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Global poultry meat supply and trade How does your turkey grow? The forgotten continent. Patterns and dynamics of the African egg industry
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2020
The new feeders of the «Gió» range, specifically developed for great poultry farms, thanks to the easiness in the regulation of the feed and to the absence of grill (that avoid chicks perching) have many advantages: they are easy to use and their cleaning is extremely easy and fast too, leading to an overall reduction in labour costs.
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EDITORIAL Scientists and sociologists are renewing their attempts to increase available food supplies. A more pressing concern is the availability of fresh water to support the world’s population, especially in developing countries. It’s estimated that by the year 2050 one-third of humanity will be seriously impacted by a shortage of water. Although there is more than adequate water available on the planet, only 1% to 2% is available as a fresh supply for agriculture, livestock and domestic consumption. The remainder of the World’s water is locked in the polar ice caps or is in the form of seawater. The poultry industry should be especially concerned over the future of water resources. Under tropical conditions, the average broiler grown to around 2 kg will consume directly and indirectly six litres. Following the introduction of HACCP systems to reduce Salmonella contamination, water consumption in U.S. broiler plants increased from 20 to 35 litres per bird processed. Commercial laying hens consume up to 0.3 litres per day and additional quantities of water are required for cooling systems, decontamination and in some cases removal of manure. Visits to large integrated broiler and egg operations in the United States and Europe confirm an increased awareness of the cost and importance of water. The current emphasis in industrialized countries is to prevent contamination of rivers and lakes with phosphorous and nitrogen from waste produced by livestock. In the developing countries especially in the tropical and semi-arid regions of the world, availability of water is a significant challenge. Depletion of aquifers to obtain water for cereal production and to maintain poultry is unjustified in many countries with arid climates. Water should be preserved for the human population.
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SUMMARY WORLDWIDE NEWS............................................................................. 4 COMPANY NEWS................................................................................... 6 REPORTAGE Global poultry meat supply and trade............................................................. 10
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DOSSIER How does your turkey grow?.......................................................................... 14 Pathogenesis of egg infections by Salmonella and the implementation of preventive measures.............................................. 20
MARKETING The forgotten continent. Patterns and dynamics of the African egg industry..... 24
TECHNICAL COLUMN Different incubation profiles for different breeds?............................................. 28
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MANAGEMENT LED: time to see the light............................................................................... 30
NUTRITION Impact of dietary soluble non-starch polysaccharide levels on the gastrointestinal environment of young broilers...................................... 34 Best practice in feed management................................................................. 36
VETERINARY SCIENCE Turkey arthritis reovirus. Diagnostic strategies................................................ 40 Chelated copper compared to antibiotics effect on gut health in broilers........... 44
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PROCESSING CAS technology is emerging as the harvesting solution of choice. Working on animal well-being........................................................................ 50
MARKET GUIDE.................................................................................52 INTERNET GUIDE.............................................................................56
WORLDWIDE NEWS
Benefits of non-synthetic, natural oregano essential oil in pullet rearing Feeding oregano essential oil to pullets during rearing can help to improve flock uniformity, reproductive fitness and feed efficiency, according to research undertaken at North Carolina State University in the USA.
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Improved flock uniformity and reproductive fitness at the start of lay in pullets fed Orego-Stim is expected to result in more consistent egg sizes and improved lifetime performance.
Rearing healthy, high quality pullets with a diverse and well-populated gut microbiome is important for lifetime performance. The complex gut microbiome of poultry species plays a crucial role in digestion, nutrient absorption and immune function. Early establishment of a diverse microbiome population assists with intestinal crypt and villi development, two important intestinal structures associated with feed digestion and nutrient absorption. North Carolina State University researcher, Dr Ken Anderson, undertook a trial at the Piedmont Research Station in conjunction with feed additive manufacturer Anpario to determine the effect of supplementing Orego-Stim Powder (a source of 100% natural oregano essential oil) in pullet feed throughout rearing on pullet performance and body confirmation. Dekalb White chicks from day-old were allocated to one of two groups; either a control group with no additive in the feed, or a treatment group offered feed supplemented with 300 g of Orego-Stim per tonne of feed. “The results of the trial showed that oregano essential oil supplementation had a positive effect on pullet reproductive fitness, specifically in body development with increased shank length and a higher rear quarter percentage,” explained Dr Anderson. “Additionally, whilst body weight did not differ between treatment groups as birds were grown to breed guidelines, flock body weight uniformity was less variable in pullets supplemented with oregano essential oil,” he added. The trial also demonstrated optimised feed efficiency in pullets offered oregano essential oil in the diet resulted in an improved FCR.
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- worldwide news -
“North Carolina State University is currently undertaking a trial working in conjunction with Anpario to determine to what extent managing early gut health with Orego-Stim has on laying performance,” states Dr Anderson. “High quality pullets are those which are both robust and resilient, and a high quality flock is one in which all the pullets are uniform in weight and achieve breed targets for body weight,” explained Dr Emma Lund, Anpario’s technical support coordinator. “Meeting breed standards for body weight supports optimum skeletal and muscular development which is associated with improved performance during early lay. Issues which arise during the rearing phase can impact a birds’ overall lifetime performance and ultimately producer profitability,” said Dr Lund. Orego-Stim is a 100% natural source of oregano essential oil, which has a proven, broad-spectrum antimicrobial effect as a result of its unique composition and the presence of non-synthetic compounds such as carvacrol, ρ-cymene and thymol.
WORLDWIDE NEWS
EuroTier and EnergyDecentral postponed to February 2021 New EuroTier exhibition dates: 9th to 12th February 2021 – The two leading international trade fairs will return with a comprehensive exhibition and accompanying technical programme, covering the current topics in international livestock farming and decentralised energy supply. This decision to postpone EuroTier and EnergyDecentral has been taken in close coordination with the trade fairs’ expert advisory boards for both fairs. “The postponement of EuroTier and EnergyDecentral has been a difficult decision. The international nature of both exhibitions, for both exhibitors and visitors, is precisely what makes the events the global meeting point for experts and decision-makers. These two trade fairs are the meeting place for the entire industry, with the primary objective of all participants being,” says Dr. Reinhard Grandke, Chief Executive Officer, DLG. “DLG is convinced that postponing EuroTier and EnergyDecentral until 9th to 12th of February 2021 will not only do justice to the reputations of both events, as leading international trade fairs, but will further ensure maximum opportunity for planning and preparation for exhibitors and visitors alike,” adds Dr. Grandke.
“Offering their visitors a broad exhibition and technical programme concerning the latest topics surrounding international animal production and decentralised energy supply, EuroTier and EnergyDecentral will be held at the exhibition grounds in Hanover, Germany, from 9th to 12th February 2021” DLG is postponing EuroTier and EnergyDecentral, which were scheduled to take place at the exhibition grounds in Hanover from 17th to 20th November 2020. The coronavirus pandemic continues to cause international uncertainty. Given these circumstances, the DLG assumes that it will not be possible to organise EuroTier and EnergyDecentral in a form that is appropriate for such leading international trade fairs for exhibitors and visitors this year. The new dates for the exhibitions are 9th to 12th February 2021.
Offering their visitors a broad exhibition and technical programme concerning the latest topics surrounding international animal production and decentralised energy supply, EuroTier and EnergyDecentral will return to the exhibition grounds in Hanover, Germany, from 9th to 12th February 2021. Up-to-date information on the two trade fairs: www.eurotier.com www.energy-decentral.com
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COMPANY NEWS
Aviagen UK names Blake Williamson new General Manager Blake will lead UK and industry forward through current challenging times and beyond Throughout his 12-year career with Aviagen, Blake has built up extensive experience and knowledge of the company, its customer base and the global poultry industry. He says he is looking forward to serving Aviagen customers in this new role. “I am honored to be given the opportunity to lead the UK business, and have been impressed by the resilience of our employees, company and our customers in the current turbulent situation of a global health crisis. My goal is to further strengthen our relationships with our customers based upon our ongoing respect and trust as together we work to lead the industry through the current challenges.” Blake Williamson
Aviagen® UK Limited announced the appointment of Blake Williamson as its new General Manager. Blake succeeds Alan Thomson, who has become Global Head of Technical Transfer. In this new position, Blake will drive the UK business forward by continuing to provide customers with the best-quality breeding stock backed by a strong team that is committed to supporting Aviagen’s customers.
Blake has taken on the responsibilities of this new role on an interim basis since 1 January, and, according to Aviagen’s President of European Operations Patrick Claeys, has proven his strong leadership abilities. “The breadth and depth of Blake’s experience, along with his passion and commitment to our customers, is a great asset, particularly in the current challenging conditions of COVID-19.” Blake is a qualified accountant who holds an MBA, and brings with him a strong understanding of the Aviagen business at all levels of the production and supply chain.
Jamesway Chick Master integration announced TBG, a global leader in poultry equipment and hatchery solutions has recently announced that it will combine the operations of its Jamesway and Chick Master businesses. The move, to be completed by March of 2021, will establish a new combined headquarters with manufacturing operations physically integrated at the existing Jamesway facility in Cambridge, Ontario. While the integration will include procurement, quality, finance, human resource and IT, a U.S. office will continue to be maintained in Medina, Ohio. “As we move forward, we will remain strongly committed to continue offering our two distinct, successful brands,” said Paul Degraeve, CEO of the Hatchery Division of TBG. “Chick Master and Jamesway each have unique value propositions that our loyal customers have come to expect.” TBG, which also owns Petersime and Moba, has further
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plans to enhance the combined supply chain capabilities by continuing to expand their parts fulfillment centers, moving into Southeast Asia and the Southern United States later this year. Additionally, starting by March 2021, the organization will begin implementation of new global front-end commercial structure to be developed by the existing commercial leadership of both businesses. The new combined organization, to be known as ‘Jamesway Chick Master Incubator Company’, will be led by Denis Kan, with continued strong support from Nate Goodnow. For more information: Tel.: +1 519 624 4646 – Fax: +1 519 624 5803 Email: marketing@jamesway.com
- company news -
Image: Fotolia - © Minerva Studio
COMPANY NEWS
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COMPANY NEWS
The biggest and most comfortable nest for happy hens and growers Roxell, the leading manufacturer of automated feeding, drinking, nesting and heating systems, is launching a new version of the KooziiÂŽ group nest.
Central to this generation of automated nests is the comfort and welfare of the hens and very careful handling of eggs. Roxell now offers a comprehensive range of nests for broiler breeders and commercial layers. There is now a Koozii group nest for every size of house and every possible layout, regardless of the regional differences, such as climate, stocking density and the specific needs of the poultry farmer.
Optimal conditions for happy hens The Koozii group nest has all the features required to make a hen feel comfortable. The nest has the largest nesting areas for broiler breeders or commercial layers. The nest sections are on average 8% larger than other nests on the market. For a poultry farmer, the nest volume is an important
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- company news -
factor, because more space means more oxygen and a more pleasant climate. The perforated AstroTurf mat contributes to this. This artificial mat with small holes has the additional advantage that dirt is carried away from the nest. This means the nest stays clean. At the nest entrance, Koozii also has a step and curtains. For the hen, it’s an entrance to a safe space with lots of shade, mimicking the conditions they prefer in nature. Lots of space, oxygen, a clean nest floor and safety create a very high nest acceptance. Koozii creates a very natural environment for a hen to lay eggs.
Careful handling of eggs For the hatchery, eggs need to be clean and undamaged with no hairline cracks. The Koozii nest helps poultry farmers to achieve
COMPANY NEWS
this result. Because the AstroTurf keeps the nest clean, the eggs also stay clean. Then the Koozii quickly yet softly rolls the eggs to the egg belt, out of sight of the hens. Critical transition points, such as at the transport belt or the egg collection table, have been thoroughly tested by Roxell. Tests show that eggs easily glide over these transition points. During the transport from the nest, there will be no damage or hairline cracks. The requirement for the eggs in the hatchery to be clean and intact is therefore guaranteed.
Profitable for the poultry farmer Roxell systems are known for being good investments in the short and long term and the new version of the Koozii group nest is no exception. The durability is created with the base frame and the quality of the nest slats. These components of the Koozii are strong and robust, meaning the nest can be used for many years. The nest makes daily tasks easier. For example, the curtains on the
nest entrance can be lifted up in one go, which facilitates quick inspections. The animal friendly expulsion system prevents hens from getting injured, which results in lower mortality rates. The fact that the hens cannot stay in the Koozii group nest at night is good for hygiene. The nests stay clean, which keeps the eggs clean too. This also allows you to stop the hens going broody. The Koozii nest is easy to dismantle when you want to thoroughly disinfect it. The Koozii can help poultry farmers to increase their profitability in the short and long term. “By launching the new generation of Koozii nest, we are also responding to our customers’ requests for a wider range of group nests,” says Frank Hartmann, Marketing Manager at Roxell. “It is safe to say that we have a Koozii nest for broiler breeders and commercial layers to suit every poultry farmer. Special requests for the integration or hatchery are no problem. We have the flexibility to build a nest according to the legislation and standards for stocking density in each region. House dimensions and layouts no longer limit the options when choosing a Roxell nest.”
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REPORTAGE
Global poultry meat supply and trade Last May, the International Poultry Council hosted a series of interesting webinars on ‘Resilience and Leadership in the International Poultry Supply Chain’ offering a valuable insight into the global poultry meat industry and highlighting the ways in which, by demonstrating leadership, a resilient future can be built in these challenging times. The first contribution was dedicated to Global poultry meat supply and trade with a detailed presentation by Justin Sherrard, Global Strategist Animal Protein, Rabobank.
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REPORTAGE
The changing economic and market conditions brought about by the Corona virus pandemic has had and will have significant impacts on global poultry in 2020 and 2021. Global trade will face uncertainty this year, with both destinations and origins affected, as well as pricing. Total volumes are likely to be affected temporarily, and trade could ultimately benefit if local supply is impacted by issues related to Corona virus, ASF, and Avian Influenza (AI). The main Corona virus-related issues will create potential shocks in supply and demand driven by quarantine and logistics issues and temporary changes in consumer demand towards at-home consumption, non-perishable products, etc. Justin Sherrard took us through the production implications showing what is going to happen in some of the world’s main poultry economies starting with the situation in the USA. The broiler processing industry in the US has seen around a 10 percent decline in processing capacity over the last couple of months, but is starting to recover. The turkey sector has been hit more severely than broiler sector, but neither of those species have been as badly hit as the pork or beef sectors where processing capacity went down of 20-30 percent in certain weeks over the last couple of months. While there have been other challenges such as the negative impact on exports caused by a strong US dollar, on balance, USA broiler production will be up by about 1 percent during the year 2020.
ted in a redistribution of poultry into other parts of the EU. At certain times there were also changes in trade arrangements related to Avian Influenza with Ukraine being an example. Although this is behind us these changes in the trade environment resulted in overproduction which was also influenced by the closure of restaurants and other parts of the food service sector. A huge correction in prices over the last couple of months has taken place and the good news is that the signs of recovery can be already seen. Producers therefore are actually quite positive about what is going to happen with production prices over the coming month, even if production is going to be lower by between a half and one percent year-on-year growth. The big story in China is still African Swine Fever and the main issue is how poultry can substitute for pork consumption. China’s poultry production is increasing at about 10 percent up year-on-year. Its poultry imports drive global trade and the country has really become a
In Brazil, there is a unusual situation occurring where feed costs are actually going up because of the impact of currency changes. Feed commodities are priced in US dollar terms and this along with a weakening in local currency values, which are down about 35 to 40 percent year-to-date, makes feed costs quite expensive in local currency terms. Local demand is softening and export opportunities to China have been reduced a little while other export markets are less affected. The overall result is that production is going to be up this year by somewhere between one to one and a half percent whereas previously it would be above two percent year-on-year. In Europe, overproduction is really the dominant issue. Avian Influenza has restricted the export opportunities for certain countries particularly those in some parts of Central and Eastern Europe, with Poland being the main country that has been affected. This situation has resul-
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The International Poultry Council has 23 Country Members and 52 Associate Members. IPC Country Members represent more than 95% of the global poultry trade and more than 90% of poultry production. Its mission is to strengthen communication between the industries of different countries, to develop and recommend policies affecting our industries, and to promote a common global understanding and confidence in poultry products as the preferred source of meat protein. Nicolò Cinotti is the new IPC Secretary General from 1st January 2020. Nicolò holds a degree in Veterinary Medicine from the University of Bologna and a specialization in Animal Health, livestock and animal products from the University of Pisa. His previous career experience includes training as a veterinarian as well as time at the Ministry of Health in Italy. He has most recently held the position of Policy Advisor at Unaitalia.
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REPORTAGE
kingmaker in global animal protein trade with the whole world now becoming very dependent on what China is doing in terms of creating balance in the market. The picture in Southeast Asia is much more complicated. There is African swine fever especially in Vietnam and, to a certain extent, in the Philippines which is positive for poultry consumption; production is going to be up about 4 percent across the five main Southeast Asian countries. In Africa, South Africa introduced some anti-dumping tariffs which, along with fresh market closures in other parts of Africa is crippling demand. Frozen product market is tending to do better there than it has in the past due to the fresh market closures. In India, there occurred an incredible situation this year with rumours that COVID-19 was being transmitted by poultry, which resulted in a complete disaster for the poultry industry and although things have
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started to improve there remains a lingering area of concern in the minds of many Indian consumers. The strength of the US dollar is the dominant issue in markets at the moment and that tends to also influence the way that trade takes place and also the way that feed prices are influenced. African Swine Fever continues to be a dominant issue in global animal protein markets and while we are focused on what is happening around the corona virus situation, it is also important to remember that ASF is not a challenge which is behind us. In the near term the balance of this year will lead to a whole range of challenges on the one hand; or opportunities on the other hand. The trends playing out in the market suggest an increased focus on local supply, local products, local supply chains etc. The costs of exporting containers from Europe to China have alone gone up somewhere between two and three times over the course of 2020. This represents a huge additional cost which needs to be added on to any export given that it is not
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REPORTAGE
always possible to pass this cost on. Down trading is a theme that all will have to deal with but the good news for poultry meat is that it has the lowest price of all the terrestrial species.
really create a demand for trust and the poultry sector has got a wonderful opportunity to think about its role in enhancing trust not only in the food sector generally but specifically in the global poultry industry. Adapted from a Webinar of the International Poultry Council, May 2020
There are four main areas of “opportunity” and “risk” to be seen out through the remainder of this year and into next year for poultry supply chains, these being: consumer engagement; interlinking supply chains; global trade and its future, and above all – trust. As regards the first one, consumer preferences have suddenly changed and it is important to understand what consumers really want. Getting used to reacting quite quickly to the way that their preferences are changing will continue to be a challenge. Secondly, the connectivity and digitalization skills that we have throughout our supply chains can help us but the important point here is how quickly responsive are our supply chains to the sorts of changes that we have seen over the recent months and how they will react to demands that will continue playing out during the course of this year. Thirdly, the future of trade is about how China is going to use its increased market power as a dominant buyer in trade markets across all of the species. Without doubt partnerships are going to be needed to sustain trade flows when costs are going up and when competitiveness comes very much into focus. Finally – trust: how do we, as an industry, earn and maintain consumer trust? What steps do we need to take to reassure consumers that the poultry products they are consuming are safe and are highly nutritional? These times of uncertainty
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DOSSIER
Colin Fisher and Rob Gous EFG Software cc, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa EFG Software is a small South African software developer who have successful broiler and pig models and now wish to complete their work on turkeys. One limitation is the lack of facilities to do experiments on turkeys in South Africa and therefore they were delighted to have the opportunity to collaborate with colleagues in Prague who carried out the trials described here and in published papers1.
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How does your turkey grow? Predicting how a flock of turkeys might grow under different nutritional and environmental conditions is a question of interest to everyone involved in turkey production and this interest has led to the development and use of different types of predictive models for possible use as management tools. Producers and growers will have the data from previous flocks grown under similar conditions. Such data, accumulated over farms and years, has been used for a long time in the
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DOSSIER
well-known Agristats service in the US. More recently a lot of work has been aimed at using AI techniques to create data-based models to predict what will happen in future flocks under different conditions. The value of these techniques in poultry production has yet to be established. The most widely used model in poultry science is the pen trial – in which small groups of birds (usually replicated) are assumed to predict how future flocks will behave under similar conditions. The results of such trials can produce statistical models which may be used for making predictions. The combination of results from many similar trials using some form of meta-analysis can enhance the predictive value of this work. The final group of models – and the one we are interested in are grouped under the heading mechanistic. This is not a very specific definition but generally these models will include some ideas about the mechanisms of growth – even if it is at a very high level of organisation – and will, at least in theory, be less dependent on empirical data and therefore applicable over a wider range of conditions. An obvious question is whether they are constructed in such a way that continuous genetic improvement in turkey stocks can be accommodated without the need for newly generated empirical data. The system about which we are trying to make predictions is very complex. A flock of turkeys – even quite a small flock – in a single house is subject to a huge number of influences, each of which can affect the performance of the birds. It is even more complex if the birds are free ranging in a woodland! Thus, model building involves considerable simplification of the system and an acceptance that some factors may not be captured at all in the simulation. Animal health is an obvious example. So the system of describing turkey growth that we use, and that forms the background to our experiments, starts off with some quite simple, but as it turns out, very powerful, assumptions.
Components of growth Three simplifying assumptions are made. First the increase in bodyweight is seen as the sum of three components: feathers, feather-free body and gut fill. Second that the feather-free body is composed of body protein, lipid, ash and water. (carbohydrate is ignored). Thirdly, the protein content of the feather-free body is seen as
the base component of prediction from which the other elements are calculated. This level of description allows transactions in energy, protein and lipid to be calculated; and by extension, individual amino acids.
Potential growth For the purpose of modelling we use a specific description of “how does your turkey grow?” which we call potential growth. This turns out to be a very powerful and useful idea but at the same time it is something which cannot be defined and measured with complete certainty. However, it is so useful for model construction that we have continued to use it and to try and measure it. Potential growth is defined as growth which is observed under non-limiting conditions and the potential growth of feather-free body protein, body lipid and feathers are assumed to be genetic characteristics of each animal. In order to make our models work at all i.e. for the animal to eat food and grow over time, we further assume that the animal seeks to achieve its potential growth and we try to model the extent to which it can accomplish this. The uncertainty arises from the definition of non-limiting conditions. We can feed the birds very well, in some cases giving a choice of feeds to satisfy individual needs, we use low stocking densities and try to create an environment in which the birds are always thermo neutral (a thermal gradient will assist in this). There is always uncertainty about the assumptions being made and of course there are intangible issues such as health which can only be dealt with in a very general way. Despite this the potential performance of several species; broiler, pig and even the ostrich, has been established with enough confidence to proceed with useful modelling.
Turkey experiments The experiments were carried out at the University of Life Sciences and the International Testing Station in Prague and we are grateful to colleagues there for their collaboration. The series of trials covers the following topics: • Experiment 1. Potential growth in modern strains. • Experiment 2. Responses to protein (1). • Experiment 3. ME:CP rations and protein utilization. • Experiment 4. Responses to protein (2).
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DOSSIER
perature gradient up to 28 days of age. Day length was reduced from 24h to 17h at 8 days and then maintained at this level. Light intensity was 80 lux to day five and 5 lux thereafter. At intervals during the trial sample birds were sacrificed to determine feather weight, yield of body components and the overall chemical composition of the feather-free body. Potential growth was analysed using the Gompertz growth curve which has three parameters and the following form. Weight = A*exp (-exp (-B*(X-t*))); where A = mature or maximum asymptotic weight, B is a dimensionless rate coefficient, t* is the age at the point of inflection on the growth curve and X is age in days. The allometric relationship between two animal characteristics x and y, is given by the equation y=ax^b. This is determined by converting x and y to logarithms to give a linear equation:
logy = a+b*logx Results: Bodyweight The Gompertz growth curves calculated for BUT 6 males and females, and their first-order derivatives i.e. growth rate (g/d), are shown in Figure 1 and the data for all breeds in Table 1. The asymptotic bodyweight for BUT males and females were 31.0 and 21.6kg respectively. Maximum growth rates of about 215g/d (males) and 177 g/d (females) were reached at about 88 and 77 days. The growth rate coefficient. B, was higher in females, 0.0223, than in males, 0.0189. Table 1 shows that the two strains
Materials and methods Full details of the trial will be found in Gous et al. (2019a and b). Briefly, groups of BUT 6 and Hybrid Converter poults were housed in littered pens with 30 males or 40 females per pen. The trial started in April 2013. Feeding was to Aviagen recommendations for the BUT 6 and a conventional, hopefully close to thermoneutral, environment was provided with brooders offering some tem-
Body weight, kg
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Here some of the results of Experiment 1 are presented
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A=31kg
t*=87.8d
200
t*=76.7d
25
250
A=21,6kg 150
20 15
100
10 50
5 0
0
50
100
150 Age, days
200
250
Growth rate, g/day
35
0 300
Figure 1 – Gompertz growth curves and derived growth rate curves for BUT 6 turkeys. (Gous et al. 2019a).
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Table 1 – Gompertz curve parameters for male and female turkeys of two strains; bodyweight, kg. Sex
B
t*, days
A, kg
BUT 6
Male
0.0189
87.8
31.02
Female
0.0223
76.7
21.63
Male
0.0175
93.0
33.71
Female
0.0232
71.3
18.71
Hybrid Converter
Fitted
Breed Std
16000 14000 Body weight, g
Strain
Actual 18000
12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0
used were similar; the numerical differences observed are mostly explained by statistical uncertainty. Examination of the data allowed us to sustain the argument that the males had grown close to their potential. For the females however we had to conclude that after about 70 days of age potential growth had not been achieved. This is illustrated in Figure 2 for BUT females; the data were almost identical for the HYB females. Up to 70 days the birds grew on a smooth trajectory which was accurately described by the Gompertz curve. But after that age growth slowed significantly relative to the earlier trajectory and was approaching an asymptotic weight of about 16kg. This compared with 21.6kg calculated from the trajectory up to 70 days. The point cannot be proved but we chose to interpret the observed growth of the females as being below potential after 70 days of age and attributed this to the higher stocking density used in the female pens. It is interesting that in both strains the breeders’ standards also follow this reduced growth trajectory after about 70 days of age.
DRINKERS
TRANSPORT CAGES
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Age, days
Figure 2 – Growth of BUT 6 females turkeys compared to fitted Gompertz curve and to the breeder’s standards.
Results: Feather growth Feather growth has always been a problem for modelling. Feathers use a significant amount of nutrients (especially amino acids) in their growth but more importantly they influence heat loss to the environment and this influences feed intake. Feather growth occurs in a series of successive phases with a moult and regrowth separating each phase. Because feathers are difficult to study we have a serious lack of good quantitative data about their growth in modern poultry species. In this experiment we found a single allometry between feather weight and body protein weight. This is a useful observation for modellers because previously it had been thought that a single allometry did not exist. Interestingly similar new results have just been produced for quail (Sousa et al. 2019).
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Results: Chemical body composition In order to make nutritional calculations we need to go beyond seeing growth just in terms of bodyweight. We do this by considering the four major chemical elements in the feather-free body: moisture, protein, ash and fat. As expected, we found linear allometric relationships between body water and ash and body protein. The ratios between these components at maturity were consistent with those reported previously for turkeys (Emmans, 1989) and for broilers. Body fat, which in birds growing at their potential is also expected to be related to body protein, was more difficult to interpret. Firstly the plot of lipid content of the body plotted against age is shown in Figure 3.
lipid shown in Figure 3 represent the potential (genetically determined) fatness of these birds and no further analysis has been done. The allometric plot for BUT males is shown in Figure 4.
BUT males
InLIP 2 1
-5
-4
-3
-2
InBP
-1
0 -1
0
1
2
-2 -3 -4 -5 -6
LIP, g/100 g
25
-7
20
BUT females BUT males
15
HYB males
10
HYB females
5 0 0
50
100
Age, days
150
Figure 3 – Lipid content plotted against age, g/100g feather-free body.
As expected the females were much fatter than the males after about 35 days of age. Less expected was the decline in fat content of the body between 7 and 21 days. This pattern has been observed before by Leeson and Summers (1980) and it may reflect the potential growth for lipid in turkeys. If this is the case then turkeys differ from other species; pigs, broilers, ostrich, that have been studied. The other possibility, which we prefer but which cannot be proven from these data, is that the birds suffer an energy deficiency in the early stages due to the high protein content of the feed. This is the topic discussed in Experiment 3 of this series. Because the females were not growing at their potential after 70 days of age we cannot assume that the levels of
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Data points included in calculation of linear equation, data points excluded from calculation. The allometric equation was: Y = 1.5401x (± 0.045)- 1.4453 (± 0.057), df = 35, R2 = 0.971
Figure 4 – Allometric plot of body lipid weight (LIP, kg) against body protein weight (BP, kg) for BUT male turkeys.
Because body fat levels declined in the early stages of growth whilst body protein increased there cannot be a single allometry between these two characteristics. However, starting with the sampling at 14 days, a single straight line seems to describe the data well and these results have been used to estimate the body fat at maturity. These data lead to estimated lipid:protein ratios at maturity of 0.71 in BUT males and 0.76 in Hybrid males. These are significantly lower than the value of 1.0 estimated from earlier work – testament to the successful breeding of leaner turkeys.
Results: Predicting body parts The weights of breast, breast skin, drum, drum skin, thigh, thigh skin and wing-plus-skin as well as the head, neck, feet, blood, heart, liver and gizzard were measured at different stages of growth. Using the weights of the components and the protein content of each bird the allometric relationships between the components and body protein were determined and then compared for each strain x sex combination. In general, allometric equations were successful predictors of most body parts. In some
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cases, a single equation could be used for both breeds and sexes. Where separate equations were required these were frequently between males and females and appeared to reflect the higher levels of fat in the females. As in broilers, early breast weights are not linearly related to body protein but if the data from day-old and 7-day old birds are omitted then a close linear prediction equation is found.
Conclusions This study of growth in two strains of turkey has been very useful for model construction following the principles used by EFG Software. The wider value will only be realised if a useful model can be completed and made available to the industry. The ideas behind such work were discussed at this meeting last year (Page et al. 2019).
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References 1Gous,
R.M., Fisher, C. Tůmová, E., Machander, V., Chodová, D., Vlčková, J., Uhlířová, L. & Ketta, M. (2019a) The growth of turkeys 1. Growth of the body and feathers and the chemical composition of growth. British Poultry Science, 60:5, 539-547, DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2019.1622076. Gous, R.M., Fisher, C. Tůmová, E., Machander, V., Chodová, D., Vlčková, J., Uhlířová, L. & Ketta, M. (2019b) The growth of turkeys 2. Body components and allometric relationships. British Poultry Science, 60:5, 548-553, DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2019.1622077. Page, G., Bourgeois, M. Newcombe, M. and Speirs, T. (2019). A mechanistic model approach to turkey feed program cost optimisation. Proceeding of the 13th Turkey Science and Production Conference, pp 69-72. Accessed January 2020. http://www.turkeytimes.co.uk. Sousa, T. V. R.; Siqueira, J. C.; Nascimento, D. C. N.; Ribeiro, F. B.; Bomfim, M. A. D.; Leão, A. C. D.; Costa, J. O. M.; Filho, F. C. V., Allometric coefficients of major chemical components of meat quail raised in different thermal environments. Poultry Science 2019, 98 , 6626-6635. From the Proceedings of the 2020 Turkey Science and Production Conference
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+75771922 l mail@dacs.dk I www.dacs.dk
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Pathogenesis of egg infections by Salmonella and the implementation of preventive measures – Second Part
F. Van immerseel and R. Ducatelle Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Salisburylaan, Merelbeke
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Early protection has been demonstrated after primary live vaccine administration, early post-hatch, but this effect is serotype-specific, while cross-protection between some serotypes has been demonstrated after booster immunisations. Vaccines can only be efficient when biosecurity is optimal. A variety of nutritional strategies can be used to reduce Salmonella colonization, also for broilers. It is a utopia to eradicate Salmonella from chickens and the environment, but one should try to aim for appropriate levels of protection, and thus low flock prevalence and within-flock prevalence, and low individual colonization levels.
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Vaccination to reduce Salmonella A lot of experimental vaccines have been produced for chickens, and also a variety of commercial vaccines are available on the market. These comprise both live and inactivated vaccines. The currently available live vaccines are produced by chemical mutagenesis or are selected on culture media as slow growing natural mutants (metabolic drift mutants). In general, it is believed that live vaccines induce better protection because they stimulate both cell-mediated responses and antibody responses, while inactivated vaccines mainly induce antibody production, but both methods are in use, singly or in combination in vaccination regimens. Triple dose vaccination schemes are common for layers and breeders, and also combinations of live and inactivated vaccines are given. Live vaccines are mostly administered in the drinking water (or using a coarse spray) and inactivated vaccines need to be administered parenterally. Autologous vaccines are used in some countries, made by killing a strain isolated from the flock where the vaccine is administered. Cross-protection is shown to be occur but it is believed that intra-serotype and intra-serogroup protection is more pronounced. For example, Eeckhaut et al. (2019) showed that live Enteritidis vaccines significantly reduce Salmonella Infantis colonization in layers. Vaccines have been used extensively in laying hens and should a) reduce or prevent the intestinal colonisation resulting in reduced faecal shedding and thus egg shell contamination and b) prevent systemic infection resulting in a decreased colonisation of the reproductive tissues, in this way reducing internal egg contamination. Inactivated vaccines are often used in parent flocks. Parenteral administration of inactivated Salmonella vaccines to breeder birds will induce a strong production of antibodies. These antibodies will be transferred to the progeny. The maternally transferred antibodies persist for a few weeks but, although there seems to be some protective effect against disease in the early post-hatch period, there is little effect on intestinal colonisation by challenge strains. There is a report on the efficacy of inactivated vaccines in prevention of egg contamination in layers. Gantois et al. (2006) showed that oral vaccination with live vaccines at day 1, week 4 and week 16 decreased internal organ colonisation, including reproductive tract
colonisation, and egg contamination. Although it is very difficult to prove reduction of egg contamination following vaccination under field conditions owing to the low and variable percentage of contaminated eggs laid, a European baseline study showed that vaccinated layer flocks were less frequently contaminated by Salmonella as compared to non-vaccinated flocks (4% vs 12%). In theory, an ideal live vaccine strain should possess following characteristics: • Induce a high degree of protection against systemic and intestinal infection. • Protect against a variety of important serovars (serogroups). • Show adequate attenuation for poultry, other animal species, humans and the environment. • Be easy to administer without animal welfare issues. • The inactivated and live vaccines should not affect growth of the animal. • Vaccine strains should not be resistant to antibiotics (or contain resistance genes). • Vaccines have markers facilitating the differentiation from Salmonella wild-type strains. • Application of vaccines should not interfere with Salmonella detection methods. • Humoral antibody response after vaccination should be distinguishable from a Salmonella wild-type response to allow the use of serological detection methods. Multiple scientific groups have reported a phenomenon, in which oral administration of Salmonella wild type and attenuated strains can confer resistance to infection by a virulent Salmonella challenge strain within 24 h of administration. This ‘competitive exclusion’-like phenomenon is called colonization-inhibition. These data suggest that it might be possible to administer live Salmonella vaccine strains to newly hatched chicks such that they would colonize the gut extensively and very rapidly, inducing a profound resistance to colonization by other Salmonella strains of epidemiological significance, which may be present in the poultry house or may also have arisen from the hatchery. Colonisation of the gut by the colonisation-inhibition strains would prevent gut colonisation by virulent strains, while invasion in the gut tissue would evoke an inflammatory response that would prevent invasion to the internal organs by virulent strains. This means that live vaccines
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can thus also be used in broilers to control gut colonisation and shedding. An issue is to administer the strains as early post hatch as possible to the birds; this is not ideal using drinking water applications but can be done using coarse sprays. It is difficult to speculate about the nature of future vaccines but good methods are available to rationally design live vaccines that have defined mutations so that both detection methods and safety aspects are highly controlled. These are, however, genetically modified organisms and their use is still under debate although some are already marketed. Many research groups have designed genetically modified live vaccines with a very good safety and efficacy profile, and with markers that are differentiating the strains and the serological response from wild type strains and serum responses, respectively. In relation to emerging phenotypes and the variety of Salmonella phenotypes in broilers, developing vaccines against other serotypes can become a need, but the registration process is long, hampering development of these vaccines.
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To be complete, one needs to mention that, in addition to vaccines, other methods are available and a multiple hurdle approach is needed. Biosecurity is crucial, and it is evident that rodent and insect control and general hygienic and biosecurity measures are a prerequisite for keeping Salmonella out of the farms. In addition, many drinking water and feed additives are being used, including organic acids such as butyrate, prebiotics, probiotics and phytochemicals, amongst others. This is not within the scope of this paper but reviews can be consulted: Van Immerseel et al. (2002), Micchiche et al., (2018), Clavijo and Flores (2018) and many more. It is a utopia to eradicate Salmonella from chickens and the environment, but one should try to aim for appropriate levels of protection, and thus low flock prevalence and within-flock prevalence, and low individual colonization levels. References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 2020 Australian Poultry Science Symposium
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The forgotten continent. Patterns and dynamics of the African egg industry Part 1 – Laying hen inventory and egg production
Analyses, dealing with the development and patterns of the global egg industry, in most cases focus on Europe, North America and Eastern Asia. With the exception of a few countries, Africa and Oceania are not in the centre of scientific research. In two papers, the obvious gap will be filled. The first paper will deal with the laying hen inventories and egg production, the second will document the patterns in the five African sub regions. together with Central and South America had almost the same population as Africa, but shared 22.7% in global egg production.
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Considerable differences in the dynamics of the laying hen inventories
The imbalance between the continents
Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst The author is scientific director of the WING at the Hannover Veterinary University and Prof. emeritus of the University of Vechta, Germany
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Table 1 documents the imbalance between the share of the continents in the global population, the laying hen inventories and in egg production. Asia was the dominating continent; it shared almost 60% in the global population and contributed about 60% to the global egg production in 2018. In contrast, Africa shared 16.7% in the global population but contributed only 4.2% to the global egg production volume. Europe
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Between 2008 and 2018, the laying hen inventory in Africa increased from 455.1 mill. to 518.2 mill. heads or by 18.9%. The relative growth rate was not much lower than that at the global level with 19.4%. A closer look at the situation at country level reveals, however, considerable differences. In the ten leading countries, as documented in Table 2, the inventories grew by only 11.1% because of a considerable decline of the inventories in Nigeria and South Africa. In the other eight countries, the number of laying hens increased between 18.9% (Kenya) and 96.1% (Morocco). The highest absolute growth in the laying hen inventory in the analysed decade showed Morocco with 32.2 mill. hens, followed by Egypt with 5.7 mill. heads and Tunisia with 5.1 mill. heads. Nigeria’s layer flock decreased by 20.6 mill. heads or 16.2%, South Africa’s inventory by 7.4 mill. or 10.9%. Avian Influenza outbreaks hit both countries (OIE 2017) and caused the drastic decline of the inventories. In addition to the
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Table 1 – The share of the continents in the global population, the laying hen inventories and in egg production in 2018; data in % (Source: FAO database). Continent Africa Asia North America*
Population
Laying hens
Egg production
16.7
6.9
4.2
59.8
64.9
59.8
6.4
8.4
12.9
Table 2 – The ten African countries with the highest laying hen inventory in 2008 and 2018 (Source: FAO database). 2018
2008
Laying hens (mill.)
Share
Nigeria
106.4
20.5
Morocco
65.7
12.7
7.4
S. Africa
38.3
7.4
5.5
Egypt
30.9
6.0
Laying hens (mill.)
Share (%)
Nigeria
127.0
27.9
S. Africa
43.0
9.4
Morocco
33.5
Egypt
25.2
Country
Country
(%)
Central and South America
6.8
8.6
8.3
Tunisia
20.0
4.4
Tunisia
25.1
4.8
Europe
9.8
10.8
14.4
Algeria
19.0
4.2
Algeria
23.5
4.5
Oceania
0.5
0.3
0.4
Kenya
15.9
3.5
Kenya
18.9
3.6
Burkina Faso
15.0
3,3
Burkina Faso
17.7
3.4
Tanzania
12.8
2.8
Benin
17.2
3.3
Ghana
12.7
2.8
Tanzania
16.1
3.1
10 countries
324.0
71.2
10 countries
360.1
69.5
Africa
455.1
100.0
Africa
518.2
100.0
World
100.0
100.0
100.0
* Canada, Mexico, United States
disease problem, the shortage of one-day-old chicks, a low feed quality and the lack of a qualified veterinary system led to high mortality rates. Political and economic instability also had negative impacts on the development of the poultry industry (FAO 2018). The massive outbreaks in South Africa resulted in a loss of several million birds. One major problem in the dissemination of the virus were ostrich farms. The ostriches carried the virus but did not show clinical signs and caused the spread to almost 100 poultry farms. Several other countries were also affected by highly pathogenic AI strains, which were first detected in Africa in 2006 and then spread very fast to many countries. Table 2 shows that despite the high losses Nigeria still ranked in first position in 2018 but lost 7.4% of its share in 2008. South Africa lost 2.0% while Morocco gained 5.3%. The composition and ranking did not change very much between 2008 and 2018. Morocco replaced South
Africa in second position and Ghana was substituted by Benin. The decreasing inventories in Nigeria and South Africa resulted in a decline of the regional concentration from 71.2% in 2008 to 69.5% in 2018. The Avian Influenza virus is an ongoing threat to the African poultry industry. Initiatives to increase the biosecurity at farm level are of only limited success because of the low education of many small farmers and the lack of capital for necessary investments.
High regional concentration in egg production Egg production in Africa increased by 594,500 t between 2008 and 2018 and reached a volume of 3.2 mill. t, a share
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of 4.2% in the global production. The relative growth rate of 22.8% was about 1.6% lower than at the global level. This is an indicator for the problem of many African countries to keep up with the dynamical development in other continents. Table 3 – The ten African countries with the highest egg production in 2008 and 2018 (Source: FAO database). 2008
2018 Production (1,000 t)
Share
Production (1,000 t))
Share (%)
Nigeria
581.0
22.3
Nigeria
481.4
15.1
South Africa
426.0
16.4
Egypt
454.3
14.2
Egypt
355.5
13.7
South Africa
453.6
14.2
Morocco
192.4
7.4
Morocco
396.0
12.4
Algeria
184.4
7.1
Algeria
314.0
9.8 3.5
Country
Country
(%)
Tunisia
89.0
3.4
Tunisia
111.3
Tanzania
85.2
3.3
Tanzania
109.7
3.4
Kenya
76.6
2.9
Kenya
83.6
2.6
Libya
60.0
2.3
Libya
72.7
2.3
Burkina Faso
52.5
2.0
Sudan
65.0
2.0
10 countries
2,102.6
80.8
10 countries
2,540.6
79.5
Africa
2,603.2
100.0
Africa
3,179.7
100.0
In the ten leading countries, egg production grew by 438,000 t or 22.8%, indicating a faster growth in several countries than the continent’s average. The only country with a decline in production was Nigeria. Egg production fell by 99,600 t or 17.1%. Despite the loss of hen flocks, South Africa’s production volume increased by 27,600 t or 6.5%.
production volume, they shared only 69.5 % in the laying hen population. A comparison of the composition and ranking of the countries in 2008 and 2018 shows that Burkina Faso was replaced by Sudan and some changes in the ranking occurred. Egypt ousted South Africa from the second rank and Libya stepped from rank nine to rank eight. A comparison with the composition and ranking in Table 2 reveals some interesting differences. Egypt ranked only in fourth place regarding the hen inventory but in second regarding egg production. Burkina Faso and Benin were substituted by Libya and Sudan. The dynamical development in Egypt is worth noting as the country was severely affected by AI outbreaks from 2009 on and in particular between 2014 and 2016 (Kayali et al. 2016). The growth of the production volume since 2016 is a result of the efficient control of the dissemination of the virus and the improved biosecurity at farm level. Eggs were not only produced for the increasing domestic demand but also for exports. This was also the case in Morocco, which was able to control AI outbreaks, which hit the country from 2016 on, and increase egg production considerably.
Egg production per hen – a measure for a country’s self-sufficiency with eggs?
The highest absolute growth in the analysed decade showed Morocco with 203,600 t, followed by Algeria with 129,600 t and Egypt with 98,800 t. In Morocco and Sudan, egg production more than doubled (Table 3). It is worth noting that five of the ten leading countries were located in Northern Africa, a result which was to be expected considering the dynamics in the laying hen inventories.
Of the 53 independent African countries for which 2018 data on the laying hen inventories and on egg production were available, 31 belonged to the least developed countries according to the FAO classification. For most of the African countries, no reliable data on the laying rate of hens, the per capita egg consumption and the self-sufficiency rate with eggs were published in official statistics. Even many inventory and production data as published by the FAO were based on estimates.
The extraordinary role of the ten leading countries in the dynamics of the African egg industry becomes clear from the fact that they contributed 73.7% to the growth of the continent’s egg production but only 57.2% to the increase of the laying hen inventory. Obviously, production in these countries was more efficient than in the other 43 countries. The regional concentration in egg production was also higher than in the laying hen population. While the ten leading countries contributed 79.5% to Africa’s
One way to get a first impression of the self-sufficiency is by calculating the egg production in kg per hen and year (Table 4). It has to be considered, however, that because of the lack of data for the per capita consumption the data can only give a first idea on the availability of eggs for the population. Assuming that for example in Tanzania a laying hen in a backyard flock would produce 6.7 kg eggs per year would mean that at an average egg weight of 52 g 129 eggs would be available per person and year.
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It is obvious that in several more developed countries in Northern Africa and in the threshold country South Africa the egg production per hen was higher than in the least developed countries Tanzania and Sudan. It can be assumed that the higher production per hen is an indicator for the use of hybrid hens in contrast to local breeds in the less and least developed countries Table 4 – Egg production per laying hen in the ten leading African Countries in 2018 (Source: own calculations based on FAO data). Country
Eggs per laying hen and year (kg)
Egypt
14.6
Algeria
13.3
South Africa
11.8
Libya
7.4
Tanzania
6.7
Sudan
6.6
Morocco
6.0
Nigeria
4.5
Tunisia
4.4
Kenya
4.4
10 countries
7.1
Africa
6.1
World
10.3
Data source and additional literature Fasanmi, O. G. et al.: Public health concerns of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 endemicity in Africa. In: Veterinary World 10 (2017), October, p. 1194-2004 (retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC5682264, May 15th, 2020). FAO (ed.): Livestock and Poultry Spotlight Nigeria. Rome 2018. (retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/CA2149EN/ ca2149en.pdf, May 18th, 2020). Kayali, G. et al.: Avian Influenza A (H5N1) virus in Egypt. In: Emerging Infectious Diseases 22 (2016), no. 3, p. 379388. (retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC4766899, May 19th, 2020). OIE, World Organisation for Animal Health. Update on Avian Influenza in Animals (Types H5 and H7) 2017 (retrieved from http:// www.oie.int/en/animal-health-in-theworld/update-on-avian-influenza/2017, May 19th, 2020). Windhorst, H.-W.: The contrasting world of global egg production. In: Zootecnica international 42 (2020) (in preparation for printing).
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Summary The preceding paper presented a first picture of the dynamics and patterns of Africa’s egg industry. The wide gap between the continent’s share in the global population and in egg production could be documented impressively. It was also possible to show that the regional concentration in egg production was considerably higher than in the laying hen inventories, an indicator for the large differences in the efficiency of egg production. The Avian Influenza virus was and is a constant threat to the African egg industry and has severely affected several countries over the past decade. In addition, the political and economic instability in many countries, a fast growing population, low educational standards, the lack of qualified poultry veterinarians, low quality feed and the use of local breeds are factors that can explain the imbalance between Africa’s share in the world population and its contribution to global egg production. Great efforts will be necessary to improve the supply of eggs as a high value protein for the population.
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Different incubation profiles for different breeds? Breeding has powerful effects. Although all chicken breeds originate from the same wild ancestor, they differ dramatically in appearance, physiology, type and metabolic rate. Surprisingly though, one detail remains fairly constant: the incubation time. Whether for a lightweight laying hen or a solid yield broiler, it is very close to 21 days. on the environmental temperature. Later on, after day 10, the embryo begins to produce heat and then the EST depends on the balance between heat production and the opportunities to get rid of the surplus. This is where breeds can differ widely. Chicken breeds are highly specialised. Layers and broilers have very different body constitutions, like sprinters and heavyweight boxers. A layer – also as the parent stock – is a champion egg layer. It must be light and cheap to maintain and produce eggs with very strong shells for protection. Broiler breeds are just the opposite: they need to have a healthy appetite and be able to convert big quantities of feed efficiently into body mass. Quality of eggshell is much less important for them. These rough characteristics determine the differences in appropriate incubation programs.
Comparing incubation requirements, we see similarities and differences. The most impressive similarity is the optimal temperature for embryo development: close to 100 °F. And that is not only for chickens but also for other types of poultry. Maciej Kolanczyk, Senior Hatchery Specialist, Pas Reform Academy
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Embryo temperature – usually checked by measuring the temperature of the eggshell and called EST – initially depends entirely
- technical column -
Some differences apply to the entire incubation period, others do not. Eggshell quality is an example of a durable difference. Due to long-term intentional genetic selection, layer embryos are “better packed” in a strong, thick shell, which can have an impact on egg weight loss during incubation and creates a bigger mechanical problem at hatch. A broiler eggshell is weaker from the beginning. The French research institute INRA announced recently that they will further test the hypothesis that the thick-boned
TECHNICAL COLUMN
broiler embryo probably absorbs more minerals from the shell, making the latter even thinner before hatch. Chicken types’ metabolic rates vary, resulting in different embryonal heat production. This must be compensated for by applying different temperature set points during incubation. Incubation is to a large extent (although not exclusively) a problem of controlling two main factors: temperature and egg weight loss, and these are issues for both types of breeds. Deviation from an optimum affects results in both types, although high heat production makes broilers particularly vulnerable to the problems related to overheating. The incubation programs for these two types of poultry will be identical for the first 10 days of the program. The embryos still don’t know their “profession”. After day 9-10, broiler eggs require lower temperatures, not only in the setter but also in the hatcher. Of course, there are many different varieties of both broil-
ers and layers. In addition, some of the contemporary breeds are known for their specific preferences; for example, some layer strains prefer low, broiler-like temperature profiles.
Advice • Base the set points of the incubation program on the actual response of the eggs: measured EST and egg weight loss. • Closely monitor the EST after day 10. Try to keep the values within a range of 100-101.5 °F. • Keep in mind that eggshell quality is a breed-related trait. Allow sufficient time and maintain correct RH settings to reach a final weight loss of 11-13%. • Analyse your patterns of embryo mortality and chicken quality to fine-tune the program. • Don’t stick to standards. Adjust your profiles to the specific requirements of the local breed.
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LED: time to see the light Many poultry producers appreciate the importance of lighting in maximising performance. Whether chickens or turkeys, laying hens, commercial growers or parent stock, all poultry will perform better when the lighting is right. The time is fast approaching when LED becomes the only lighting option available. With many producers installing LED schemes already, now is an excellent time to understand the benefits and embrace what this technology has to offer.
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LED lighting is known to reduce energy costs compared to conventional technology, be that incandescent, fluorescent CFL or halogen. Indeed, LEDs are so efficient that the EU estimates that switching Europe over to LED will save the equivalent of Portugal’s
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electricity consumption and cut annual carbon emissions by 15.2m tonnes! So what other benefits does LED bring? The most significant of these is to welfare. A well-designed lighting scheme has been proven to enhance performance simply by minimising stress, and LED offers tremendous flexibility, in terms of both colour spectrum and dimmability, to achieve the optimum result.
LED Lighting offers the closest match to the Daylight profile, delivering across the colour spectrum (see Diagram 2).
To understand how lighting can impact on the performance of poultry, it helps to go back to biological ‘first principles’. Poultry have large, highly sensitive eyes and perceive light differently to humans. For example, unlike humans, birds are sensitive to ultra-violet light. Lighting developed for humans can therefore have drawbacks when used for poultry. Light is perceived by poultry not only through the eye, via the retina, but also through the skull. Light entering the brain through the skull directly stimulates the pineal gland, which regulates daily behaviour cycles; and also the hypothalamus, which regulates metabolism and reproduction. Light perceived through the eye also impacts the hypothalamus and pineal gland, but indirectly. At low levels of light intensity, light does not penetrate the skull and it is the light perceived via the retina which drives the bird’s circadian rhythm (see Diagram 1).
Hypothalamus/ pituitary gland (growth, metabolism, gonadal development) Pineal gland (Circadian rhythm, metabolism, stress)
Retina, Optical nerve
Diagram 1 – Light stimulation in poultry.
So how does this impact on the design of a poultry lighting scheme? Firstly, due to the sensitivity of the eye, it is important to choose a light source which is as close to the natural daylight spectrum as possible. Incandescent performs fairly well in this respect, matching daylight well at the warm end of the colour spectrum. Fluorescent lighting, on the other hand, performs badly across the whole spectrum.
Diagram 2 – Spectrums of different light sources.
The ability to dim lighting is also very important. As noted above, poultry have a circadian rhythm, which responds to changes in the intensity of light, and they thrive better in more natural lighting environments. Using dimmable lighting to mimic sunrise and sunset provides a more comfortable environment for birds, allowing a better transition from sleeping to waking and vice versa. Modern LED products are able to offer smooth dimming from 0-100% of the maximum light output, and by using LED lights coupled with a programmable dimmer the sunrise/ sunset effect can easily be achieved. It has also been shown that switching lights on and off startles birds, causing stress, which naturally affects performance. Again a dimmable LED lighting system avoids this. In addition to light intensity (dim/non-dim), the colour temperature of lighting has been found to have a significant impact on different stages of poultry production. Research has shown that a colour temperature of 5000K (a cool white light) encourages poultry to be more active, helping to promote feeding, and is therefore ideal when looking to maximise growth rates. On the other hand, a colour temperature of 2700K (warm white, similar to a traditional 60W incandescent bulb) has been proven to maximise egg production. LED Lighting can meet both of these needs. Another issue which can impact poultry welfare is flicker. In the wild, poultry are constantly on the lookout for birds of prey. They are programmed to notice changes in the
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MANAGEMENT
suited to the developmental stage of the birds; and avoid flicker. But what about cost? Price is all too often the primary consideration when purchasing a new lighting system, but this approach can lead to false economies. With electricity representing a significant proportion of the cost of raising poultry, the energy savings offered by LED Lighting rapidly compensate for installation costs. Payback periods of 6-18 months are readily achievable. The longer lifespan of LED products tips the balance further in its favour. Better quality LED products can last at least 5 years, thus saving energy and maintenance costs. But it is the evidence for improved welfare and performance which has made the case for LED lighting even more compelling and is persuading more and more breeders to make the switch.
light above, which might indicate the presence of such predators. Flicker in lighting systems, which may be imperceptible to human eyes, is perceived by poultry as a predator threat. Minimising or indeed eliminating flicker helps provide a safe, comfortable home for poultry and can significantly reduce stress.
The somewhat complex relationship between lighting and poultry welfare outlined above means that it is critical to choose a lighting supplier with experience in the poultry industry who can offer high quality, flexible LED products and a lighting design tailored to each individual unit. Time spent upfront in planning will ensure that any investment in new lighting has a positive impact both on the poultry and on the bottom line.
Fluorescent lighting in particular has a very poor flicker profile, while high quality LEDs are flicker-free. Moving from fluorescent to flicker-free LED should provide a noticeable reduction in stress in the poultry population, thereby increasing performance, reducing undesirable behaviour such as pecking, and increasing resistance to disease, all of which can significantly reduce mortality rates. So the perfect lighting system would mimic the colour spectrum of daylight; offer smooth dimming control to mimic sunrise & sunset; provide a colour temperature
Potential benefits of LED lighting The following benefits have been achieved in trials using LED Lighting: • Reduction in electricity consumption by up to 90% (vs incandescent) and 50% (vs fluorescent). • Increase in musculoskeletal development and weight gain (5%). • Improvement in feed conversion rate (3%). • Reduction in mortality (2%). • Increase in egg output and quality. • Improvement in the persistence of lay.
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NUTRITION
H.T. Nguyen1, M.R. Bedford2, S-B. Wu And N.K. Morgan1 1University
of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia 2 AB
Vista, Marlborough, Wiltshire SN8 4AN, UK
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Impact of dietary soluble non-starch polysaccharide levels on the gastrointestinal environment of young broilers The dietary fibre content of broilers diets is frequently neglected during feed formulation, despite the prevalence of fibrous material in feed ingredients and notable impacts of fibre on the gastrointestinal tract environment.
- nutrition -
NUTRITION
The extent of the influence of dietary fibre is dictated by the specific fibre fraction, i.e. primarily its solubility in gastrointestinal environmental conditions, as well as by the age and health status of broilers. Measuring soluble and insoluble non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) enables for more accurate predictions about the response of broilers to fibre content compared to conventional crude fibre values. However, there is currently a lack of understanding about NSP values for formulation because inaccurate crude fibre values are still referred to in the formulation of broilers diets. Of particular interest is the impact of soluble NSP (sNSP) due to its impact on digesta viscosity and the microbiota. In this study, broilers were fed either wheat or corn-based diets formulated to contain the same crude fibre and protein content but differing sNSP levels. Four hundred and eighty day-old Ross 308 broilers were randomly allocated into 48 pens in a 2 Ă— 3 factorial arrangement of treatments, each with eight replicates of ten broilers. The factors were grain type (corn or wheat) and dietary sNSP level; the sNSP levels for the corn and wheat diets respectively were classified as high (8.5 or 11.5 g/kg), low (5.8 or 9.0 g/kg) or medium (6.3 or 9.7 g/kg) according to the estimated values for corn or wheatbased diet, respectively. Formulated diets contained approximately 2.4 g/kg and 2.5 g/kg crude fibre for corn or wheat-based diets, respectively. On day 14, four broilers per pen were randomly selected for measuring the impact of sNSP and cereal grain type on the gizzard, ileum and caeca pH, ileal digesta viscosity and short chain fatty acid (SCFA) concentration in the caeca.
um and low, respectively, P=0.101). In addition, broilers fed the wheat-based diets presented lower ileal pH and 130% increase in ileal viscosity compared to those fed corn-based diets (P<0.05). Furthermore, increasing dietary sNSP level led to the significant reduction in caecal pH (6.04 vs 6.51, P<0.05), suggesting alterations to intestinal microbial fermentation activities. This was evident in groups fed the wheat-based diets, where total SCFA and acetic acid concentration in the caeca were higher in broilers fed the diets with low sNSP compared to those fed high sNSP (P<0.05). Interestingly, the concentrations of caecal propionic, isobutyric and valeric acid were consistently greater in the broilers fed diets with low sNSP compared to those fed high sNSP (P values <0.05), with levels in birds fed the medium sNSP diets being not different compared from either group.
There was a numerical increase in ileal viscosity as sNSP level increased (4.46, 4.04 and 3.95 cP for high, medi-
From the Proceedings of the 2020 Australian Poultry Science Symposium
Additionally, broilers fed the corn-based diets exhibited higher valeric and lower succinic caecal concentrations compared to those fed the wheat-based diets (P values <0.05). This could indicate a significant cereal grain typeand sNSP level-dependent substrate availability for specific microbial fermentation. In conclusion, the findings from this study reiterate that measurements of crude fibre cannot be used to accurately predict utilization of dietary fibre by the birds. It also proves that the sNSP fraction directly impacts the gut environment in young broilers, in terms of intestinal pH, ileal viscosity and fermentation activities of commensal bacteria.
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NUTRITION
Best practice in feed management
How innovative thinking and a proactive approach can ensure best practice with feed on broiler farms In partnership with Cobb, this article examines best practice in broiler production, focusing specifically on feed management. How can better nutrition be promoted and fostered, without compromising profitability and adhering to best practice?
“Developing a best practice feed programme should prioritise the development of broilers in each stage of production,” says Edward Diehl, Nutritionist at Cobb Europe. “This can be achieved with the right combination of ingredients and nutrients. The next step is to ensure that this feed programme is cost-effective.” The poultry industry’s gradual reduction in antibiotic usage has signalled a huge change in the way things are done. As businesses continue to innovate and adjust, one thing is clear: there is no singular catch-all solution that will replace antibiotics. Indeed, to look for one is actually the wrong approach. Instead, argues Chloe Paine, Technical Manager at Trouw Nutrition, we must manage and handle multiple solutions simultaneously. At the heart of this is the issue of feed: “To ensure healthy support and growth for the bird, we can make use of numerous options,” says
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- nutrition -
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Chloe. “Developments in feed composition combined with other measures can support the bird’s biochemical processes, allowing them to grow – and grow well – without antibiotics.”
Good nutrition vs bad nutrition How would we classify “good nutrition” in feed? At its heart, good nutrition should optimise production costs. Poor nutrition will ultimately undercut growth rates in cases of undersupply, which is well understood.
tios – all the way down to minerals and vitamins – needs to work together in order for the feed to do its job properly. Any imbalance can ultimately have a major impact on bird health or performance.” “In an ideal world, we would be able to use technology to generate a bespoke diet for each bird each day according to its needs,” says Chloe. ”Practically, that is impossible. So, what can you do? Good nutrition is about looking at your processors requirement and setting your feeding programme accordingly. This can take in breed specifications, targets, etc. Each farm should be treated
“Good nutrition is about looking at your processors requirement and setting your feeding programme accordingly. This can take in breed specifications, targets, etc. Each farm should be treated as individual, with a feed programme that maximises efficiency, taking into account the farm benchmark versus the overall goal”
Less widely known are the hidden costs of oversupply. Oversupplying nutrients risks requiring extra energy from the broiler and reducing efficiency – not to mention the extra expenditure from wasted feed. This also fosters problems in the long-term; surplus feed can promote bacteria growth and disease, affecting the bird’s health and growth rate. “Ensuring a well-balanced diet is vital for good nutrition,” says Edward. “Everything from energy to amino acid ra-
as individual, with a feed programme that maximises efficiency, taking into account the farm benchmark versus the overall goal.” Chloe is also quick to highlight environmental stressors, from incubation to hatching and onwards, as key factors in the animal’s development. Indeed, science of the microbiome – particularly gut microbiota – is garnering more and more attention, even in its infancy. When measured, promoting healthy bacteria in the early stages of a bird’s life has significant beneficial results.
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NUTRITION
“In terms of feed conversion rates, we see a real difference,” says Chloe. “If you have better gut health, absorption of nutrients will be higher. It’s more efficient and efficiency should always be the priority for poultry producers.” “Good nutrition is about knowing the bird, knowing what’s required for robust production, and then supplying it. The step before that is knowing your raw materials and measuring them. Feed is comprised of various materials from protein and cereal sources. We should understand and measure those sources properly in order to produce the right feed for the bird’s requirements.”
Precision nutrition A quote that Chloe often cites comes from Lord Kelvin, perhaps the most important physicist of the 19th Century: “to measure is to know.” Precision nutrition is a different approach from formulating a feed based on the raw materials at hand, but instead measuring and analysing data regarding what’s happening on farm and using that information to create feed that will drive the required results. This will ultimately improve profitability in a way that simply targeting the best possible FCR will not. “We should take an economic perspective,” says Chloe. “What is the farmer earning per kilo for his liveweight? What is the cost of wheat and barley? I don’t think you can formulate a feed programme in such basic terms anymore. We need to be more dynamic.” A commercial nutritionist must account for breed specification, raw material availability, raw material cost, feed additive inclusion, physical properties, all balancing the physiological requirement of the bird. This means we don’t have a 'least-cost' formulation approach but an 'optimum-cost' approach. A way to manage this is to regularly simulate scenarios through a response model programme. This model would be more reactive and able to implement the different circumstances of an individual farm/ company. Factors can include breed differences right through to housing and what a farm is seeking to achieve. For example, are they paid by breast meat yield or whole carcass weight? A dynamic model takes this and more into account. It processes income against cost and uses that to produce a programme of nutrition and phase feeding that best fits a farm’s unique requirements.
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the farm level, while raising the bar for best practice, is a key concern when thinking about approaches to feed. In the future, we’ll likely see more and more businesses deriving greater efficiency from their birds via a more precise approach to feed and nutrition. Businesses with their eye on the horizon, who are willing to innovate, are set to gain the most.”
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“Opportunities exist for a more dynamic approach to feed,” says Chloe. Markets are volatile and what we define as the most profitable specification today can be different tomorrow. “Through innovation we can use modern technology to create a complex computer modelling programme. This can incorporate these variables and the reactions to any adjustment. For example, we might increase or reduce amino acid levels, and see how the bird’s growth rate responds to that. When trying to determine the most efficient trajectory between the cost of raw materials and the farmer actually receiving payment, precision nutrition is the answer. Simply adopting a diet with the highest possible density will not produce results that match a more sophisticated and targeted approach.”
Committed and connected to your business
The next step The poultry industry has made great advances in recent years. “Nutrition is a dynamic field with constant developments and innovations,” adds Edward. “However, the next step might be to look back at the basics. We should not assume that the foundations we operate from are unchangeable or perfect.” Innovation and optimisation of current practises is the most practical way to effect positive change; with more and more data being collected in agriculture, poultry businesses are faced with an opportunity to improve decision-making and drive greater profitability. “Innovation and implementing these strategies will play more of a role in the near future,” adds Chloe. “Optimising performance and results at
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ŠAgro-Plus
VETERINARY SCIENCE
Turkey arthritis reovirus. Diagnostic strategies Rahul Kumar,a,b Devi Patnayak,a Wendy Wiese,a Sunil K. Mor,a Robert E. Porter,a Sagar M. Goyala a
Veterinary Population Medicine Department and Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, USA b Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Veterinary Science University and Cattle Research Institute, Mathura, India
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Avian reoviruses (ARVs) belong to genus Orthoreovirus in the family Reoviridae. They are non-enveloped viruses of 70-80 nm size having an icosahedral symmetry. The viral genome has 10 segments of double stranded RNA contained inside a double-shelled arrangement of capsid proteins. The ARVs infect several different avian species and are named accordingly viz. chicken reovirus (CRV), duck reovirus (DRV), goose reovirus (GRV), and turkey reovirus (TRV). These viruses are responsible for inapparent infections as well as frank disease in birds including enteritis, hepatitis, neurological disease, myocarditis, respiratory distress and viral arthritis/tenosynovitis. Severity and
- veterinary science -
clinical manifestation of the disease often depend on age and immune status of the host, virus pathotype, and route of exposure (oral, intratracheal, footpad, or subcutaneous). Turkey arthritis reovirus (TARV) was isolated in 1980s from joints and tendons of turkeys showing lesions of arthritis and tenosynovitis but the disease could not be reproduced experimentally. Since then, there were no reports of viral arthritis in turkeys until 2011, when the condition re-emerged in midwestern and eastern states of the US.
VETERINARY SCIENCE
Diagnostic case definition of turkey reoviral arthritis Porter (2017) defines turkey reoviral arthritis as a progressive condition that appears as early as 10-12 weeks of age in male, and sometimes female, commercial turkeys. Signs are most severe when the birds reach 15-16 weeks of age. Clinical signs include reluctance to move, recumbency, and limping of one or both legs. There is often uni- or bilateral swelling of the hock (intertarsal) joint. Lesions in acutely affected birds at necropsy are uni- or bilateral enlargement (subcutaneous edema) of the hock joints, which contain increased volume of clear yellow to serosanguinous synovial fluid. Such fluid can expand the sheath of the gastrocnemius and digital flexor tendons. In chronic cases, there is bruising of the skin of the hock with prominent periarticular fibrosis, edema and occasional large flecks of fibrin within the subcutis and tendon sheaths. In severe cases, rupture of gastrocnemius and/ or digital flexor tendon is observed along with hemorrhage at the level of the rupture. The virus can affect 35-70% in a flock, leading to huge economic losses due to poor weight gain, uneven growth, poor feed conversion, increased mortality, and reduced market weight of commercial turkeys. The affected birds cannot walk to the waterers and feeders and hence the disease has animal welfare concerns. Histological sections of gastrocnemius tendon and sheath reveal lymphocytic infiltrates in the sub-synovium in acute cases, progressing to prominent sub-synovial and peritendon fibrosis in chronic cases. Secondary bacterial infections (e.g., Staphylococcus) occasionally occur and are accompanied by heterophilic inflammation.
Sample collection and processing
The affected leg is sectioned longitudinally, and a 0.5 cm cross section of gastrocnemius tendon (GT) and 3 cm long piece of digital flexor tendon (DFT) is cut and sampled (Figure 1).
Figure 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201D; (A) Longitudinal section of hock (intertarsal) joint showing the location of gastrocnemius and digital flexor tendons. (B) Cross sections of gastrocnemius tendon and sheath (0.5 cm) and (C) digital flexor tendon (3 cm) is collected from each bird.
Tendon samples from 3-6 affected legs are collected and pooled followed by homogenization in Genogrinder tubes containing phosphate buffered saline (PBS). The Genogrinder tubes are subjected to three cycles of vigorous shaking at 1200 strokes/min for 4 min each to homogenize the tendon samples (Figure 2). The homogenate is centrifuged at 6000 xg for 10 min followed by the collection of the supernatant, which is then used for virus isolation and/or rRT-PCR. Virus isolation can be done either in embryonated chicken eggs or cell cultures.
Diagnosis Arthritis/tenosynovitis caused by TARV is diagnosed on the basis of history, typical clinical signs, gross and microscopic lesions, virus isolation, and RT-PCR. Definitive diagnosis requires ruling out other causes of lameness in turkeys, e.g., osteomyelitis, primary bacterial arthritis, muscle rupture, footpad dermatitis, and synovitis due to Mycoplasma. Isolation of TARV from gastrocnemius and/ or digital flexor tendon in embryonated eggs or cell culture confirms the etiology of the disease. Additionally, serology, electron microscopy and molecular assays are available for detection of TARV infection.
Figure 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201D; (A) Genogrinder tube containing a pool of GT and DFT in PBS. (B) These genogrinder tubes are placed in genogrinder for tissue grinding and subjected to 3 cycles of 1200 strokes/min for 4 min each to homogenize the tendon samples (C).
Virus isolation in embryonated eggs
Isolation of TARV is best achieved by inoculation of the supernatant from tendon homogenate in 6-day-old, Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) embryonated chicken eggs via
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VETERINARY SCIENCE
the yolk sac route. Virulent virus generally causes embryo mortality within 5-6 days of inoculation. The eggs are incubated for 5-6 days and then chilled in the refrigerator for at least 4 hours. The yolk sac and embryos with lesions are harvested, subjected to 3 freeze thaw cycles, and then homogenized in a Stomacher. Following centrifugation at 6000 xg for 30 min, the supernatant is collected and inoculated in Japanese quail fibrosarcoma cell line (QT-35) cells.
techniques was used as a research tool but is now being used relatively routinely in the diagnostic labs. Serological assays
Serological methods such as enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and serum neutralisation (SN) are available to detect antibodies to avian reoviruses. ELISA
Virus isolation in cell cultures
Supernatant collected from embryonated eggs or supernatant from homogenized tendons is inoculated in monolayers of QT-35 cells at 80-90% confluency followed by incubation in a 5% CO2 incubator at 37 °C. The cells are observed daily for the appearance of virus-induced cytopathic effects (CPE), which include syncytium formation and detachment of cells within 48-72 hours of incubation. Once CPE is observed, the infected cells are subjected to three freeze thaw cycles followed by centrifugation at 6000 xg for 10 min. The supernatant is collected for further processing. The identity of the virus can be confirmed by immunofluorescence or rRT-PCR. Fluorescent antibody test (FAT)
Serum Neutralization test
The cells showing CPE are scraped, placed on a glass slide, and fixed in acetone. A drop of antireoviral polyclonal antiserum conjugated with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) is added to the fixed cells and incubated for 2 hours in a 5% CO2 incubator at 37 °C. The cells are counter stained in Evans Blue and then examined under a fluorescent microscope. Samples showing fluorescence are considered positive for reovirus. Molecular assays
We have developed a one-step real time RT-PCR (qPCR) for the detection of TARV using TARV-specific S1 and/or S3 primers (manuscript in preparation). A universal avian reovirus qPCR for the detection of all avian reoviruses has also been developed. Viral harvest from infected cell cultures and embryonated chicken eggs can be confirmed by rRT-PCR and/or RT-PCR. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) by Next generation sequencing (NGS)
Whole genome sequencing is a newer technique that can detect the whole genome of a given virus. Initially, this
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Currently, commercial ELISAs are available for the detection of antibodies against chicken reoviruses but no turkey-specific ELISA exists at this time. Chicken-specific ELISA is sometimes used in the field to monitor antibody titers in breeder turkeys that are vaccinated with autogenous TARV vaccines and the offspring from those breeders. The presence of high antibody titers in birds is used as an indication of field challenge by turkey producers. This gives the turkey producers time to alter their processing schedule and salvage some birds. We have developed an ELISA for the detection of TARV antibodies. Preliminary results indicate that this ELISA is as sensitive as the commercially available chicken-specific ELISA.
In addition to ELISA, serum neutralization (SN) can also be used for detecting seroprevalence of TARVs. In addition, cross neutralization assays can be used to characterize newly isolated TARVs and determine their antigenic relationships.
Conclusions Viral arthritis/tenosynovitis caused by TARV is diagnosed on the basis of history, typical clinical signs, gross and microscopic lesions supported by laboratory techniques like virus isolation, and RT-PCR where virus isolation (VI) is considered as a gold standard test for the diagnosis of avian reovirus. Additionally, serology, electron microscopy and molecular assays are available for detection of TARV infection. With the advent and advancement of sequencing technologies, rapid diagnosis and molecular characterization of TARVs is possible with more precision. References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 68th Western Poultry Disease Conference (2019)
- veterinary science -
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VETERINARY SCIENCE
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VETERINARY SCIENCE
Chelated copper compared to antibiotics effect on gut health in broilers In this study the specific interventions of chelated copper methionine hydroxy analogue (cuMHAC) and a combination of cuMHAC and an effective foregut acidifier were tested on broiler chickens. M.S. Bekker - Technical manager, Novus, Oceania S. Asad - Technical manager, Novus, Pakistan E. Magtagnob - Technical manager, Novus, Philippines
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Summary The treatment effects were studied against birds fed diets containing antibiotics or no treatment. The negative control containing no antibiotics performed as well as the antibiotic and cuMHAC, with no significant treatment effect found in any performance indicators including
- veterinary science -
VETERINARY SCIENCE
growth, feed intake, carcase weight or feed conversion efficiency. The treatments including cuMHAC alone and cuMHAC with acid water resulted in less feed required to reach equivalent bodyweight to other treatments in the first 10 days of growth. Performance by day 35 was equal across all treatments. Significant differences in intestinal architecture were found between negative control which had least villus to crypt ratio P<0.01 compared to all other treatments. Foot pad lesions were least evident in the antibiotic treatment and in both cuMHAC treatments. No treatments had significant deviation from antibiotic control in flock uniformity, antibody titer response, intestinal bacterial enteritis score, carcase weight and dressing percentage, salmonella counts in litter or litter score in this study.
bacteriocins, bacteriophages, phytogenic feed additives, phytoncides, nanoparticles and essential oils”. Second only to the trace mineral zinc in enzyme regulation, copper has been shown to have a positive effect on broiler health. Yazdankah et al. (2014), in a paper concerned with microbial co-resistance, noted super-dosing of copper in inorganic forms such as copper sulphate is used routinely in both swine and broiler operations. In addition to the importance in cellular respiration, antioxidant function and iron transport, copper supports the immune system where neutrophils rely upon the ‘respiratory burst’ to generate free radicals such as superoxide (O2 −), which kill engulfed pathogens (Suttle, 2010).
Introduction
A total of 672 male Arbor Acres Plus broilers were randomly assigned to one of 4 treatments (Table 1). This consisted of 168 birds in each treatment in 8 pens containing 21 birds each. These birds were fed for 35 days and then processed. Birds were housed on re-used litter. Diets were based on corn and soy bean meal containing maximum 7% corn DDGS with 3.4% meat and bone meal. All diets were identical in makeup except the cuMHAC treatments which were balanced for methionine content and contained no supplemental inorganic copper.
The following statement was made by Landers et al. (2012) in a public health report. “Although the majority of antibiotic use occurs in agricultural settings, relatively little attention has been paid to how antibiotic use in farm animals contributes to the overall problem of antibiotic resistance”. Some classes of antibiotics are becoming less effective due to overuse and microbial adaptation leading to resistance to treatment. The pool of available, effective antibiotics is shrinking as this resistance increases. The European Union, Thailand and Indonesia are some of the largest food producing jurisdictions that have banned or restricted the prophylactic use of antibiotics as a growth promoter in all animal production. There is already restricted use in Mexico, Japan, South Korea and Vietnam with more countries planning phase out of antibiotics with China pledging to ban AGPs in the next 5 years. Routine addition of antibiotics in broiler feed to reduce disease incidence and improve efficient growth is now banned in many jurisdictions globally. As producers look to a reliable antibiotic alternative, it is clear, as shown by Dibner and Richards (2005), that no single intervention will support the immune system and growth of broilers independently. Alternatives to antibiotics are being used and sought to ensure the health and performance of broilers, layers and other farmed species across the world. There are many feed ingredient alternatives that have been tested and shown variable responses. Mehdi et al. (2018) cited the following “among these, the most popular are probiotics, prebiotics, enzymes, organic acids, immunostimulants,
Methods
Table 1 — Treatments. Treatment
Dietary inclusion
1
Antibiotic control, contains zinc bacitracin positive control
2
Negative control contains no antibiotics or additive treatment negative control
3
Contains 30ppm copper as methionine hydroxy analogue chelate
4
Contains 30ppm copper as methionine hydroxy analogue chelate, birds received water acidifier target pH of 4
Treatment one contained the antibiotic zinc bacitracin as positive control. Treatment two contained no antibiotic or other additive. Treatments three and four included copper in the form of cuMHAC at 30ppm. In treatment four, water acidification was achieved using a blend of liquid methionine hydroxy analogue, formic and propionic acid at 0.2 ml per litre to achieve a drinking water pH of four. Measurements taken at the beginning of the study
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©Inside the Breath
VETERINARY SCIENCE
“The European Union, Thailand and Indonesia are some of the largest food producing jurisdictions that have banned or restricted the prophylactic use of antibiotics as a growth promoter in all animal production” were litter score, flock uniformity, diet proximate analysis and litter score for Salmonella levels. Microbiota analysis was done by sacrificing 1 bird per pen at 21 days and collecting ileum contents. These samples were tested for Lactobacillus and Clostridium content. Histology samples were also fixed at this time. Antibody titration against Newcastle disease (ND) using hemagglutination inhibition (HI test), infectious bronchitis (IB) (HI test) and infectious bursal disease (IDB) (ELISA) was measured in 2 birds per pen at 28 days. Intestinal health was scored by an independent veterinarian at 35 days on 2 birds per pen at processing. Carcase measurements at processing included carcase yield, foot pad lesions, tibial head lesions and liver weight. Statistical analysis was conducted using Duncan’s multiple range test where P<0.05 was considered to be significant.
Results As seen in Table 2, although there was a numerical advantage for the cuMHAC treated groups in FCR at 10
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days, no treatment resulted in significant improvement to bodyweight, feed conversion or uniformity by day 35 of the study. Table 2 — Feed conversion efficiency. FCR 0-10 d
FCR 0-35 d
T1
1.016
1.348
T2
1.017
1.354
T3
1.007*
1.342
T4
1.007*
1.347
* numerically different not significantly different (P=0.14) from other treatments.
Results at 21 days when small intestine contents were analysed for Lactobacillus spp and Clostridium perfringens content showed numerical differences across treatments with cuMHAC treatments trending higher for both colonies but no statistically significant differences and with no differences seen between antibiotic and negative control groups. This suggested little to no challenge to
- veterinary science -
VETERINARY SCIENCE
Proven Product Performance
Hendrix Genetics is the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s leading breeder and distributor of white and brown laying hens. Via our balanced breeding program we breed 1st Quality Hens that produce 1st Quality Eggs. Our laying hens have proven themselves to perform in traditional and alternative production systems under different climatic conditions. Different global regions have unique conditions and require a tailored solution. We offer a regional approach for each market by providing six different layer brands: ISA, Bovans, Dekalb, Hisex, Shaver and Babcock.
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47
VETERINARY SCIENCE
intestinal health; this was reinforced with no difference seen in bacterial enteritis score, antibody titre response or litter Salmonella count between treatments. Thofner et al. (2019) discuss the use of foot pad lesions as a measure of welfare. Both foot-pad lesions and tibial head lesions are typical health concerns in modern broiler production leading to lameness, ethical destruction or a reduction in healthy pieces including saleable paws (feet) at processing. Interesting trends emerged in this study among the treatment groups with foot pad lesions least evident in antibiotic treatment and in both cuMHAC treatments while negative control had numerically (P<0.1) fewer healthy (score zero) lesions. This trend continued for tibial head lesions where incidence tended to be greater in the negative control group (39% higher incidence P<0.8) than in the antibiotic control. All carcase pieces and organ weights were similar. Table 3 — Results at harvest. Dressing %
Liver weight
Footpad clean, % score 0
Tibia head, % affected
T1
76.27
2.87
58.3
39.6
T2
76.15
2.85
50.0*
64.6**
T3
76.20
2.78
60.4
39.6
T4
75.61
2.91
56.3
31.3
Footpad clean, score 0 - shows no sign of injury or dermatological damage; * P<0.1; ** P<0.08.
Significant differences in intestinal architecture were found between negative control which had least villus to crypt ratio (P<0.01) compared to all other treatments as seen in Table 4.
Villus height
Villus height to crypt depht ratio
T1
566
4.54
T2
515
4.03*
T3
561
4.59
T4
562
4.63
* significantly different from other treatments P<0.01.
Discussion Although the study was conducted in an environment which had been designed to allow potential for antimicrobial activity due to a moderate degree of performance pressure, the birds remained healthy. The birds were housed on re-used litter, offered feed with maximum levels of DDGS and MBM and were held at maximum pen density. This study did give an excellent indication of how the cuMHAC fed birds responded when very little performance pressure was applied. The key indicator of the healthy flock was the equivalent performance of the negative control treatment T2 to the zinc bacitracin fed group T1. The only area of difference between the antibiotic treatment and control was in the tibial head lesion score (P<0.08) which might suggest some level of gut barrier failure. Results from this study suggest that the most consistent performance improvement can be gained by including copper hydroxy analogue or copper hydroxy analogue with an effective foregut acidifier. Arbe and Bekker (2017) showed how inclusion of copper methionine hydroxy analogue could increase the performance of broiler birds at lower inclusion levels than inorganic salts and Hassan et al. (2010) showed the benefit of organic acid inclusion without an antibiotic growth promoter which supports the trends seen in this study. The other notable trend was for birds that grew more efficiently during the critical first 10 days to have greater carcase integrity at 35 days, resulting in healthier foot pads and tibia joints with fewer lesions.
Figure 1 — Negative control.
Figure 2 — Histology showing greater development of villus and greater villus height to crypt depth ratio.
48
Table 4 — Intestinal architecture.
References are available on request From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2020
- veterinary science -
VETERINARY SCIENCE
www.cobb-vantress.com/broilerZP8 - september 2020 -
49
PROCESSING
ATLAS SmartStacks
CAS SmoothFlow
ATLAS SmartStacks on a truck
CAS technology is emerging as the harvesting solution of choice Working on animal well-being
Helping to reduce the stress in animals that are part of the supply chain is a humane approach and many poultry companies are starting to take note. Animal well-being extends beyond the farm and is a top priority. A humane approach can result in operations that are more efficient, in better end-product quality and higher consumer satisfaction. 50
- processing -
PROCESSING
Controlled atmosphere stunning (CAS) is a technology designed to lower stress in animals before evisceration. Birds are transported into an area where the air is removed from their immediate surroundings and replaced with a mixture of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
nitely have seen a shift in priorities with regard to animal well-being over the last few years, especially with customers who are connected and/ or suppliers to national foodservice brands as well as high-end products, such as organic or antibiotic-free product. We feel that the general public, and of course NGOs, are becoming more and more aware of animal well-being.”
the process of stunning, ensuring the best possible end-product quality. Stunned broilers leave the system still maintaining their physiological functions,” he explains, adding that the straight in-line setup is also a continuous process that assigns the same anesthetization time and atmosphere level to every single broiler.
The same time and level
European processors were already convinced of the benefits of Marel’s CAS SmoothFlow system for a long time. Recently, large American pro-
Van Schaik says that ATLAS includes a SmartStack module that
Measurable improvements
CAS SmoothFlow overview.
Solving challenges The air-stunning technique is an example of how equipment can help solve challenges and issues on the line. There are various advantages to air stunning, from both an animal well-being and operational standpoint. The shackling of live broilers to the line is very stressful for both people and birds, and damage to the chicken is not far away. Now, with controlled atmosphere stunning, the birds come in the transport container and stay in there. It’s a much better environment for both employees and chicken. A CAS system also offers benefits to the processors. It can be implemented relatively easily at the farm and/or plant without negatively affecting line speeds.
Shift in priorities Tim van Schaik, Poultry Product Manager for Marel says, “We defi-
SmartStack.
provides more space to each bird and increased loading capacity for fewer truck movements and less CO2 emissions. The transport from farm to processing plant becomes a lot less stressful for the broilers. They stay calm in their trays and won’t sustain any injuries such as broken wings or bruises. After a certain amount of rest time in the dark lairage, birds enter the anesthetization stage. Marel’s CAS SmoothFlow uses a mixture of CO2 and O2 in a multiphase process, in a single straight horizontal line. “This smooth flow virtually enables an even more controlled atmosphere during
- september 2020 -
cessors have committed to converting all their poultry processing plants to CAS systems to replace the more traditional method, electrical stunning. Tim van Schaik says, “Since implementing the CAS technology, we’re seeing measurable poultry welfare improvements throughout the process, as well as improvements in product quality. Our CAS SmoothFlow system uses both carbon dioxide and oxygen in the mix, which creates less stress on the birds as they go through the chambers. The difference is night and day. Our CAS system helps reduce handling stress with chickens, resulting in a higher-quality, more consistent product.”
51
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