 (design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).
A devastating outbreak of Avian Influenza occurred in Myanmar at the same time as the ASF epidemic. Chicken meat production fell by around 1.1 million tonnes or by 70% between 2017 and 2018. Although there are signs that production has stabilised from 2020 onwards, new outbreaks are reported continuously (Figure 2). As can be seen from Figure 3, the epidemics and the change in consumer behaviour had a considerable impact on the share of individual types of meat in total meat production. Chicken meat was able to significantly expand its leading
2 – The development of chicken meat production in Myanmar between 2012 and 2022 (design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).
Figure 3 – The shares of the main meat types in ASEAN’s meat production in 2012 and 2022 (design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data).
Major differences in development at country level
Table 3 documents the different dynamics in the member countries. The largest absolute increases in meat production were achieved in Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaysia and Thailand.
Production volumes fell most sharply in Myanmar and the Philippines. The highest relative growth rates were recorded in Indonesia, Laos and Vietnam. The significantly lower production volume in Laos must be considered, however. Myanmar recorded the strongest relative decline at 51.5%, followed by Singapore.
Figure
problems in coastal areas caused by the excrements from livestock farming. The decrease in pork production in the Philippines by almost 440,000 tonnes due to ASF outbreaks resulted in over 300,000 tonnes of pork imports in 2022 to supply the population. It is surprising that Myanmar only imported a small amount despite the massive slump in production. Obviously, there were no financial resources available for this. It is worth noting that Vietnam was able to halve its imports of chicken and pig meat in the decade under review due to the dynamical development of production. Only Thailand exported considerable amounts of chicken meat. Between 2012 and 2022, exports almost tripled, reaching a volume of 357,000 tonnes. The main countries of destination were Japan, China and Malaysia.
The regional concentration of meat production in the ASEAN economic area was extremely high (Figure 4). The different dynamics in the individual countries led to considerable changes in the ranking of countries and their shares in total production between 2012 and 2022. Table 3
The remarkable increase in production in Indonesia had the consequence that it rose from fourth to first place, displacing Vietnam from this position. The Philippines fell from second to fourth place due to declining production. Myanmar and Malaysia changed positions. While Malaysia’s contribution to total production remained largely stable, Myanmar’s fell from 14.4% to 5.8%. The country was the big loser in the decade under review. The sharp increase in regional concentration is noteworthy. Indonesia and Vietnam accounted for over half of the ASEAN’s meat production in 2022.
2022
Total: 19.1 mill. t
Viet
A closer look at the development of the production volume in the member countries by meat type reveals some interesting results. The leading roles of Indonesia and Vietnam in 2022 were primarily due to the increase in their chicken meat production. In Indonesia, it increased from 1.7 million tonnes to 4.0 million tonnes or by 133% in the decade under review.
In Vietnam it doubled from 0.53 million tonnes to 1.1 million tonnes. Myanmar’s sharp decrease was partly due to the decline in pig meat production of 377,000 tonnes or by 57.0% and partly to the decrease in chicken production of 523,000 tonnes or by 45.8%. Philippines’ decent from second to fourth place was the result of the decline
Figure 4 – The shares of the ASEAN member countries in the meat production of the association in 2012 and 2022 (design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data)
in pig meat production from 1.65 million tonnes in 2012 to just 1.26 million tonnes, a drop of 26.4%.
Large differences in the leading types of meat at country level
In addition to the increasing purchasing power of the population, the share of individual meat types in total production depended to a large extent on the composition of religious affiliations. This will be documented for selected countries. As can be seen from Figure 5, a rough classification can be made between countries in which chicken meat was predominant and those which mainly produced pig meat. In Indonesia, chicken meat accounted for 81% of meat production. This high proportion can be explained by the dominance of Islam, to which 88% of the population belonged. Pig meat was therefore only of minor importance.
Although chicken meat was also the predominant type of meat produced in Thailand with a contribution of 62.1%, pig meat also accounted for 30.1%. The domination re -
ligious affiliation was Buddhism, to which 95% of the population professed, they were permitted to consume pork. The breakdown was similar in Singapore. However, the very low production volume must be taken into account here. Religious affiliation is broadly diversified, with about a third of the population being Buddhists. In Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, pig meat had by far the highest share in meat production. In Cambodia and Laos, the majority of the population professed Buddhism; in Vietnam, 88% of the population stated in 2022 that they did not belong to any religious denomination; Buddhists and Christians only accounted for small shares.
In Cambodia and Laos, beef and buffalo meat each shared over 30% in meat production. Chicken meat ranked third in both countries, but the low production volume compared to Vietnam must be considered. As already mentioned, the growing importance of this meat type has led to a doubling of production in Vietnam. To summarise, it can be said that the religious affiliation of the population determined to a high degree the composition of meat production.
Figure 5 – The shares of the most important meat types in meat production of
ASEAN member countries (2022). Design: A.S. Kauer based on FAO data
Summary and outlook
Although 8.5% of the world’s population lived in the ASEAN economic area in 2022, the member countries generated a gross domestic product of US$ 4 trillion and some countries had significant meat production, there are hardly any analyses of the development and structure of this economic sector. This article tries to close this gap. Between 2012 and 2022, meat production increased from 16.1 million to 19.1 million tonnes, or by 19%. Growth was particularly dynamic in Indonesia and Vietnam. Massive outbreaks of ASF and AI in Myanmar and the Philippines, on the other hand, resulted in a sharp decline in production, which had to be offset by imports.
Changes in consumers’ preference for certain meat types and the impacts of the disease outbreaks significantly altered the ranking of member countries in meat production in the decade under review. The regional concentration of production increased considerably. In 2022, Indonesia and Vietnam shared over 50% in total meat production. Which meat type took a leading position in a member state, depended to a large extent on the religious affiliation of the population as well as the purchasing power of the inhabitants. In countries with a predominantly Islamic population, chicken meat dominated because it was not subject to a consumption ban. In countries with a high proportion of Buddhists, on the other hand, pig meat ranked first or second. It can be assumed that there will be a rapid increase in meat production in a number of countries due to the rapid growth in population and the increasing purchasing power. In line with a global trend,
chicken meat is likely to gain shares and pork meat to lose shares in meat production and consumption. The favourable feed conversion rate of broilers will also play an increasingly important role. Limiting factors will also in future be outbreaks of ASF and AI. If these highly infectious animal diseases cannot be contained, meat production will grow only moderately.
Data sources and additional literature
GNP by country: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_der_L%C3%A4nder_ nach_Bruttoinlandsprodukt.
ASEAN, AMAF: Post-2020 Avian Influenza Control Framework in ASEAN. Jakarta 2023. https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/2.-Post-2020-Avian-Influenza-Control-Framework-in-ASEAN.pdf.
Ito, S. u. a.: What can we learn from the five-year African swine fever epidemic in Asia? In: Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics 10 (2023), https://doi. org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1273417.
Windhorst, H.-W.: The red-white shift in global meat production. In: Zootecnica International 43 (2021), no. 5, p. 32-37. World population review: https://de.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search?hspart =trp&hsimp=yhs-005&type=Y149_F163_202167_012724&p=Worldpopulationreview
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Effective fumigation of hatching eggs to improve hatch results
Microbial contamination of hatching eggs is a main concern of hatcheries as it causes decreased hatchability, poor chick quality, growth and performance. It is evident that high standards of hygiene must be practised in all areas of the hatchery, but also the importance of incoming egg disinfection is undoubtable. One of the most effective ways to disinfect incoming eggs is fumigation.
Stephen Evans, Team Lead Global Incubation Consultants
A critical control point in hatchery hygiene is the disinfection of incoming hatching eggs. Its aim is to reduce the entrance of pathogens into the hatchery and, as such, minimize the ad-
verse effect of pathogens on the hatchery’s results. After being laid, hatching eggs are constantly exposed to contaminants such as bacteria, viruses, yeasts and moulds. It is crucial to destroy these microorganisms while they are still on the eggshell. Once the harmful organisms gain entry to the egg, they are protected from any disinfectant. Ideally, eggs are disinfected at the breeder farm soon after they are laid, and again on arrival at the hatchery.
Fumigation: common practices
Proper egg disinfection is key to reaching good hatchability and producing high-quality chicks. Fumigation is one of the most effective ways to disinfect hatching eggs. Here is some key advice on fumigation based on many visits in hatcheries around the world:
• It is recommended to fumigate as soon as possible after arrival at the hatchery. This way, you reduce the risk of carrying contaminants into the building.
• Fumigation can be done by using different types of disinfectant. Fumigation products can be sprayed, fogged or turned into gas. Observe local legislation to know which products are permitted. Be sure to follow the safety guidelines of the product and of the fumigation equipment. Take proper precautions to protect hatchery staff.
• Always follow the manufacturer’s recommendations to ensure the concentration of disinfectant is appropriate, the working time is correct, and temperature and humidity are correct for maximum efficacy.
• Do not try to fumigate eggs with dirty eggshells: The disinfectant will not sanitize underneath the dirt.
• Allow good airflow and make sure the eggs are well separated so that the disinfectant can work its way through to all the eggs.
• Proper maintenance of the fumigation equipment plays a crucial role in achieving an optimal and safe fumigation process.
• It is good to yearly evaluate fumigation efficacy: Microbial swabs can be taken before and after the process so that the fumigation efficacy can be evaluated.
• Preferably the whole fumigation process (from start to finish) can be automated so full control of product consumption, air extraction time and safety for personnel can be guaranteed.
Controlled fumigation for maximum disinfection results
It is important only to use fumigation solutions labelled effective and safe for hatchery personnel. That’s why Petersime has developed a dedicated machine for the optimal disinfection of hatching eggs, the X-Streamer™ Fumi-Gateway. The machine automatically delivers the different steps required for proper egg fumigation, guaranteeing a controlled and traceable process.
Egg trolleys are positioned inside the machine that is equipped with heating devices or stainless-steel nozzles to safely heat or spray disinfectant. The cabinet is completely sealed and the pressure inside is lower than the pressure outside. This way, the fumigation product cannot escape from the machine. The central air mixing system ensures a homogeneous air distribution through the egg mass, guaranteeing that the fumigation product is evenly spread inside the machine. After fumigation is completed, the machine refreshes the air several times to ensure total venting of disinfectant before the cabinet is opened. This optimal air refreshment is possible thanks to the compact machine size and the strong ventilation capacity. Hence, it is 100% safe for the staff when unloading the machine. What is more, the machine has front and rear doors, enabling easy egg unloading from the rear of the machine so truck drivers don’t have to enter the hatchery, which creates an additional biosecurity barrier.
In summary
Hygiene plays a fundamental role in the production efficiency and food safety of the poultry value chain. Hatchery sanitation depends on three key pillars: a well-designed hatchery, protocols to prevent pathogens from entering the hatchery, and protocols to reduce the spread of pathogens inside the hatchery (i.e. cleaning and disinfection). Fumigation is an effective method for hatching egg disinfection. It is however important to apply the process in a strict way, with utmost precautions for the safety of hatchery operators.
Petersime is happy to help you in learning more about fumigation and other best practices in the hatchery. The topic is covered in our advanced training programmes. Please don’t hesitate to contact us for more information.
Muir1, Y. Akter1, K. Bruerton2 and P.j. Groves3
1 School of Life and Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Poultry Research Foundation, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW 2570, Australia
2 PO Box 1362, Elanora, Queensland, 4221, Australia
3 Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, Poultry Research Foundation, The University of Sydney, Camden, NSW 2570, Australia
Impact of the lighting and feeding regimen during rearing on Hy-Line brown pullet growth and start of lay
The impact of two lighting and three feeding programs during rearing on pullet body weight (BW), feed intake (FI), organ characteristics and start of lay was evaluated. Nine hundred Hy-Line Brown chicks were housed in floorpens from day old to 16 weeks of age (WOA) under two lighting programs i.e. standard lighting (SL) of 10h Light
(L)/day from 7 WOA or rapid light reduction (RLR) of 9h L/day from 4 WOA. Feed was provided ad libitum until 4 WOA, then three feeding regimens i.e. ad libitum, feeding to Hy-Line Brown breed standard weight (BSW), and feeding to 88% BSW(Managed) for age were introduced into each lighting program and continued to 16 WOA. Hen
MANAGEMENT
BW and FI were measured from 4-16 WOA. At 16 WOA a subset of pullets were sampled for carcass and reproductive tract assessment. Remaining pullets were then housed individually in a caged layer facility, with ad lib feeding under increasing photoperiod. Hen FI, BW, age of first egg and average weight of the first 3 eggs was recorded. From 4-16 WOA BW differed due to an interaction of feeding and lighting with ad lib fed birds being the heaviest and Managed feeding birds lightest. Ad lib FI was higher in SL compared to RLR. In the layer shed birds from Managed feeding during rearing had higher FI during 16-17 WOA, but ad lib fed hens sustained highest BW and, Managed feeding lowest BW through to 19 WOA. Feeding ad lib and to BSW during rearing generated higher breast muscle scores and keel curvature. Ovary and oviduct development were most advanced at
16 WOA with ad lib feeding during rearing. Pullets fed ad lib under RLR star ted to lay eggs first and managed feeding under SL were the last to start laying. The average weight of first three eggs was highest in both SL and, with feeding to BSW.
Hence lighting and feeding programs during rearing altered FI, BW and age at point of lay in current day brown pullets. The hens will be followed through to 100 WOA to determine the effects of lighting and feeding during rearing on egg production, egg quality and hen health.
Introduction
A hen’s physiological pat terns including FI and BW trajectory are established by early lay (Muir et al. 2022).
Lighting: Lighting program; SL: Standard lighting program; RLR: Rapid light reduction program. Feeding: Feeding program; AD: Ad libitum feeding; BSW: Fed to achieve Breed standard weight for age. M: Managed feeding to achieve 88% BSW for age; BW: Body weight; wk: Week; FI: Feed intake. As BSW and M feeding quantities were controlled by the research team, statistical analysis is not valid.
Table 1 – Body weight, feed intake, age and weight of first eggs in Hy-Line Brown pullets reared under different lighting and feeding regimens.
Therefore, management tools such as lighting and feeding programs during rearing may offer opportunities to regulate bird size and establish feeding habits by the end of rearing. This may also influence persistency of lay, egg quality and hen health during an ex tended laying period. The lighting program during rearing can modify bird age at sexual maturity, the number of eggs produced and egg size (Santiago-Anadón and Latorre-Acevedo, 2004). For example, compared to a standard lighting (SL) program, more rapid light reduction (RLR) provides fewer hours of light/day, which slows chick growth and, on light stimulation, initiates earlier sexual maturity (Arango et al., 2007). Hens reared under RLR also produced more eggs of larger size at 66 WOA. While bone mineralization did not differ (Hester et al. 2011), other features of egg quality and bird health were not repor ted but are worthy of evaluation. Comparison of feeding programs during rearing
undertaken during the early stages of intensification of egg production show that managing feeding can impact number of smaller eggs produced during early lay, the rate of decline in egg production from peak lay and bird mortality (Lee et al. 1971; Balnave, 1973). Such features have not been evaluated in current day Brown egg laying hens.
As the industry explores ex tending layer hen production cycles these management options require re-evaluation in today’s layer hens. This experiment compared Hy-Line Brown pullets that had been reared under two lighting and three feeding programs at point of lay.
Materials and methods
Nine hundred, Hy-line Brown day-old chicks, were placed
Table 2 – Organ characteristic of 16 week old Hy-line Brown pullets reared under different lighting and feeding regimens.
Lighting: Lighting program; SL: Standard lighting program; RLR: Rapid light reduction program. Feeding: Feeding program; AD: Ad libitum feeding; BSW: Fed to achieve Breed standard weight for age. M: Managed feeding to achieve 88% BSW for age; * weight as a percent of live body weight.
in groups of 30 in floorpens (7 m2) at the Zootechny research facility, Austral, NSW, Australia. All chicks were beak trimmed and vaccinated for Newcastle Disease, Infectious Bronchitis and Marek’s Disease Virus. Each pen had a perch, automatic nipple drinkers and manually filled feed hoppers. The shed was brooded with space heaters, and had side curtains, foggers, and dimmable lights with photoperiod control for each end of the shed. A light proof curtain traversed the centre of the shed separating the two lighting treatments, with 15 pens per side. All birds were held under intermit tent lighting during the first week (4hLight(L):2hDark(D)) then 20hL:4hD in the second week. For RLR the photoperiod was reduced as 16hL:8hD, then 12hL:12hD and finally held at 9hL/day from 4-16 WOA. Under SL program 20hL:4hD was maintained through to 3 WOA then reduced gradually to reach
five pens per lighting treatment were introduced. The three feeding regimes were: ad libitum feeding; feeding to achieve breed standard weight (BSW); and feeding to achieve 88% breed standard weight (Managed) for age (Lee et al. 1971). All birds receive the same commercial crumble pullet star ter (0-5 WOA) and grower (5-12 WOA) (Barastoc, Australia), then a Developer mash (12- 16 WOA). From 16-17.4 WOA all pullets received a Pre-lay mash and then an Early lay mash both being fed ad libitum. All birds were weighed individually from 4-16 WOA. Based on their BW the amount of feed/pen/day for each BSW and Managed feeding pen was weighed out for the following week. At 16 WOA, 15 pullets from each treatment were euthanased to evaluate breast muscle, keel curvature, keel length, abdominal fat, liver weight and ovary development, ovum width, oviduct appearance and
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photoperiod as per Hy-Line Brown program. The age of first egg and weight of the first three eggs was recorded. Experimental data were analysed using a factorial ANOVA with lighting and feeding programs as the main effects.
Results and discussion
At 16 WOA BW was highest in ad lib feeding under SL and lowest in Managed feeding under both SL and RLR (Table 1). Of the ad lib fed birds, SL allowed for the highest FI and RLR the lowest. Not surprisingly when all birds were on ad lib feeding in the layer shed, those that had been on Managed feeding during rearing had the highest FI between 16-17 WOA. Weekly FI varied between rearing
treatment groups through to 19 WOA (Table 1). Despite this, at 19 WOA hen BW remained heaviest in ad lib feeding and lightest in birds of Managed feeding during rearing. Age of first egg was altered by both lighting and feeding (Table 1) with pullets fed ad lib under RLR being the youngest at age of first egg (19.16 WOA) and Managed feeding under SL the oldest (20.33 WOA). The lighter BW together with the later age of first egg in Managed birds concurs with the minimum BW for sexual maturity identified by Brody et al. (1984). Both SL and feeding to BSW during rearing independently generated the heaviest first three eggs.
At 16 WOA, breast muscle score, fat pad weight and keel curvature were highest in birds fed ad lib and lowest
in birds receiving Managed feeding (Table 2). Heavier birds may be less able to control their flying and landing, colliding more of ten with the perch, feeder or pen mates (Wilkins et al. 2011), resulting in damage to the keel, but this remains to be confirmed. Proportional to bird weight the Managed feeding birds had a higher percent liver weight. Features of the reproductive tract including ovary score, ovum width, oviduct appearance and oviduct length were highest in ad lib fed birds (Table 2), which concurs with their younger age at first egg and lighter weight of first three eggs (Table 1).
Hence lower weight gain through controlled feeding delayed the development of sexual organs, postponing the onset of lay, also found by Bruggeman et al. (1999), with the production of heavier eggs at the start of lay. These observations are not dissimilar to those of Lee et al. (1971) and Balnave (1973) in earlier strains of egg laying hens. These findings indicate that the management of FI and lighting during rearing can alter pullet BW, the onset of lay and the weight of the first eggs in current day egg laying hens. The effects of these rearing conditions on persistency of lay, egg quality and hen health through an ex tended laying cycle will be determined with the flock being followed through until hens are 100 WOA.
Acknowledgment: We thank Australian Eggs for funding this project.
References are available on request
From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2023
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